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A  GRAMMAR 

OF  THE 


GERMAN  LANGUAGE 


DESIGNED  FOR  A 

THORO  AND  PRACTICAL  STUDY  OF  THE 

LANGUAGE  AS  SPOKEN  AND 

WRITTEN  TO-DAY 


BY 


GEORGE  O.  CURME 

PROFESSOR  OF  GERMANIC  PHILOLOGY  IN"  XORTHWESTERX  UNIVERSITY 


2)ie  Spradie,  in  i()vcm  roirfticficn  5Befcn  aufgefaßt,  tft  etraag 
beftänbig  unb  in  jebem  ''ilugenblicfe  ^i^DVÜberget)cnbeö  .  .  .  ®ie  felbft 
tft  fein  Söerf,  fonbern  eine  Jätigteit  ...  Sie  ift  nämlicf)  bie  fid} 
ewig  tt)ieber[)olenbe  ^?(rbeit  be§  ©eiftcs,  ben  avtifulierten  l'aut  äum 
3lu§brud  be^  Ö5cbantcn^3  fäf)ig  ä"  niarf}en.     (S.  oon  Ajumbolbt) 

„tiefer  SKenfd)  rebet  toie  ein  ^:8urfi,"  ift  ein  franfe§  ?ob.  Umgefefirt 
fei'bie  Sofung:    „5^ie§  53urfi  vcbet  tuic  ein  9Jfenfrfi."    (Otto  Srfiroeber) 


Revised  and  Enlarged 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limted 
1922 

AI!  rights  reser-ved 


Copyright,  1922,  By 
GEORGE  O.  CURME 


First  Edition,  1905 

Reprinted  1911,  1913.  191S.  iQi? 

Revised  Edition,  1922 


RCPUCmQ 


Eilt  Eafefgite  |9rt«a 

R.  R.  DONNELLEY  &  SONS  COMP/-MV 
CHICAGO 


Dedicated  to 
HERMANN  COLLITZ  and  GEORG  EDWARD 

With  Gratitude  and  Regard 


ivif>5SR48 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 

This  book  is  intended  to  furnish  to  students  of  the  (jernian  language  and  literature  an  outline 
of  German  grammar,  based  not  upon  some  ideal  conception  of  how  the  language  should  be  spoken, 
but  upon  the  actual  varying  usage  of  the  intelligent  classes  in  the  German  Empire,  Austria,  and 
Switzerland.  An  earnest  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  the  work  a  valuable  book  of  reference, 
so  that  the  general  student  might  find  in  it  an  impartial  and  rather  full  presentation  of  the  facts 
of  the  language  founded  upon  the  works  of  scholars  and  also  an  independent  study  of  the  polite 
and  colloquial  literature  itself.  In  order  to  attain  to  the  greatest  possible  completeness  in  the 
given  space,  it  was  thought  best,  not  to  present  the  materials  gathered  in  the  course  of  the  work 
on  the  subject,  but  only  to  give  precise  statements  of  results  illustrated  in  most  cases  by  a  few 
apt  examples.  In  this  way  a  great  many  more  points  have  been  treated  than  in  large  scholarly 
works  where  the  prominent  aim  is  to  present  the  materials  gathered  in  long  researches.  The 
plan  to  make  the  book  as  complete  as  possible  has  been  materially  furthered  by  the  slow  develop- 
ment of  the  work  thruout  a  period  of  over  fifteen  years.  From  year  to  year  new  points  presented 
themselves  and  old  ones  appeared  in  fuller  outline,  so  that  continued  search  and  occasional 
accidental  finds  have  added  much  to  the  original  draft  of  the  work. 

The  full  index  will  place  the  contents  of  the  book  at  the  disposal  of  the  student. 

This  treatise  often  differs  considerably  from  German  works  in  subject  matter  and  manner  of 
presentation,  as  it  is  written  entirely  from  the  standpoint  of  the  needs  of  English-speaking 
students.  Hence  considerable  space  is  often  devoted  to  points  scarcely  mentioned  by  German 
scholars,  or  not  treated  at  all. 

Thruout  the  book  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  classification  in  order  that  the  individual 
life  of  the  grammatical  categories  might  be  carefully  studied.  It  is  hoped  that  the  results  of  this 
course  will  prove  to  have  not  only  a  scientific  but  also  a  practical  value.  Thus,  for  instance,  in 
order  that  both  of  these  aims  might  be  attained,  the  inflection  of  nouns  is  presented  in  the  minutest 
detail.  Here  it  is  hoped  that  full  treatment  will  lead  to  clearness.  This  part  of  German  grammar 
is  so  Inconsistent  and  confused  that  only  a  full  picture  can  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  inflec- 
tion as'it  actually  is.  However  clear  the  inflectional  groups  may  appear  to  one  versed  in  historical 
grammar  who  is  familiar  with  the  various  causes  that  have  produced  the  present  forms,  to  the 
general  student  these  groups  are  not  entirely  clear  unless  the  list  of  words  composing  each  group 
is  complete,  as  there  is  often  no  formal  sign  by  which  one  may  be  guided  in  assigning  a  word 
to  its  proper  group.  Here,  indeed,  the  German  himself  constantly  blunders,  how  then  can  a 
foreigner  without  the  fullest  light  expect  to  see  clearly?  The  confusion  is  often  increased  and 
natural  tendencies  arrested  by  learned  men,  who,  looking  at  the  questions  from  different  stand- 
points, suggest  different  forms  as  the  correct  usage.  Also  the  best  authors  of  our  time  reflect 
in  their  works  the  general  uncertainty  with  regard  to  form.  Of  course,  final  decisions  cannot  be 
given  in  such  cases,  and  it  only  remains  to  record  the  fluctuations  of  usage.  The  dire  confusion 
at  this  point  will  ultimately  lead  to  considerable  changes  in  the  language  itself,  and  indeed 
certain  tendencies  toward  uniformity  and  simplicity  are  apparent.  In  treating  this  difficult 
subject  the  words  of  foreign  origin  have  been  included.  The  unscientific  method  of  excluding  such 
words,  so  generally  followed  by  German  scholars,  has  led  to  false  impressions  as  to  the  real  size 
and  importance  of  the  existing  classes  of  German  nouns. 

Altho  this  book  is  designed  as  a  study  of  the  German  of  to-day,  it  was  found  necessary,  in 
order  to  give  a  faithful  picture  of  the  living  language  in  all  its  varied  styles,  to  include  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  a  study  of  the  earlier  forms  of  the  language.  It  is  difficult  to  state  the  precise  date 
when  a  certain  form  or  expression  can  fairly  be  said  to  be  dead.  Colloquial  language  often  pre- 
serves earlier  forms  that  have  elsewhere  passed  away.  The  master-pieces  of  earlier  parts  of  the 
present  period  are  still  heard  everywhere  in  the  theaters,  and  otherwise  still  occupy  the  thought 
of  the  present  generation,  and  thus  still  influence  the  language  of  poetry  and  higher  diction  in 
general.  The  language  of  Luther  is  still  heard  in  the  churches  and  has  stamped  itself  upon  the 
language  of  certain  classes  of  people  and  styles  of  speech.  Beautiful  gems  of  thought  in  the  form 
of  proverbs  have  been  handed  down  from  earlier  times  like  precious  heir-looms  unchanged. 
Literature  now  abounds  in  description  of  the  language  and  customs  of  people  in  the  out-of-the- 
way  provinces,  who  speak  quaint  dialects  which  often  faithfully  preserve  grammatical  forms 
now  no  longer  in  general  use.  In  the  historical  novel  and  drama  we  find  a  conscious  or  unconscious 
imitation  of  the  peculiar  language  of  older  parts  of  the  period.  Among  the  earliest  forms  of  the 
present  period  treated  here  the  examples  taken  from  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible  are  especially 
frequent.  Also  as  this  translation  is  fairly  available  to  all,  many  references  to  interesting  con- 
structions in  it  have  been  made  by  merely  quoting  chapter  and  verse  after  a  short  remark  ex- 
plaining the  construction.  The  edition  here  used  is  that  of  154.5,  the  last  published  by  Luther 
himself.  The  available  editions  which  will  probably  be  used  by  students  are  all  largely  modernized, 
but  even  from  these  imperfect  texts  general  impressions  can  be  obtained.  The  language  of  the 
N.  H.  G.  period  has  been  uniformly  conformed  in  spelling  to  the  new  official  orthography,  as 
far  as  it  could  faithfully  reproduce  the  original  form  of  the  words,  with  the  exception  of  passages 
taken  from  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible.   These  are  given  with  Luther's  spellings,  capitaliza- 


vi PREFACE 

tions,  and  punctuation  in  the  hope  that  they  might  prove  interesting  and  instructive.  Of  course 
only  the  most  general  points  in  this  important  part  of  the  period  are  touched  upon.  A  word  from 
a  period  earlier  than  N.  H.  G.  is  never  introduced  for  its  own  sake,  or  to  give  a  picture  of  an  older 
state  of  things,  but  always  solely  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  light  upon  some  dark  construction 
in  present  usage  or  the  literature  that  is  still  generally  studied.  Thus  there  is  not  the  slightest 
attempt  to  give  a  connected  outline  of  earlier  periods.  However,  in  thus  introducing  glimpses 
of  earlier  forms  of  speech,  a  good  deal  is  gained  toward  teaching  the  student  to  look  at  language 
in  the  true  light,  and  he  may  thus  in  an  easy  and  forcible  way  learn  that  grammar  is  not  made 
up  of  the  infallible  decrees  of  book-makers,  but  that  it  is  a  growth,  and  has  reached  its  present 
form  by  various  evolutions,  here  piously  preserving  fossilized  remnants  of  by-gone  ages,  there 
struggling  toward  uniformity  out  of  a  tangle  of  prehistoric  conditions  no  longer  understood, 
now  enriched  by  the  genius  of  the  individual,  and  now  by  the  rich  quota  of  the  different  dialects, 
now  working  constructively  along  plain  and  simple  lines  not  hitherto  known. 

Altho  attention  has  thus  been  carefully  directed  to  early  N.  H.  G.  and  also  to  the  language 
of  the  classical  period  and  the  conspicuous  authors  of  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century,  the  main 
stress  lies  in  the  direction  of  present  usage.  Seven  hundred  works  of  varied  styles  published 
since  1850  by  authors  from  various  parts  of  the  German  Empire,  Austria,  and  Switzerland,  have 
been  carefully  read.  Representative  newspapers  from  different  parts  of  these  same  countries 
have  been  studied.  In  this  work,  however,  the  political  lines  that  have  been  drawn  across  the 
map  of  Germany,  dividing  it  up  into  Austria,  Switzerland,  etc.,  have  in  all  points  of  a  general 
nature  been  disregarded,  and  terms  North,  South,  etc.,  have  been  used  as  designations  of  the 
different  parts  of  one  country — one  at  least  in  language.  In  little  points,  usage  differs  consid- 
erably, not  onl}?  in  different  parts  of  this  territory,  but  also  in  the  same  section,  and  the  author 
has  not  been  able  to  share  the  assurance  of  certain  grammarians  who  are  so  positive  that  they 
have  prescribed  the  correct  forms.  The  plain  fact  is  that  there  is  considerable  fluctuation  in 
present  usage,  tho  not  so  much  as  earlier  in  the  period,  and  this  fluctuation  is  found  even  in  the 
highest  forms  of  current  literature.  Everywhere  thruout  these  pages  will  be  found  double  and 
triple  forms  for  the  same  thing,  that  is  a  picture  of  the  language  as  it  is.  A  table  of  many  fluctuat- 
ing forms  has  been  kept  by  the  author  constantly  before  him,  and  data  inserted  from  time  to 
time.  In  some  cases  the  prevailing  form  has  become  apparent,  and  has  been  recorded.  In  other 
cases  the  situation  will  not  become  clear  until  many  minute  investigations  have  been  made  by 
many  scholars.  In  still  other  cases  nothing  can  be  fixed,  as  the  language  itself  has  not  assumed 
final  form.  To  prescribe  forms  at  this  point,  as  many  German  grammarians  do,  is  quite  per- 
nicious, for  the  capricious  decisions  of  different  scholars,  differing  widely  as  they  often  do,  add 
to  the  general  confusion  and  arrest  natural  linguistic  tendencies.  However,  between  forms  that 
fluctuated  in  Lessing's  day  a  final  decision  has  often  been  made,  or  both  forms  have  been  retained 
with  different  shades  of  meaning. 

The  usage  of  the  best  authors  of  our  time  has  been  taken  in  all  cases  as  the  highest  authority. 
By  this,  however,  poets  and  philosophers  are  not  alone  meant.  The  best  authors  in  the  different 
fields  of  literature,  even  the  much  maligned  newspapers,  have  been  taken  as  guides.  The  pessi- 
mistic views  of  certain  scholars  with  regard  to  the  language  of  the  daily  press  are  not  supported 
by  the  facts.  The  German  newspaper  man  fills  his  place  worthily  and  furnishes  additional 
evidence  of  the  power  and  flexibility  of  the  German  language.  Indeed,  his  influence  is  especially 
needed  in  these  days  of  intense  realism,  when  polite  literature  often  abandons  the  literary  language 
entirely,  or  intersperses  into  it  copious  samples  of  dialect  from  every  part  of  two  empires  and 
the  Swiss  republic.  It  is,  however,  far  from  our  intention  to  criticize  these  naturalistic  tendencies 
in  literature  which  are  so  truly  characteristic  of  our  time,  for  we  are  not  indifferent  to  a  move- 
ment which  in  such  a  marked  manner  has  widened  human  sympathies  and  increased  the  interest 
in  polite  literature  in  general.  This  broadening  of  the  sphere  of  literature  has  increased  the 
burdens  of  the  grammarian,  and  made  it  seem  to  the  author  of  the  present  work  quite  necessary 
that  at  least  the  salient  features  of  popular  language  should  be  treated.  Still  greater  attention 
has  been  paid  to  colloquial  speech,  and  this  study  has  been  made  more  easy  by  the  extensive 
literature  of  the  naturalistic  school,  which  has  consciously  striven  to  reproduce  the  language  of 
actual  life.  Indeed,  an  earnest  attempt  has  been  made  to  treat  the  difterent  styles  of  speech 
and  to  define  as  carefully  as  possible  their  proper  boundaries.  Altho,  in  general,  matters  per- 
taining to  style  belong  to  rhetoric,  a  large  numljer  of  the  points  in  question  belong  strictly  to 
grammar.  Just  as  each  locality  has  its  particular  dialect,  so  has  each  style  its  own  individual 
grammatical  forms.  One  style  requires  a  genitive,  another  the  accusative,  one  style  a  strong 
verb,  another  a  weak  one,  &c.  The  conservative  literary  language  clings  to  old  grammatical 
forms,  while  colloquial  speech  prefers  newer,  more  regular  ones.  Foreigners  are  particularly 
liable  to  stumble  here  and  the  native  German  grammarian  in  his  quite  uniform  recommendation 
of  the  older  more  dignified  inflection  may  lead  English-speaking  students  astray.  The  con- 
servative German  grammarian  may  be  pardoned  for  his  zeal  in  defending  the  decaying  forms  of 
the  language.  To  the  foreigner,  however,  who  is  not  able,  as  is  a  native,  to  discover  the  misguided 
enthusiasm  of  the  grammarian,  many  of  these  lauded  forms  are  very  misleading,  as  they  represent 
the  language  of  the  past,  or  of  poetry,  or  elevated  discourse.  Even  the  great  learned  works  of 
the  best  German  scholars  give  the  student  only  too  often  erroneous  ideas  of  the  present  state 
of  the  language,  so  great  is  their  zeal  in  unfolding  the  usage  of  earlier  periods  and  so  strong  their 
apathy  towards  the  questions  of  to-day.  These  decaying  forms  are  thruout  this  work  always 
treated  as  such  and  not  recommended  as  models  of  present  usage.  To  every  people  and  every 
generation  language  is  bequeathed,  not  as  an  article  of  antiquarian  interest  that  must  remain 
untouched  and  be  carefully  kept  unchanged,  but  as  the  most  useful  and  plastic  of  things,  that 
which  is  connected  with  all  that  is  interesting  in  life  and  which  can  be  readily  adapted  to  the 


PREFACE vii 

new  and  changing  needs  of  the  generation.  Also  with  regard  to  new  forms  and  constructions, 
the  usage  of  the  best  authors  has  been  taken  as  authority  rather  than  the  dictum  of  conservative 
grammarians.  A  rich  and  plastic  language  like  the  German  is  capable  of  great  and  varied  develop- 
ment if  it  remains  the  language  of  the  nation  and  is  not  degraded  to  the  position  of  the  language 
of  a  few  narrow-minded  theorists.  In  the  nation  lie  ever  concealed  countless  hidden  forces  that 
are  unceasingly  at  work  on  the  strengthening,  upbuilding,  and  beautifying  of  the  language. 
In  its  present  interesting  period  of  linguistic  growth,  may  the  German  language  remain  unchecked 
and  free!  However,  for  the  sake  of  those  who  still  believe  in  the  dictatorial  powers  of  the  gram- 
marian, in  every  instance  there  is  a  note  after  such  new  forms  indicating  that  they  are  not  ap- 
proved by  certain  grammarians. 

The  conclusions  with  regard  to  the  pronunciation  are  the  result  of  the  author's  personal  ob- 
servations in  different  parts  of  Germany  along  with  a  study  of  the  rich  literature  upon  this  subject. 
The  signs  of  the  time  seem  to  point  so  decidedly  to  the  Berlin  pronunciation  that  it  seems  folly 
not  to  recognize  it  as  the  most  representative  form  of  the  spoken  language.  The  author,  how- 
ever, has  not  in  other  respects  slighted  the  South,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  book  itself.  The  beautiful 
style  of  certain  Swiss  and  Austrian  authors  was  a  great  enticement  to  prolong  unduly  work  in 
this  direction. 

The  illustrative  sentences  used  in  this  book  are  in  most  part  taken  directly  from  the  literature 
of  the  language.  In  a  number  of  cases  where  the  cited  sentence  is  long  or  intricate,  parts  not 
necessary  to  the  thought  of  the  sentence  have  been  omitted.  Thus  sentences  sometimes  appear 
as  complete  which  in  the  original  are  only  parts  of  sentences.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  this 
liberty  will  be  pardoned  on  pedagogical  grounds  and  for  economic  reasons,  especially  as  otherwise 
not  the  slightest  liberties  have  been  taken  with  the  authors'  language,  and  great  care  has  been 
employed  to  follow  closely  the  text  of  the  authorized  prints,  and  wherever  possible  the  latest 
editions,  in  order  to  avoid  the  danger  of  typographical  errors  or  careless  proof-reading.  In  a 
number  of  cases  the  examples  have  been  taken  from  well-known  grammatical  and  lexical  sources, 
as  the  originals  were  not  accessible.  In  a  number  of  very  common  idioms  no  illustrative  sentences 
could  be  found  in  the  dictionaries,  and  in  these  cases  they  have  been  taken  directly  from  the 
spoken  language.  It  was  not  thought  necessary  to  cite  always  the  author  in  case  of  common 
usage,  tho  in  many  interesting  sentences  this  is  done.  The  authors'  names  are,  however,  given 
where  the  usage  in  question  is  disputed.  In  such  cases  only  one  or  two  sentences  are  usually 
quoted,  as  it  was  impossible  in  the  given  space  to  enter  into  elaborate  discussion.  The  conclusions, 
however,  rest  usually  upon  an  ample  collection  of  facts.  In  other  cases  the  facts  were  not  entirely 
convincing,  but  seemed  to  offer  the  proposed  solution.  In  a  number  of  instances  where  general 
misconceptions  prevail  a  fuller  presentation  of  the  facts  was  made,  contrary  to  the  general  plan 
of  the  work.  Ina  number  of  instances  also  three  representative  authors  are  cited,  one  from  the 
early  part,  one  from  the  middle,  and  one  from  the  present  part  of  the  period,  in  order  to  show  that 
the  usage  has  not  fluctuated  thruout  the  period.  This  occurs  especially  where  some  particular 
usage  is  represented  in  grammars  and  dictionaries  as  obsolete,  dialectic,  or  as  belonging  to  some 
particular  part  of  the  period,  while  the  facts  of  the  language  clearly  show  that  the  word  has  been  in 
general  and  continual  use.  Also  in  a  number  of  cases  several  authors  from  widely  different  parts 
of  the  country  have  been  cited,  in  order  to  show  that  the  form  is  not  provincial  as  stated  by  certain 
scholars.  Where  usage  is  limited  to  a  particular  style,  section  of  the  country,  or  a  part  of  the 
period,  a  short  statement  of  the  facts  is  always  made  and  a  representative  author  cited.  In 
certain  parts  of  the  book,  however,  as  in  the  treatment  of  the  noun,  the  strong  verb,  and  portions 
of  the  syntax,  no  authors  could  be  cited,  altho  these  portions  rest  upon  a  collection  of  facts  as 
extensive  as  the  others.    These  materials  can  only  be  used  in  a  dictionary. 

The  great  majority  of  quotations  have  been  taken  from  common  prose.  The  usual  practice 
among  grammarians  of  quoting  so  much  poetn,^  seems  unsound  in  a  book  of  this  kind,  especially 
as  the  unusual  and  exceptional  forms  here  found  may  by  the  inexperienced  student  be  taken 
for  common  forms  of  speech.  The  author  recalls  the  smiles  of  his  German  friends  of  years  ago 
who  could  not  restrain  the  irresistible  impulse  to  twitch  the  muscles  of  the  face  at  the  familiar- 
unfamiliar  sound  of  his  'classic'  language  in  a  modern  conversation.  Their  Goethe  and  Schiller 
seemed  inexpressibly  odd  in  the  new  environment.  The  object  of  a  grammar  should  not  only 
be  to  show  the  power  of  the  language  to  express  man's  highest  thoughts  and  deepest  feelings, 
but  also  to  show  its  manner  of  giving  expression  to  the  needs  of  human  life  in  its  varied  aspects. 

At  the  close  of  his  labors  the  author  confesses  that  the  ideal  which  appeared  to  him  in  his 
first  youthful  conception  of  the  work — that  of  giving  a  faithful  picture  of  the  language  as  it  is 
written  and  spoken  to-day — has  not  been  completely  realized.  The  linguistic  phenomena  pre- 
sented by  the  language  of  a  great  people  are  too  complex  to  be  fully  comprehended  and  faithfully 
described  by  one  individual.  However,  the  author  has  allowed  the  original  title  to  stand  upon 
his  work,  as  it  represents  an  ideal  toward  which  he  has  constantly  striven. 

Altho  the  aim  thruout  was  to  build  up  this  work  out  of  the  actual  facts  of  the  language  as 
gathered  in  the  free  and  independent  study  of  its  polite  and  colloquial  literature,  nevertheless 
much  of  that  which  is  good  in  it  is  due  directly  to  the  labors  of  many  scholars  who  have  thrown 
light  upon  the  different  phases  of  the  study,  such  as  Grimm,  Vernaleken,  Andresen,  Heyne, 
Sanders,  Paul,  Wilmanns,  Matthias,  Wunderlich,  Behaghel,  Siitterlin,  Minor,  Victor,  Engelien, 
Blatz,  Heintze,  HempI,  \'alentine,  and  others.  The  school-grammars  of  Lyon,  Weiße,  Brandt, 
Thomas,  Bierwirth,  Eve,  Aue,  Beresford-Webb,  Fasnacht,  also  the  notes  of  Mr.  Wolstenholme 
in  his  annotated  school-texts,  have  furnished  valuable  assistance.  The  author  feels  himself 
especially  indebted  to  the  following  scholars  who  have  read  all  of  the  manuscript  or  parts  of  it, 
and  by  encouragement  or  fruitful  criticism  have  contributed  much  toward  making  the  book 
what  it  is:    Professor  Hermann  CoUitz.  of  Bryn  Mawr;    Professor  H.  C.  G.  von  Jagemann,  of 


viii PREFACE 

Harvard;  Professor  Gustav  F.  Gruener,  of  Vale;  Professor  George  Hempl,  of  the  University 
of  Michigan;  Professor  C.  H.  Grandgent,  of  Harvard;  Professor  Camillo  von  Klenze,  of  the 
University  of  Chicago;  Professor  James  T.  Hatfield,  of  Northwestern  University;  Professors 
Ernst  Voss  and  Edwin  Roedder,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin;  and  Dr.  Francis  Wood,  of  the 
University  of  Chicago.  The  author  finds  it  very  difficult  to  define  the  full  amount  of  his  indebted- 
ness to  his  colleague  Mr.  Georg  Edward.  For  years  Mr.  Edward  has  by  his  accurate  knowledge 
of  his  native  language  and  literature  assisted  the  author  at  critical  points  and  kept  him  away 
from  gross  blundering.  The  author  feels  the  same  deep  gratitude  toward  Professor  CoUitz,  who 
gave  encouragement  and  support  at  a  time  of  great  discouragement,  when  it  appeared  that  the 
work  could  never  be  carried  to  a  successful  close. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  recalls  the  helpful  services  of  Mr.  W'illiam  Klingebiehl,  of  Clutier, 
Iowa,  in  the  earlier  draft  of  the  grammar,  also  the  kindness  of  the  authorities  of  the  Public  Library 
of  Chicago  and  the  Public  Library  of  Cincinnati,  and  last  but  not  least  the  valuable  aid  rendered 
by  the  following  scholars  in  the  reading  of  the  proofs:  his  colleagues  Professor  James  T.  Hatfield, 
Dr.  Marcus  Simpson,  and  Mr.  Georg  Edward;  Professor  Starr  W'illard  Cutting  and  Dr.  Francis 
Wood,  of  the  University  of  Chicago;  Professor  William  Wirtz,  of  Parsons  College  (F"airfield, 
Iowa);  Dr.  Fred.  C.  Hicks,  of  Monmouth  College;  Professor  Charles  R.  Keyes,  of  Cornell  Col- 
lege (Mt.  V'ernon,  Iowa);  Professor  Elfrieda  Hochbaum,  of  Wells  College;  the  following  students 
in  Northwestern  LTniversity:  Mr.  Walter  E.  Roloff,  Mr.  Friedrich  Ruff,  and  Miss  Hedwig  H. 
Hochbaum.  A  number  of  their  remarks  upon  the  proofs  have  been  embodied  in  the  Grammar. 
The  careful  work  of  the  Oxford  University  Press  has  rendered  comparatively  easy  the  efforts 
to  present  a  faithful  text. 
EvANSTON,  Illinois, 
April,  1904. 

REVISED  EDITION 

This  edition  has  been  thoroly  revised  and  considerably  enlarged.  It  is  especially  gratifying  to 
report  that  upon  the  basis  of  a  careful  reading  of  a  large  number  of  periodicals  and  books  from 
recent  German  literature  it  has  been  possible  in  many  cases  to  define  more  accurately  present 
usage.  In  some  instances  it  has  been  necessary  to  reverse  the  decisions  of  the  first  edition.  The 
author  has  had  but  one  aim  before  him,  namely  to  present  the  facts  of  the  language  and  not  to 
collect  facts  for  the  purpose  of  tr>'ing  to  establish  favorite  grammatical  theories.  Hence  he 
has  not  hesitated  to  change  his  position  when  the  facts  seemed  to  demand  it.  Wherever  it  was 
not  possible  to  attain  to  certainty  he  has  frankly  indicated  it,  as  he  believes  this  attitude  of  doubt 
is  better  than  the  misleading  confidence  displayed  by  many  grammarians.  In  a  very  large  number 
of  cases  the  language  has  not  yet  assumed  final  form  and  time  alone  will  bring  rhythm  and 
harmony. 

The  book  has  been  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  new  material,  not  by  multiplying  the  examples 
of  the  first  edition.  Indeed,  on  the  other  hand,  much  of  the  original  illustrative  material  has  been 
removed.  Moreover,  just  before  the  manuscript  of  the  new  edition  was  put  into  the  hands  of 
the  printer  much  of  the  new  illustrative  matter  was  cut  away.  This  procedure  has  the  great 
disadvantage  that  it  deprives  the  scholar  of  the  evidence  which  has  led  to  the  conclusions  reached, 
but  it  has  brought  nearer  realization  the  original  aim  to  present  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
forms  of  German  expression.  On  the  other  hand,  the  views  presented  in  the  original  edition 
have  been  greatly  modified,  for  seventeen  years  of  further  intensive  study  under  the  beneficent 
influence  of  maturer  years  and  a  wider  range  of  observation  have  changed  the  author  and  his 
work  considerably,  at  least  he  feels  the  new  issue  as  quite  a  different  book.  It  is  a  record  of 
striking  inner  change  and  development.  May  it  be  as  stimulating  and  helpful  to  the  reader  as 
the  experiences  involved  in  its  making  have  been  to  the  author! 

This  edition,  as  also  the  first,  rests  upon  a  study  of  books  and  periodicals  representing  the 
different  styles  of  literature.  It  might  seem  at  the  first  glance  that  the  novelists  and  dramatists 
are  more  fully  represented  than  the  writers  on  history,  science,  philology,  theology,  law,  etc. 
A  more  careful  inspection,  however,  will  show  that  these  works  have  not  been  slighted.  They 
appear  less  in  these  pages  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  best  represent  the  higher  unity  of 
speech  and  present  few  irregularities.  In  the  novel  and  drama  we  find  the  irregular  beat  of 
common  life  varying  widely  in  different  provinces  and  social  strata  and  moreover  often  disturbed 
by  the  exciting  influences  of  passionate  feeling.  It  would  be  folly  to  attempt  to  give  an  absolutely 
complete  picture  of  these  linguistic  phenomena  along  with  the  countless  forces  involved.  Hence 
it  should  not  be  surprising  if  the  author's  hand  has  often  failed  him,  but  the  study  has  been  to 
him  a  pleasing  one  and  he  has  never  tired  in  the  struggle  to  draw  the  outlines  so  that  they  might 
give  at  least  a  faint  idea  of  this  complex  life. 

Differing  from  his  attitude  in  the  first  edition,  the  author  in  the  present  edition  after  another 
tour  of  investigation  in  Germany  itself  is  inclined  to  recommend  the  stage  pronunciation  rather 
than  choice  North  German  or  the  choice  pronunciation  of  any  one  section,  as  the  feeling  is 
slowly  but  surely  gaining  ground  that  the  standard  of  the  stage  represents  the  best  German  of 
our  time. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  edition  the  recent  philological  literature  has  been  carefully  studied. 
The  author  desires  to  add  to  the  list  of  scholars  mentioned  in  the  preface  of  the  first  edition 
as  the  sources  of  much  valuable  material  the  following  names  which  will  suggest  at  least  in  part 
his  increased  indebtedness:  Jespcrsen,  Bremer,  Wundt,  Marty,  Schuchardt,  Brugmann,  Wegener, 


PREFACE 


IX 


Joseph  Schatz,  Sommer,  Luick,  Erdmann-Mensing,  Jellinek,  (nistav  Krüger,  Sweet,  Sattler, 
Poutsma,  J.  Franck,  Aug.  Fritsch,  Franz  Saran,  Blümel,  Deutschbein,  Pollak,  Molz,  John  Ries, 
Aug.  Vogel,  Kluge,  Siebs,  Göransson,  Ehrismann,  VV.  Kurrelmeyer,  Aron,  and  a  very  large 
number  of  others,  who  in  one  way  or  another  have  contributed  valuable  materials  to  the  book. 
Much  assistance  has  also  been  received  from  the  recent  publications  of  scholars  mentioned  in 
the  preface  of  the  first  edition. 

For  personal  assistance  thanks  are  principally  due  to  Mr.  Georg  Edward,  the  author's  old 
friend  and  former  colleague.  The  traces  of  his  influence  are  abundantly  manifest  everywhere 
thruout  the  book.  It  is  difficult  for  the  author  to  state  his  exact  indebtedness  here  to  a  man 
who  for  twenty-three  years  was  almost  daily  and  at  periods  almost  hourly  a  source  of  valuable 
information.  The  records  of  scholarship  offer  few  such  cases  of  sacrificing  friendship  and  dis- 
interested learning.  Mr.  Edward,  tho  not  a  philologist,  possesses  as  a  native  (ierman  that  which 
is  lacking  to  the  author — an  inborn  feeling  for  the  meaning  of  German  words  and  constructions, 
which  has  been  rendered  extraordinarily  keen  by  a  long  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
literature  of  the  language  in  its  varied  phases.  A  large  number  of  fine  observations  have  been 
contributed  by  Professor  Edwin  C.  Roedder  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  which  have  greatly 
enriched  the  book.  The  work  also  owes  much  to  Professor  Gustav  E.  Karsten,  the  late  editor 
of  the  Journal  of  English  and  Germanic  Philology,  who  has  rendered  valuable  assistance  at 
many  places.  Useful  contributions  and  criticisms  have  also  been  received  from  Professors  H.  C. 
G.  von  Jagemann  and  H.  C.  Bierwirth  of  Harvard;  Professor  B.  J.  Vos  of  Indiana  University; 
Professors  Julius  Goebel  and  O.  E.  Lessing  of  the  University  of  Illinois;  Professor  Eduard 
Prokosch  of  Bryn  Mawr;  Professor  P'rancis  Wood  of  the  University  of  Chicago;  Doctors  F.  A. 
Bernstorft'  and  Hans  Kurath  of  Northwestern  University.  Dr.  Kurath  has  contributed  a  large 
number  of  valuable  observations  which  have  been  embodied  in  the  Phonology.  The  author 
wishes  to  express  here  his  feeling  of  gratitude  to  Dr.  Kurath  without  desiring  to  hold  him  re- 
sponsible for  other  things  in  the  Phonology  which  he  does  not  indorse.  The  author,  of  course, 
has  the  same  attitude  to  all  who  have  helped  him  in  his  studies.  The  author  also  desires  to 
express  his  thanks  here  in  general  for  the  many  suggestions  that  have  come  to  him  by  mail  or 
in  the  form  of  book-reviews. 

The  following  persons  have  rendered  valuable  assistance  in  the  reading  of  the  various  proofs: 
Professor  James  T.  Hatfield,  and  Doctors  F.  A.  Bernstorff  and  Hans  Kurath  of  Northwestern 
University;  Professors  Ernst  Voss  and  Edwin  C.  Roedder  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin; 
Professor  Charles  R.  Keyes  of  Cornell  College,  Mt.  Vernon,  Iowa;  Mr.  Georg  Edward;  Professor 
Francis  Wood  of  the  University  of  Chicago;  Mr.  William  Michaelis,  proof-reader  of  the  Lakeside 
Press,  to  whose  intelligent  watchfulness  and  skill  much  credit  is  due  for  the  accurate  text. 
EvANSTON,  Illinois, 
March,  1922. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction i 

The  Alphabet 5 

PART  I 

PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY 

Best  Pronunciation 7 

Sounds  of  the  Letters  and  their  Classification 7 

Formation  of  Sounds 12 

Quantity  of  Vowels 13 

Pronunciation  of  Vowels  and  Diphthongs 17 

Mutation  of  Vowels 24 

Pronunciation  of  Consonants 25 

Brief  History  of  German  Consonants,  their   Relation  to  those  of  other  Lan- 
guages        36 

Syllables  in  Individual  Words 41 

Syllables  in  Connected  Discourse 43 

Separation  of  Syllables  at  the  End  of  a  Line 43 

Accent 43 

Pitch  or  Tone 55 

Use  of  Capital  Letters 56 

Apostrophe 57 

PART  II 

THE   PARTS   OF   SPEECH 
THEIR   GRAMMATICAL   FORMS,   USE,    NATURE 

Inflection  of  the  Articles 58 

Use  of  the  Articles 60 

Inflection  of  Common  Nouns 70 

Differentiation  of  Substantive  Forms 94 

Inflection  of  Proper  Nouns 97 

Inflection  of  Titles 102 

Plural  of  Names  of  Persons  and  Places 105 

Peculiarities  in  the  Inflection  of  Nouns 107 

Declension  of  the  Adjective-Substantive 112 

Peculiarities  of  Number  in  Nouns 112 

Gencer  of  Nouns 120 

Inflection  of  Adjectives 126 

Inflection  of  Descriptive  Adjectives 126 

Comparison  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs 138 

Inflection  of  Limiting  Adjectives 147 

Numerals 147 

Pronominal  Adjectives 153 

Inflection  of  Pronouns 177 

Personal  Pronouns 177 

Reflexive  Pronouns 186 

Reciprocal  Pronouns 188 

Indefinite  Pronouns 189 

Interrogative  Pronouns 191 

Relative  Pronouns 193 

Conditional  Relative 206 

Correlative  Pronouns 207 

Stereotyped  Pronominal  Forms 208 

The  Verb 209 

Classification 209 

Aspect 210 

Tense 211 

Mood 215 

Subjunctive 216 

Subjunctive  of  Present  Tense  Forms 217 

Subjunctive  of  Past  Tense  Forms 227 

X 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS xi 

PAGE 

Indirect  Discourse 237 

Indirect  Form 237 

Independent  Form 245 

Conjugation 247 

Simple  Forms  of  the  Weak  Verb 249 

Simple  Forms  of  the  Strong  Verb 252 

Simple  Forms  of  haben,  sein,  werden 254 

General  Remarks  respecting  the  Simple  Forms 255 

Verbals ' 259 

The  Modal  Verbals 259 

Participles 261 

Infinitive 268 

Formation  of  Compound  Tenses 282 

Use  07  haben  and  sein 287 

Passive  Voice 295 

Gradation  Classes 300 

Irregular  Conjugation 315 

Special  Uses  of  the  Modal  Auxiliaries ' 318 

CONJUG.ATION  OF  COMPOUND  VeRBS 323 

Separ.able  Compounds 323 

Inseparable  Compounds 327 

Compounds  Separable  or  Inseparable 327 

Verbs  indirectly  compounded 329 

Reflexive  Verbs 329 

Imperson/VL  Verbs 332 

Pr^jicles 338 

dverbs :      .      .  338 

Prepositions 355 

Conjunctions 387 

Interjections 400 


PART  III 

WORD-FORMATION 

Primitives 402 

Derivative  Substantives  formed  by  Suffix 403 

Derivative  Adjectives  formed  by  Suffix 417 

Derivative  Verbs  formed  by  Suffix  426 

Derivative  Adverbs 429 

Formation  of  Prepositions 43^ 

Formation  of  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Pronouns  by  means  of  Prefix 431 

FoR^L\TION  of  Verbs  by  means  of  Prefix 434 

FORM.VTION  OF  COMPOUNDS  AND  GrOUP- WORDS 44I 


PART  IV 

SYNTAX 

The  Simple  Sentence,  Its  Parts  and  Kinds 455 

Subject 45^ 

Predicate 4^2 

Agreement  between  Subject  and  Predicate 4^8 

Subordin.ate  Elements  of  a  Sentence 474 

Attributive  Adjective  Modifiers '     ■      •  474 

Attributive  Adjective  and  Participle 474 

Attributive  Genitive 47^ 

Apposition 4^5 

Prepositional  Phrase  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun 4^7 

Infinitive  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun 4^8 

Adverb  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun 489 

Clause  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun 489 

A  Noun  and  its  Modifier  repl.\ced  by  a  Compound  Noun 489 

Objective  Modifiers 489 

Accusative  Object 489 

Dative  Object 493 

Either  Dative  or  Accusative 503 

Genitive  Object 507 

Preposition.vl  Object 5^7 


xii TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Double  Object 524 

Dative  and  Accusative 524 

Accusative  and  Genitive 526 

Double  Accusative 535 

Accusative  of  the  Person  or  Thing  and  a  Prepositional  Phrase     ....  542 

Dative  of  the  Person  and  a  Prepositional  Phrase 546 

Double  Prepositional  Object 546 

SVNESIS 546 

Adverbial  Modifiers 551 

Independent  Elements 551 

Classes  of  Sentences 555 

Compound  Sentence 555 

Co.MPLEX  Sentence,  Subordinate  Clauses 557 

Subject  Clause 559 

Predicate  Clause 562 

Adjective  Clause 562 

Object  Clause 566 

Adverbial  Clause 570 

Clause  of  Place 571 

Clause  of  Time 571 

Clause  of  Manner 573 

Clause  of  Degree 575 

Clause  of  Cause 577 

Clause  of  Condition  or  Exception 579 

Clause  of  Concession 581 

Clause  of  Purpose 583 

Clause  of  Means 584 

Word-Order 584 

XoRM.\L  Order 587 

Inverted  Order 591 

Question  Order 595 

Transposed  Order 597 

Index  of  German  Words,  Suffixes,  etc 599 

Index  of  Subjects 618 


INTRODUCTION 

THE   GERMAN   LANGUAGE 

The  Germanic  group  of  languages  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  family,  i.  e.  is  descended  from 
the  same  original  language  with  the  Indo-Iranic  (Sanskrit,  Persian,  etc.),  Baltic  (Lithuanian, 
Lettish),  Slavic  (Russian,  Polish,  Bohemian  or  Czech,  Servian,  Bulgarian,  etc.),  Celtic,  Greek, 
and  Latin,  from  the  last  of  which  have  come  modern  Italian,  French,  Spanish  and  Portuguese. 
The  language  of  the  Germanic  people  before  its  final  breaking  up  into  different  tribes  speaking 
languages  all  closely  related  but  more  or  less  differentiated  is  usually  called  pre-Germanic.  No 
written  documents  in  this  language  have  come  down  to  us,  but  for  scientific  purposes  its  grammar 
has  been  theoretically  reconstructed  by  a  comparison  of  the  existing  Germanic  languages  in 
connection  with  their  older  literature  and  the  written  documents  of  related  languages  now  extinct. 
These  Germanic  tongues  are  divided  into  three  groups.  Of  the  first  group,  the  East  Germanic, 
only  Gothic,  now  extinct,  is  well  known  to  us.  The  second  group,  the  North  Germanic,  includes 
modern  Danish-Norwegian,  Swedish,  and  Icelandic.  The  third  group,  the  West  Germanic,  em- 
braces High  German  and  Low  German,  to  the  latter  of  which  belong  English  (in  its  oldest  stage 
called  Old  English  or  Anglo-Saxon),  Dutch  (the  literary  language  of  Holland  and  a  large  part  of 
Belgium),  and  Low  German  in  the  narrow  sense,  i.  e.  the  dialect  of  North  Germany,  in  its  oldest 
known  stage  called  Old  Saxon.  Of  these  Germanic  languages  Gothic  has  aside  from  a  few  Old 
Norse  inscriptions  the  oldest  literary  documents,  reaching  back  into  the  fourth  century  A.  d.,  and 
thus,  by  reason  of  its  age  and  highly  developed  grammatical  structure,  is  much  studied  by  all  who 
desire  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the  oldest  Germanic  language  known  to  us.  High  German,  usually 
for  the  sake  of  brevity  called  German,  is  the  language  of  Germany,  Austria,  a  large  part  of  Switzer- 
land, and  sections  of  other  countries  that  touch  or  lie  near  Germany  on  the  East,  South,  and 
West.  Tho  divided  by  political  forces  this  territory  is  linguistically  one  and  in  this  book  is 
treated  as  such,  so  that  the  terms  North,  South,  etc.,  refer  not  to  Germany  but  to  the  North, 
South,  etc.,  of  the  German-speaking  territory.  German  is  characterized  among  the  Germanic 
languages  by  its  richness  in  inflectional  forms.  However,  in  earlier  periods  these  forms  were 
still  richer.  Upon  the  basis  of  its  sounds  and  inflectional  forms  German  is  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing three  periods. 

1.  0(ld)  H(igh)  G(erman)  begins  with  the  eighth  century  and  extends  to  1100.  In  this 
period  Latin  was  the  language  usually  employed  in  official  documents  and  all  literary  and  scien- 
tific productions,  and  hence  comparatively  little  in  the  way  of  literature  proper  is  found  in  the 
German  of  this  period.  From  the  early  part  of  this  period,  only  a  few  individual  words  and  a  few 
meager  fragments  are  preserved.  Further  on,  poems  and  connected  discourse  appear.  The 
center  of  the  literary  life  of  this  period  is  in  the  South. 

O.H.G.  was  distinguished  by  rich,  full  vowels  in  its  inflectional  endings,  such  as  a,  o,  u:  (pi. 
of  tag  day)  N.  taga,  G.  tago,  D.  tagum,  A.  taga. 

2.  M(iddle)  H(igh)  G(erman)  is  the  period  from  1100-1350.  In  this  period  Latin  still  prevails 
as  the  leading  literary'  language,  but  there  is  also  a  rich  literature  in  German,  which  is  much 
used,  especially  in  poetry.  Between  1180  and  1250  this  literature  culminated  in  the  first  classical 
period  of  German  poetr>-.  German  was  used  also  to  some  extent  in  prose,  especially  in  writings 
of  a  rehgious  character.  Since  1221  legal  documents  occasionally  appear  in  German,  first  in  the 
Southwest,  which  later  gradually  led  to  its  use  as  the  ofiicial  language  of  the  empire.  The  center 
of  literary  life  is  still  in  the  South,  but  the  middle  part  of  the  empire  also  begins  to  play  an  im- 
portant role. 

M.H.G.  is  distinguished  by  the  decay  of  the  full,  rich  vowels  a,  o,  u  in  the  inflectional  end- 
ings to  the  monotonous  e:  (pi.  of  tag  day)  N.  tage  (O.H.G.  taga),  G.  tage  (O.H.G.  tago), 
D.  tagen  (O.H.G.  tagum),  A.  tage  (O.H.G.  taga).  This  reduction  of  the  vowels  in  the  inflec- 
tional endings  was  due  to  the  tendency  already  discernible  in  O.H.G.  to  pronounce  the  vowels 
of  the  root  syllables  more  forcibly  and  give  them  relatively  much  greater  length  than  the  vowels 
of  the  other  syllables,  which  thus  lost  their  fulness  and  richness.  These  are  marked  features  of 
the  Germanic  languages  as  compared  with  such  languages  as  French  and  Italian. 

3.  N(ew)  H(igh)  G(erman)  is  the  period  from  1350  to  the  present  time.  In  general  the 
period  of  N.H.G.  may,  from  the  standpoint  of  language,  be  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first 
part,  from  1350-1750,  which  may  be  called  early  N.H.G. ,  is  a  period  of  considerable  change  and 
growth.  The  second  part,  from  1750-1810,  may  be  called  the  classical  period,  by  reason  of  the 
classical  beauty  and  strength  of  the  works  of  the  great  masters  Lessing,  Goethe,  and  Schiller,  and 
in  less  measure  of  other  writers  of  this  time.  Language  questions  had  already  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  early  N.H.G.  period  been  earnestly  discussed,  and  greater  uniformity  of  usage  had  gradu- 
ally been  coming  about.  The  great  literary  monuments  of  the  classical  period  established  in  large 
measure  a  firm  standard  of  speech.  The  third  part,  from  1810  to  the  present,  which  may  be  called 
late  N.H.G.,  has  no  marked  peculiarity,  but  shows  everywhere  a  tendency  to  level  away  little 
inequalities,  and  bring  about  greater  simplicity  and  uniformity.  The  language  is,  however,  still 
far  from  having  a  complete  standard  of  usage  either  in  grammar  or  pronunciation. 

1 


INTRODUCTION 


The  center  of  literary  life  shifts  within  the  course  of  the  early  N.H.G.  period  towards  the 
middle  of  Germany,  and  one  man,  Martin  Luther,  plays  a  very  important  role  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  language.  Latin  is  still  much  used,  but  the  stirring  questions  of  the  Reformation 
brought  the  mother-tongue  into  prominent  use,  and  gradually  Latin  retired  to  the  rear.  The 
year  1691  was  the  last  one  in  which  more  Latin  books  appeared  than  German.  Luther's  bold 
stand  for  German  has  had  far-reaching  effects.  His  translation  of  the  Bible  into  German,  final 
edition  in  1545,  was  his  most  valuable  contribution  in  this  direction.  This  great  and  successful 
task,  however,  was  not  an  easy  one.  Latin  had  so  long  been  the  medium  of  communication  in 
the  higher  forms  of  literature  that  the  native  language  was  left  largely  to  the  common  people. 
Thus  under  this  neglect  it  fell  more  and  more  into  dialects.  The  books  that  were  published  in 
German  before  Luther's  time  bore  strong  dialectic  traces.  The  only  common  language  in  Ger- 
many was  the  official  language  as  found  in  laws,  legal  documents,  decrees,  etc.  The  oldest  law- 
book, der  Sachsenspiegel,  appeared  in  Low  German  in  1230,  der  Schwabenspiegel  in  1260,  a 
High  German  work  modeled  upon  the  Sachsenspiegel.  The  High  German  official  language 
gradually  came  into  wide  use  in  official  life  and  in  business.  Thus  the  native  language,  tho  neg- 
lected by  the  best  thinkers,  had  now  long  been  used  by  jurists,  government  officials,  and  trades- 
men. This  official  language  was  now  also  quite  generally  used  by  those  who  wrote  in  German 
for  a  general  public,  but  it  was  strongly  modified  everywhere  under  local  influences.  The  con- 
fusion was  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  people  of  North  Germany  spoke  a  form  of  Low  Ger- 
man, a  quite  different  language  indeed.  Luther  desired  to  be  generally  understood,  and  wrote 
in  the  High  German  official  language.  He  employed  a  somewhat  modified  form  of  the  official 
language  used  in  Saxony,  which,  tho  High  German  and  thus  closely  related  to  the  speech  of  the 
South,  has  a  distinctly  Middle  German  character.  In  Luther's  writings  this  official  language 
shows  traces  of  the  influence  of  the  neighboring  Middle  German  chanceries,  particularly  those 
of  the  northeastern  section  of  his  homeland  of  Thuringia,  but  it  also  has  a  few  distinctly  South 
German  features  as  found  in  the  imperial  chancery  and  a  few  signs  of  Low  German  influences 
received  from  the  common  people  of  Wittenberg.  Thus  the  language  in  which  Luther  wrote  was 
largely  Middle  German  with  a  few  South  German  features  and  a  few  Low  German  elements, 
and  was  accordingly  without  the  extremes  of  either  the  South  or  the  North,  and  had  something 
in  common  with  both,  altho  it  was  much  nearer  that  of  the  South.  Luther's  translation  was  in 
general  well  received,  and  became  with  respect  to  its  language  the  basis  of  modern  German.  As 
it  was  essentially  the  language  of  Protestantism  it  helped  to  extend  the  use  of  High  German  into 
the  northern  Low  German  countries,  which  were  Protestant,  and  for  the  same  reason  was  opposed 
in  the  Catholic  South,  which  regarded  the  language  of  the  imperial  chancery  as  a  better  standard. 
It  is  easy,  however,  to  exaggerate  the  influence  of  Luther  and  the  Reformation.  The  growing 
cultural  and  trade  relations  of  the  North  with  the  Midland  were  very  important  factors  in  spread- 
ing High  German  in  the  low  lands.  Luther's  form  of  German,  altho  in  large  part  a  South  Ger- 
man language,  met  in  some  sections  of  the  South,  especially  in  Switzerland,  strong  resistance  on 
account  of  its  great  divergence  from  the  native  dialect.  But  on  account  of  the  evident  necessity 
of  a  literary  standard,  and  the  leadership  of  Middle  Crermany  in  the  mental  and  literary  life  of 
the  nation,  Luther's  language,  modified  at  many  points  by  Middle,  South,  and  even  Low  Ger- 
man influences,  gradually  spread  over  all  parts  of  the  country,  slowly  assuming  a  more  uniform 
character  until  about  two  hundred  years  after  Luther's  time  it  attained  in  general  its  present 
form.  The  Low  German  (Plattdeutsch)  of  our  own  time  is  a  mere  dialect  or  a  group  of  dialects, 
and  tho  used  by  several  talented  authors  in  their  best  works,  it  has  in  general  relinquished  to 
High  German  the  pulpit,  school,  and  press.  Low  German  writers,  however,  who  at  present 
occupy  a  commanding  place  in  literature,  are  fond  of  interspersing  into  the  literary  language 
words  of  Low  German  origin  with  High  German  inflection,  or  rather  they  allow  their  characters 
to  do  this  in  accordance  with  actual  usage  in  everyday  life.  On  the  other  hand.  South  German 
authors  are  contributing  to  the  wealth  of  this  same  literary  language  by  introducing  words  from 
the  rich  stores  of  the  South  German  dialects. 

In  a  part  of  the  N.H.G.  period,  especially  in  the  eighteenth  century.  High  German  was  threat- 
ened by  French,  which  was  much  used  at  the  different  princely  courts  and  by  the  upper  classes 
of  people  in  general.  The  phenomenal  achievements,  however,  of  Goethe  in  literature,  of  Ger- 
man scholars  in  science,  of  German  business  men  in  large  enterprises,  the  struggles  upon  the 
bloody  battlefields  of  the  last  two  centuries,  have  greatly  increased  and  solidified  the  feeling  of 
nationality  and  thoroly  established  German  speech  in  all  the  strata  of  society  and  in  all  forms 
of  literature.  There  is  at  present  a  lively  interest  manifested  by  Germans  in  the  process  of  the 
purification  of  their  native  language  from  foreign  words  which  remind  them  of  their  former 
dependence.  This  movement,  which  was  begun  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  carried  on  with 
great  enthusiasm  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  off  and  on  ever  since  has  experienced  periods 
of  revival  of  active  interest,  is  not  merely  an  expression  of  superficial  pride,  but  is  a  general  and 
deep  joy  in  the  development  of  the  mother-tongue  in  its  purity  and  strength.  The  naturalistic 
school  of  literature  has  also  introduced  into  literary  speech  the  fresh  tones  of  life,  of  which  it 
stood  in  such  great  need.  The  Germans  of  Austria  and  Switzerland  are  taking  part  in  these 
movements,  and  are  contributing  their  full  share. 

N.H.G.  is  in  general  distinguished  from  M.H.G.  by  the  following  changes.  (1)  The  most  far- 
reaching  change  was  the  lengthening  of  all  short  vowels  in  open  syllables:  M.H.G.  dtser,  N.H.G. 
dieser.  This  development  first  appeared  in  the  North  in  the  twelfth  century  and  later  spread 
southward,  but  has  not  even  yet  affected  the  native  speech  of  the  extreme  Southwest:  Grä-ber, 
Swiss  dialect  for  the  present  literary  form  Grabber.  For  fuller  discussion  see  4.  I.  b.  Note;  4.  2. 
B.  b.  Noted);   1Q8.  Historical  Note;  199.  Historical  Note.     (2)     The  change  of  the  long  M.H.G. 


INTRODUCTION 


vowels  I,  il,  -ill  (pro.  y:)  into  the  diphthongs  ei,  au,  eu:  M.H.G.  zit,  has,  hiule  have  become  N.H.G. 
Zeit,  Raus,  heute.  This  diphthongation  began  in  the  twelfth  century  in  the  Southeast  and  is 
intimately  connected  with  the  spread  of  Austrian  and  Bohemian  law  northward  from  the  year 
135C  on.  This  diphthongation  has  also  taken  place  in  English  in  case  of  I  and  il,  of  course  quite 
independently:  wife  (waif)  from  O.E.  wif;  house  from  O.E.  hüs.  In  Germany  the  old  long 
vowels  are  still  preserved  in  Low  German,  also  in  dialects  of  the  Southwest  except  before  a 
strongly  articulated  consonant,  where  they  are  shortened:  (L.G.)  Hüs,  hiiser,  sür  (  =  sauer), 
Tid  (=Zeit);  (Swiss)  Hüs,  Hüser,  sür,  but  Zit,  hut,  (  =  heute),etc.,  as  the  vowel  stands  before  t. 
(3)  The  change  of  the  M.H.G.  diphthongs  ie,  uo,  He  into  the  long  vowels  ie  (=i),  Ü,  Ü:  M.H.G. 
diep,  hiiof,  gniene  have  become  Dieb,  Huf,  grün.  This  monophthongation  began  in  the  thir- 
teenth centur>^  in  Aliddle  Germany,  but  did  not  become  established  in  the  literary  language  until 
Middle  German  much  later  had  become  paramount.  The  old  diphthongs  ie,  uo,  He  are  still  pre- 
served in  S.G.  dialect,  usually  in  altered  forms:  ie,  tie,  He  (or  ie).  Bavarian  dialect  sectionally 
has  a  as  a  final  element  in  these  diphthongs:  ia,  ua,  iia  (or  ia).  These  dialect  forms  occur  of  course 
in  popular  songs:  Behüet  (for  behüt')  dich  Gott!  es  war'  zu  schön  gewesen  (SchefTel's  Trompeter, 
Lieder  jung  Werners,  XH).  (4)  The  development  of  the  M.H.G.  diphthongs  ei,  ou,  öu  into 
the  N.H.G.  diphthongs  ei  or  ai  (both=ae),  au,  eu  or  äu  (both  =  je):  M.H.G.  bein,  meie,  troum, 
vröiide,  tröiunen  have  become  Bein,  Mai,  Tramn,  Freude,  träumen.  Altho  ALH.G.  ei  is  still 
written  ei  the  first  element  of  the  diphthong  has  in  fact  developed  into  a.  The  new  diphthongs 
first  appeared  in  Bavarian  toward  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  gradually  became 
established  in  the  literary  language.  In  the  dialects  we  find  a  different  development  here.  (5) 
M.H.G.  e  and  i  have  become  rounded  in  a  number  of  cases:  (a)  e  sometimes  becomes  ö  in  the 
neighborhood  of  1,  sch,  w:  Hölle  (M.H.G.  helle),  schöpfen  (M.H.G.  schepfen),  zwölf  (M.H.G. 
zwelf),  etc.  In  a  few  cases  also  elsewhere:  ergötzen  (M.H.G.  ergetzen).  (b)  i  sometimes 
becomes  ü,  especially  after  w:  Würde  (M.H.Cr,  wirde).  Earlier  in  the  period,  forms  with  e  and 
i  are  still  found.  In  dialect  the  opposite  feature  is  found,  i.  e.  the  unrounding  of  ö  and  ü.  See 
12.  1.  a,  8.  L  a,  and  26.  A.  (6)  M.H.G.  u  and  ii  have  under  Middle  German  influence  in  most 
cases  become  N.H.G.  o  and  ö  before  n  or  nn,  and  in  a  number  of  instances  before  m  or  mm:  Sohn 
(M.H.G.  sun),  Sorme  (M.H.G.  sunne),  gesponnen  (M.H.G.  gespunnen),  König  (M.H.G.  künec); 
Sommer  (M.H.G.  sumer),  geschwommen  (M.H.G.  geswummen).  (7)  S  in  the  beginning 
of  a  word  before  1,  m,  n,  and  w,  and  sometimes  medially  after  r,  has  become  sch:  M.H.G.  släf, 
smerze,  snel,  swert,  hersen,  have  become  N.H.G.  Schlaf,  Schmerz,  schnell,  Schwert,  herrschen. 
Initial  s  has  become  sch  also  before  p  and  t,  as  in  sprechen,  stehen,  but  this  development  has  not 
yet  found  e.xpression  in  the  orthography.  See  also  40.  2.  g.  (1).  (8)  There  has  arisen  a  change 
of  vowel  in  the  singular  of  the  present  tense  in  certain  strong  verbs:  ich  nehme,  du  nimmst, 
er  nimmt.     See  20i.  /.  . 

Since  Luther's  day  many  more  or  less  important  changes  have  appeared  in  the  literary  language 
and  orthography,  as  the  language  has  been  constantly  growing  and  developing,  and  stricter  and 
more  scientific  principles  now  obtain  in  the  orthography.  Only  a  few  of  the  points  where  Luther's 
language  and  orthography  differ  from  present  usage  are  here  given,  as  they  are  treated  more 
fuUv  in  the  Grammar:  (1)  In  the  inflection  of  nouns  Luther's  language  diverges  little  from 
M.H.G.  and  thus  differs  widely  from  the  present  literar>'  standard.  (2)  The  difference  of  vowel 
which  existed  between  the  singular  and  plural  of  strong  verbs  has  been  leveled  away  and  now  only 
one  vowel  is  found  thruout  singular  and  plural.  Thus  ich  fand,  wir  funden  of  Luther's  day 
have  become  ich  fand,  wir  fanden.  For  other  changes  in  the  strong  verb  see  201.  /.  (3)  Un- 
mutation  (see  208.  \.  a)  has  under  South  German  influence  disappeared  in  a  few  verbs,  the 
vowel  of  the  infinitive  now  standing  in  all  the  forms  of  the  verb.  Thus  Luther's  ich  setze,  past 
ich  satzte,  have  become  ich  setze,  ich  setzte.  (4)  Unaccented  e  has  dropped  out  in  a  multitude 
of  words.  Luther's  höreten,  sorget,  have  become  hörten,  sorgt.  On  the  other  hand  Luther 
drops  final  e  ver\-  freely,  where  it  must  now  stand:  der  erst(e),  dasselbig(e).  Tag  (ace.  pi. 
instead  of  Tage),  Stimm  (instead  of  Stimme),  etc.  Luther  here  often  fluctuates  between  the 
full  form  in  -e  and  the  shorter  form  without  it,  just  as  there  was  fluctuation  here  in  the  Mid- 
land itself,  the  northern  portion  usually  employing  the  fuller,  the  southern  portion  preferring  the 
shorter  forms.  Later  the  fuller  forms  gained  the  ascendency.  (5)  In  Luther's  language_M.G. 
unshifted  d  and  pp  occasionally  occur  instead  of  the  regular  High  German  t  and  pf,  but  in  the 
later  literary  language  the  S.G.  forms  prevailed:  Widwe,  schnuppen,  now  Witwe,  schnupfen. 
(6)  Middle  German  was  inclined  to  mutate  more  than  the  South,  hence  in  the  days  of  M.G. 
influence  this  usage  was  followed  in  a  number  of  cases  where  later  S.G.  forms  gained  the  victory. 
See  26.  .\  (3rd  par.)  for  examples.  (7)  The  East  Middle  German  qu  is  occasionally  found  in 
Luther's  language  where  zw  is  now  employed.  See  40.  2.  c  (3rd  par.)  for  an  example.  (8)  At 
points,  under  S.G.  influence,  haben  in  compound  tenses  has  been  replaced  by  sein.  See  191. 
II.  3  A  and  Note.  A  number  of  minor  changes  have  taken  place.  Initial  u  is  now  always  written 
u,  not  V  as  formerly:  vnd,  now  und.  We  now  write  uniformly  au  and  eu  where  Luther  often 
has  aw  and  ew:  bawm,  trew;  now  Baum,  treu.  We  now  write  ä  where  Luther  has  e:  hende  now 
Hände.  The  doubling  of  consonants,  which  is  so  frequent  in  Luther's  writings,  is  now  limited 
to  the  one  case  that  double  consonants  are  used  to  show  shortness  of  vowel.  This  difference 
can  be  noticed  by  comparing,  in  the  present  revised  editions  of  the  Bible,  Mark  iv.  26-27  with 
the  following  from  the  edition  of  1545:  mil)  er  \prad)  \  3)a§  retcf)  @otte§  i)at  )icf)  olfo  I  aU  tüenn 
ein  Menirfi  jamen  auff»  tanb  mtrfft  i  bnb  fdilefft !  Onb  ftefiet  auf  t  nacfit  Onb  tag  |  i8nb  ber  Same 
gef)et  auff  ünb  loerfijet  |  bo^  er§  nicf}t  luetg.  It  will  also  be  noticed  in  the  preceding  passage  that 
capitals  were  not  as  now  uniformly  used  in  the  beginning  of  nouns,  and  that  a  perpendicular  line 
could  be  used  instead  of  a  comma  or  colon.     Luther  used  to  write  especially  the  more  emphatic 


INTRODUCTION 


nouns  with  capitals.  In  the  learned  literature  of  our  day,  there  is  an  attempt  being  made  to 
restore  the  usage  of  a  still  older  period,  when  capitals  were  used  only  in  the  case  of  proper  nouns 
and  at  the  beginning  of  stanzas.  This  learned  literature  usually,  however,  makes  one  exception, 
namely  that  sentences  begin  with  capitals.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  at  present  much  outlook 
for  a  triumph  of  this  usage. 

The  orthography,  which  has  gradually  developed  since  Luther's  day,  has  had  since  1880  a 
formidable  rival.  In  that  year  Prussia,  the  largest  German  state,  issued  a  little  book  containing 
rules  for  a  reform  of  the  orthography.  Also  other  states  had  adopted  a  reformed  spelling,  but 
the  Prussian  orthography  naturally  found  the  widest  support.  School-books  followed  closely 
the  proposed  reforms;  books,  newspapers,  and  periodicals  designed  for  the  general  public  held 
more  or  less  conservatively  to  the  old  order  of  things;  scholars  dissatisfied  with  the  lack  of  thoro- 
ncss  in  the  reforms  went  still  further  in  the  direction  of  conforming  the  orthography  to  the  spoken 
language.  In  1901  a  few  additional  changes  in  the  direction  of  simplicity  were  proposed  by  an 
orthographical  conference,  which  were  approved  by  the  governments  of  the  German  Empire, 
Austria,  and  Switzerland,  and  appeared  in  the  Prussian  rules  of  1902.  Thus  these  movements 
for  reform  culminated  in  an  official  orthography  for  the  German-speaking  peoples.  The  news- 
papers and  other  periodicals  responded  to  this  united  effort  of  the  governments  more  readily  than 
to  the  first  independent  movements.  They  now  quite  generally  employ  the  official  orthography 
and  support  cordially  the  minor  further  simplifications  which  have  sprung  up  almost  spontaneously 
out  of  the  official  rules  of  1902  and  have  found  a  place  in  the  editions  of  the  official  orthography 
published  later  by  the  different  states  and  in  the  widely  used  handy  manual  Duden,  Rechtschrei- 
bung der  deutschen  Sprache  und  der  Fremdwörter. 

The  little  confusion  that  still  remains  in  the  orthography  will  gradually  disappear,  but  there 
still  continues  a  difference  of  usage  with  respect  to  the  style  of  the  letters.  The  so-called  German 
alphabet,  which  gradually  arose  in  early  times  among  the  monks  thruout  Europe  as  a  modified 
form  of  the  Latin  alphabet,  was  continued  after  printing  was  invented,  but  was  later  dropped 
by  other  nations,  who  returned  to  the  Latin  letters.  In  the  German-speaking  territory  the 
German  alphabet  is  still  in  general  use  in  literature  intended  for  a  wide  public,  such  as  the  daily 
press  and  popular  books  and  periodicals.  On  the  other  hand,  in  scientific  literature  and  ad- 
vanced studies  in  general,  where  all  mental  work  is  felt  as  a  contribution  to  the  thought  of  the 
world,  the  Latin  characters  find  growing  favor  as  a  symbolic  tie  which  binds  all  men  together 
and  as  an  alphabet  with  eminent  practical  advantages  by  reason  of  its  universality.  Curiously 
enough  the  Latin  alphabet  is  also  w'idely  used  in  advertisements  and  the  market  reports,  stock 
quotations,  and  other  commercial  items  in  the  newspapers  and  popular  periodicals. 

In  our  time,  another  interesting  process  is  going  on.  The  North  has  at  last  gained  the  political 
and  literary  ascendency  in  Germany,  and  it  in  its  turn,  after  South  and  Middle  Germany  have 
each  in  their  turn  had  their  day,  is  moulding  and  fashioning  the  language.  Maritime  terms  from 
the  Low  German  coasts  and  other  North  German  speech-forms  are  finding  their  way  into  the 
literature  and,  what  is  much  more  important,  the  pronunciation  of  the  North,  which  is  in  general 
characterized  by  a  pronounced  tendency  to  ignore  more  and  more  older  phonetic  conditions  and 
conform  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  printed  form,  is  gradually  making  itself  felt,  indeed  has  be- 
come the  most  representative  form  of  the  spoken  language,  as  the  pronunciation  of  the  stage, 
the  only  generally  recognized  standard,  is  in  large  measure  based  upon  it.  Thus  the  literary 
German  of  our  day  is  the  product  of  all  three  parts  of  Germany.  South  and  Middle  Germany 
created  it,  and  North  Germany  is  modifying  its  sounds,  and  is  enriching  its  vocabulary. 


GERMAN  ALPHABET 


German 

German 

German 

German 

German 

German 

Type 

Script. 

Name 

Type 

Script. 

Name 

% 

a 

^ 

^<v 

a: 

9f 

n 

3l 

'^H^ 

en 

« 

fj 

5^ 

J 

be: 

D 

0 

a 

-^ 

o: 

6 

c 

^ 

yi^ 

tse: 

% 

P 

r 

f 

pe: 

D 

b 

ii2 

J- 

de: 

O 

Q 

^ 

<J 

1 

ku: 

e 

e 

^ 

/ti^ 

e: 

9t 

r 

K 

^ 

eR 

^ 

f 

> 

/ 

ef 

© 

f,r 

r 

/,/ 

es 

& 

9 

^. 

f 

ge: 

X 

t 

7 

/ 

te: 

•Ö 

f) 

/-f 

/ 

ha: 

u 

u 

11 

u: 

3 

i 

J 

^ 

i: 

iy 

Ü 

V 

^ 

fao 

s 

i 

/y 

/' 

jot 

SB 

ttj 

^ 

yfK) 

ve: 

S' 

! 

^ 

/ 

ka: 

X 

t 

X 

^ 
f 

iks 

s 

I 

/ 

I 

el 

53 

tl 

f-y 

ypsi-bn 

m 

Ul 

^ 

y^H^ 

em 

S 

ä 

/ 

r 

tset 

MODIFIEE 

Vo^\ 

•ELsf 

« 

ä          Ö 

Ö 

Ü 

ii 

^Hu       äu 

X  ^' 

'1 

AT 

U 

„^^ 

Ol^i^  y<i^ 

Compound  Consonants 

(f)           d           P^           t^          %          fcf)          @t          ft  \\X          u 

tse:-'ha:       tse:-'ka:         pe:-'ha:          te:-'ha:       te:-'tset  es-tse:-'ha:        es-'te:            es-'te:  es-'es  cs-'tset 

i    ^    fi     i     j     H  c/?<n'^  /  /     /* 


*§  at  the  end,  j  at  the  beginning  and  middle,  in  Roman  letters  both  represented  by  s. 
fin  naming  the  modified  vowels  say  e:,  e:,  y:,  or  say  mutated  a,  &c. 

J  For  use  of  ff  and  fe  see  4.  2.  D.  a.     In  Roman  letters  §  is  represented  by  ß.     Some  use  ss  for 
both  ff  and  g. 


GERMAN   SCRIPT 


PART  I. 

PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1.  Best  Pronunciation.  In  Germany  there  is  no  standard  of  pronunciation 
that  is  acknowledged  and  absolutely  followed  by  the  mass  of  intelligent  people. 
The  German  stage  has  established  fixed  rules  for  pronunciation  which  many 
scholars  and  enthusiasts  regard  as  a  standard  that  may  some  day  be  generally 
recognized  as  the  ideal  and  thus  become  to  the  spoken  language  what  the  literary 
language  is  now  to  colloquial  speech.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  standard  has 
influenced  the  choice  pronunciation  of  different  sections  and  that  it  will  con- 
tinue to  exert  its  influence,  but  it  has  not  yet  acquired  such  a  commanding 
position  as  to  indicate  that  it  will  soon  supplant  the  living  language.  The  sec- 
tional differences  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  living  language  are  very  marked, 
but  in  general  there  is  a  North  German  and  a  South  German  pronunciation.  The 
following  short  treatise  takes  into  account  the  pronunciation  of  different  sections, 
but  deals  principally  with  colloquial  North  German  as  spoken  by  the  mass  of 
intelligent  people,  as  nearly  as  such  a  common  standard  can  be  ascertained  under 
the  existing  circumstances.  Many  Germans  may  differ  in  particulars  as  to  this 
standard.  The  stage  pronunciation  is  also  treated  here  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  prefer  an  ideal  standard  that  rises  above  sectional  usage.  In  most  par- 
ticulars it  is  quite  near  to  choice  North  German. 


Sounds  of  the  Letters  and  their  Classification. 

2.  A.  Sounds  of  the  Letters.  The  growth  of  letters  has  not  kept  pace  with 
that  of  sounds,  hence  one  letter  may  represent  several  sounds.  Phonetic  sym- 
bols are  used  in  the  following  treatise  to  distinguish  the  different  sounds  of  the  let- 
ters. In  the  following  table  only  an  approximate  equivalent  is  given  for  each 
German  sound,  the  more  accurate  description  being  reserved  for  fuller  treat- 
ment in  the  succeeding  articles.  The  first  number  after  the  phonetic  symbol 
refers  to  an  article  which  gives  a  more  accurate  description  of  the  sound.  The 
second  number  refers  to  an  article  which  gives  the  various  spellings  for  the 
sound.  Wherever  comparisons  are  made  with  English  without  further  qualifica- 
tion the  pronunciation  of  the  northern  states  is  meant.  S.  E.  indicates  the 
Southern  English  of  England. 


Spellings 


ä,  aa,  ah 

ae  =  ä  (26.  a)  ;  in  Dutch  names 
=ä  (16.  1.  b.  (7));  else- 
where =  a  +  e :  Michael 
(miga-el),  Hexaeder 
(heksa''e:d9R),  Aeronaut 
(a-e-Ro-'naot),  etc. 

ai 

ai  =  a-hi  (23.  1.  Note);  in 
French  words  =  a  (13.  I. 
(b).  (4))  and  ä  (14.  (ö)). 

ain  in  French  words     .    .    . 


Phonetic  Symbols 
a  (16.  2.  (a);  16.  2.  (&)) 

a:  (16.  1.  (a);  16.  L  (b)) 


English 
Equivalents 
as  a  in  father, 
but  shorter, 
as  a  in  father. 


ae  (23.  1) 


8:  nasalized  e:  on  the  stage, 
in  the  North  pro- 
nounced as  eg.   See  25. 


as  i  in  wife. 


SPELLINGS,   SYMBOLS,   SOUNDS 


2.  A. 


am,  an  in  French  words 


au 

au=ö  (18.  L  (b).  (8));=a+u 
(23.  2.  Note). 

aw=ä   in    Shawl;   33.  4.  (4). 

ay  =ai;   see  23.  L  (4). 

a 

ä,  äh 

äu 

äu  =  ä+u  (23.  3.  Note  3). 

b  or  bb 

b  final  or  next  a  voiceless  con- 
sonant =  p. 

c  before  front  vowels  (see  6.  I. 
(a))=z  (ts). 

c  in  some  French  words  = 
s  (s);  see  33.  2.  (8). 

f=s(s). 

c  in  some  Italian  words  =  tS 
(33.  4.  (5)). 

c  elsewhere  =k. 

ch  after  au  or  a  back  vowel 
(see  6.  1.  (Ö)). 

ch  after  other  vowels  or  after 
consonants  in  German 
words 

ch  in  foreign  words;  32.  3.  a. 
Note. 

chs(  =  (f)f  and  (^g)  =ks;  see  30. 
3.  (2). 

ck  after  short  vowels  =k. 

d  or  dd 

d  final  or  next  a  voiceless  con- 
sonant =t. 

e=a. 

e,  ee,  eh 


e  unaccented     

e  in  French  words  =  e. 

eau  in  French  words  =  ö. 

ee  in  English  words  =  i;  see  7. 

1.  (b).  (7). 
ei  =  ai;  in  a  number  of  foreign 

words  =  e  +  i:     Athe'ist, 

De'ismus,  &c.;  in  Jockei 

=  e  or  ae;  see  35.  5.  (4). 
ein  in  French  words  =  8:  or  ex) ; 

see  25. 
em,  en  in  French  words  =  ä:  or 

ar) ;  see  25. 
eo=e+o:    Theorie    (te-o-'m:) 

Theodor  (te:o-do:R), 
eu  =  äu;  final  or  before  a  single 

consonant       in       French 


ä:  nasalized  a:  on  the 
stage,  in  the  North  pro- 
nounced as  ar).   See  25. 

ao  (23.  2) 

8  iU.a;U.b) 

8:  (13.  1.  (a);  13.  !.(&)) 
oe  (23.  3) 

b  (29;  30.  4) 


as  ou  in  loud. 


as  e  in  let. 
a  prolonged  e. 
as  oy  in  boy. 

as  b  in  bat. 


X  (32.  3.  &). 
g  (32.  3.  a). 

d  (29;  30.  5) 

e:(ll.  1.  (a);  11.  L  (6)) 
3(21) 


as  d  in  day. 


as  American  a  in 
dictate  ('dik- 
tet,  but  in 
S.  E.'dikteit). 

as  a  in  sofa. 


2.  A. SPELLINGS,   SYMBOLS,   SOUNDS 

words  =  o_(12.  L  ib).  (5)); 

elsewhere  in  French  words 
=  0  (15.  (b).  (2));  in  cer- 
tain foreign  words  =  e+u 

(23.  3.  Note  2). 
ey  in  proper  names  =  ai;   see 

23.  L  (3). 

f f(32.  1;33.  1) as  fin  fine. 

g  initial g  (29;  30.  6)      as  g  in  good. 

g  medial  after  front  vowels  = 

j ;  see  35.  3.  (2).  The  stage 

requires  g  here, 
g  medial  after  back  vowels  .  g  (34.  -i;  35.  4). 

The  stage  requires  g  here. 
g  after  front  vowels  finally  or 

before  a  consonant  in  a 

suffix    or    an    inflectional 

ending  =  ch  in  ich;  see  29. 

The  stage  requires  k  here. 
g  after  back  vowels  finally  or 

before  a  consonant   in  a 

suffix    or    an    inflectional 

ending  =  ch  in  ach;  see  29. 

The  stage  requires  k  here. 
g  after  n  is  silent;  see  36.  b. 
g    in    some    French    words  3  (34.  5;  35.  5.  (2))    .    ,     as  g  in  rouge. 

before  e  or  i 
g    in    some    English    words 

=  d3  (see   39.  4). 
ge    before   back   vowels   in 

French    words  =  5 ;    see 

35.  5.  (3). 
gg  medial  after  short  vowel 

=  g-g;  see  30.  6.  (3). 
gg   final  =k. 
ggi  in  some  Italian  words  = 

ds;  see  35.  5.  (4). 
gh  =  g. 
gn  in  foreign  words  =  r)n, 

gn,  and  nj;see36.  c.  (5). 
gu   before   front   vowels   in 

foreign    words  =  g;    see 

30.  6.  (4). 
gy  =  dj  in  Hungarian  words; 

see  39.  8. 

h  initial h  (28) as  h  in  hat. 

h  elsewhere  silent. 

i I   (9.  (a);  9.  (b))  ....      as  i  in  pin. 

1,  ih i:  (7.  L  (a) ;  7.  L  (&)) .    .      as  e  in  react. 

i  unaccented  before  a  vowel  i  (7.  2.  (2nd  par.))  ...     as   American   i 

famik'ar. 
ie,  ieh=i. 
ie  and  ie  in  foreign  words; 

see  7.  1.  {b).  Note  1. 
ier  in  French  words  =  je:  or 

i:R;see7.  1.  (ö).  Note  \. 
ier    unaccented  =i9R    as    in 

Spanier   ('$pa:'ni9R). 


10 


SPELLINGS,   SYMBOLS,    SOUNDS 


2.  A. 


ieu=TG:   as    in   adieu;    =eu 

23.  3.  (5). 
il,  ill  in  French  words;  see 

39.  5. 
im,  in  in  French  words  =  e: 

or  er) ;  see  25. 

J 

j  in  French  w^ords  =  French 

g  before  e  or  i;  see  34. 

5;  35.  5.  (1). 
j     in    English      words  =  d5; 

see  39.  4. 

k 

1 

m 

n  except  before  c,  g,  k,  q,  x  . 
n  before  c,  g,  k,  q;  see  36.  c.(3) 
ng  =  r) ;  see  36.  b. 
Ö 

Ö,  oh,  00     . 

oa  in  Toast  =  ö ;  elsewhere  = 
o  +  a:    Klo'äke,  &c. 

oe  =  Ö  (26.  A) ;  in  L.G.  names 
=  0  (18.  1.  (b).  (5));  in 
Dutch  words  =ü  (20.  1. 
(&).  (8));  elsewhere  = 
o+e:   Po'et,  &c. 

oey  =  o  in  Oeynhausen  (12. 
l.b.  (4)). 

oi  in  L.G.  names  =  0  (18.  1. 
(&).  (6));  in  L.G.  words 
=  eu  (23.  3.  (3));  in 
French  words  =  o-a'  or 
o-a  (16.  1.  (&).  (5)  and 
2.{b));  elsewhere  =  o-'i: 
as  in  Trapezo'id,  &c. 

cm,  on  in  French  words  = 
5:  or  or) ;  see  25. 

ou  in  French  words  =  ü  (20. 
1.(&).(7));=Ü  (19.(0). 
(3)). 

ow  in  L.G.  and  Eng.  words 
=  0  (18.  1.  (&).(7));  ip 
Slavic  words  =  ov  medi- 
ally and  of  finally  or 
before  a  consonant;  see 
33.  1.  (6). 

oy  in  foreign  words   =o-a-j 
(35.  3.  (4));   =eu  (23. 
3.  (4)). 
o 

o,  oh 

P 


1'  (39.  5). 

j  (34.  3;  34.  3) 


k  (29;  30.  3) 

1  (37.  1) 

m  (36.  a)  

n  (36.  a) 

t)  (36.  b;3ß.c.  (2),  (3)) 

3  (17.  a;  n.b).    .    .    . 


o:  (18.  1.  a;  18.  1.  b)   . 


5:  nasalized  o:  (25). 


8  rounded  e;  see  15. 

(a);15.  (&). 
e:  rounded  e: ;  see  12. 

l.a;12.  1.  {b). 
p  (29;  30.  1).    .    . 


as  y  m  yes. 


as  k  in  kind, 
as  1  in  let. 
as  m  in  man. 
as  n  in  no. 
as  ng  in  singer. 

as  American  o  in 
obey,  potato  or 
S.  E.  o  in    rob. 

as  American  o  in 
poetic  or  S.  E.  o 
in  obey. 


as  p  m  pen. 


2.  A. 


SPELLINGS,   SYMBOLS,   SOUNDS 


11 


pf  =  p+f;39.  1. 

ph,  pph  =  f;  see  33.   1.   (4), 

(5). 
qu  =  kw  and  k;  see  39.  7. 

r 

s(  =  §andf),ss(  =  ff),ß  (  = 

^);  see  33.  2 

s  initial  and  medial;  35.  2. 

(1),(2). 

sch 

sh  in  English  words  =  sch. 
sp,  st  initial  in  stem  syllable 

=  Sp,    St;    33.    4.    (2); 

=  sp,  st;  see  33.  2  (4). 

t,  th,  tt,  dt 

ti  =  tsi;  see  39.  3.  (10). 
tz=z;  see  39.  3.  (2),  (3). 

Ü 

Ü,  uh 

u=v(35.  1.  (5),  (6),  (7)); 
in  French  words  =  ü. 

ue  =  ü  (26.  a);  in  the  name 
Kotzebue  =ü;  in  French 
words  =  ü(8.  l.(6).(6)); 
elsewhere  =  u  +  e:Du'ell. 

ui  =  ü  (8.  1.  (ö).(4));  =eu 
(23.3.(6));  =vi:  (35.  1. 
(7));  =  the  rising  diph- 
thongs üi:,  ÜI ;  see  20.  2 ; 
elsewhere  =  u+i:  Luise 
(lu-'i:z9),  Luitpold  (lu:- 
itpolt) 

um,  un  in  French  words  =  ö: 
or  Qi) ;  see  25. 

uo  =  u:o  in  Kuoni  (name) . 

Ü 

Ü,  iih 

v=f;see33.  1.  (2),  (3). 

V  medial    in   Low   German 

words  =  w ;  see  35.  1.(4). 

V  initial  and  medial  in  fo- 

reign    words  =  w;     see 

35.  1.  (3). 

w 

x-ks;  see  39.  2. 

y,  y=  i,  i  or  Ü,  Ü  (see  9.  1, 

(6).  (6):  10.  (ö).(3);7. 

l.(&).(5),(6);8.1.(&). 

(5).  Note). 
y  in  some  foreign  words  = 

j;  see  35.  3.  (4). 
y  in  some   Dutch  words  = 

ai;  see  23.  1.  (5). 
z  =  ts;  see  39.  3.  (1). 
z  =  s  (z);  see  35.  2.  (3). 


R  (34.  6)  or  r  (37.  2). 

s  (32.  2;  33.  2) 

z  (34.  2;  35.  2) 

S  (32.  4;  33.  4) 

t  (29;  30.  2) 

u  (19.  a;  19.  &) 

u:  (20.  1.  (a);30.  1.  (6)) 


as  s  m  sit. 
as  s  in  rose. 

as  sh  in  shave. 


as  t  m  ten. 


as  u  in  put. 
as  o  in  unstressed 
who,  only  longer. 


8:  nasalized  8:  (25). 


Y  rounded  i;  see  10.  a; 
10.  b. 

y:  rounded  i: ;  see  8.  1. 

(a);8.1.(&). 


v(34.  1;35.  1) 


as  V  m  very. 


12 


TABLE   OF   SOUNDS:   FORMATION 


2.  B. 


B.    Classification  of  German  Sounds. 

I .     Vowels. 

Vowels  may  be  classified  from  different  points  of  view.  The  vowels  are  here 
classified  according  to  the  horizontal  movement  (see  3.  1.  a  below)  of  the  tongue 
in  forming  them.  The  various  modifications  of  these  sounds  are  treated  later 
under  each  vowel. 


Simple  Vowels 
Front   Vowels 
v.,  y:,  I,  Y,  e:,  e:,  e,  e:,  8,  a: 

Back   Vowels 
a:,  ä:,  a,  o,  5:,  o:,  u,  u: 
Mixed  Vowel 
a  (see  21) 


Diphthongs 

Falling^  (22,  23) 

ao,  DO  (eu  or  äu),  ae  (ei  or  ai),  ui 

Rising  (24) 

la:,  19,  io:,  etc. 


II.    Consonants. 


Labials 

Dentals 

Palatals 

Velars 

Uvular 

Glottals 

c 
o 

a 
o 

P 
b 

t 
d 

k 

g 

?(38) 

CQ 

m 

n 

g 

'P. 

'a 
in 

'3 
cr 

f 

V 

s 
z 

5  (32.  2.  a) 

S  (32.  4) 
S  (34.  5) 

X  (32.3.&) 
g(34.4) 

R(34.  6) 

h 

l,r(37.2) 

Sounds  marked  by  heavy  type  are  voiced,  others  are  voiceless. 

"Nole.  The  sounds  have  here  been  divided  into  the  two  usual  classes  of  vowels  and  consonants  upon  the  basis  of  the 
function  usually  performed  by  the  various  sounds.  A  vowel  can  form  of  itself  a  syllable.  A  consonant  does  not  of 
itself  form  a  syllable,  but  is  only  used  in  conjunction  with  vowels  to  form  syllables.  Hence  the  above  classification 
does  not  always  hold  good.  The  consonants  1,  m,  n,  r),  r,  are  sometimes  in  one  sense  used  as  vowels  in  that  they  be- 
come syllabic,  forming  of  themselves  syllables.  See  41.  4.  The  vowels  found  as  the  less  sonorous  element  of  diph- 
thongs are  in  fact  consonants.  The  vowel  i  often  becomes  a  consonant  in  certain  positions,  i.  e.  becomes  unsyllabic, 
forming  the  less  sonorous  part  of  a  rising  diphthong.  See  7.  2  (2nd  par.).  These  points  indicate  clearly  that  the 
qualification  of  a  syllable-forming  sound  is  a  prominent  degree  of  sonority  and  not  the  manner  of  its  formation.  Sounds 
are  now  syllable-forming  and  now  a  mere  subordinate  element  according  as  they  are  relatively  prorninent  by  means 
of  their  sonority  or  relatively  inconspicuous.  Sometimes  a  sound  which  has  a  low  degree  of  sonority  may  become 
a  syllable-forming  element  when  it  is  surrounded  by  less  sonorous  sounds,  as  s  in  pst!  The  classification  of  sounds 
upon  the  basis  of  function  does  not  always  help  us  in  gaining  a  correct  conception  of  the  nature  or  formation  of  the 
various  sounds.  Thus  I,  m,  n,  and  lingual  r  (r)  do  not  differ  in  any  essential  point  from  vowels  in  their  formation, 
tho  upon  the  basis  of  function  they  must  in  most  cases  be  classified  as  consonants.  Thus  also  h  does  not  materially 
differ  in  formation  from  the  simple  vowels  a,  o,  u,  &c.,  except  that  the  vocal  chords  do  not  vibrate,  but  it  is  here 
classified  as  a  consonant,  as  it  always  produces  the  acoustic  effect  and  performs  the  function  of  a  spirant.  See  28, 
Noie. 

Formation  of  Sounds. 

3.  1.  In  forming  a  vowel  the  mouth  remains  more  or  less  open,  and  the  vocal 
chords  vibrate.  Each  new  position  of  the  tongue  produces  a  new  vowel,  which 
may  again  be  modified  in  various  ways.  The  tongue  movements  and  various 
modifications  can  only  be  briefly  treated  here. 

a.  Tongue  Movements.  The  tongue  moves  horizontally  and  vertically — 
backwards  and  forwards,  upwards  and  downwards.  The  horizontal  movement 
results  in  three  general  classes  of  sounds,  hack  vowels  formed  by  the  back  part 


4.  b. QUANTITY   OF   VOWELS 13 

of  the  tongue,  front  vowels  formed  by  the  front  part  of  the  tongue,  mixed  vowels 
formed  by  allowing  the  tongue  to  drop  into  a  neutral  position,  in  which  neither 
articulation  predominates.  The  vertical  movement  of  the  tongue  results  in  three 
general  classes,  high  vowels  formed  by  raising  the  tongue  close  to  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  mid  vowels  by  raising  the  tongue  moderately,  low  vowels  by  lowering  the 
tongue.    These  positions  will  be  discussed  later  with  each  vowel. 

h.  Rounding.  Vowels  are  rounded  by  protruding  the  lips  as  in  whistling. 
Thus  by  rounding,  i:,  i,  e:,  8,  become  y:,  y,  e:,  9.     See  8,  10,  12,  15. 

c.  Narrowness,  Wideness.  A  sound  is  said  to  be  'narrow'  when  the  muscles 
of  the  tongue  become  tense  and  bulge  up,  and  thus  narrow  the  resonance  cham- 
ber. When  a  sound  is  formed  without  this  tenseness  it  is  said  to  be  'wide.'  The 
difference  between  e:  and  e  is  that  the  former  is  narrow  and  the  latter  wide.  In 
North  German  all  long  vowels  except  ä  (e:)  are  narrow  and  all  short  ones  wide. 
This  explains  the  strong  tendency  to  pronounce  a  as  e:  instead  of  e:.  These  modi- 
fications will  be  given  later  in  connection  with  each  vowel. 

d.  Nasality.  In  forming  nasal  vowels  the  breath  passes  thru  the  nose  as  well 
as  the  mouth.  Nasality  is  the  characteristic  of  vowels  in  many  words  from  the 
French.     See  25. 

2.  In  forming  consonants  the  mouth  is  either  closed  as  in  the  case  of  stops 
and  nasals,  or  narrowed  as  in  the  case  of  spirants.  The  distinguishing  feature  of 
a  consonant  is  the  friction,  or  stopping  of  the  breath  in  some  part  of  the  mouth 
or  throat.  If  voice  enters  into  the  formation  of  a  consonant,  that  is,  if  the  vocal 
chords  vibrate  in  producing  it,  it  is  said  to  be  voiced,  otherwise  it  is  voiceless. 
The  formation  of  the  different  consonants  is  described  later. 

Quantity  of  Vowels. 

4.    1.    General  rules. 

a.  Accented  vowels  are  long  when  final,  or  before  a  vowel  or  one  consonant: 
da,  Se-en,  Mal,  mä-len.  Notice  that,  if  a  vowel  follows  the  stem,  the  final 
consonant  is  always  carried  over,  and  the  stem  syllable  becomes  open,  i.  e.  ter- 
minates with  a  vowel. 

The  quantity  of  the  vowel  must  be  ascertained  from  the  simple  stem  of  the 
word,  the  inflectional  endings  that  may  be  added  not  counting:  der  Hut,  des 
Huts;  loben,  du  lobst,  gelobt. 

Note.  To  the,  in  general,  very  reliable  rule  that  the  vowel  of  the  simple  stem  gives  the  quantity  to  the  derivative 
forms,  there  are  exceptions:  (1)  Exceptions  among  weak  verbs  are  limited  to  the  following  cases:  ich  habe,  du  hast, 
er  hat,  er  hätte,  gehabt;  in  loose  colloquial  Xorth  and  Middle  German  ich  kriege  (kRi:ia)  /  get,  but  du  kriegst  (knigst), 
er  kriegt  (kRigt),  er  kriegte  (kRigta),  gekriegt  (ga'kRigt),  as  explained  in  201. /and  209,  but  in  more  careful  language 
IC  kRi:g3,  du:  kRi:kst,  er  kRi:kt,  etc.;  the  isolated  adjective  participle  beredt  (in  choice  language  beredt)  eloquent 
from  reden.  (2)  A  difference  of  vowel  or  consonant  sometimes  makes  the  quantity  irregular  in  strong  or  irreg- 
ular verbs:  ich  nehme,  du  nimmst.  See  also  201.  /.  The  special  cases  are  noted  under  the  strong  verbs. 
(3)  The  monosyllabic  forms  of  the  nouns  ending  in  b,  d,  f,  g,  s  are  often  in  N.G.  short  instead  of  long,  since  the  dif- 
ference in  the  pronunciation  of  these  consonants  finally  and  medially  has  prevented  the  spreading  of  the  long  vowel 
from  the  open  lengthened  forms  to  the  closed  monosyllabic  forms:  der  Tag  or  Tag,  but  always  des  Talges.  See  2. 
B.  b.  Note  (1)  below.  (4)  The  adverbs  weg  (vek)  and  in  colloquial  language  flugs  (fluks)  have  retained  the  old 
short  vowel,  as  they  are  always  in  a  closed  syllable,  while  in  Weg  and  Flug  it  has  become  long  after  the  analogy  of  the 
lengthened  forms  Wedges  and  Flügges.  See  2.  B.  b.  Note  (1)  below.  In  flugs,  however,  after  the  analogy  of  des 
Flugs  the  u  is  now  in  choice  language  pronounced  u:.  (5)  A  difference  may  arise  from  the  absence  of  the  feeling  of 
the  original  connection  of  the  words:  Heer,  but  Herzog;  Fährt,  but  fertig,  &c. 

b.  An  accented  vowel  standing  before  a  double  consonant  (double  k  usually 
written  ck)  or  two  or  more  consonants  is  usually  short  and  the  syllable  is  closed, 
i.  e.  terminates  in  a  consonant,  but  it  is  long  in  the  special  cases  (see  2.  A.  d.  (2) 
(3),  below)  where  the  syllable  is  open:  Ball,  er'schrecken  (eR'SRek-kan),  Halt, 
sin-ken,  fas-ten,  but  HyMrä.  Thus  a  vowel  in  an  accented  open  syllable  is 
always  long,  whether  it  stands  before  one  consonant  or  more:  mahlen,  MeHrik, 
&c.  Compare  41.  1,  2. 

A  vowel  is  short  in  a  few  words  before  one  consonant,  and  the  syllable  is 
closed:  Fi'äker  (also  'Fiaker),  Gra'mmätik,  gra'mmätisch,  Ho'tel,  Ka'pitel, 
'Litera'tür,  Me'täpher  (ph  =  f).  Relief  (Rc-'lief),  'Saphir,  'Zither  (th=t),  &c. 

Note  on  Historical  Development.  The  great  majority  of  the  long  vowels  of  the  language  have  corresponding  short 
ones  in  M.H.G.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  period  all  short  vowels  became  long  in  open  syllables,  i.  e.  where 
the  final  consonant  of  the  stem  was  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable.  Before  one  consonant  the  syllable  was  usually 
open  and  the  vowel  became  long  except  often  before  t,  m,  and  sometimes  1,  n.     Thus  M.H.G.  bä-nen,  ge-ben,  ho-nec. 


14 QUANTITY   OF  VOWELS 4.  1.  b. 

gi-bel  became  bäh'nen,  gelben,  Hö'nig,  Gie'bel,  but  in  M.H.G.  geri-ten,  go-tes,  go-ter,  vro-men,  as  explained  below, 
the  syllable  before  t  and  m  became  closed,  which  resulted  in  the  retention  of  the  short  vowel:  gent-ten,  Got-tes,  Got-ter, 
from-mea  Before  a  M.H.G.  double  consonant  or  a  combination  of  consonants  the  syllable  was  already  closed,  so 
that  in  N  H.G.  the  short  vowel  here  remained  short:  M.H.G.  vuUen,  halten,  N.H.G.  füllen,  halten.  Tho  ng  and 
sch  are  now  simple  sounds,  q,  S,  they  each  in  M.H.G.  represented  two  sounds,  i.  e.  a  combmation  of  consonants,  which 
after  a  short  vowel  closed  the  syllable,  so  that  in  N.H.G.  the  short  vowel  remained  short,  as  m  singen  (ziij-rjsn),  wa- 
schen (vaS-San)  Compare  32.  4.  Note  (2).  Where,  however,  the  sound  before  sch  was  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong 
it  remained  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong:  wusch.  Fleisch.  The  long  vowel  here  remained  long  as  sch  (sx,  later  S)  in 
the  lengthened  forms  in  accordance  with  the  general  tendency  after  long  vowels  was  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable, 
which  thus  left  the  root  svllable  open  and  kept  the  long  root  vowel  long:  wünschen.  As  ng  (rig),  on  the  other  hand, 
could  not  be  thus  easily  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable,  the  long  vowel  before  it  naturally  became  short  in  accordance 
with  the  general  tendency  of  long  vowels  to  become  short  in  a  closed  syllable  before  a  combination  of  consonants, 
as  described  in  2.  .•\.  d.  Note  below:  fingen  (fitj-gan,  now  fiq-nan)  from  older  fiengen  {fi:n-g3n).  The  syllable  before 
ch  (i  e  ch-ch,  divided  ch,  from  older  kch,  from  older  aspirated  k  as  still  preserved  in  Eng.  speafe)  was  originally  closed 
as  it  stood  before  a  combination  of  consonants,  hence  a  short  vowel  before  ch  has  remained  short,  but  where  the  sound 
before  ch  was  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong  it  has  remained  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong:  sprechen  (early  O.H.G.  spreh- 
han  i  e.  sprex-xan),  sprä'chen  (early  O.H.G.  sprah-hun,  i.  e.  spra:x-xun),  rauchen  (early  O.H.G.  rouh-han,  i.e. 
roux-xan).  .A.s  can  be  seen  in  the  old  forms  in  parentheses  ch  was  in  early  O.H.G.  a  divided  sound  even  after  a  long 
vowel  or  a  diphthong.  A  little  later  the  ch  after  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong  was  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable  as 
a  single  sound  in  accordance  with  the  general  tendency  here  to  carry  over  all  consonants  to  the  next  syllable.  This 
left  the  root  syllable  open  and  kept  the  long  root  vowel  long.  Tho  sch,  ng,  ch  are  now  simple  sounds  and  are  divided 
after  a  short  vowel,  from  an  aversion  to  heaping  up  too  many  unsightly  letters  they  are  never  doubled  in  the  written 

länCLläßG» 

The  double  consonants  treated  in  the  preceding  paragraph  all  stand  between  vowels  and  are  real  divided 
sounds.  After  the  analogy  of  doubling  the  consonant  here  it  has  become  the  custom  after  a  short  vowel  to  double 
the  consonant  when  it  stands  in  the  final  position  or  before  a  consonant,  but  this  double  consonant  does  not  represent 
a  divided  sound.  It  is  a  mere  orthographical  device  to  indicate  the  shortness  of  the  preceding  vowel:  komm  and 
kommt  after  the  analogy  of  kommen.  .\s  the  characters  ng,  sch,  ch  from  an  aversion  to  heaping  up  too  many  un- 
sightly letters  are  not  doubled  after  a  short  vowel  when  they  stand  between  vowels,  they  are  jif  course  n(it  doubled 
after  a  short  vowel  when  they  stand  in  the  final  position  or  before  a  consonant:  fangen,  fang,  fängt;  waschen,  wasch, 
wäscht-  sprechen,  sprich,  spricht.  In  older  periods  the  character  representing  a  consonant  was  only  doubled  when 
the  sound  was  divided:  M.H.G.  balles  (N.H.G.  des  Balles),  O.H.G.  sprah-hun  (N.H.G.  sie  sprä'chen),  but  in  the 
final  position  M.H.G.  bal  (N.H.G.  Ball).  O.H.G.  spräh  (N.H.G.  er  sprach)  as  the  sound  is  undivided.  The  older 
usage  of  only  doubling  the  character  when  the  sound  is  divided  is  still  observed  for  voiceless  s.  but  two  characters 
are  used  here,  ss  for  the  divided  sound  and  ß  for  undivided  s:  wissen,  er  weiß,  er  wußte.  See  also  2.  D.  a  below. 
The  old  orthographical  principle  of  only  doubling  a  consonant  when  it  is  a  divided  sound  is  still  in  wide  use  in  English: 
thinner  but  thin,  runner  but  run,  ran.  ..    „  -,       ,,-    .    Ax.  .. 

In  a  few  words  a  long  vowel  stands  in  a  closed  syllable  before  two  consonants:  Kebsweib,  Krebs,  Magd,  Obst, 
Vogt.  In  older  German  an  e  stood  after  the  consonant  which  follows  the  stem  vowel,  so  that  the  stem  vowel  stood 
in  an  open  svllable  before  one  consonant:  M.H.G.  ke-beswip,  kre-be?,  ma-get.  o-hcT,,  vo-get.  In  this  older  form  the 
stem  vowel  became  long.     The  following  vowel  later  disappeared,  but  the  stem  vowel  remained  long. 

Wherever  a  vowel  became  long  in  an  open  syllable  the  same  quantity  was  usually  later  extended  for  the  sake  of 
uniformity  to  the  closed  syllables  of  the  same  inflectional  system.  See  2.  B.  b.  Note  (1)  below.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  inflectional  system  was  sometimes  leveled  by  the  short  vowel  of  the  closed  syllables,  i.  e.  before  .',  m,  and  some- 
times /  and  n  the  open  syllables  were  closed  by  doubling  or  dividing  the  consonant  in  order  to  make  the  vowel  short 
and  thus  keep  it  in  harmony  with  the  short  vowels  in  the  same  system.  M.H.G.  va-ter.  nä-me,  &c.,  became  N.^H.G. 
Vaster,  Nä'me,  &c.,  but  leveling  by  the  short  vowel  of  the  closed  syllable  is  more  common  here:  M.H.G.  sa-tel,  geri-ten, 
go-ter.  ve-ter,  ha-mer,  do-ner  became  Sattel,  geritten,  Götter,  Vetter,  Hammer,  Donner,  as  the  e  of  the  unaccented 
syllable  often  dropped  out  in  colloquial  speech  before  1,  m,  n,  r,  as  in  Sätl,  geritn,  Gotr,  Vetr,  Hämr,  Dönr,  which 
resulted  in  bringing  the  root  vowel  before  two  consonants  thus  closing  the  syllable  and  keeping  it  short  and  usually 
also  in  the  spreading  of  the  short  vowel  to  the  fuller  forms,  which  are  now  written  with  double  consonants  to  in- 
dicate the  closedness  of  the  syllable  and  the  shortness  of  the  vowel,  Sattel,  etc.  In  a  few  monosyllables,  as  M.H.G. 
snit,  trit.  &c..  the  short  vowel  of  the  closed  nominative  and  accusative  spread  to  the  fuller  forms.  Schnitt,  Schnittes, 
&c.,' Tritt,  Trittes,  &c.  ,    ^ 

The  above  described  lengthening  of  short  vowels  in  open  syllables  did  not  take  place  in  the  extreme  part  of  the 
S.  W.,  which  still  preserves  here  the  old  historic  short  sound.     See  2.  B.  b.  Note  (1)  below. 

c.  Unaccented  simple  vowels  are  short,  except  when  final :  glauben,  Fürstin, 
Frühling,  &c.  Unaccented  final  vowels  except  e  are  long  or  half-long.  See 
2.  B.  c.  and  Note  thereunder. 

2.    Rules  for  Quantity  in  Detail. 

A.    The  following  are  long: — 

a.  A  diphthong:    Gaul,  Gäule. 

b.  Doubled  vowels  and  ie:  Paar,  Heer,  Boot,  bieten.  Only  a,  e,  o  can  be 
doubled.  They  must,  however,  be  written  single  when  mutated:  Paar,  but 
Pärchen.  Vowels  are  now  written  double  only  in  the  following  words:  Aal, 
Aar  (Adler),  Aas,  Haar,  Paar,  paar,  Saal,  Saat,  Staat;  Beere,  Beet,  Geest,  Heer, 
verheeren,  Klee,  Kra'keel,  Lee,  leer,  leeren,  Meer,  Reede,  scheel,  Schnee, 
See,  Seele,  Speer,  Teer;  Boot,  Moor,  Moos. 

c.  Simple  accented  vowels  when  final,  or  before  a  vowel  or  one  consonant: 
da.  Seen,  baden,  Mikro'sköp.  Exceptions:  A'pril,  grob  (but  long  in  open  syl- 
lables, as  in  grö-ber,  &c.)  or  in  choice  language  grob  (long  as  in  gröber),  Ka'pitel, 
Luther,  Zither,  &c. 

The  length  of  the  vowel  may  also  be  indicated  by  a  silent  h :  Wahl,  ihm,  ihn, 
&c.     For  the  use  of  h  here  see  28. 

d.  Simple  accented  vowels  are  sometimes  long  before  more  than  one  conso- 
nant: 

(1)  The  vowels  a,  e,  and  less  frequently  other  vowels,  are  long  before  r-f  a 
dental  (d,  t,  z,  s,  sch) :  werden,  Schwert,  Quarz,  &c.  Thus  these  vowels  are  long, 
altho  they  stand  in  closed  syllables;  see  B.  b.  Note  (2)  below.  This  pronunciation 
is  a  new  development,  and  is  not  yet  universally  recognized. 


4.  2.  B.  b. QUANTITY   OF   VOWELS 15 

(2)  Vowels  are  sometimes  long  before  st,  bst,  pst,  tsch,  chs  (  =  ks),  z  (=ts), 
and  in  still  other  cases.  The  words  will  be  given  later  under  the  respective  vowels. 
In  all  these  cases  the  consonants  should  be  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable 
wherever  it  is  possible,  so  that  the  accented  syllable  may  be  open:  Ö'stern, 
dunster,  &c. 

In  a  few  cases  short  vowels  have  become  long  before  these  combinations  of 
consonants,  usually  under  the  influence  of  analogy.  Thus  as  M.H.G.  du  became 
du  as  the  vowel  stood  in  an  open  syllable,  M.H.G.  duzen  naturally  became 
dü^zen  under  the  influence  of  du. 

Long  vowels — both  those  originally  long  and  those  that  have  in  N.H.G. 
become  long— cannot  usually  be  distinguished  as  long  when  they  stand  before 
these  combinations  of  consonants,  but  within  the  present  period  a  simple  device 
has  been  found  to  distinguish  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  before  ts.  Before  z 
the  sound  is  uniformly  a  long  or  half-long  vowel  or  a  diphthong,  while  before  tz 
it  is  always  a  short  vowel:  siezen:  (zi:Hs9n),  dü^zen,  Akazie  (a-'ka:Hsi9), 
inspizieren  (mspi-'tsi:Ran),  Kauz  (kaots),  but  Katze  (kats9,  the  syllabic  division 
being  in  the  t).  After  a  consonant,  z — not  tz — is  used,  as  the  two  consonants 
mark  the  preceding  vowel  as  short:   Herz. 

Note.  Most  of  these  vowels  were  long  or  were  diphthongs  in  earlier  periods  of  the  language,  and  hence  their  length 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  process  of  lengthening  explained  in  1.  b.  Note,  above.  In  general,  long  vowels  have  come 
down  to  us  long,  but  in  the  present  period  there  has  long  been  busily  at  work  a  new  force — the  tendency  to  shorten 
a  long  vowel  in  a  closed  syllable  before  a  combination  of  consonants — which  already  in  many  words  has  reduced  a 
long  stem  vowel  to  a  short  one,  as  illustrated  here  by  a  few  characteristic  examples:  brächte  (M.H.G.  brähte),  dicht 
(M.H.G.  dihte),  Licht  (M.H.G.  lieht,  M.G.  of  the  same  period  llclit,  from  which  the  present  literary  form  comes), 
stund  (M.H.G.  stuont.  M.G.  of  the  same  period  stunt,  from  which  stund  (see  203)  comes);  fing,  ging,  hing  from  older 
fieng,  gieng,  hieng,  which  until  1903  were  required  by  the  official  .Austrian  rules;  older  Muter,  Füter,  now  Mütter,  Fütter, 
as  the  6  often  dropped  out  in  colloquial  speech  and  the  root  syllable  thus  became  closed  and  the  vowel  became  short; 
Lerche  (M.H.G.  lerche),  Gertrud  (M.H.G.  ger);  vier  (fi:R),  but  short  I  in  vierzehn,  vierzig.  Viertel;  währ  but  usually 
wahrlich;  hat  (M.H.G.  hat)  with  a  short  vowel  as  it  often  stands  in  a  closed  syllable  before  a  combination  of  conson- 
ants, as  in  er  hat  gesagt  and  hat  er  (the  e  often  dropping  out  in  colloquial  speech)  gesagt. 

In  a  few  words  an  old  long  vowel  stands  in  a  closed  svllable  before  a  combination  of  consonants,  thus  apparently- 
forming  exceptions  to  the  rule  just  described:  Papst  (M.H.G.  bä-best),  Propst  (M.H.G.  pro-best),  etc.  As  can  be 
seen  by  the  old  forms  in  parentheses  an  e  once  stood  after  the  consonant  which  follows  tiie  stem  vowel,  so  that  the 
stem  vowel  stood  in  an  open  syllable  before  one  consonant,  which  preserved  the  Ions;  quantity  of  the  vowel  until  it 
had  become  firmly  associated  with  the  word.  Sometimes  the  force  of  analogy  has  preserved  the  old  long  vowel  in 
a  closed  svllable  before  a  combination  of  consonants.  Thus  tho  we  often  hear  wuchs  (vtrks)  as  u  here  stands  in  a 
closed  syllable  before  a  combination  of  consonants  we  more  frequently  hear  long  u  here  after  the  analogy  of  the 
lengthened  forms  where  u  stands  in  an  open  syllable,  as  in  wüchsen  (vu:'kssn),  and  after  the  analogy  of  the  other 
past  tense  forms  in  the  same  class,  as  wusch,  schuf,  etc.  Likewise  höchst  remains  long  after  the  analogy  of  höher, 
hoher,  etc.  In  the  unstressed  preposition  nach  (M.H.G.  nach)  we  often  hear  in  colloquial  speech  short  a  instead  of 
the  long  vowel  as  found  in  choice  language,  while  the  stressed  adverb  nach  invariably  retains  its  old  long  vowel:  nach 
Hause  (instead  of  the  more  choice  nach  Hause),  but  regularly  nachgehen. 

(3)  In  many  words  from  the  Latin  or  Greek,  the  consonants  between  vowels, 
especially  a  stop  (p,  t,  k,  b,  d,  g)  +  r  or  1,  are  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable, 
as  in  the  original.  This  leaves  the  preceding  syllable  open,  which  according  to 
German  usage  (see  I.  b  above)  becomes  long:  MiHra,  Me^triim,  &c.,  half-long 
in  words  with  secondary  stress,  as  in  ^Mi-kro'sköp,  &c. 

B.    Short:— 

a.  Simple  vowels  before  double  consonants,  or  two  or  more  different  con- 
sonants:   Gatter,  Hunde. 

b.  Simple  vowels  before  one  consonant  in  some  uninflected  forms,  and  in 
a  few  inflected  monosyllables  that  do  not  form  open  syllables  in  the  course  of 
inflection:  an,  in,  ab,  um,  weg,  mit,  von,  ob,  bis,  das,  daß,  was,  bin,  bist,  ist, 
the  article  der,  des,  &c.  (in  careful  speaking  and  declaiming  pronounced  den, 
des,  &c.,  or  sometimes  even  de.-R,  de:m,  de:n,  not  however  de:s,  but  ordinarily 
daR,  das,  &c.,  with  weak  stress).  Such  monosyllables  are,  however,  always  long 
if  they  contain  a  h,  final  r  (except  in  the  article),  or  accented  -em,  -en:  ihm, 
ihn,  wer  (ve:R),  vor,  für,  em'por,  the  demonstrative  and  relative  der  (de:R),  dem 
(de:m),  den  (de:n),  &c.  The  personal  pronoun  er  is  pronounced  e:R,  but  it  often, 
when  weakly  stressed,  becomes  en,  or  even  3r.  On  the  stage  zum  and  zur  are 
pronounced  tsu-m  and  tsu-R,  but  in  colloquial  speech  they  become  tsum  and 

tSUR. 

Note.  (1)  The  reason  that  the  vowel  of  most  of  the  above  words  is  short  is  that  it  always  stands  in  a  closed  syl- 
lable. Formerly  the  vowel  of  monosyllabic  nouns  ending  in  a  single  consonant  could  also  be  short,  as  in  Gräm,  Stil. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  present  period  these  same  vowels  became  long  in  all  lengthened  forms  in  accordance  with  the 
new  law  that  lengthened  all  short  vowels  in  open  syllables:  Grä-mes,  Stie-les.  See  1.  b.  above  and  Note  thereunder. 
The  long  vowel  of  the  lengthened  forms,  following  the  general  trend  toward  uniformity  thruout  the  same  inflectional 
system,  spread  later  to  the  closed  syllables.  Thus  Gräm,  Stil  became  Gräm,  Stiel.  For  several  little  irregularities 
see  1.  a.  Note  (3)  and  1.  b.  Note,  above.     As  the  above-mentioned  short  closed  forms  were  never  inflected,  or  never 


16 QUANTITY   &   QUALITY   OF   VOWELS  4.  2.  B.  b. 

became  open  in  the  course  of  their  inflection,  they  remained  short.  In  dialects  of  the  extreme  Southwest  we  find 
the  opposite  development— a  lengthened  vowel  in  a  closed  syllable  before  a  weakly  articulated  consonant  or  certain 
combinations  of  consonants,  while  the  oriKinal  short  vowel  survives  in  open  syllables:  Grab,  Räd,  Sarg,  wärm,  Bart, 
Lampe,  werden,  gern,  etc.,  but  Grä-ber,  Rä-der,  &c.  In  dialects  of  the  Southeast  there  :s  a  development  somewhat 
similar' but  much  narrower  in  scope — a  lengthened  vowel  in  a  closed  final  syllable  before  two  consonants  or  before 
a  simple  sound  that  developed  out  of  two  consonants,  while  the  old  short  vowel  survives  in  all  syllables  which  orig- 
inallv  were  not  final  as  now:  Köpf,  but  pi.  Kopf  (e  );  Fisch  (sch  originally  =  s  +  x),  but  pi.  Fisch(e ). 

(2 )  Final  r  has  in  the  literary  language  an  effect  upon  a  preceding  accented  vowel  differing  from  that  of  other  final 
consonants.  It  usually  lengthens  the  vowel,  altho  it  closes  the  syllable,  as  in  vor,  wer,  &c.  It  also  has  the  same 
effect  medially  in  certain  cases.     See  A.  d.  (1)  above. 

c.  Unaccented  simple  vowels  are  short  except  when  final :  halten,  Gefängnis, 
Herrin,  &c.  Unaccented  final  vowels  except  e  are  long  or  half-long.  Long 
or  half-long  unaccented  final  vowels  occur  in  a  few  isolated  words,  as  Uhü, 
Schuhü,  and  in  a  number  of  names,  as  Otto,  Bruno,  Frida,  Herta,  &c.  Aside  from 
these  words,  the  prefix  miß-,  and  suffixes,  such  as  -lieh,  -in,  -ling,  &c.,  which 
have  secondary  accent,  e  is  now  the  only  German  vowel  found  outside  the  ac- 
cented root  syllable,  as  the  various  fuller  vowels  of  earlier  periods  have,  under 
the  eft'ect  of  weak  stress,  been  all  reduced  to  this  one  form.  This  unaccented  e  is 
almost  uniformly  pronounced  a  except  in  the  prefixes  be-,  emp-,  ent-,  er-,  ge-, 
ver-,  zer-,  where  it  is  treated  differently  in  the  different  forms.  In  be-  and 
ge-  it  is  almost  always  pronounced  9.  In  emp-,  ent-,  er-,  ver-,  and  zer-,  it  is 
usually  sounded  8  in  careful  speaking  but  often  in  colloquial  speech  in  accordance 
with  the  general  tendency  in  unaccented  syllables  becomes  9  in  er-,  ver-,  and 
zer-.  Of  course  compounds  deviate  from  the  general  rule,  as  the  components 
retain  the  quantity  which  they  have  as  independent  words:  Schlittschuh, 
Schiffahrt,  &c.  Also  the  heavy  suffixes  ät,  jän,  bär,  säl,  tum,  üt,  usually  also 
säm,  which  were  in  part  once  independent  words,  form  exceptions  to  the  rule: 
Heirat,  hörbar,  &c. 

Note.  Quality  of  Unaccented  Vowels  in  Foreign  Words.  Other  vowels  than  e  are,  however,  often  found  in  un- 
accented syllables  in  foreign  words,  and  it  should  be  noted  that  they  do  not,  except  in  final  syllables,  conforrn  to  the 
German  rule  for  quantity.  Foreign  vowels  except  e  are  long  or  half-long  when  final:  'Anna,  'Salomö,  'Alibi,  &c. 
Also  final  e  is  long  in  a  few  words:  A'thene,  Fak'simile,  'Lethe,  &c.,  unaccented  final  vowels  in  the  first  component 
of  foreign  compounds,  however,  are  half-long  before  a  stressed  syllable:  Telegraph  (te-le-'gRa:f ),  Periskop  (pe-Ri-'sko:p). 
Elsewhere  unaccented  a,  ä,  e,  i,  o,  Ö,  u,  ü,  which  stand  in  an  open  syllable  before  a  vowel,  a  single  consonant,  or  the 
following  combinations  of  consonants,  ti  (tsi).  z  (ts),  qu  (kv),  or  a  stop  (p,  t,  k,  b,  d,  g)  +  r  or  1,  vary  from  half  long 
to  short.  They  are,  however,  unlike  the  usual  short  vowels  in  quality,  but  in  this  respect  are  all,  except  ä,  narrow 
(see  3.  1.  c),  i.  e.  are  exactly  like  the  usual  long  narrow  vowels  a:,  e:,  i:,  o:,  e:,  u:,  y:,  only  pronounced  a  little  more 
quicklv,  and  hence  to  distinguish  them  from  the  usual  short  wide  (see  3.  1.  c)  sounds  a.  e,  i,  o.  o,  u,  y  the  usual  char- 
acter for  the  long  narrow  sounds  will  hereafter  be  employed  except  that  the  lower  dot  in  the  colon,  the  mark  of  length, 
is  dropped:  a-,  e-,  i-,  o-,  e-,  u-,  y-.  Unaccented  ä  in  these  foreign  words  is  a  half-long  wide  e  indicated  by  e-.  Ex- 
amples: Patient  fpa-'tsient),  Akazie  (a-'ka;'tsi9),  Frequenz  (fBe-'kvsnts),  Mikrobe  (mi-'kRo:'b3),  Duplik  (du-'pli:k), 
Kinematograph  ('ki-ne-*ma-to-"gRa:f ).  Etymologie  ('e-ty*mo-lo-"gi:),  Eumeniden  C3eme-'ni:'d3n),  Schokolade 
CSo-ko-'lar'da),  Böotien  (be-'o:'tsian),  Mänade  (me-'na:'d9),  &c.  There  is  in  long  words  considerable  difference  in 
the  length  of  these  vowels.  Those  that  have  secondary  accent  are  longer  than  those  without  stress.  The  length 
increases  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  accent. 

On  the  other  hand,  these  unaccented  vowels  are  pronounced  wide,  i.  e.  as  short  German  vowels,  where  they  stand 
before  a  combination  of  consonants  other  than  ti  (tsi),  z  (ts),  qu  (kv).  or  a  stop  (p,  t,  k,  b,  d,  g)  -|-  r  or  1,  for  the 
svilable  is  closed  as  the  consonants  are  not  usually  carried  over  to  tlie  next  syllable:  Kultivator  (kulti-'va:*tOB), 
Hektograph  (hekto-'gra:f ),  Despot  (dEs'po:t).  historisch  (his'tofBiS),  Magistrat  (magis'tRa:t),  etc.  In  the  languages 
from  which  such  words  were  taken  the  first  syllable  is  closed  and  this  is  the  case  in  German  as  attested  by  the  wide 
quality  of  the  vowel,  altho  in  native  words  some  of  these  combinations,  as  sp,  st,  gn,  are  usually  carried  over  to  the 
next  syllable.  In  many  of  these  foreign  words  sp,  st,  gn  are  carried  over  as  in  German,  especially  before  a  stressed 
syllable,  where  in  native  words  the  tendency  is  strong,  but  in  all  these  cases  it  seems  probable  that  in  careful  speak- 
ing the  first  consonant  of  the  combination  is  divided  and  pronounced  also  with  the  preceding  syllable  in  order  to 
keep  it  closed  and  short:  Aspekt  (as-'spekt).  Estrade  (es-'stRarda).  Signal  (zig-'gna:l),  &c.  In  the  usual  rapid  flow 
of  speech,  however,  the  first  unstressed  part  of  the  divided  consonant  disappears,  so  that  the  syllable  becomes  open, 
but  the  vowel  keeps  its  original  wide  quality:  Aspekt  (a'spekt),  Estrade  (8'stBa:da),  Signal  (zi'gna:l).  Also  a 
vowel  in  an  unaccented  final  syllable  ending  in  a  consonant  is  pronounced  wide,  i.  e.  as  a  short  German  vowel,  as 
the  syllable  is  always  closed:  Botanik  (bo 'ta:'nik),  Metrum  (mei'tRüm),  &c.  Furthermore  the  unaccented  vowel 
preceding  an  accented  syllable  is  pronounced  wide,  i.  e.  as  a  short  German  vowel,  when  it  stands  before  a  double 
consonant,  but  the  syllable  is  usually  open  and  the  consonant  is  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable  as  an  undivided 
sound:  Kollege  (kD'le:'ga),  Kommode  (kD'mo:'d3),  korrekt  (ko'Bekt),  &c.  Such  words  are  compounds  and  the  first 
component  ending  as  it  does  in  a  consonant  is  in  a  slow  distinct  enunciation  a  closed  syllable  as  attested  by  the  wide 
quality  of  the  vowel,  but  in  the  usual  rapid  flow  of  speech  the  syllable  becomes  open  in  accordance  with  the  gen- 
eral German  law  of  carrying  over  the  consonant  where  the  following  syllable  is  accented. 

In  a  large  number  of  foreign  words  e  becomes  a  in  unaccented  syllables  just  as  in  native  German  words,  especially 
in  words  from  the  French  where  in  the  original  it  is  weakly  articulated:  Cholera  (koilaRa:),  Literatur  (lit3Ba-'tu:R),  Ka- 
mera   ('ka:m3Ra:),   Kamerad    (kama'Kait),   etc. 

d.  Long  vowels  become  short  in  words  which  by  reason  of  their  lack  of  logical 
importance  in  the  sentence  remain  entirely  without  accent,  but  such  vowels 
retain  the  quality  they  originally  had  as  long  vowels,  and  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  usual  short  vowels  they  are  marked  by  dropping  the  lower  dot  in  the 
colon,  the  sign  of  length:  Mir  ist,  als  ob  ich  die  (di-)  Hände  ]  Aufs  Haupt  dir 
legen  sollt'.     Ich  häb  dich  geliebet  so  (zo)  manches  Jähr. 

C.  Rules  for  Doubling  to  Show  that  the  Vowel  is  Short.  A  single  consonant  must 
be  doubled  after  a  short  vowel,  but  in  the  following  cases  variations  occur: — 


6.  2. DOUBLING   OF   CONSONANTS 17 

a.  The  final  consonant  in  the  suffixes  nis,  in,  as,  es,  is,  os,  and  us  remains 
single  when  no  inflectional  ending  follows,  but  when  an  additional  syllable  is 
added,  the  s  and  n  are  doubled:  das  Gefängnis,  but  des  Gefängnisses,  pi.  die 
Gefängnisse;  die  Königin,  pi.  die  Königinnen. 

b.  Instead  of  double  z  the  combination  tz  is  used:   die  Katze. 

c.  Instead  of  double  k  the  combination  ck  is  used;  schrecken,  but  erschrak 
with  only  one  k  as  the  vowel  is  long. 

d.  The  combinations  ng,  sch,  ch  are  never  doubled  after  a  short  vowel  like 
the  other  characters  representing  simple  consonantal  sounds.  Doubling  does 
not  take  place  here  from  an  aversion  to  heaping  up  too  many  unsightly  letters. 
Before  ng  and  sch  a  simple  vowel  is  usually  short,  as  explained  in  4.  1.  b.  Note. 
Before  ch  the  vowel  is  sometimes  short,  sometimes  long,  as  will  be  noted  below 
under  the  different  vowels.     See  also  4.  1.  6.  Note. 

e.  When  from  a  verbal  stem  containing  a  double  consonant  a  derivative 
word  is  formed  by  means  of  the  suffixes  d,  t,  or  st,  the  double  consonant  becomes 
single :  Gespinst  from  spinnen ;  Gewinst  from  gewinnen ;  Geschäft  from  schaffen ; 
kund  from  kennen;  Gestalt  from  stellen,  &c. 

/.  When  a  vowel  in  the  suffix  is  dropped,  bringing  doubled  consonants  and  a 
following  consonant  together,  one  of  the  doubled  consonants  is  dropped,  as 
there  will  still  be  two  consonants  left  to  show  that  the  preceding  vowel  is  short: 
Grumt,  Kumt,  Samt,  Taft,  «&c.,  for  Grummet,  Kummet,  Sammet,  Taffet,  &c. 
Similarly  in  compounds:    Schiffahrt,  &c.,  for  Schifffahrt,  &c. 

D.    Quantity   Unascertainable  from  Position: 

a.  Before  ss  the  vowel  is  always  short :  essen,  &c.  The  written  form  of  the  s 
sound  here  clearly  indicates  that  it  is  divided,  i.  e.  belongs  to  both  syllables. 
Of  course,  this  character  can  only  be  used  when  it  stands  between  vowels. 
Before  ß  the  vowel  is  long,  if  a  vowel  follows  ß :  äßen.  The  written  form  of  the 
s  sound  here  clearly  indicates  that  it  is  an  undivided  sound.  Double  s  is  always 
written  ß  at  the  end  of  a  word  or  before  a  consonant,  as  the  sound  here  is  un- 
divided, so  that  in  these  positions  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained: biß,  aßt,  Fluß,  Fuß.  The  quantity  can  be  ascertained  when  a  vowel 
follows  in  the  inflectional  ending:  des  Flusses,  des  Fußes;  ich  biß,  du  bissest; 
ihr  äßt,  sie  äßen. 

b.  Before  ch  the  vowel  is  sometimes  short,  sometimes  long:  brechen,  brach, 
gebröchen.     Compare  4.  \.  b.  Note. 

Pronunciation  of  the  Different  Vowels. 

5.  The  following  description  of  the  vowels  is  only  approximately  correct. 
Even  the  most  scientific  analysis  cannot  take  the  place  of  viva  voce  pronunciation 
of  sounds.  The  pronunciation  given  is  for  accented  vowels  unless  otherwise  stated. 
Wherever  comparisons  are  made  with  English  without  further  qualification  the 
pronunciation  of  the  northern  states  is  meant.  S.E.  indicates  the  Southern 
English  of  England. 

6.  1.    Classification: 

{a).  The  front  vowels,  so  called  because  in  their  formation  the  tongue  is  ad- 
vanced to  the  front  part  of  the  mouth,  are  i,  ii,  i,  u,  e,  Ö,  ä,  a,  e,  o  in  the  order  of 
the  positions  of  the  tongue,  beginning  in  the  front  of  the  mouth  and  moving 
backward. 

(b).  The  back  vowels  in  the  order  of  the  positions  of  the  tongue,  beginning 
a  little  behind  the  middle  of  the  mouth  and  moving  backward,  are  ä,  ä,  ö,  ö,  ü,  ü. 

(c).  There  is  a  vowel  in  which  neither  front  nor  back  articulation  prevails. 
This  is  the  unaccented  e  (a),  which  from  its  manner  of  articulation  is  called 
mixed  e.     See  21. 

2.  Relations  to  each  other.  The  following  diagram  will  give  a  general  idea  of 
the  relations  of  the  German  vowels  to  each  other  with  regard  to  the  point  of 
articulation  in  the  mouth. 


18 


PRONUNCIATION   OF    FRONT   VOWELS 


6.  2. 


High 

iy 

u 

c 

lY 

u 

^ 

o 

ee                3 

o 

u. 

eeso 

0  5 

a  ä 

CQ 

Low 

The  point  of  articulation  is  highest  in  i,  y,  u,  of  which  i  and  y  are  front  and 
u  is  back.  The  lowest  point  of  articulation  is  in  a,  which  is  back  but  is  near  the 
forward  articulations. 


Front  Vowels. 

The  sounds  of  the  front  vowels  follow  in  their  order: 

7.  L  (a),  i:  (i),  the  high-front-narrow  vowel  (see  Z.  I.  a  and  c),  is  pro- 
nounced like  e  in  react,  but  the  English  sound  is  shorter  as  it  is  in  an  unaccented 
syllable.  The  corresponding  long  English  sound  is  the  diphthong  li,  as  ee  in 
seed  (slid).  It  is  found  in  accented  open  syllables  and  in  closed  ones  before 
h  and  r:  Lie-be,  ihm,  mir;  also  in  other  closed  syllables  which  become  open  when 
an  inflectional  ending  follows:   Stiel,  des  Stie-les.     See  4.  2.  B.  b.  Note  (1). 

(b).  i:  is  written:  (1)  ie  (or  ieh)  in  all  German  words  except  mir,  dir,  wir, 
ihm,  ihn,  ihnen,  ihr,  ihrer,  ihrig,  Igel,  Isegrim,  Biber,  Lid,  wider,  gib,  gibst,  gibt 
(also  gib,  gibst,  gibt;  see  201./,  2nd  par.),  and  in  many  names  of  persons  ending 
in  unaccented  -in:  Balduin  (baldu-i:n),  Edwin  (8tvi:n),  Alwin,  Böcklin,  etc.; 
(2)  ie  also  in  foreign  words  that  have  become  thoroly  naturalized,  as  in  Brief, 
Para'dies,  &c.;  (3)  i  or  ie  in  accented  syllables  before  one  consonant,  or  finally 
in  many  foreign  words,  written  i  or  ie  according  as  they  were  spelled  in  the 
language  from  which  they  were  taken,  as  in  Ma'schine,  Nische  (ni:59),  Berlin, 
Ste'ttin,  Artille'rie,  &c.,  but  written  ie  uniformly  in  foreign  verbs,  as  in  stu'die- 
ren;  (4)  y  (representing  ij  =  i  in  an  older  orthography,  and  hence  different  in 
origin  and  sound  from  the  y  in  8.  L  6.  (5))  before  one  consonant  in  proper  names, 
as  Schwyz,  Sybel;  (5)  y  before  one  consonant  in  words  from  the  Greek  as  in 
Analyse,  &c.,  where,  however,  in  choice  pronunciation  y:  is  usually  heard, 
as  explained  in  8.  1.  b.  (5)  and  the  Note  thereunder,  except  in  Ysop  ('i:zDp), 
Zylinder  (tsi-'hnd9R) ;  (6)  y  final  in  other  foreign  words,  as  in  Jury,  Willy,  &c.; 
(7)  ee  in  a  few  words  from  the  English,  as  in  Spleen,  Yankee  ('jer)ki:) ;  (8)  ea  in 
English  words,  as  in  Lear. 

Note  1.  Foreign  words  in  ie  present  many  difficulties:  (1)  Words  in  -ier  fall  into  two  groups,  which  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  language  at  different  periods  and  have  developed  a  different  pronunciation.  The  older  group  is  pro- 
nounced i:R,  the  younger  group  je::  Offizier  (ofi-'tsi:R),  Rentier  fRent'je:).  No  safe  rule  can  be  given  to  distinguish 
these  groups  except  that  the  verbs  uniformly  have  the  pronunciatiiin  i:R,  as  in  stu'dieren.  Elsewhere  the  dictionary 
must  be  consulted.  (2)  Final  accented  ie  =  i:,  as  in  Ma'rie,  So'phie,  Kolo'nie,  etc.,  but  =  \:^a  in  lengthened  forms, 
as  ma-'Ri:'3ns,  ko-lo-'ni:'3n,  etc.  Also  notice  the  difference  between  the  French  Marie  (ma-'Ri:),  Sophie  (zo-'fi:)  and 
the  Latin  forms  Marie  (ma-'Ri:'a),  etc.  .\lso  under  secondary  stress  final  ie  is  pronounced  i:,  as  in  Sellerie  ('zela^Ri:), 
etc.  Final  ie  immediately  after  a  stressed  syllable  is  pronounced  la  (see  2  below,  2nd  par.):  Akazie  (a-'ka:'tsia). 
(3)_  French  ii  =  i-e:,  as  in  Karriere  (kaRi-'e:Ra),  Piece  (pi-'e:s3).  (4)  Non-final  accented  ie  elsewhere  in  nouns 
=  i-e:  or  ie:  before  one  consonant  and  i-e  or  ie  before  more  than  one:  Hygiene  (hy-gi-'e:na  or  hy-'gie:na),  but  Serviette 
(zeRvi-'eta  or  zeR'vieta).     (5)     ie  =  i-e-  in  unstressed  non-final  syllables:     Hiero'glyphen,  Piedestal  (pi-e-de-'sta:l). 

Note  2.  In  German  words  ie  was  originally  a  diphthong,  and  hence  both  vowels  were  pronounced.  Later  ie  became 
merely  longi,  the  e  serving  as  a  sign  of  the  length  of  the  preceding  vowel,  and  words  which  originally  had  no  e  after 
the  i  took  it  to  show  that  the  i  was  long.  For  example  see  4.  2.  B.  b.  Note  (1).  In  the  S.G.  dialects  ie  is  still  pro- 
nounced as  a  diphthong  in  words  tliat  had  it  originally. 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables  i  (also  y)  before  a  consonant  has 
the  same  sound,  only  pronounced  a  little  more  quickly  and  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  i  in  closed  syllables  described  in  9.  (a):  Militär  (mi-li-'t8:R). 
See  4.  2.  B.  c.  Note. 

Unaccented  i  followed  by  a  vowel  usually  becomes  unsyllabic,  i.  e,  does  not 
form  a  syllable.  This  i,  here  indicated  by  i,  forms  a  diphthong  with  a  following 
unaccented  vowel,  as  also  American  i  in  familiar  (fa'milior,  but  in  S.E.  fa'milja): 
Akazie  (a'ka:Hsi9),  Lilie   ('li:Mia),  Fuchsie   ('fuksia),  mordio  (moRdio:),  &c.     It 


10.  6. PRONUNCIATION   OF   FRONT   VOWELS 19 

also  forms  a  diphthong  with  a  following  accented  vowel,  as  American  i  in  refuse 
(n'fiuuz,  but  in  S.E.  n'fju:z):  Relief  (Re-'lief),  Promotion  (pRo-mo-'tsio:n), 
Addition  (adi-'tsio:n),  Milieu  (mi-'lie:).  In  consonantal  combinations  difficult 
to  unite  with  i,  namely  a  stop  (p,  t,  k,  b,  d,  g)  +  r  or  1,  the  i  becomes  syllabic,  i.  e. 
forms  an  independent  syllable:  Allotria  (a'lorHni-a:),  Kabrio'lett,  Kambrien, 
Anglia,  &c.  The  stage  prescribes  syllabic  i  in  all  these  cases:  a'ka:Hsi-9,  &c., 
but  1  for  g  in  'ge,  as_in  ew'ge  ('e:Vi9),  freud'ge  ('froe'dlg),  &c. 

8.  1.  (a),  y:  (ii),  the  high-front-narrow-round  vowel,  does  not  exist  in 
English  speech.  It  is  formed  by  placing  the  tongue  into  the  position  for  i:  (or, 
more  accurately,  by  drawing  in  and  lowering  the  front  part  slightly  more  than 
in  the  position  for  i:,  at  the  same  time  hollowing  it,  thus  enlarging  the  resonance- 
chamber  back  of  the  teeth),  and  then  pronouncing  with  lips  protruded  and 
rounded  as  for  u:.  The  hollowing  of  the  front  part  of  the  tongue  seems  to 
result  from  the  natural  inclination  of  the  tongue  to  participate  in  the  rounding. 
As  the  lip-rounding  is  usually  less  energetic  than  for  u:  there  is  a  tendency 
here  to  unround.  Hence  instead  of  y:  we  often  hear  i:  in  Middle  and  South 
Germany,  and  in  parts  of  the  North,  especially  among  the  lower  classes.  See 
26.  A  (last  par.). 

(b).  This  y:  is  written:  (1)  ü  before  one  consonant,  as  in  hüten;  also  in 
Rüsche,  the  plurals  Bücher,  Flüche,  Tücher;  (2)  ü  in  certain  words  before  more 
than  one  consonant,  especially  st,  as  in  hüsteln,  düster,  wüst,^  and  usually  in 
Nüster,  Rüster,  also  in  Rübsen,  and  the  proper  names  Ülzen,  Uchtritz;  (3)  üh, 
as  in  Pfühl,  &c. ;  (4)  ui  in  a  few  proper  names,  as  Duisburg;  (5)  y  in  Greek 
words  (see  Note)  before  one  consonant,  as  in  Asyl;  (6)  u  in  open  syllables,  some- 
times followed  by  a  silent  e,  in  words  from  the  French:  Aper'fu,  Re'vue,  Tuile- 
rien  (ty-i-l9'Ri:9n). 

Note.  In  colloquial  speech  y  is  often  pronounced  i:  in  words  from  the  Greek,  but  in  choice  language  y:  is  the  usual 
pronunciation  in  most  words.     In  a  few  words  it  is  pronounced  i:  or  i-.     See  7. 1.  6.  (5). 

2.  In  unaccented  open  syllables  ü  and  y  have  this  same  sound,  only  pro- 
nounced a  little  quicker:  Bureau  (by-'Ro:,  often  written  Büro).  See  4.  2.  B.  c. 
Note. 

9.  (a).  I  (i),  the  high-front-wide  vowel,  is  pronounced  much  as  i  in  pin. 
It  is  found  only  in  closed  syllables,  as  in  mit,  Irrtum,  &c. 

{b).  It  is  written:  (1)  usually  i  before  two  or  more  consonants:  bitter; 
(2)  i  in  monosyllabic  words  which  never  form  open  syllables:  bin,  in,  &c.,  see 
4.  2.  B.  b;  (3)  i  in  suffixes,  as  ig,  nis,  in,  &c.;  (4)  i  also  in  A'prU,  Clique  (klika), 
Ka'pitel,  Zither;  (5)  ie  in  Viertel,  vierzehn,  vierzig,  often  in  kriegst,  kriegt,  kriegte, 
gekriegt  (but  only  in  the  meaning  to  get,  where  however  in  choice  language  i:  is 
preferred) ;  (6)  y  before  two  or  more  consonants  in  native  German  names,  as  in 
Hyrtl,  Kyffhäuser,  and  often  also  before  two  or  more  consonants  in  foreign 
words,  as  in  lynchen  (lineman  or  lint^an)  of  English  origin  and  in  some  words 
from  the  Greek,  as  Myrte,  Ä'gypten,  but  in  other  Greek  words  the  usual  pro- 
nunciation is  Y.     See  10.  &.  (3). 

10.  (a).  Y  (Ü),  the  high-front-wide-round  vowel,  is  not  heard  in  English. 
It  is  formed  by  placing  the  tongue  into  the  position  for  i  (or,  more  accurately, 
by  drawing  in  and  lowering  the  front  part  slightly  more  than  in  the  position 
for  I,  at  the  same  time  hollowing  it,  thus  enlarging  the  resonance-chamber  back 
of  the  teeth),  and  then  pronouncing  with  lips  protruded  and  rounded  as  for  u. 
The  hollowing  of  the  front  part  of  the  tongue  seems  to  result  from  the  natural 
inclination  of  the  tongue  to  participate  in  the  rounding.  This  sound  is  found 
only  in  closed  syllables,  as  in  Hütte.  As  the  lip-rounding  is  less  energetic 
than  for  u  there  is  a  tendency  here  to  unround.  Hence  instead  of  y  we  often 
hear  i  in  Middle  and  South  Germany,  especially  among  the  lower  classes.  We 
also  hear  i  in  the  popular  German  of  the  North.     See  26.  A.  (last  par.). 

(b).  Y  is  written:  (1)  ü  before  more  than  one  consonant  or  a  double  consonant, 
as  in  Fürst,  Hütte,  &c.;  (2)  ü  also  before  ch  in  brüchig,  Küche,  Sprüche  (pi.  of 
Spruch),  and  the  proper  name  Blücher;  (3)  y  before  more  than  one  consonant 
or  before  one  consonant  in  a  final  unaccented  syllable,  in  Greek  words,  as  in 


20 PRONUNCIATION   OF   FRONT   VOWELS 10.  b. 

Ypsilon,  Si'bylle,  Mystik,  Sympa'thie,  Satyr,  &c.,  but  in  several  words  the  usual 
pronunciation  is  i.  See  9.  h.  (6);  (4)  u  in  short,  usually  closed  syllables  in 
French  words,  as  in  Surtout  (svR'tu:),  etc.;    Budget  (bY'dje:). 

11.  1.  (a),  e:  (e),  the  mid-front-narrow  vowel,  is  much  like  American  a 
in  dictate  (diktet,  but  in  S.E.  dikteit),  but  the  American  sound  is  shorter  as  it  is 
in  an  unaccented  syllable.  The  corresponding  long  American  sound  is  the 
diphthong  ee  (S.E.  ei),  as  a  in  late  (leet,  S.E.  leit). 

(Ö).  e:  is  written:  (1)  e  before  a  vowel  or  single  consonant,  also  in  some 
foreign  words  when  final:  Theodor,  Rede,  Fak'simile;  (2)  e  also  before  more 
than  one  consonant  in  certain  word^.  before  rd  in  Be'schwerde,  Erde,  Herd, 
Herde,  Pferd,  werden,  and  in  proper  names,  as  in  Verden,  Werdau,  Werden, 
but  Herder,  Werder,  Wer'dohl;  before  rt(h)  in  Schwert,  Wert,  and  in  proper 
names,  as  in  Kaiserswerth,  but  'Herta;  also  in  beredt  (b9'Re:t),  Brezel  (also 
Prezel),  erst,  Erz,  Kebsweib,  and  Krebs  (4.  1.  b.  Note),  nebst,  stets,  and  in  the 
proper  names  Dresden  (but  Breslau),  Estland,  Esten,  estnisch,  Mecklenburg, 
Quedlinburg  (kve:dli:nbuRk),  Schleswig,  Schwedt,  Schwetz  (but  Schwetzin- 
gen), Teplitz  (on  the  stage,  but  in  the  city  itself  Teplitz),  Trebnitz  (tRe:pnits), 
Gerhard  (but  Gebhard,  Gertrud),  Hedwig;  (3)  ee,  as  in  Beet,  Beere,  &c.; 
(4)  eh,  as  in  Reh,  Fehde,  &c.;  (5)  ei  in  Jockei;  see  35.  5.  (4);  (6)  e  in  French 
words,  as  in  Cafe;  (7)  hee  in  Thee,  now  better  written  Tee;  (8)  er  in  some 
French  words,  as  Bankier  (bag'kie:);    (9)  ai  in  English  Plaid  (ple:t). 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables,  e  has  the  same  sound,  only  pro- 
nounced a  little  quicker:    Sekretär  (ze-kRe-'t8:R). 

12.  1.  (a),  e:  (o),  the  mid-front-narrow-round  vowel,  is  not  found  in 
English  speech.  It  is  formed  by  placing  the  tongue  into  the  position  for  e:  (or, 
more  accurately,  by  drawing  in  and  lowering  the  front  part  slightly  more  than 
in  the  position  for  e:,  at  the  same  time  hollowing  it,  thus  enlarging  the  resonance- 
chamber  back  of  the  teeth),  and  then  pronouncing  with  lips  protruded  and 
rounded  as  for  or.  The  hollowing  of  the  front  part  of  the  tongue  seems  to  result 
from  the  natural  inclination  of  the  tongue  to  participate  in  the  rounding. 
The  lip  aperture  is  larger  than  in  y:.  It  is  usually  found  in  accented  open 
syllables:  Höh-le,  Tö-ne.  In  an  unaccented  syllable  in  Bischöfe,  bischöflich. 
Herzöge.  As  the  lip-rounding  is  less  energetic  than  for  o:  there  is  a  tendency 
here  to  unround.  Hence  instead  of  e:  we  often  hear  e:  in  Middle  and  South 
Germany  and  in  parts  of  the  North,  especially  among  the  lower  classes.  See 
26.  A  (last  par.). 

(b).  e:  is  written:  (1)  ö  when  final,  or  before  a  vowel  or  a  single  conso- 
nant, as  in  Bö,  Diarrhöe  (di-a'Ro:),  Epo'pöe,  tönen;  Böschung,  Flöz,  Höschen, 
Flöße  (sing.  Flöß) ;  (2)  ö  also  before  more  than  one  consonant  in  höchst,  Gehöft, 
Vögte  (sing.  Vogt),  Behörde,  Börde,  Börse,  rösten,  trösten,  tröstlich,  and  the 
proper  names  Mors,  Österreich,  Worth,  Lötzen,  and  those  in  -forde,  -vörde; 
(3)  öh,  as  in  Höhle,  Höhe,  &c.;  (4)  oey  in  the  bathing  resort  Oeynhausen  and  oi 
in  the  city  Loitz;  (5)  eu  in  words  from  the  French  when  final  or  before  one 
consonant,  as  in  adieu  (a'die:)).  Queue  (ke:).  Messieurs  (me'sie:),  Ingenieur 
(in3e-'nie:R);  (6)  oeu  in  French  words  when  final  or  before  one  consonant,  as 
in  Cceur,  &c. 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables  ö  has  the  same  sound,  only  pro- 
nounced a  little  quicker:   Böotien  (be-'o:^tsi9n).     See  4.  2.  B.  c.  Note. 

13.  1.  {a),  e:  (a),  a  prolonged  8  (see  14.  a).  It  sounds  very  much  like 
American  ea  in  pear  (p8:r,  but  in  S.E.  pea).  Instead  of  8:  we  often  hear  e:,  as 
there  is  a  tendency  in  North  German  to  make  long  sounds  narrow  and  short 
ones  wide.  See  3.  1.  c.  In  choice  language,  however,  North  Germans  endeavor 
to  pronounce  a  as  e:  and  e  as  e:  in  order  to  conform  the  pronunciation  to  the 
printed  characters.  This  is  also  the  pronunciation  required  by  the  stage. 
South  Germans  pronounce  a  and  e  in  accordance  with  their  historical  values, 
which  are  not  indicated _by  the  printed  form.  Thus  in  S.G.  e  is  often  wide,  as  in 
geben  (geiban),  while  ä  is  often  narrow,  as  in  zählen  (tseclan).    The  intricate 


16.  l.b. PRONUNCIATION   OF   BACK   VOWELS 21 

S.G.  pronunciation,  which  often  differs  in  different  parts  of  the  South,  is  not 
discussed  here. 

{b).  e:  is  written:  (1)  ä  when  final,  or  before  a  vowel  or  a  single  consonant, 
as  in  Pylä,  säen,  wäre;  also  before  ch  in  bräche  (past  subj.),  spräche  (past 
subj.),  Gemächer,  Gespräch;  in  gemäß;  before  dt  in  the  plural  Städte  (also 
5t8t3) ;  (2)  ä  also  before  more  than  one  consonant  in  certain  words:  before 
tsch  in  grätschen,  hätscheln,  Kar'dätsche,  Kar'tätsche,  tätscheln;  before  rt  in 
Barte,  zärtlich,  verzärteln;  in  Gebärde,  Gemälde,  Rätsel,  nämlich;  before 
chst  in  nächst;  before  tz  (ts)  in  proper  names,  as  in  Königgrätz;  frequently  in 
Latin  and  Greek  words,  as  in  Äschylus,  He'phästus,  &c.;  (3)  äh,  as  in  mähen, 
&c.;  (4)  ai  in  French  words  in  open  syllables,  as  in  Palais  (pa'le:).  Affaire 
(a'f8:^R9)  or  better  Affäre;  (5)  e  before  r  (not  silent  r,  but  only  when  pronounced) 
in  French  words,  as  in  Dessert  (de'se:R),  also  elsewhere  in  certain  French  words 
as  Enquete  (ä-'k8:'t3),  Tete  (te:'t9). 

2.  äor  ai  in  unaccented,  open  syllables  has  the  same  sound,  but  is  pronounced 
a  little  quicker:  plädieren  or  plaidieren  (pl8-'di:R9n),  Renaissance  (r9n8-'sä:s), 
&c.     See  4.  2.  B.  c.  Note. 

14.  (a).  8  (e  or  a),  the  short  mid-front-wide  vowel,  is  the  same  sound  as 
American  e  in  let  (let),  but  is  wider  than  S.E.  e  in  let  (let).  This  sound  is  found 
(1)  In  accented  closed  syllables:  fett,  Hände,  Hermann,  Herzog,  Stephan 
(st8fan),Chef  (Sef),  Billett  (bd'J8t),  Ho'tel  (4.  1.  b);  (2)  In  unaccented  closed 
syllables  in  a  few  groups  of  words:  ver-  (4.  2.  B.  c),  der  (4.  2.  B.  b) ;  in  the  final 
syllable  of  proper  names,  as  in  Robert,  Hubert,  Wilhelm,  &c.;  in  the  final  syl- 
lable of  foreign  names,  as  in  Sokrates,  Elisabeth  (e-'li:za-b8t) ;  in  Elen,  Elend, 
elend;    (3)  In  unaccented  open  syllables  in  he'rab,  he'runter,  he'raus,  &c. 

(Ö).  8  is  written:  e,  as  in  Netz;  ä,  as  in  hämmern,  gemächlich;  in  the  North 
ai  in  some  French  words,  as  in  Terrain  (te'Rcr)),  but  in  the  South  and  on  the 
stage  ain  is  pronounced  e:  (te'Re:). 

15.  (a).  Q  (o),  the  mid-front-wide-round  vowel,  is  the  rounded  form  of  8, 
produced  by  placing  the  tongue  in  the  position  for  8,  (or,  more  accurately,  by 
drawing  in  and  lowering  the  front  part  slightly  more  than  in  the  position  for  8, 
at  the  same  time  hollowing  it,  thus  enlarging  the  resonance-chamber  back  of  the 
teeth),  and  then  pronouncing  with  lips  protruded  and  rounded  as  for  o.  The 
hollowing  of  the  front  part  of  the  tongue  seems  to  result  from  the  natural  in- 
clination of  the  tongue  to  participate  in  the  rounding.  The  lip  aperture 
is  larger  than  for  y.  As  the  lip-rounding  is  usually  less  energetic  than  for  o 
there  is  a  tendency  here  to  unround.  Hence  instead  of  q  we  often  hear  8  in 
Middle  and  South  Germany  and  in  parts  of  the  North,  especially  among  the 
lower  classes.     See  26.  A.  (last  par.). 

(&).  8  is  written:  (1)  ö  in  German  words  before  a  double  consonant,  or  two 
or  more  consonants,  as  in  Hölle,  Hölzer;  (2)  eu  in  French  words  before  the 
combination  ill  or  il:  Feuilleton  (f8J9't3:),  Fauteuil  (fo-'toi). 

Back  Vowels. 

16.  1.  (a),  a:  (ä),  the  long  low-back-narrow  vowel,  is  pronounced  as  a  in 
father,  which,  however,  must  not  be  rounded  (see  3.  1.  b.)  as  is  often  heard  in 
different  German  dialects  and  in  the  pronunciation  of  sections  of  our  own  country. 

(b).  a:  is  written:  (1)  a  when  final  (except  jn  da,  ja,  nä  in  exclamations),  or 
before  a  vowel  or  a  single  consonant,  as  in  Anna,  Baal  (ba:'al),  baden,  Wal; 
before  ch  in  brach  (adj.  and  past  tense  of  brechen).  Brache,  Ge'mach,  ge'mach 
(but  ge'machlich),  nach  (prep,  and  adv.),  Schmach,  sprach,  Sprache,  stach; 
before  seh  in  drasch  (also  dRaS);  (2)  or  before  more  than  one  consonant  in 
certain  words:  before  r  -|-  consonant  in  Art,  Arzt,  Barsch,  Bart,  Harz,  Quarz, 
Schwarte,  Start,  zart;  also  in  Ä'dler,  Magd  (4.  1.  b.  Note),  Papst  (4.  2.  A.  d. 
Note) ;  Bratsche,  Kar'bätsche,  Kladdera'dätsch,  latschen,  watscheln,  and  the 
proper  names  Glatz,  der  Harz;  (3)  aa,  as  in  Aal;  (4)  ah,  as  in  Ahle;  (5)  m 
French  words  accented   i    (except  when  final  sound)   after  o,  as  in  Boudoir 


22 PRONUNCIATION   OF   BACK   \QWELS 16.  1.  b. 

(bu:do-'a:R)  and  unaccented  i  or  y  after  o  in  half-long  syllables,  as  in  Toilette 
(to-a-'leta),  oktroyieren  (oktiio-a-'jirRan) ;  notice  that  j  is  inserted  between  a- 
and  a  following  vowel;  (6)  aw  in  the  English  word  Shawl  (Sa:l),  better  Schal; 
(7)  ae  in  Dutch  proper  names,  as  in  Laeken. 

2.  (a),  a  (ä),  the  short-low-back-wide  vowel,  is  pratically  the  same  sound 
as  long  a,  only  shorter  and  a  trifle  wider.  It  is  heard  in  accented  closed  syl- 
lables: alt,  Ball,  barsch,  Garten,  hart,  hast,  Karte,  Klatsch,  Marschall,  Marter, 
platschen,  schwarz,  Tartsche,  wahrlich  (but  währ),  warten,  often  in  closed  syl- 
lables before  one  consonantal  sound:  ab,  an,  das,  hat,  man,  was  (4.  2.  B.  h), 
ach,  Amsterdam,  As,  Bamberg,  Claque  (klaka),  Damhirsch,  Fi'aker  (4.  1.  b), 
Gala  (gala:).  Grammatik  (gRa'matik),  Hamburg,  Kap,  Paletot  (pabto:),  Tram, 
Walfisch,  Walnuß,  Walroß;  in  unaccented  syllables:  Eidam,  Ka'none,  Pa'pä, 
Pa'pier,  Wal'küre  (on  the  stage  'Walküre),  &c.,  but  usually  'Balsam,  'Sultan. 

{b).  It  is  always  written  a  except  as  the  second  element  of  the  diphthong  oi 
in  some  French  words  when  it  is  the  final  sound:    Octroi  (oktRo'a). 

17.  {a).  D  (Ö),  the  mid-back-wide-round  vowel,  is  somewhat  like  final  o  in 
potato  or  0  in  obey  as  pronounced  in  the  northern  states,  or  the  first  element 
in  the  American  diphthong  o  found  in  note  (noot,  but  in  S.E.  pronounced  nout). 
It  sounds  somewhat  like  S.E.  o  in  rob  but  is  not  so  wide  and  low.  The  short  o 
heard  in  New  England  in  such  words  as  'coat,'  'road,'  &c.,  is  also  very  near  the 
German  sound.  The  German  o  must  not  be  pronounced  as  o  in  American  not, 
which  is  a  low  and  very  wide  vowel,  and  hence  has  a  lower  position  of  the 
tongue  than  the  German  vowel.  Moreover,  in  American  English  the  o  in  not  is 
over  a  wide  area  spoken  without  rounding  of  the  lips.  Be  careful  to  give  short 
German  o  its  full  sound  in  final  unaccented  syllables,  and  not  to  slur  it  as  in 
unaccented  syllables  in  English  in  such  words  as  cannon. 

(&).  It  is  written:  (1)  o  before  a  double  consonant,  or  two  or  more  conso- 
nants, as  in  Groll,  Sorte;  (2)  o  before  a  single  consonant  in  Brombeere,  Don, 
grob  (in  uninfl.  form;  see  4.  2.  A.  c).  Grog,  Hochzeit,  Jot,  Log,  Lorbeer,  Monsieur 
(mo'sie:).  Mob,  von,  Vorteil,  in  final  unaccented  syllables,  as  in  'Doktor  (but  in 
plural  Dok'tören),  Bischof  (bi^of  or  bi5o:f,  pi.  always  biSe:f9),  &c.;  (3)  e  or  ä 
in  the  diphthong  eu  or  äu,  as  in  heute  (hoeta).  Bäume  (boema). 

18.  1.  (a),  o:  (ö),  the  mid-back-narrow-round  vowel,  is  like  the  American  o 
in  poetic  (po'etik,  but  in  S.E.  pronounced  pou'etik),  but  the  American  sound 
is  short  as  it  is  in  an  unaccented  syllable.  It  is  also  like  the  second  element  in 
the  American  diphthong  o  or  the  first  element  in  the  S.E.  diphthong  o  in  note 
(noot,  in  S.E.  nout).  In  German  the  tongue  is  somewhat  further  back  and 
higher  and  the  lips  are  much  more  rounded. 

(&).  It  is  written:  (1)  o  when  final  or  before  a  single  consonant,  as  in  so, 
Noah,  Rose;  o  before  ch  in  hoch,  but  short  in  Hochzeit;  long  in  open  syllables  in 
O^bacht,  be'o^bachten,  but  short  in  closed  syllables  in  Ob^dach,  ob^siegen,  &c. 
(2)  also  o  before  more  than  one  consonant  in  certain  words:  before  st  in  Klo- 
^ster,  Gestern,  Trost,  and  the  name  Jost,  but  short  in  closed  syllables  in  Osten, 
Posten,  &c.;  before  bst,  pst  in  Obst  (4.  1.  b.  Note),  Propst  (4.  2.  A.  d.  Note), 
also  in  Lotse,  Mond,  Vogt  (see  4.  1.  &.  Note),  O^brigkeit,  and  the  proper  name 
Thorn;  before  rt  (silent  t)  in  words  from  the  French,  as  in  Fort,  Re'ssort;  in 
Koks;  (3)  00,  as  in  Boot,  &c.;  (4)  oh,  as  in  roh;  (5)  oe,  in  Low  German  names, 
as  Soest;  (6)  also  as  oi  in  Low  German  names,  as  Troisdorf,  &c.,  except  Boitzen- 
burg, where  oi  is  pronounced  as  oe;  (7)  ow  in  many  Low  German  (for  the  most 
part  originally  Slavic)  proper  names  and  some  English  nouns:  Bredow  (name), 
Treptow  (city),  Bowie;  (8)  au  in  French  words,  as  in  Sauce  (zo.-'sa);  (9)  eau  in 
French  words,  as  in  Pla'teau;   (10)  oa  in  English  words,  as  in  Toast. 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables  it  has  the  same  sound,  only  pro- 
nounced a  little  quicker.     See  4.  2.  B.  c.  Note. 

19.  (a),  u  (u),  the  high-back-wide-round  vowel,  is  like  u  in  put,  but  in  Ger- 
man u  the  lips  are  more  rounded.    It  is  only  found  in  closed  syllables:  bunt,  Kunst. 

(b).  It  is  written:  (1)  u  before  a  double  consonant,  or  two  or  more  conso- 
nants, as  in  Mutter,  Gruft;    (2)  also  u  before  one  consonant  in  Luther  (but  u- 


23.3. PRONUNCIATION   OF   DIPHTHONGS 23 

in  lu'therisch),  Ulrich  (name),  Huß  (name),  Rußland,  bugsieren,  (buk'sicRan), 
um,  zum,  zur  (4.  2.  B.  b),  Urteil  (but  u:  in  other  words  with  Ur-,  as  Ursache, 
&c.),  Jus,  ka'put,  Klub,  plus,  Rum,  and  in  Latin  suffixes,  as  in  Metrum, 
Fiskus;  (3)  ou  in  French  words  in  closed  syllables,  as  in  Ressource  (Re'suRsa). 

20.  1.  (a),  u:  (ü),  the  high-back-narrow-round  vowel,  is  much  as  o  in  who 
when  unstressed.  It  is  the  second  element  in  the  American  diphthong  oe  in 
shoe  (Suu).  In  S.E.  oe  in  shoe  is  usually  a  long  u  as  in  German.  In  German 
the  sound  is  made  slightly  further  back. 

(&).  u:  is  written:  (1)  u  when  final,  or  before  a  single  vowel  or  consonant, 
as  in  du.  Duo  (du:^o  but  pronounced  u  in  hui  hui,  pfui  pfui;  see  23.  4),  Bude, 
Ur-  (as  in  Urlaub,  &c.,  but  pronounced  ur  in  Urteil),  Ludwig,  also  in  a 
final  closed  syllable  in  Beelzebub  (be-'eltsaburp  or  more  commonly  'belts9bu:p, 
also  written  Belzebub);  (2)  u  in  the  suffixes  tum  and  ut,  as  in  Reichtum, 
Armut;  (3)  u  before  ch  in  Bruch  {bog,  but  short  in  Bruch  break,  fracture). 
Buch,  Buche,  Fluch,  Kuchen,  suchen,  Tuch,  Wucher,  juchzen,  ruchbar,  ruchlos, 
verrucht;  (4)  u  before  a  combination  of  consonants  in  Wuchs,  wuchs,  husten, 
pusten,  Schuster,  Wust,  Ge'burt  (but  ü  in  ge'bürtig),  flugs,  duzen  (du:ts9n), 
Uz  (u:ts),  uzen  (u:^ts3n),  and  the  proper  name  GüMrün;  (5)  uh,  as  in  Kuh, 
&c.;  (6)  ue  in  the  name  Kotzebue;  (7)  ou  before  a  single  consonant  or  when 
final  in  French  words,  as  in  Tour,  Rendezvous  (Rä-de-'vu:) ;  (8)  oe  in  Dutch 
words,  as  in  Boer  (more  commonly  written  Bur),  &c. 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables,  u  has  the  same  sound,  only  pro- 
nounced a  little  more  quickly:  Mulatte  (mu-'lata).  See  4.  2.  B.  c.  Note.  When 
preceded  by  g  and  followed  by  a  stressed  vowel  unaccented  u  forms  with  the 
vowel  a  rising  (22)  diphthong  in  a  few  foreign  words;  Linguist  (lig'güist),  Pinguin 
(pir)'güi:n),   sanguinisch   (zar)'güi:ni5). 

The  Mixed  Vowel  e  (a). 

21.  3  (unaccented  e),  the  mid-mixed-wide  vowel,  is  a  sound  somewhat  like 
the  a  in  sofa,  but  it  is  a  little  higher.  It  is  only  found  in  unaccented  syllables, 
as  in  'lieben,  'gebe,  'Spindel,  ge'liebt,  be'liebt;  in  the  proclitics  (see  57.  C) 
der,  des,  dem,  den,  &c.  In  the  final  unaccented  syllables  el,  em,  en,  er, 
the  e  often  naturally  drops  out  in  ordinary  language:  rittn  for  ritten,  &c.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  dignified  or  solemn  language  it  approaches  the  sound  of  e 
in  open  and  8  in  closed  syllables:  Liebe  (li:be),  lieben  (li:b8n).  In  singing  it 
resembles  9,  conforming  however  more  or  less  to  the  preceding  vowel.  In 
S.G.  e  is  widely  used  instead  of  3  also  in  common  speech,  in  some  sections  finally 
or  before  a  consonant,  in  other  sections  only  finally.  In  the  emphatic  language 
of  a  contrast  9  quite  generally  becomes  e  in  open  and  8  in  closed  syllables:  nicht 
verkauft  (fsRkaoft),  sondern  gekauft  (ge:kaoft). 

Diphthongs. 

22.  Diphthongs  are  divided  into  falling  and  rising.  In  the  former  class 
there  is  a  decline  of  sonority  in  the  second  element.  In  the  latter  class  there 
is  an  increase  of  sonority  in  the  second  vowel. 

23.  The  falling  diphthongs  are:  ei,  au,  eu  or  äu,  ui. 

1.  ei  is  pronounced  much  as  i  in  wife,  or  more  accurately  ae,  also  ai.  The 
German  sound  is  nearer  i  in  wife  than  the  i  in  mine.  It  is  written:  (1)  ei,  as 
in  Ei,  Stein;  (2)  ai,  as  in  Mai;  (3)  ey  in  proper  names,  as  in  Meyer;  (4)  ay  in 
proper  names,  as  in  Bayern;    (5)  y  in  Dutch  names,  as  in  Yssel. 

Note.   In  a  few  foreign  words  ai  represents  two  vowels  each  forming  a  syllable:  Mosa'ik,  mo'sa^isch,  Kain  (ka:'in) ,  &c. 

2.  au  is  pronounced  much  as  ou  in  loud  (laud),  or  more  accurately  ao,  also  au. 
It  is  always  written  au. 

Note.     In  some  foreign  words  au  represents  two  vowels  each  forming  a  syllable:    Ka'pernaum,  Mene'läus,  &c. 

3.  eu  is  pronounced  much  as  oy  In  boy,  or  more  accurately  oe,  also  oy  and  oi. 
The  diphthong  oe  is  written:    (1)  eu,  as  in  Heu,  Zeus,  Theseus,  but  for  excep- 


24 NASAL   VOWELS  —  MUTATION 23.3. 

tions  see  Note  2  below;  (2)  äu,  as  in  gläubig,  but  see  Note  3  for  exceptions; 
(3)  oi  in  a  few  Low  German  words,  as  Boi,  a'hoi,  Boitzenburg,  &c.,  and  the 
foreign  word  Lev'koie  (lef'koea  or  Levkoje  (lef'korja);  (4)  oy  in  Low  German 
names  and  a  few  foreign  words,  as  Hoyers'werda,  Mis'droy;  Troygewicht,  Sa- 
'voyen;  (5)  ieu  in  Lieutenant  (betnant),  better  Leutnant;  (6)  ui  in  Dutch 
words,  as  in  Zuidersee. 

Note  1.     Eu  and  äu  are  pronounced  ae  in  S.G.  and  M.G.  dialects.     See  25  A  Hast  par. ). 

Note  2.     In  some  words  eu  represents  two  vowels  each  forming  a  syllable:   Te'deum,  Bakka'laureus,  &c. 

Note  3.     In  some  foreign  words  äu  represents  two  vowels  eacii  forming  a  syllable:    Jubi'läum,  Mat'thäus,  &c. 

4.  ui  is  pronounced  ui.  The  second  element  is  almost  as  sonorous  as  the 
first.     It  only  occurs  in  the  exclamations  hui  and  pfui. 

24.  The  rising  diphthongs  are  19,  b,  lu,  ia:,  io:;  'la:,  'ie,  'le:, 'lo:,  le:;  'ui:,  'üi. 
For  examples  see  7.  2  (2nd  par.)  and  20.  2. 

Nasal  Vowels. 

25.  In  many  of  the  later  loan-words  from  the  French,  nasal  vowels,  which 
are  indicated  by  a  following  m  or  n,  are  pronounced  as  in  the  original  with  the 
modification  that  in  German  the  sound  is  always  long  as  it  stands  in  an  open 
syllable,  i.e.  am,  an,  em,  en  =  ä:  (nasal  a);  ain,  ein,  im,  in  =  e:;  cm  and 
on  =  5:;  um  and  un  =  ö:,  when  the  m  or  n  is  not  doubled  or  followed  by  a 
vowel:  Chance  ($ä:^s3),  Entree  (ä-'tRc:),  Bassin  (ba'se:).  Ballon  (ba'lo:), 
Verdun  (veR'dö:).  This  pronunciation  prevails  on  the  stage,  in  the  South,  and 
in  parts  of  the  Midland.  In  the  North  ä:,  e:,  5:,  ö:  are  quite  generally  replaced 
by  the  nearest  native  sounds,  ar),  eg,  or),  eg,  i.  e.  a,  e,  d,  8,  followed  by  r)  (see 
36.  b) :  Chance,  Entree,  Bassin,  Ballon,  Verdun,  pronounce  'Sagsa,  ag'tRe:, 
ba'serj,  ba'br),  veR'der).  The  vowel  is  always  short  as  it  stands  in  a  closed 
syllable.  In  a  few  thoroly  naturalized  words  these  endings  are  pronounced  as 
in  German:  Bataillon  (batal'jo:n),  Balkon  (bal'kS:  or  bal'ko:n),  Garnison 
(gaRni-'zo:n),  Ballon  (now  often  ba'lo:n  instead  of  ba'lo:),  &c. 

Mutation  (Umlaut)  of  Vowels. 

26.  A.  Mutation  of  the  Back  Vowels.  The  vowels  a,  o,  u,  and  the  diphthong  au,  are  modi- 
fied or  mutated,  as  it  may  be  called,  when  an  i  or  j  follows  in  the  next  syllable,  or  in  the  second 
succeeding  syllable:  Stunde,  stündlich;  Mutter,  mütterlich;  Raum,  räumlich.  The  cause  of  mu- 
tation, which  in  German  began  to  develop  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  cannot  usually 
be  seen  in  the  present  period  of  the  language,  as  the  i  or  j  which  formerly  stood  in  the  following 
syllable  has  disappeared  or  decayed  to  the  form  of  e:  Gäste  (pi.  of  Gast),  but  O.H.G.  gesti; 
nähren,  but  O.H.G.  nerian.  This  is  not  specifically  a  German  development  but  is  found  in 
all  Germanic  languages  except  those  which  like  Gothic  disappeared  at  an  early  period.  The 
mutation  of  a  was  in  earlier  times  written  e,  which  is  in  part  still  preserved:  brennen,  brannte, 
&c.  The  mutated  vowels  have  in  different  periods  been  designated  in  different  ways.  In  earlier 
N.H.G.  it  was  common  to  write  an  e  over  or  alongside  of  the  vowels,  but  at  present  the  usual 
sign  of  mutation  is  two  dots  above  the  vowels,  which  are  the  remnants  of  the  e  of  former  times. 
Older  usage_ survives  in  a  few  names:  Goethe,  &c.  Also  sometimes  after  capitals:  Ae,  Oe,  Ue, 
usually  Ä,  O,  Ü.  In  recent  periodicals  and  books  we  sometimes  find  e  written  above  the  vowel 
as  formerly,  especially  in  poems  and  books  of  a  poetic  character  and  in  reprints  of  older  works 
where  archaic  tendencies  are  natural,  sometimes  however  in  advertisements  merely  to  attract 
attention. 

The  pronunciation  of  these  mutated  sounds  has  been  treated  above.  When  the  i  or  j,  which 
are  pronounced  in  the  front  part  of  the  mouth,  followed  the  back  vowels  a,  o,  u,  and  the  diph- 
thong au,  the  result  was  that  the  back  sounds  were  modified,  i.  e.  in  part  assimilated  to  frontal 
i  or  j,  the  tongue  shifting  more  to  the  front  in  unconscious  anticipation  of  the  following  i  or  j. 

Physiological  (see  Note)  mutation  is  oldest  and  most  wide-spread  in  the  North.  It  is  most 
recent  and  least  used  in  the  South.  It  is  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  literary  language,  which 
was  largely  formed  in  the  mutating  territory  of  the  Midland.  In  S.G.  the  mutation  of  u  did  not 
take  place  before  1,  m,  n,  r  +  another  consonant,  or  before  ck,  pf,  tz.  Moreover,  au  was  not 
mutated  in  S.G.  before  a  labial  and  a  was  not  uniformly  mutated  before  1  or  r  +  another  conso- 
nant. S.G.  forms  have  become  established  in  a  number  of  cases  in  the  literary  language:  geduldig 
and  schuldig  (in  contrast  to  Luther's  gedültig  and  schuldig),  Innsbruck  (the  Austrian  city,  in 
contrast  to  the  N.G.  Osnabrück),  nutzen  or  nützen  (originally  M.G.),  glauben  (in  contrast  to 
Luther's  glauben),  gewaltig  (in  Luther's  earlier  writings  also  geweltig),  &c.  Other  S.G.  forms 
occur  occasionally  in  the  literary  language,  or  were  formerly  used:  hupfen  (Goethe's  Faust, 
1.  4337,  now  hüpfen),  Zahnluck  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Drittes  Stück,  here  for  the  sake  of  the 


27.2. MUTATION  — QUANTITY    IN    CONSONANTS 25 

meter,  usually  Zahnlücke),  &c.  Sometimes  both  the  mutated  M.G.  and  the  unmutated  S.G. 
forms  have  survived  as  they  have  become  differentiated  in  meaning:  drücken  to  press  and  drucken 
to  print,  zücken  (das  Schwert)  to  draw  {the  sword)  and  zucken  to  twitch,  wince. 

For  centuries  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  unround  here,  i.  e.  not  to  round  or  protrude  the 
lips,  so  that,  as  is  described  more  accurately  under  the  separate  vowels,  ö  becomes  e,  ü  becomes  i, 
eu  becomes  ei.  As  can  be  seen  by  the  rimes  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  können:  verbrennen,  müde: 
Friede,  bereuen:  befreien,  unrounding  was  in  the  classical  period  the  rule  even  in  the  literary 
language.  Later  the  N.G.  rounded  sounds,  ö,  ü,  eu  replaced  here  unrounded  e,  i,  ei  in  the 
literary  language.  Except  in  the  North,  in  East  Franconian,  and  in  the  larger  part  of  Switzerland 
unrounded  sounds  still  prevail  here  in  dialect. 

Note.  Mutation  is  still  an  active  force,  but  its  spread  is  brought  about  by  quite  a  different  cause.  The  cause  of 
mutation  in  former  times  was  the  pliysiological  forces  mentioned  above,  the  present  cause  of  mutation  is  the  psycho- 
logical one  of  analogy.  Thus  certain  grammatical  groups  which  from  physiological  reasons  suffered  mutation  in 
former  periods  have  so  influenced  other  groups  that  they  too  have  assumed  mutated  form.  For  an  example  of  mu- 
tation by  analogy  see  72.  a. 

B.  A-Mutation.  This  is  also  a  change  of  sound  in  the  stem  under  the  influence  of  the  fol- 
lowing vowel,  resulting  in  a  partial  assimilation  of  the  stem  vowel  to  the  vowel  in  the  following 
syllable.  In  West  Germanic,  i.  e.  the  German  period  before  separation  into  High  German  and 
Low  German,  ■/'  and  u  developed  into  e  and  o  when  an  a,  e,  or  o  followed  in  the  next  syllable. 
This  change  of  vowel  is  called  a-mutation  from  the  frequency  of  the  mutation  under  the  influence 
of  a  following  a.  Illustrative  examples  are  given  in  198,  L  Division,  d;  2.  Division,  d\  199,  1. 
Division,  d;  201.  e.  The  change  of  i  to  e  in  both  English  and  German  took  place  in  only  com- 
paratively few  cases  and  quite  irregularly,  so  that  the  vowels  do  not  correspond  in  the  two  lan- 
guages: Leber  (O.H.G.  lebara,  with  a-mutation),  Eng.  liver  (without  a-mutation).  The  u 
mutated  to  o  here  quite  regularly  except  before  a  nasal  +  consonant,  or  before  i(j).  Thus  the  perf. 
participle  geholfen  (O.H.G.  giholfan)  has  the  mutated  0,  while  in  gebunden,  perf.  participle  of 
binden,  a  word  belonging  to  the  same  gradation  class,  the  mutation  did  not  take  place,  as  it 
was  hindered  by  the  nd  following  the  vowel  of  the  stem.  Thus  also  Huld,  but  hold  (original 
stem  holda);  Fülle  (O.H.G.  fulli),  füllen  (Gothic  fulljan),  but  voll  (original  stem  folia).  Later 
unmutated  u  became  ü  according  to  A,  above,  when  an  i  or  j  followed,  as  in  the  examples  Fülle 
and  füllen. 

C.  Mutation  of  e.  In  West  Germanic,  i.  e.  in  the  German  period  before  separation  into 
High  German  and  Low  German,  the  vowel  e  was  changed  to  i  before  a  nasal  -\-  a  consonant,  or 
if  an  i  or  j  followed  in  the  next  syllable.  Thus  the  stem  vowel  in  binden  is  i,  while  in  some  other 
verbs  belonging  to  the  same  class  it  is  e,  as  in  helfen.  Thus  also  the  e  of  Erde  has  become  i  in 
irdisch,  as  it  is  followed  by  i.  Thus  also  Werk  becomes  wirklich,  &c.  Sometimes  the  force  at 
work  can  only  be  seen  in  its  effects,  as  the  following  i  has  become  e,  or  has  dropped  out:  Berg, 
but  Gebirge  (O.H.G.  gibirgi);  recht,  but  Gericht  (O.H.G.  girihti).  The  change  of  e  to  i  under 
the  influence  of  a  following  i  is  closely  related  to  the  mutation  of  back  vowels  under  the  influence 
of  a  following  i.  The  tongue  shifts  from  the  position  of  the  front  vowel  e  a  little  further  forward 
under  the  influence  of  the  following  i  until  e  becomes  i.  As  this  mutation,  like  a-mutation,  belongs 
to  the  West  Germanic  period  it  is  older  than  the  mutation  of  the  back  vowels.  In  O.H.G.  e 
became  i  if  an  u  followed  in  the  next  syllable:  Latin  septem,  but  sieben  (O.H.G.  sibun).  This 
is  called  «-mutation.  See  also  197.  C.  b.  for  further  examples  of  i-,  nd-,  and  M-mutation.  The 
different  forces  at  work  in  these  changes  are  no  longer  felt,  but  they  have  played  an  important 
part  in  shaping  the  present  forms  of  the  language. 

D.  Voivel  Gradation  (Ablaut).  A  difference  of  accent  in  different  forms  of  the  same  word 
developed  in  early  times  vowel  gradation,  that  is,  a  difference  of  vowel:  compare  XetTrw,  but 
fXiTTov. — In  English  vowel  gradation  often  exists,  altho  it  is  not  indicated  by  the  orthography: 
historian  (his't3:ri3n),  history  ('histari).  As  can  be  seen  from  the  e.xamples,  loss  of  accent  is 
accompanied  by  a  reduction  of  the  vowel  element.  This  force  can  now  often  be  seen  only  in  its 
effects,  as  the  difference  of  accent  has  in  most  part  disappeared:  'capio,  ac'cipio  (formerly  'ac- 
cipio,  hence  reduction  of  stem  vowel).  Vowel  gradation  is  now  most  clearly  to  be  observed 
in  strong  verbs,  and  for  practical  reasons  this  subject  is  discussed  under  that  head.     See  197.  A. 

Consonants. 

27.     General  Rides: 

1.  Change  of  Sound.  Unlike  vowels,  which  do  not  change  their  quantity 
and  pronunciation  from  the  addition  of  inflectional  endings,  consonants  may 
change  considerably  their  sound  in  certain  positions,  as  noted  below  (in  articles 
29-37)  under  the  different  consonants:  lesen  (lerzan)  to  read,  du  liest  (li:st) ; 
liegen  (lirgan)  to  lie,  du  liegst  (li:kst);  here  the  s  and  g  in  the  different  words 
have  different  sounds. 

2.  Quantity.  In  general,  consonants  in  German  are  always  short,  while  in 
English  they  are  short  after  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong  and  long  after  a  short 
vowel:  short  in  soil,  Kamm,  Mann,  lang  (lag),  Kuß,  Flasche,  Rat,  feet,  need, 
&c.,  but  long  in  bell,  ham,  man,  tongue,  kiss,  smash,  rat,  &c.  Divided  con- 
sonants are  short  in  both  German  and  English :   Männer,  manner,  &c. 


26 PRONUNCIATION   OF   H   AND   THE   STOPS 28. 

The  Glottal  Spirant  h. 

28.  H  is  pronounced  like  h  in  hand,  only  more  forcibly.  Only  the  initial  h 
of  a  stem  syllable,  be  it  a  simple  word,  a  compound,  or  a  suffix,  has  this  pro- 
nunciation :  Halt,  Anhalt,  Weisheit.  The  h  is  pronounced  medially  in  Oheim 
and  Ahorn,  as  they  are  compounds,  or  are  felt  as  compounds.  The  h  is  still 
sounded  in  Wilhelm,  &c.,  but  in  some  compound  names,  as  Walther  (now  usually 
written  Walter),  Mathilde  (also  written  Matilda),  &c.,  it  is  silent,  as  the  names 
are  not  vividly  felt  as  compounds.  The  medial  h  is  naturally  pronounced  in 
the  onomatopoeic  forms  Uhu,  Schuhu,  also  the  exclamations  aha,  oho.  Medial 
h  is  also  pronounced  in  foreign  words:  Jehovah,  Alkohol,  Sahara,  kontrahieren, 
&c.  Declaimers  and  singers,  following  the  printed  form,  sometimes  pronounce 
medial  h  in  German  words,  as  in  gehen,  but  this  practice  is  not  based  on  actual 
usage  in  the  usual  literary  language.  In  all  simple  German  words  medial  and 
final  h  have  become  silent  except  in  the  Southwest  (especially  in  Switzerland 
and  Tyrol),  where  in  certain  dialects  it  can  still  be  heard  medially  between 
vowels,  as  in  sehen.  It  must,  indeed,  have  thus  been  pronounced  medially 
thruout  a  large  part  of  Germany  up  to  a  comparatively  recent  date,  or  it  would 
not  have  come  down  to  us  so  well  preserved  here  in  the  orthography.  Even 
after  medial  h  had  become  silent  it  was  felt  as  having  a  meaning.  As  it  was 
originally  the  initial  sound  of  its  syllable  and  hence  usually  stood  after  an  open 
syllable  it  usually  in  N.H.G.,  as  in  seihen,  followed  a  long  vowel,  so  that  even 
after  it  had  become  silent  it  was  felt  as  indicating  the  length  of  the  preceding 
vowel.  Since  the  fifteenth  century,  however,  h  often  does  not  possess  an  ety- 
mological value,  as  many  new  unhistorical  h's  have  from  time  to  time  been 
inserted  merely  as  a  sign  to  show  that  the  preceding  vowel  is  long.  This  ten- 
dency became  strong  toward  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  As  the  h  was 
often  used  where  the  preceding  vowel  would  be  clearly  marked  as  long  without 
its  assistance,  the  new  official  rules  require  here  its  omission  in  many  cases,  as 
Rat  instead  of  Rath,  while  in  others  they  inconsistently  allow  it  to  stand.  This 
inconsistency  is  easily  justified  in  those  cases  where  the  h  is  not  a  mere  sign  to 
show  the  length  of  the  preceding  vowel,  but  is  an  etymological  part  of  the  stem 
which  has  in  course  of  time  become  silent,  altho  in  other  words  of  the  same 
origin  the  h  appears  in  the  older  form  of  a  pronounced  ch:  sehen  (pro.  ze:^9n) 
to  see,  but  Sicht  sight.  The  silent  h  has  been  especially  allowed  to  stand  before 
1,  m,  n,  r  when  the  final  element  of  the  stem  and  after  a  vowel  before  e,  in  all  of 
which  cases  however  there  does  not  seem  in  most  words  to  be  any  good  reason 
for  using  it:    Ahle,  rühmen,  sühnen,  führen,  nähen,  gehen,  &c. 

An  h  is  in  N.G.  often  pronounced  after  p,  t,  k  (as  also  in  English),  altho  no 
printed  character  here  represents  it.     See  29.  a. 

Note.  According  to  its  formation  h  is  a  vowel,  differing,  however,  from  otlier  vowels  in  that  it  is  voiceless.  It 
always  has  the  mouth  position  of  the  following  vowel.  Thus  hu  is  a  voiceless  u  followed  by  a  voiced  u,  and  ha  is  a 
voiceless  a  followed  by  a  voiced  a,  &c.  The  one  character  h  stands  thus,  not  for  one  sound,  but  for  a  number  of 
different  voiceless  vowels.  H  is  classed  here  as  a  consonant  because  it  is  invariably  used  as  a  consonant  and  also 
has  the  acoustic  effect  of  a  consonant,  namely,  that  of  a  voiceless  spirant,  except  between  voiced  sounds,  where  it  is 
voiced. 

Stops:  voiceless  p,  t,  k;  voiced  b,  d,  g. 

29.  The  voiceless  stops  p,  t,  k  are  pronounced  much  as  in  English.  The 
voiced  stops  b,  d,  g  are,  according  to  the  standard  of  the  stage,  pronounced  as 
in  English,  when  they  stand  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  or  elsewhere  before  a 
vowel  or  voiced  consonant,  i.  e.  initially  in  word  or  syllable,  but  when  final 
(end  of  word  or  syllable)  or  next  to  a  voiceless  consonant  they  become  voiceless 
p,  t,  k:  (voiced)  Rieten,  das, ^ut,  Ne-bel,  e-del,  Ta-ge;  but  final  b,  d,  g  in  ob, 
Hund,  Tag,  and  Hedwig,  and  final  b',  d',  g'  (see  also  c  below)  in  hab',  wurd/, 
sa_g'  are  pronounced  voiceless,  as  op,  hunt,  ta:k,  he:tvig,  ha:p,  vuRt,  za:k;  also 
b,  d,  g  in  Abt,  (des)  Eid_s,  liegt  are  pronounced  voiceless,  as  apt,  aets,  li:kt. 
Distinguish  carefully  between  b,  d,  g  that  stand  as  the  final  sound  of  a  syllable 
or  before  a  consonant  in  a  suffix  or  an  inflectional  ending  and  b,  d,  g  that  stand 


29.6. PRONUNCIATION   OF   THE  STOPS 27 

as  the  initial  sound  of  a  medial  syllable  where  it  is  immediately  followed  by  the 
final  1,  n,  r  of  the  stem:  Knäblein  (knep'laen),  liebt  (li:pt),  but  neblig  (ne:^blig, 
stem  Nebel);  redlich  (Re:tMi5),  but  Redner  (Re:MnaR,  stem  reden);  reglos 
(Re:kHo:s  or  Re:gUo:s),  but  regnen  (Rei^gnan,  stem  Regen).  The  stage  prescribes 
a  slight  difference  of  pronunciation  between  b,  d,  g  and  p,  t,  k  when  they  follow 
a  long  vowel,  either  in  the  final  position  as  in  Grab,  lag,  tat,  &c.,  or  before  a  con- 
sonant as  in  lebt,  wägt,  spukt,  &c.  Here  p,  t,  k  are  pronounced  forcibly,  while 
in  case  of  b,  d,  g  the  inception  is  pronounced  as  a  weak  p,  t,  k  and  the  close  is 
uttered  forcibly.  The  vowel  before  the  p,  t,  k  is  spoken  steadily,  while  the  vowel 
before  b,  d,  g  is  spoken  decrescendo  gradually  vanishing  as  the  following  weak 
p,  t,  k  is  begun.  The  stage  also  prescribes  that  b,  d,  g  before  the  voiced  suffixes 
-lieh,  -lein,  -los,  -nis,  -bar,  -sam,  -sal,  -sei  be  pronounced  as  unaspirated  p,  t,  k: 
lieblich  'lirpUig,  i.  e.  with  unaspirated  p,   &c. 

The  change  of  sound  from  b  to  p  and  d  to  t  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  or  next  to 
a  voiceless  consonant,  is  well  established  in  the  North,  but  that  of  g  to  k  has, 
altho  supported  by  the  stage  and  many  scholars,  not  yet  become  general  usage. 
The  g  in  these  positions  is  in  the  North  still  usually  a  spirant  and  is  pronounced 
as  the  voiceless  spirants  ch  in  ich  and  ach  (see  32.  3.  a  and  h).  The  general  pro- 
nunciation of  medial  g  is  still  j  or  g  as  described  in  34.  3  and  4  and  35.  3  and  4. 
Good  usage  in  the  North  has,  however,  decided  for  the  stage  pronunciation  g 
initially  and  the  tendency  to  medial  g  instead  of  j  or  g  is  at  present  so  strong 
in  choice  language  as  to  point  to  the  ultimate  victory  of  g  here.  In  the  final 
position  and  next  to  a  voiceless  consonant  g  and  x  are  still  widely  used,  but  in 
choice  language  the  tendency  is  to  pronounce  k,  the  pronunciation  of  the  stage. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  stage  itself  recognizes  the  pronunciation  of  g  for  g  in  the 
suffix  -ig  when  final  or  before  a  consonant,  except  where  a  ch  occurs  in  the  next 
syllable:  König  keinig,  Königs  ke:ni5s,  but  Königreich  ke:nikraeg,  königlich 
ke:niklig,  &c.,  g  however  medially:  Könige  ke:nig9,  «&c.  For  the  stage  pro- 
nunciation of  'ge  (=  ige)  see  7.  2.  (2nd  par.). 

In  the  South  the  g  in  all  the  positions  described  above  is  pronounced  as 
an  unaspirated  k.     See  a. 

For  the  pronunciation  of  g  after  n.,  as  in  singen,  see  36.  b. 

a.  Sectional  and  Dialectic  Peculiarities.  In  Middle  and  South  Germany  b,  d,  g  lack  voice 
element,  and  hence  it  is  often  difficult  for  us  to  distinguish  in  these  sections  between  b  and  p, 
d  and  t,  g  and  k.  There  is  usually,  however,  a  real  difference  between  M.G.  and  S.G.  voiceless 
b,  d,  g  and  p,  t,  k,  namely,  the  former  are  pronounced  with  relaxed,  the  latter  with  tense  muscles. 
In  the  best  pronunciation  of  these  sections  initial  p,  t,  k  before  a  stressed  vowel  are  further  dis- 
tinguished by  an  explosion,  i.  e.  are  followed  by  an  h  sound.  Actual  usage  here,  however,  often 
varies  from  this  standard  in  diverse  ways,  especially  in  that  p  and  t  are  here  often  unaspirated, 
i.  e.  not  followed  by  an  h  sound.  The  stage  differentiates  these  two  groups  much  more  clearly. 
The  b,  d,  g  are  voiced,  the  p,  t,  k  voiceless  and  initially  in  word  or  syllable  before  a  vowel  and  in 
the  final  position  aspirated.  When  final,  b,  d,  g  are  pronounced  p,  t,  k  and  hence  aspi- 
rated. The  stage  even  insists  upon  aspiration  in  the  initial  position  in  an  unstressed 
syllable,  as  in  Lum-pen.  In  general  a  p,  t,  or  k  is  not  aspirated  before  a  consonant  as  aspira- 
tion here  is  often  difficult:  ab  ap',  Pack  p'ak',  &c.,  but  abbiegen  ap-bi:gan,  nackt  nakt', 
gibt  gi:pt',  Apfel  apfal,  &c.  Before  certain  suffixes,  as  described  above,  final  b,  d,  g  are  not  as- 
pirated. On  the  other  hand,  p  is  aspirated  before  1  or  r,  as  in  platt,  Pracht,  t  is  aspirated  before 
r,  as  in  treu,  and  k  is  in  general  aspirated  before  non-aspirated  consonants,  as  in  Quelle  (k'vela), 
Knie,  &c.  This  pronunciation  represents  the  best  N.G.  usage,  but  in  colloquial  speech  p,  t,  k  are 
not  aspirated  in  an  unstressed  syllable,  as  in  Liun-pen,  Wol-ken,  &c.  Also  p  in  the  combina- 
tion sp  is  not  aspirated,  as  in  spät,  sprechen,  likewise  medial  t  in  the  combinations  ft,  st,  cht, 
ts,  tz,  as  in  heftig,  stehen,  Gäste  (but  Gast  gast'),  Nichte,  nichts,  sitzen  (zit-tsan).  The  dialect 
of  the  extreme  South  is  characterized  by  a  very  strong  articulation  of  k,  which  often  becomes 
kx  or  X  (from  older  kx).  See  40.  1.  c.  Note  6.  Medial  b  between  vowels  and  after  1  or  r  is  pro- 
nounced in  the  dialects  of  the  Midland,  Southeast,  and  in  sections  of  the  North  as  a  voiced 
spirant,  in  the  Midland  and  Southeast  as  the  bilabial  v  described  in  34.  1,  in  the  North  as  the 
labio-dental  spirant  w,  i.e.  v:  (M.G.  and  Southeast  G.)  Liebe  li:ra,  Farbe  faRz-'a,  &c.;  (N.G.) 
Liebe  li:v9,  &c.  Compare  40.  1.  a.  Note  3.  In  the  North  the  popular  pronunciation  of  g  is 
that  of  a  spirant;  initially  j,  g,  g,  or  x;  medially  and  finally  according  to  the  general  usage  de- 
scribed above,  with  the  exception  that  it  often  becomes  voiceless  medially  in  the  Midland. 

b.  In  derivatives  and  compounds  these  stops  are  pronounced  voiceless  if  they  stand  at  the 
end  of  either  component:  Abart  (apa:Rt).  In  that  case  (see  41.  3.  a),  however,  where  the  final  stop 
is  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable,  it  is  pronounced  voiced:  be'-o-bachten. 


28 HOW   THE   STOPS   ARE   WRITTEN 29.  c. 

c.  The  b,  d,  g,  that  become  final  by  the  elision  of  e  are  usually  voiceless:  hab'  Dank  ha:p 
darjk,  Leid  und  Freud'  laet  unt  fRoet,  sag'  mir  za:k  mi:R.  In  case  of  a  stressed  word  before  an 
enclitic  beginning  with  a  vowel,  however,  these  consonants  are  voiced:  hab'  ich  hai^big,  Freud' 
und  Leid  'fRoe^unt  laet. 

How  THE  Stops  are  written. 

30.  1.  The  p  sound  is  written  p  or  pp  (after  a  short  vowel),  as  in  Paar, 
Rappe;  b  finally  and  also  medially  before  a  consonant  in  the  stem,  suffix,  or 
inflectional  ending,  or  bb  before  an  inflectional  ending:  ab  (ap),  ob  (op),  Sub- 
skription (^zupslcRip'tsiorn),  Abt  (apt),  leiblich  (laepHig,  but  neblich  ne:^blig; 
see  29),  bebt  (be:pt),  ebbt  (ept). 

2.  The  t  sound  is  written  t  or  tt  (after  a  short  vowel),  as  in  Tau,  fett;  th  in 
German  names,  as  Goethe,  but  Christian  names  Herta  rather  than  Hertha,  &c.; 
th  in  many  foreign  words,  as  in  Thema,  Themse,  &c.;  d  finally  and  also  medially 
before  a  consonant  in  the  suffix,  as  in  Mund  (munt),  Ludwig  (luitvig),  Adjektiv 
(atJ8k'ti:f),  Kindlein  (kmtlaen),  but  only  d  in  Handlung  (han-dlur),  &c.,  where 
the  1  is  a  part  of  the  stem  Handel;  see  29) ;  dt  in  a  few  words,  as  in  Stadt,  sandte, 
beredt,  &c. 

3.  The  k  sound  is  written:  (1)  k  or  ck  (after  a  short  vowel),  as  in  kahl,  dick; 
(2)  ch  in  a  number  of  words  where  it  is  followed  by  an  s  (=  §  or  \)  which  forms 
a  part  of  the  stem,  as  in  Ochs  (=  Dd)§),  Ochsen  (=  Ddjfen),  but  not  in  (des) 
Buchs,  wach-sam,  &c.;  (3)  ch  initially  in  some  German  names,  Chemnitz, 
Chlodwig,  t&c,  also  in  many  foreign  words,  as  in  Chor,  see  32.  3.  a.  Note.  (2); 
(4)  q  before  u,  as  in  Quelle  (kvela) ;  (5)  g  finally  or  before  a  consonant  in  a 
suffix  or  an  inflectional  ending  =  k  upon  the  stage,  as  in  Tag,  täglich,  tagt,  but 
=  g  where  the  following  consonant  is  a  part  of  the  stem,  as  in  re^gnen;  see  29; 
g  also  quite  generally  as  well  as  upon  the  stage  in  a  few  isolated  words,  as  bug- 
sieren (buk'si:R9n),  flugs  (flu:ks),  Gig  (gik).  Grog  (guok).  Log  (bk),  and  the 
proper  names  Augsburg  (aoks^buRk)  and  Jagst  (jakst) ;  (6)  in  sections  of  the 
North  g  after  r)  when  final  or  before  a  voiceless  consonant,  as  in  ging  (gigk), 
bringst  (bRir)kst),  where  on  the  stage  and  in  choice  language  in  the  North  the 
g  is  silent;  (7)  gg  finally,  or  medially  before  a  consonant,  as  in  Brigg,  flaggt; 
(8)  c  in  many  foreign  words,  as  in  Cognac  (konjak,  now  better  in  German  spell- 
ing Kognak),  also  in  some  German  names,  Campe,  &c. ;  (9)  also  cc  in  some 
foreign  words,  as  in  A'ccord,  now  better  in  German  spelling  A'kkord. 

4.  The  b  sound  is  written:  (1)  b  as  initial  sound  in  word  or  syllable:  Bahn, 
Liebe,  ne^blig  (see  29),  Abraham  (a:bRa-ham),  sublim  (zu-'bli:m),  but  of  course 
pronounced  p  when  it  is  the  final  sound  in  the  syllable,  as  in  Gelübde  (ga'lYpda), 
Subordination  (zup''oRdi-na-'tsio:n);  (2)  bb  after  a  short  vowel  when  followed 
by  a  vowel,  as  in  Ebbe;  b  as  a  final  sound  in  the  syllable  in  a  number  of  foreign 
words,  as  Bobsleigh  (bob^sle:).  Oblate  (3b-'la:t9,  on  the  stage  o-'bla:t9),  obli'gat, 
&c.,  but  pronounced  p  after  German  fashion  in  very  common  words,  as  Subjekt 
(zup'jekt),  &c.,  of  course,  sometimes  fluctuating  between  German  and  foreign 
pronunciation,  as  in  Ablativ  (ap-la'ti:f,  ab-la'ti:f,  on  the  stage  a-bla'ti:f),   &c. 

5.  The  d  sound  is  written:  (1)  d  as  initial  sound  in  word  or  syllable:  du, 
'Re'dner  (29),  'ÄMler,  or-dnen  (but  pronounced  t  in  wid-men  as  d  is  the  final 
sound  of  the  syllable).  Budget  (by'dge:) ;  (2)  dd  or  ddh  after  a  short  vowel  when 
followed  by  a  vowel:  Kladde,  Buddha  (buda:),  &c. 

Note.     The  d  is  silent  in  a  few  words  from  the  French:  Fonds  (fa:),  Plafond  (pla'fo:),  &c. 

6.  The  g  (voiced  stop  as  in  English  g  in  go)  sound  is  written:  (1)  g  initially 
as  in  gut;  (2)  g  also  medially  when  followed  by  a  vowel  and  preceded  by  a  vowel 
or  consonant  (for  colloquial  N.G.  pronunciation  here  see  34.  4,  35.  3.  (2)) :  Sage, 
Ziege,  Berge;  also  written  g  as  the  initial  sound  of  a  medial  syllable,  where  it 
is  usually  followed  by  the  final  1,  n,  or  r  of  the  stem,  but  if  these  consonants  do 
not  form  a  part  of  the  stem  the  pronunciation  of  g  here  is  g  or  x  in  colloquial 
N.G.  or  according  to  the  stage  k,  as  the  g  is  the  final  sound  of  the  syllable: 
Vöglein  fe:^glaen  (stem  Vogel),  regnen  Re:^gn3n  (stem  Regen),  Wagner  va:^gnaR 
(stem  Wagen,  or  sometimes  in  colloquial  N.G.  with  a  different  syllabic  division 


32.  4.  PRONUNCIATION   OF   VOICELESS   SPIRANTS 29 

va:x'n9R),  but  möglich  me:?'!!^,  or  better  me:k'lig,  fraglich  fRa:x'lig,  or  better 
fRa:kHi5;  for  the  colloquial  N.G.  pronunciation  of  Vöglein,  regnen  see  35.  3.  (3); 
furthermore  written  g  medially  in  foreign  words  before  1,  m,  n,  r,  both  when  it 
is  the  initial  sound  of  the  medial  syllable  and  contrary  to  usage  in  native  German 
words  also  when  it  is  the  final  sound:  Reglement  (Re-gb'mä:),  Geographie 
(ge-o-gRa-'fi:),  Signal  (zi'gna:l);  (as  final  sound  in  syllable)  Dogma  (dog-ma:), 
but  often  here  in  German  fashion  dok-ma:  or  dox-ma:,  often  with  different  pro- 
nunciation according  to  syllabic  division:  Signal  zi'gna:l  (4.  2.  B.  c.  Note),  or 
zik'na:l,  zi5-'na:l,  or  zir)-'na:l  (36.  c).  (3)  gg  medially  after  a  short  vowel  when 
followed  by  a  vowel,  as  in  Flagge;  (4)  gu  before  a  front  vowel  in  foreign  words, 
as  in  Gui'tarre,  or  now  better  in  German  spelling  Gi'tarre,  Guerilla  (ge-'Rilja:), 
Guillotine  (giljo-'ti:n9) ;  (5)  gh  in  foreign  words,  as  in  Ghibe'Uine,  Ghetto,  or 
better  in  German  spelling  Gibelline,  Getto. 

Spirants. 

31.  Voiceless  f,  s  (s,  ss,  ß),  ch,  g,  sch;  voiced  w,  s,  j,  g,  r. 

Spirants  like  stops  vary  in  part  in  pronunciation  according  to  their  position, 
as  will  be  noted  in  the  following  articles. 

32.  Voiceless  spirants — f,  s  (s,  ss,  ß),  ch,  g,  sch. 

1.  f  is  pronounced  as  f  in// ize:  fünf,  &c.     Compare  33.  1.  Note. 

2.  s  sounds  nearly  like  ss  in  moss,  but  is  narrower  in  its  tongue  articulation, 
that  is,  has  a  somewhat  smaller  air-channel  between  the  tongue  and  the  teeth- 
roots,  which  gives  the  hiss  a  higher  pitch:  Haus,  Eis,  &c.     See  also  34.2.  a. 

3.  The  spirants  ch  and  g  are  not  found  in  English.  Their  pronunciation  de- 
pends upon  their  position: 

a.  Medially  and  finally  after  a  front  vowel  (see  6.  1.  a  above)  or  any  con- 
sonant, initially  in  some  foreign  words  (see  Note  below),  and  always  in  the 
diminutive  suffix  chen,  ch  is  a  voiceless  j,  thus  closely  resembles  English  or 
American  y  in  yes  spoken  without  voice  or  the  American  voiceless  spirant  that 
follows  c  in  cure  (kgu:r),  but  it  is  much  stronger:  stechen,  ich,  Lerche,  Chi'rurg, 
Mädchen.  The  phonetic  symbol  for  this  sound  is  g.  Also  g  final  or  before 
a  consonant  has  in  colloquial  North  German  the  same  sound  when  it  follows 
a  front  vowel  or  any  consonant:  Steg,  legt,  Berg.  The  stage  demands  that  g 
here  be  pronounced  k. 

Note.  In  foreign  words  ch  can  also  form  the  initial  sound  of  a  syllable.  Its  pronunciation  in  this  position  depenc^  in 
part  upon  the  origin  of  the  word:  (1)  In  Greek  words  it  is  pronounced  g  before  a  front  vowel  and  sometimes  before 
a  consonant:  Che'mie,  Chrie  (gRi:^),  &c.  (2)  In  Greek  words  before  a  back  vowel  and  also  before  a  consonant  it 
is  usuallv  pronounced  k:  Cha'rakter,  Cholera,  Chor,  Christ,  &c.  (3)  In  Greek  words  between  vowels  ch  is  pro- 
nounced as  in  German  words,  i.  e.  c  after  front  vowels  and  all  consonants,  and  x  after  back  vowels:  Mechamk  'me:- 
'ca:nik).  Arche,  Or'chester  (on  the  stage  OR'kestaR).  Hypochondrie  (hypo-xon'dRi:).  In  Melancho  he  andMar  chese 
however,  it  is  pronounced  as  k..  (4)  In  French  words  it  is  pronounced  S  initially  and  medially:  Chi'cane  (now  better 
written  Schikane),  Choko'lade  (Span,  but  with  French  pronunciation  of  ch;  better  Schokolade),  Branche,  &c.  (5) 
In  English  words  =  S  (French)  or  tS  (Eng.):  Check  (now  Scheck),  chartern  (tSaRtaRn),  &c. 

b.  After  back  vowels  (see  6.  1.  b,  above)  ch  becomes  a  velar  spirant,  as  in 
ach,  A'chat,  A'chill.  It  is  heard  from  Scotchmen  for  ch  in  loch.  It  is  formed 
by  raising  the  back  part  of  the  tongue  towards  the  middle  of  the  soft_  palate, 
a  little  higher  than  in  the  position  for  short  u,  and  then  forcing  thru  this  space 
between  the  tongue  and  palate  a  broad  current  of  air,  which  produces  a  rough 
rasping  sound.  In  a  few  foreign  words  cch  has  this  same  sound:  Bacchus,  Sec. 
In  colloquial  North  German  g  is  also  thus  pronounced,  when  it  stands  after  a 
back  vowel  and  is  not  followed  by  a  vowel :  Tag  tagt.  The  phonetic  symbol  for 
this  sound  is  x. 

Note.  In  older  German  ch  was  always  a  velar  sound,  i.  e.  was  pronounced  x  after  front  as  well  as  back  vowels, 
as  it  originallv  developed  out  of  the  velar  sound  k  as  described  in  40.  1 .  6  and  c  This  older  usage  still  survives  in  the 
dialects  of  the  extreme  South  and  in  isolated  sections  farther  north  as  in  parts  of  Westphalia:  sicher  (sixaR)  (in  l\rol, 
Switzerland). 

4.  sch  something  like  sh  in  shy,  but  in  German  the  lips  are  protruded  more, 
and  the  point  of  the  tongue  is  less  raised:  scharf,  Schiff,  &c.  Tho  usually  repre- 
sented by  three  letters  (sch),  this  sound  is  a  simple  one,  the  phonetic  symbol  of 
which  is  $. 

Note.  This  sound  has  come  from  two  quite  different  sources:  (1)  In  many  words,  as  described  in  40.  2.  g.  (1).  it 
developed  out  of  s.     (2)    In  many  other  words  it  corresponds  to  O.H.G.  sk,  hence  was  originally  a  combination  ot 


30 HOW   VOICELESS  SPIRANTS  ARE  WRITTEN 32.4. 

two  sounds  s  and  k.  This  older  order  of  things  survives  medially  and  finally,  as  in  Disk  (=  H.G.  Tisch),  &c.,  in 
certain  dialects  of  the  western  half  of  the  Low  German  territory.  In  the  extreme  western  part  of  this  territory  sk 
developed  in  the  final  position  into  sch,  i.  e.  s+x  and  at  present  is  pronounced  s  as  the  s  has  assimilated  to  itself  the  x. 
The  pronunciation  s+x  arose  in  late  O.H.G.  and  survives  in  Westphalian  dialect  in  the  initial  position.  The 
present  simple  sound  was  general  in  the  South  about  1300.  The  older  pronunciation  with  two  distinct  sounds  has 
left  traces  behind  in  the  literary  language  in  that  it  has  kept  the  preceding  short  vowel  short.     See  4.  1.6.  Note. 

How  Voiceless  Spirants  are  written. 

33.  1.  The  f  sound  is  written:  (1)  f  or  ff  (after  short  vowel),  as  in  Fall, 
Schiff,  &c.;  (2)  v  in  a  few  German  words,  as  in  Vater,  Vetter,  Gevatter,  Vehme 
(better  Feme),  ver-,  Vieh,  viel,  vier,  Vlies  (VUeß),  Vogel,  Volk,  voll,  vom,  von, 
vor,  vorder,  zu'vörderst,  vorn,  Frevel;  initially  in  a  number  of  German,  Low 
German,  and  Dutch  proper  names,  as  Vilmar,  Virchow,  (fmgo:),  Voß,  Vischer, 
Veldeke,  Verden,  Bremervörde,  medially  only  in  Havel,  Bremer'haven,  Kux'ha- 
ven,  Wilhelms'haven ;  in  a  few  L.G.  words,  finally  and  before  a  consonant,  as 
in  Luv,  luvwärts,  luvt  (but  luven  lu:v9n);  (3)  v  finally  in  all  foreign  words,  as 
in  passiv,  medially  in  Pulver,  and  regularly  before  a  consonant,  as  in  Evchen 
(but  Eva  e:va:),  Lev'koje,  initially  in  van  (before  Dutch  names).  Veit,  Vers, 
Vogt,  Veilchen,  Vesper;  (4)  ph  in  foreign  words,  as  in  Philo'soph,  Diph'thong, 
«S:c.;  (5)  pph  in  the  Greek  name  Sappho;  (6)  often  w  finally  or  before  a  con- 
sonant in  many  Slavic  words,  as  Boleslaw,  Kiew  (kiref),  Asow  (arzof),  Asowsches 
Meer,  &c.,  where  however  the  stage  requires  w  (i.  e.  v),  borbslav,  &c. 

Note.  In  oldest  German  we  find  the  German  f-sound  sometimes  expressed  by  v,  as  the  monks  of  that  time  seem 
to  liave  pronounced  Latin  v  as  f.  Thus  there  arose  two  characters  for  the  f-sound.  In  M.H.G.,  v  was  used  to  indicate 
the  weakly  articulated  old  Germanic  f,  as  found  in  M.H.G.  visch  (N.H.G.  Fisch),  Eng.  fish,  and  f  was  employed 
to  indicate  the  strongly  articulated  sound  developed  in  the  second  shifting  out  of  Germanic  p  (see  40.  I.  c),  as  in  hel/en. 
Eng.  he\l>.  This  old  distinction  between  the  weak  and  the  strong  f  is  still  in  large  part  preserved  in  Swiss  dialects. 
This  distinction  had  probably  disappeared  in  the  final  position  even  in  oldest  literary  German  and  in  M.H.G.  this 
change  found  a  formal  expression  in  the  orthography  by  the  uniform  use  of  f  at  the  end  of  a  word,  which  clearly  indi- 
cates that  the  weaker  sound  was  here  supplanted  by  the  stronger  one:  M.H.G.  wol/,  but  in  the  genitive  wobes.  Later 
the  stronger  articulation  spread  to  all  positions,  and  hence  f  replaced  v  in  all  positions  except  in  the  few  words  given 
above,  where  the  older  orthography  survives  as  a  fossil.  The  pronunciation  of  v  as  f  in  the  words  from  the  Latin 
Vers,  Vesper,  Veilchen,  Veit,  Vogt,  &c.,  indicates  the  older  German  way  of  pronouncing  Latin  v.  In  Brief  (Latin 
brewe),  Käfig  (Latin  cai'ea).  &c.,  the  character  f  is  used.  The  f  in  prüfen  (Old  French  proi^er)  indicates  that  the 
Germans  substituted  the  nearest  sound  in  their  language  for  the  French  v,  which  at  that  time  was  unknown  in  Ger- 
man.    See  35.  I.  Note. 

2.  The  s  sound  is  written:  (1)  s(  =  §)  at  the  end  of  a  word,  as  in  Moos,  Stuhls 
(5tu:ls,  not  5tu:lz  as  English-speaking  students  usually  pronounce),  Tals,  &c. ; 
ks  in  the  Latin  form  of  x  in  a  few  foreign  and  native  words,  as  Marx,  nix  (dialect 
for  nichts),  &c.;  (2)  s  (  =  f)  medially  before  consonants,  as  in  Liste,  also  before 
vowels  if  it  is  preceded  by  a  consonant  other  than  1,  m,  n,  ng  (r)),  r:  Erbse 
CeRpsa),  but  the  s  is  voiced  in  Linse  as  it  follows  n;  ks  in  the  Latin  form  of  x 
in  a  few  foreign  and  native  words,  as  in  Xaver  (ksa:v9R  or  ksa-'ve:«),  exakt  (eks- 
'''akt),  Hexe,  &c.;  (3)  S  or  s  (  =  f)  initially  in  foreign  words  before  a  consonant 
other  than  p  or  t,  as  in  Skizze,  Smaragd,  Szene  (stserna) ;  (4)  s  (  =  f)  initially 
before  p  or  t  in  many  foreign  words  that  are  still  vividly  felt  as  foreign,  as  in 
spon'tan.  Spaa,  Spleen  (splirn),  ste'ril,  Stenogra'phie,  Stuart,  &c.,  also  medially 
after  a  prefix,  as  in  ab'strakt,  In'stinkt,  konstru'ieren,  'Konstanz  (city)  &c.;  (5) 
ss  (  =  ff)  between  vowels  when  a  short  vowel,  and  ß  (  =  ^)  when  a  long  vowel 
precedes,  as  in  Flüsse,  Füße;  ß  at  the  end,  or  medially  before  a  consonant  in  all 
words  which  require  ss  or  ß  between  vowels,  as  in  Fluß,  G.  Flusses,  Fuß,  G. 
Fußes,  müssen,  du  mußt,  stoßen,  du  stoßt;  (6)  heard  as  the  latter  element  in 
the  double  sound  ts  (written  z,  tz,  t  before  i,  c  before  front  vowels;  see  39.  3) 
even  before  vowels,  as  in  Katze,  heizen.  Patient,  aszetisch  (as'tse:ti5,  also  written 
ascetisch,  but  more  commonly  asketisch,  pronounced  with  a  k) ;  (7)  g  in  words 
from  the  French,  as  in  Fafon  (fa'sö:);  (8)  c  in  some  French  words,  especially 
before  9,  as  in  Annonce  (a'nSrsa);  (9)  z  in  Bronze  (bnörsa,  also  pronounced  with 
z),  and  in  the  Spanish  words  Kadiz  (ka:dis),  Cortez  (koRtes),  Gomez  (gormes), 
&c. 

3.  5  is  written  ch  in  some  words  and  g  in  others,  as  described  in  32.  3.  a.  It 
is  written  x  in  the  name  Xi'menä. 

Also  X  is  written  ch  in  some  words  and  g  in  others.     See  32.  3.  b. 

4.  S  is  written:  (1)  sch  as  in  scharf,  &c.,  but  sch  in  the  Italian  word  Scherzo 
(skeRtso:)  is  pronounced  sk,  as  h  here  has  only  been  added  to  c  before  the  front 


34.4. PRONUNCIATION   OF   VOICED   SPIRANTS 31 

vowel  e  to  give  the  c  the  hard  sound  of  k;  (2)  s  initially  before  p  or  t  in  all  stem 
syllables:  sprechen,  stehen,  verstehen,  Ziegelstein;  also  in  a  large  number  of 
very  common  foreign  words  which  are  felt  as  native  words,  as  in  spa'zieren, 
Spi'on,  Stu'dent,  &c.;  (3)  ch  in  French  and  other  foreign  words;  see  32.  3.  a. 
Note  (4),  (5);  (4)  sh  in  English  words,  as  in  Shakespeare,  Shawl  (better  Schal), 
(5)  contained  in  c  (before  e  and  i)  and  cci  =  t$  in  Italian  words,  as  Cello  (t^elo:), 
Violoncell  (vi-o-bn't^el).  Cicerone  (tSi-t59'Ro:n9),  Boccaccio  (bo'kat^o:);  (6)  x  in 
Don  Quixote  (according  to  the  French  dSiki'^ot,  more  commonly  in  French 
spelling  Don  Quichotte,  the  former  form,  the  old  Spanish  spelling,  sometimes 
with  Spanish  pronunciation  don  ki'xorte);  (7)  contained  in  ch  in  English  words 
(see  32.  3.  a.  Note  (5))  and  also  in  Guttapercha  (guta'peRt^a:,  also  guta'pcRga:) ; 
(8)  contained  in  the  Slavonic  tsch  or  cz  ( =  tS),  as  in  Tscheche  or  Czeche  (tSega). 

a.  In  Hanover,  Holstein,  Friesland,  and  Mecklenburg,  initial  s  before  p  and  t  is  pronounced 
as  voiceless  s  instead  of  5:  staen  instead  of  ^itaen  (Stein). 

h.  In  the  Southwest  St,  sp  are  pronounced  ^t,  Sp  also  finally  and  medially;  not  only  so  in 
dialect,  but  often  also  by  the  educated  classes:  kun^t,  bYR^ta,  ha^pal  instead  of  kunst,  bvRsta, 
haspal.  In  some  M.G.  dialects  S  is  heard  for  z  after  r:  be:R$3  instead  of  Börse.  In  the  dialect 
of  Berlin  $  is  heard  after  r  for  s  and  3  for  z:   Dvirst  (duR^t),  ilirse  (hiR^a). 

Voiced  Spirants — w,  s,  j,  g,  j  or  g  (both  =  g),  r. 

34.  1.  w  (v)  is  much  like  v  in  very.  It  was  originally  a  bilabial  sound  pro- 
nounced with  both  lips  just  as  English  w,  but  in  the  North  and  upon  the  stage 
it  is  now  the  labio-dental  v  sound,  i.e.  is  formed  with  the  lips  and  teeth,  but  is 
not  quite  as  distinctly  buzzed  as  English  v.  In  South  and  Middle  Germany 
it  is  a  bilabial  sound,  v,  pronounced  with  both  lips,  which  are  nearly  parallel, 
so  that  there  results  a  very  narrow  passage  along  almost  their  entire  length, 
while  our  bilabial  English  w  is  pronounced  with  lips  closed  at  the  sides  but  pro- 
truded in  the  center  forming  a  round  opening.  S.G.  bilabial  v  also  differs  from 
English  w  in  that  the  tongue  is  not,  as  in  English,  raised  to  the  position  of  u.  The 
S.G.  w  is  not  accompanied  by  a  buzz  as  in  the  North.  N.G.  w  is  sometimes  still 
bilabial  after  a  consonant,  or  when  written  u  after  q,  as  in  Schwester,  zwei. 
Quelle.     It  is  here  more  commonly  the  usual  labio-dental  sound. 

Note.  In  O.H.G.  the  u  sound  as  a  vowel  was  written  u  or  v,  both  characters  with  the  same  u  sound,  but  as  a  con- 
sonant it  appeared  as  uv,  vu,  uu,  or  vv  until  toward  the  end  of  the  period  when  it  began  to  become  usual  to  represent 
the  consonantal  sound  by  writing  the  last  combination  together  as  one  character,  w,  double  v  (i.  e.  double  u),  just 
as  it  is  still  written  in  both  German  and  English.  Modern  English  preserves  not  only  the  old  character  and  the  old 
name,  but  also  the  old  u  sound.  In  German  the  old  character  has  been  preserved,  but  its  name  ve:  indicates  tliat  the 
old  sound  has  been  replaced  by  another.     S.G.  w  is  nearer  to  the  original  pronunciation. 

2.  Voiced  s  (z)  is  pronounced  like  s  in  rose:  senden.  Rose.  This  sound  is  not 
the  original  Germanic  s  but  a  North  German  development.     See  40.  2.  g.  (2). 

a.  In  all  the  positions  (see  35.  2)  where  s  in  N.G.  is  voiced,  it  is  in  S.G.  voiceless.  See  also 
35.2.  b.  In  German,  s,  especially  when  divided,  is  more  strongly  articulated  after  a  short  vowel  than 
after  a  long  one  or  a  diphthong.  By  this  means  South  Germans  can  distinguish  between  the  s 
in  Haß,  hassen  (has,  hasan,  in  both  N.G.  and  S.G.  pronounced  with  strongly  articulated  s)  and 
the  s  in  Besen  (S.G.  be:s3n,  N.G.  beizan),  but  they  cannot  distinguish  between  the  s  in  reißen 
(S.G.  and  N.G.  Raessn)  and  the  s  in  reisen  (S.G.  Raesan,  N.G.  Raezan). 

3.  j  (j)  has  much  the  same  sound  as  y  in  yes:  ja,  jagen,  &c.  The  articulation 
is  closer  in  German  than  in  English  y,  and  hence  in  German  there  is  a  gentle 
buzz,  caused  by  the  friction  of  the  air  in  passing  thru  the  narrowed  space.  This 
friction  is  more  marked  in  the  North  than  in  the  South. 

Note.  Originally  j  was  only  a  consonantal  i  and  until  the  fifteenth  century  was  written  i.  The  printed  form  for 
German  capital  i  and  j  are  still  the  same.  The  new  character  j  arose  in  the  fifteenth  century  but  was  at  first  used  also 
for  i,  especially  in  the  initial  position:  (Luther)  jr,  jn  =  ihr,  ihn.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  consonantal  charac- 
ter of  consonantal  i  had  become  so  pronounced  by  reason  of  the  distinct  buzz  that  accompanied  it  that  the  North 
German  grammarian  Schottel  insisted  upon  the  employment  of  i  for  the  vowel  and  j  for  the  consonant,  and  gradually 
this  usage  became  established.     In  the  South  the  consonantal  character  is  not  so  clearly  developed  as  in  the  North. 

4.  g  is  in  colloquial  North  German  a  voiced  spirant  after  back  vowels,  when 
also  followed  by  a  vowel:  wagen,  nagen,  Fugen.  The  phonetic  symbol  is  g. 
The  English  g  is  here  a  stop,  but  this  German  sound  is  a  spirant,  the  breath  con- 
tinuing and  not  suddenly  stopped  as  in  English.  Germans  in  the  South  pro- 
nounce this  g  as  in  English,  except  that  it  is  voiceless.  On  the  stage  and  in 
choice  North  German  it  is  spoken  as  in  English. 


32 HOW   VOICED   SPIRANTS   ARE   WRITTEN 34.  6. 

5.  5,  the  voiced  sound  corresponding  to  voiceless  sch,  not  found  in  German 
words  but  in  many  foreign  ones,  is  somewhat  Hke  s  in  pleasure:  Journalist,  &c. 
For  spellings  see  35.  5.     This  sound  is  replaced  in  S.G.  and  M.G.  by  5- 

6.  German  r  has  an  entirely  different  sound  and  is  formed  differently  from 
the  English.  It  is  produced  by  the  uvula,  the  little  fleshy  conical  body  suspended 
from  the  middle  of  the  lower  border  of  the  soft  palate.  The  uvula  is  set  in  vibra- 
tion by  the  current  of  escaping  air  pushing  against  it.  To  form  thisr  the  back  of 
the  tongue  must  be  quite  tightly  closed  in  around  the  uvula,  forming  a  little 
groove  in  which  it  hangs,  so  that  the  escaping  air  must  of  necessity  push  it  out 
to  pass  beyond.  The  tongue  is  kept  drawn  back  and  remains  motionless.  This 
r  is  not  usually  trilled,  but  is  pronounced  quite  softly,  and  often  in  colloquial 
speech  passes  over  into  a  or  a  in  final  syllables,  or  before  certain  consonants: 
mehr  (me:a).  Mutter  (muta),  starben  (^taaban),  Wurm  (vuam),  &c.  Some- 
times it  disappears  altogether  before  consonants,  in  which  case  the  preceding 
vowel  is  lengthened:  Warze  (va:tsa),  &c.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  in  some 
sections  pronounced  as  x:  warten  (vaxtan),  Pforte  (pfoxta),  &c.  There  is  also 
another  r,  the  tongue  r,  which  prevailed  in  earlier  periods  of  the  language  and  is 
still  heard  in  certain  localities  and  is  required  by  the  stage.     See  37.  2. 

How  Voiced  Spirants  are  written. 

35.  1.  The  V  sound  is  usually  written:  (1)  w,  as  in  wohl;  (2)  f  dialectically 
in  sections  of  the  North  when  the  f  stands  before  a  vowel  of  an  inflectional  end- 
ing, in  case  of  nouns  and  adjectives  whose  simple  stem  ends  in  f,  as  in  (des) 
Briefes  (bRi:v9s),  steifer  (^taevan),  &c.,  where  however  in  choice  language  f  is 
spoken;  (3)  v  initially  and  medially  in  foreign  words,  as  in  Vase,  Pa'ssiva,  but 
never  when  final,  as  in  passiv  (pa'si:f) ;  (4)  v  medially  in  Low  German  words, 
as  in  luven,  and  a  large  number  of  proper  names,  as  Kleve  (city),  Ha'nnover, 
Trave  (river),  Dove  (family  name),  Sievers  (zi:faRS  or  zi:v9RS,  family  name), 
Beethoven;  (5)  u  after  q,  as  in  Qual  (kva:l) ;  (6)  u  after  k  in  Bis'kuit;  (7)  u 
after  s  (s),  as  in  Suade,  Suite,  <S:c. 

Note.  In  Middle  and  South  Germany  v  in  foreign  words  is  pronounced  thruout  as  f  as  there  is  no  v-sound  in  the 
native  speech  of  these  sections,  while  North  Germans  can  pronounce  it  initially  and  medially  as  they  have  the  sound 
here  in  their  native  speech.  Of  course,  foreign  words  that  have  come  into  the  literary  language  thru  S.G.,  as  in  case  of 
prüfen  (Old  French  proz'er)  have  the  f-sound.     Compare  33.  1.  Note. 

2.  The  z  sound  is  represented  in  print  by  the  following  characters:  (1)  S  in- 
itially before  vowels,  as  in  sieben,  Absicht,  ratsam,  Trübsal,  but  not  in  case 
of  -sei  (as  in  Rätsel  R8:tsal),  which  is  no  longer  vividly  felt  as  a  sufiix  with  a 
distinct  meaning;  (2)  s  also  medially  before  vowels  (expressed  or  understood), 
when  it  itself  is  preceded  by  a  vowel  or  consonantal  vowel  (1,  m,  n,  ng  (r)),  r),  as 
in  leise,  weis(e)re,  Linse,  Mengsei,  pronounced  with  voiced  s,  but  the  s  is  voice- 
less in  Erbse,  schnapsen,  Häcksel,  as  it  is  preceded  by  a  consonant  other  than 
1,  m,  n,  ng,  r;  (3)  z  initially  in  Low  German  and  Dutch  proper  names,  as  in 
Zuidersee,  (zoedaR^ze:),  also  in  a  few  other  foreign  words,  as  Gaze,  Ha'zard, 
Ba'zar,  Ve'zier,  &c.,  now  better  written  Hasard,  Basar,  Wesir,  but  Gaze. 

a.  The  s  that  becomes  final  by  the  elision  of  e  is  usually  voiceless:  (imperative)  blase  (blarza) 
or  bias  (bla:s);  leise  (laeza)  or  leis  (laes),  but  in  the  first  person  of  verbs  usually  written  s'  altho 
it  is  voiceless:  Ich  les'  (le:s)  das  oft.  In  case  of  a  verb  and  a  following  enclitic  beginning  with  a 
vowel  the  s  is  usually  voiced:  Das  les'  ich  (lei^zig)  oft.  In  a  few  cases  of  syncope  the  s,  when 
the  initial  sound  of  the  syllable,  is  voiced  before  a  following  consonant,  only  however  where 
the  full  form  with  voiced  s  is  also  used:  eis'ge  (ae^zia)  or  eisige  (ae^ziga),  gewesner  (ga'vei^znaR) 
or  gewesener  (go'vei^zanaR),  Basier  (ba:^zlaR)  or  Baseler  (ba:^zal3R),  but  Klausner  (klaos^naR), 
&c.  If  in  a  contracted  word  voiced  s  comes  to  stand  before  a  suffix,  it  is  voiceless:  z  in  Hase, 
but  s  in  Häschen. 

b.  In  all  the  above  positions  s  is  voiceless  in  the  South,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  rhymes  of  the 
poets  from  this  section:  Und  wie  mit  des  fernen  Donners  Getose  \  entstürzt  es  brüllend  dem 
finstern  Schöße  (Schiller).     See  also  34.  2.  a. 

3.  j  is  written:  (1)  j  initially,  as  in  ja,  Jesus,  also  medially  in  Low  German 
and  foreign  words,  as  Boje,  Ma'jor;  (2)  g  medially  in  colloquial  North  German 
when  followed  by  a  vowel  and  preceded  by  a  front  vowel  or  by  a  consonant,  as 
in  Siege,  Berge;    (3)  also  written  g  in  colloquial  N.G.  as  the  initial  sound  of  a 


36.6. NASAL   CONSONANTS 33 

medial  syllable,  where  it  is  usually  followed  by  the  final  1,  n,  or  r  of  the  stem, 
but  if  these  consonants  do  not  form  a  part  of  the  stem  the  pronunciation  of  g 
here  is  g  or  according  to  the  stage  k,  as  the  g  is  the  final  sound  of  the  syllable: 
Vöglein  fer^jlaen  (stem  Vogel),  regnen  Re:'jnan  (stem  Regen),  but  möglich 
meigMig  or  better  me:kMig;  medial  g  in  all  the  cases  given  in  (2)  and  (3)  is  pro- 
nounced g  instead  of  j  in  choice  N.G.  and  upon  the  stage;  (4)  y  in  some  foreign 
words,  as  in  Yankee  (ier)ki:),  in  French  words  after  o,  where  y  is  equal  to  a-j 
wherever  a  vowel  follows,  as  in  loyal  (lo-a-'ja:!).  Royalist  (Ro-a-ja-'list) ;  (5)  also 
contained  in  the  combinations  11,  ill,  and  gn  in  French  (and  in  the  last  case  also 
Italian)  words,  also  in  Spanish  fi:  Bouteille  (bu-'telja),  Campagne  (kam'panja), 
Mignon  (mm'jS:),  Bologna  (bo-'bnja:),  Coruiia  (ko-'Runja:).  See  also  39.  5 
and  6. 

4.  There  Is  but  one  way  of  writing  g,  namely,  g  after  back  vowels  when  fol- 
lowed by  a  vowel,  as  in  Wagen.    The  pronunciation  g  is  used  here  on  the  stage. 

5.  g  (voiced  sch)  is  written:  (1)  j  in  French  and  some  other  foreign  words, 
as  in  Journal,  Jury  (gyaii:),  Don  Juan  (doigu-a:  in  the  sense  of  seducer,  but 
don  ju-'a:n  or  according  to  the  Spanish  don  xu-'a:n  as  a  proper  name);  (2)  g 
(before  e  or  i)  in  French  or  Italian  words,  as  in  ge'nieren,  Logis  (lo:'gi:).  Agio 
(arjio:) ,  Genie  (je-'ni:,  French),  but  Genius  (ge:nius,  from  the  Latin); 
(3)  ge  before  back  vowels  in  French  words,  as  in  Sergeant  (zeR'gant);  (4)  con- 
tained in  j  or  g  in  some  English  words  and  in  g  (before  e  and  i)  and  ggi  in  some 
Italian  words,  where  j,g,  ggi  are  pronounced  dg,  as  in  Jockei  (dgoke:  or  dgokae), 
Gentleman  (dgentalman),  Michelangelo  (mi-kel'andge-lo:).  Arpeggio  (aR'pedgo:), 
&c.,  where  however  in  S.G.  and  M.G.  tS  is  spoken  instead  of  dj. 

6.  The  R  sound  is  written:  r,  as  in  rot;  rr  after  a  short  vowel,  as  in  harren; 
rh  in  German  proper  names  and  in  Greek  words,  as  in  Rhein,  Rhap'sode;  rrh 
in  Greek  words,  as  in  Ka'tarrh. 

Nasals, 

36.  a.  The  labial  and  dental  nasals  m  and  n  are  pronounced  as  English 
m  and  n  in  mad  and  7iag:  Magd,  Hand.  They  are  always  written  m,  n,  or  after 
a  short  vowel  mm,  nn. 

b.  The  velar  nasal  n  (r))  is  pronounced  as  ng  in  English  singer.  The  char- 
acter n  that  represents  this  velar  nasal  is  the  same  as  the  one  that  represents 
the  dental  n,  but  they  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  each  other,  as  the  velar 
n  is  always  followed  by  g,  k,  ck,  c,  x:  in  Hand  the  dental  nasal,  but  in  Gang  and 
sinken  the  velar.  After  the  velar  n,  g  has  become  r),  having  become  assimilated 
to  the  preceding  velar:  older  singen  zir)gan,  now  zigan  with  a  double  or  divided 
g,  a  part  being  spoken  with  each  syllable,  graphically  zir)-r)9n.  When,  how- 
ever, this  double  i)  is  not  followed  by  a  vowel,  but  is  final  or  stands  before  a 
consonant  as  in  sang  zar),  singt  zir)t,  it,  like  all  other  double  sounds,  becomes 
single,  so  that  r)  here  differing  from  t)  elsewhere  is  not  followed  by  another  velar. 
Thus  in  the  final  position  and  before  a  consonant  all  trace  of  g  has  in  choice 
language  disappeared,  except  the  r)  itself,  w-hich  in  a  very  early  period  had 
become  velarized  from  dental  n  under  the  influence  of  the  following  velar  g: 
O.H.G.  sirigan  from  older  smgan.  Thus,  tho  the  g  is  here  absolutely  silent, 
it  actually  lives  on  in  the  preceding  velar  r).  Sectionally,  however,  the  old  g 
is  still  heard.  When  final  or  before  s,  t,  st,  it  is  pronounced  in  parts  of  the 
North  as  k:  gingen  (giijon),  but  often  in  N.G.  ging  (gir)k),  längs  (legks), 
bringt  (briijkt),  Angst  (agkst).  Provincially  the  g  that  follows  r)  is  pro- 
nounced g  in  the  North  when  followed  by  a  vowel:  des  Ganges  (garigas  instead 
of  gar)9s).  In  M.G.  and  S.G.,  prevailingly  in  N.G.,  and  also  upon  the  stage,  the 
g  after  x)  is  ahvays  assimilated  or  silent.  Be  careful  in  speaking  German  not 
to  follow  the  English  practice  of  pronouncing  the  g  after  this  palatal  nasal  when 
the  g  is  followed  by  the  vowel  e:  say  Fing-er  (fir)9R,  not  fir)g9R).  In  foreign 
words,  however,  the  g  is  usually  pronounced,  except  before  9:  Ganges  gauges 
(river),   Ungual    (lir)'güa:l),  &c.,  but  Dschungel    (d3ur)9l).     The  n  at  the  end 


34 LIQUIDS   AND   GLOTTAL   STOP 36.  b. 

of  a  prefix  does  not  in  a  choice  pronunciation  become  r)  before  k  or  g:    ankom- 
men   ('ankoman),  angreifen    ('angRaefan). 

c.  1)  is  written:  (1)  usually  ng,  as  in  singen;  (2)  n  in  native  words  before 
k  or  ck,  as  in  winken,  Vincke  (name);  (3)  n  medially  and  finally  before  c,  g,  k, 
X,  in  foreign  words,  as  in  Salamanca  (zala'magka:),  Ungarn  (urigaRn),  Albalonga 
(alba'briga:).  Sphinx  (sfirjks),  i&c.  However,  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  pre- 
fixes en,  in,  kon,  syn  the  n  is  also  pronounced  n,  usually  however  with  the  dis- 
tinction that  x)  is  spoken  in  a  stressed  syllable  and  n  in  an  unaccented  syllable: 
Synkope  (zyrjko-pe:),  but  enklitisch  (en'kli:ti$),  &c.;  (4)  in  colloquial  North 
German  n  or  m  in  French  words  in  the  combinations  an  or  en,  in,  on,  un  or  urn, 
&c.,  as  illustrated  in  25,  where  however  on  the  stage  instead  of  i)  the  preceding 
vowel  is  nasalized  as  explained  in  25;  (5)  g  before  n  in  foreign  words,  however, 
only  in  foreign  words  other  than  French  and  Italian,  as  in  Agnes  ('ar)-nes), 
Signal  (zir)-'na:l).  Instead  of  the  r)  sound,  x  and  g  are  often  heard  here:  'ax-nes, 
zig-'na:!.  In  choice  language,  however,  gn  here  is  pronounced  gn,  as  in  Agnes 
(agues).  In  French  and  Italian  words  gn  is  pronounced  nj,  as  in  Cham'pagner, 
Cam'pagna. 

Liquids. 

37.  The  liquids  1  and  r  are  sounds  differing  somewhat  from  the  English 
I  and  r. 

1.  In  forming  German  1  the  back  part  of  the  tongue  is  not  raised  as  in  making 
English  1,  but  is  lowered  and  brought  farther  forward  than  in  English  and 
pressed  against  the  teeth,  while  the  front  part  of  the  tongue  assumes  a  convex 
form,  so  that  the  space  between  its  surface  and  the  roof  of  the  mouth  is  more 
narrow  than  in  the  position  for  English  1,  and  hence  the  resultant  sound  is 
clearer  and  lighter.  In  making  German  1  the  opening  of  the  lips  in  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  is  much  more  marked  than  in  English  1. 

2.  The  old  r  (r)  is  pronounced  wnth  the  tip  of  the  tongue  with  a  distinct 
trill.  It  is  now,  on  the  one  hand,  confined  to  provinces  and  small  towns,  or, 
on  the  other  hand,  elevated  to  use  upon  the  stage  on  account  of  its  forcible 
sound.  It  is  disappearing  despite  its  adoption  by  the  stage  and  certain  en- 
thusiasts.    The  more  common  r  is  the  uvular.     See  34.  6. 

Glottal  Stop. 

38.  There  is  in  German  a  consonant  that  is  not  represented  by  any  sign  in 
the  written  language,  namely,  the  glottal  stop.  Phonetists  represent  this  sound 
by  ?.  It  resembles  a  very  faint  cough.  The  glottis  is  closed  and  then  suddenly 
opened,  the  air  thus  escaping  with  a  slight  explosion.  It  is  usually  found  before 
all  strongly  accented  initial  vowels,  i.e.  before  pronouncing  a  stressed  initial 
vowel  the  breath  is  stopped  for  a  moment.  This  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
features  of  German  speech  and  hence  is  rarely  lacking,  except  dialectically  in 
sections  of  the  South.  Thus  Germans  who  speak  the  glottal  stop  do  not  run 
words  together,  as  we  often  do  in  those  cases  where  a  word  ending  in  a  con- 
sonant precedes  one  beginning  with  a  vowel,  since  there  is  really  in  the  German 
a  consonant  between  the  words.  Thus  we  say  notatall,  but  the  Germans  say 
ein  'Apfel.  This  glottal  stop  is  most  clearly  perceptible  in  strongly  accented 
syllables,  and  hence  often  entirely  disappears  in  rapid  conversation  in  enclitics 
and  proclitics:  da  hab'  ich  (ha:p'''i(;),  or  more  commonly  da  häb'  ich  ('ha:^bi5-); 
es  (?es)  zappelt  ja  noch,  when  spoken  distinctly,  but  es  (as)  zappelt  ja  noch, 
when  spoken  rapidly,  the  proclitic  es  .losing  its  identity  and  becoming  a  part  of 
the  following  word.  As  a  rule  it  is  heard  in  the  second  element  of  compounds, 
if  that  element  begins  with  a  vowel:  Windes'eile.  It  is  not,  however,  heard 
in  the  second  element  of  the  following  classes  of  compounds,  as  the  separate 
elements  are  not  distinctly  felt  and  thus  blend  together:  (1)  in  compound 
particles,  as  daran  (da-'nan),  hinab  (hi'nap),  herein  (he'Raen),  vorüber 
(fo-'Ry:baR),  woraus    (vo-'Raos),  &c.;    (2)    in  Ö'bacht,  be'ö'bachten,  ei'nander, 


39.  7.  CONSONANTAL   COMBINATIONS  35 

vollenden    (fo'lendan),  vollends    (fobnts),  allein    (a'laen),  &c.;     (3)  in  foreign 
compounds,  as  Sy'node,  Inte'resse,  &c. 

The  glottal  stop  is  not  especially  indicated  in  this  treatise. 

Consonantal  Combinations. 

39.  The  following  consonantal  combinations  are  discussed  here,  as  they 
may  present  some  difficulties: 

1.  pf  represents  a  compound  of  the  simple  sounds  p  and  f,  the  p  passing 
over  into  f  before  the  closure  is  fully  exploded.  The  greater  volume  of  breath 
is  expended  upon  the  f  so  that  it  is  lengthened  and  strengthened.  This  is  the 
natural  pronunciation  of  the  South,  and  is  also  found  upon  the  stage  and  in 
choice  North  German,  but  the  people  in  a  large  part  of  the  North  and  Mid- 
land pronounce  only  f  in  the  initial  position  and  after  m:  Ferd  (fe:Rt)  instead 
of  Pferd  (pfe:Rt),  Damf  instead  of  Dampf. 

2.  X  represents  a  compound  of  the  two  simple  consonants  k  and  s.  ks  is 
written:  (1)  x,  as  in  Axt,  exakt  (eks'?akt),  Xaver  (ksa:vaR  or  ksa-'ve:R);  (2) 
chs,  as  in  Ochs,  Ochsen;  (3)  ks,  as  in  (des)  Werks;  (4)  cks,  as  in  klecksen, 
Klecks;    (5)  gs,  as  in  flugs,  Jagst  (Jaxt),  Augsburg. 

3.  z  represents  a  compound  of  the  simple  consonants  t  and  s.  ts  is  written: 
(1)  z  initially,  also  after  a  long  or  half  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong  and  after  a  con- 
sonant, as  in  zehn,  dü^zen,  A'käzie,  inspizieren  (inspi'tsi;R9n),  Kauz,  Herz; 
see  4.  2.  A.  d.  (2),  3rd  par.;  (2)  tz  after  a  long  vowel  in  a  few  proper  names,  as 
Grätz  (now  usually  Graz),  &c.;  (3)  tz  regularly  after  a  short  vowel,  as  in 
Katze  (katsa);  (4)  ts,  as  in  Rätsel  (rp:Hs91),  (des)  Hochmuts;  (5)  tts,  as  in 
(des)  Tritts;  (6)  dts,  as  in  Bodenstedts  (gen.  of  a  proper  name);  (7)  ths,  as  in 
Freiligraths  (gen.  of  a  proper  name);  (8)  ds,  as  in  (des)  Bads;  (9)  c,  or  often 
better  z  in  foreign  words  before  front  vowels,  as  in  Cäsar,  Ac'cent  or  better 
Akzent  (ak'tsent);  (10)  t  before  an  i  that  stands  before  a  vowel,  as  in  Patient 
(pa'tsient),  but  not  in  French  words,  where  ie  =  i:,  as  in  Partie  (paR'ti:);  (11)  zz 
in  words  from  the  Italian:   Gran'dezza,  Skizze,  &c. 

4.  The  compound  sound  dg,  which  is  like  g  in  gentleman,  is  represented  in 
print  by  j  or  g  in  words  taken  from  the  English  and  by  g  (before  e  or  i)  and  ggi 
in  Italian  words.    See  35.  5.  (4). 

5.  In  the  popular  language  of  the  North  11  after  i,  and  11  and  ill  after  another 
vowel  not  initial,  are  pronounced  Ij  medially  and  Ig  in  the  final  position  in  all 
words  taken  from  the  French:  Billet  (birjst),  Medaille  (me:'dalJ9),  Fauteuil 
(fo-'tolg).  Medial  Ij  is  also  spoken  in  S.G.  popular  speech,  but  finally  or  before 
a  consonant  the  usual  S.G.  pronunciation  here  is  1:  Fauteuil  (fo-'tol  or  fo-'tel), 
Fauteuils  (fo-'tels  or  fo-'tels).  The  pronunciation  of  the  medial  Ij  has  become 
established  also  in  the  literary  language  in  a  number  of  common  words,  as, 
Bataillon  (batal'jo:n),  Billet  (biKjet),  Bouillon  (buKjo:),  Kanaille  (ka'nalja), 
Medaille  (me-'dalja),  Patrouille  (pa'tRulja),  Postilion  (p3stirjo:n).  Reveille 
(Re-'velja),  &c.,  but  the  final  Ig  or  1  finds  little  favor.  Aside  from  the  list 
just  mentioned,  most  educated  people  prefer  to  pronounce  these  sounds  more 
in  accordance  with  the  French,  j  in  the  medial,  i  in  the  final  position:  Feuille- 
ton (foja'tö:),  Fauteuil  (fo-'toi).  Detail  (de-'tai),  &c.  The  stage  here  recommends 
a  pronunciation  which  is  more  conformed  to  popular  S.G.  speech  but  which  as 
yet  has  not  come  into  wide  use  in  the  literary  language.  It  prescribes  1',  i.  e. 
an  1  blended  with  j  by  assuming  at  the  inception  of  1  the  mouth  position  of  j: 
Detail  (de-'tael').  Details  (de-'tael's).  A  distinct  j  is  heard  after  this  sound 
when  a  vowel  follows:  Feuilleton  (forjatö:). 

6.  In  French  and  Italian  words  gn  is  pronounced  nj:  Champagner  (Sam'pan- 
J3r),  &c.     For  gn  in  other  foreign  words  see  36.  c.  (5). 

7.  qu  and  ku  represent  a  compound  of  the  two  simple  consonants  k  and  v, 
of  which  the  latter  is  more  commonly  labio-dental  than  bilabial  (see  34.  1), 
both  in  German  and  foreign  words:  Quelle  (kveb),  Quadrat  (kva-'dRa:t), 
Biskuit  (bis'kvi:t),  &c.     In  a  number  of  words  from  the  French,  however,  qu  is 


36 


INDO-EUROPEAN   bh,    dh,    gh 


39.7. 


pronounced  k:  Quarantäne  (ka-Rä-'ts:n9),  Queue  (ke:),  Bouquet  or  better 
Bu'kett,  Marquis  (maR'ki:),  Mar'quise,  &c.  These  words  are  still  felt  as 
French  words  and  follow  more  or  less  closely  the  French  pronunciation,  but  in 
case  of  older  loan-words  the  pronunciation  has  become  German,  as  in  quitt 
(kvit). 

8.     gy  is  pronounced  dj  in  words   from  Hungarian:    Magyar  (mad'ja:R)   or 
better  Mad'jar  Magyar,  Hungarian. 


BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  GERMAN  CONSONANTS. 

Their  Relation  to  those  of  other  Languages. 

40.  1.  Consonants  form  in  every  language  the  strong  enduring  trunks  of  linguistic  growth, 
and  thus  remain  tolerably  constant  thruout  the  centuries,  both  in  the  original  language  and  in 
related  tongues,  also  in  words  which  have  passed  from  one  people  to  another.  Thus  the  con- 
sonants in  German  and  English  are  much  the  same.  Altho  consonants  in  general  have  thus 
not  changed  radically  their  nature  as  have  vowels,  a  number  of  them  have  nevertheless  a  clearly 
marked  development,  which  furnishes  important  data  for  determining  the  relation  of  languages 
to  each  other.  There  are  three  distinct  periods  of  development.  The  first  period,  which  repre- 
sents the  original  order  of  things,  is  found  in  a  large  measure  preserved  in  Latin,  Greek,  and 
other  older  languages,  and  their  modern  forms  such  as  modern  Greek,  Italian,  French,  Russian, 
&c.  The  second  period  appears  in  Gothic,  Scandinavian,  Low  German,  and  hence  also  in 
English,  which  in  its  original  stock  of  words  is  Low  German.  This  first  shifting  took  place  in 
prehistoric  Germanic.  The  detailed  account  of  these  sound  changes  is  given  in  a,  b,  c  below. 
The  third  period  appears  in  High  German.  This  second  shifting  began  in  the  sixth  century  and 
was  completed  in  the  tenth.     It  is  described  in  detail  below. 

A  brief  history  of  the  more  difficult  and  characteristic  consonantal  changes  and  their  rela- 
tions to  the  different  dialects  and  kindred  languages  is  here  given  in  the  hope  that  it  may  prove 
helpful  to  the  student  in  increasing  his  appreciation  of  the  language. 

a.  Indo-European  bh,  dh,  gh.  Where  we  have  in  the  parent  language  (Indo-European)  bh 
(developing  later  in  Latin  into  f-  or  -b-),  dh  (in  Latin  f-,  -d-,  or  -b-),  gh  (in  Latin  h-,  g-,  -g-, 
or  -h-)  we  have  in  Gothic,  Low  German  and  English  b  (in  English,  however,  appearing  as  b 
initially,  v  medially,  and  f  finally),  d,  g  (in  English  also  written  y  initially  before  front  vowels, 
y,  i,  w,  medially  or  finally),  and  in  High  German  b,  t  (sometimes  written  th),  g.  In  passing 
from  the  second  to  the  third  period,  bb  (now  written  b  in  English)  and  gg  (often  appearing  as 
dg  in  EngHsh)  usually  become  pp,  ck. 


First  Period 


EXAMPLES. 

Second  F'eriod 
First  Shifting 


Latin 


Early 
Stage 
bh     (1) /rater,  (2)  lu&et 


dh     (l)/ores,  (2)  vidua, 

(.3)  veröum 
gh      (1)  /mrtus,  (2)  /jelvus, 

(4)  longus,  (6)  veÄere 


b      (1)  brother,  (2)  loue,  (3)  grai^e, 
(4)  cal/,  (5)  r\b  (O.E.  r\bb) 

d      (1)  door,  (2)  wi^Zow,  (3)  word, 
(4)  bid  (O.E.  biddan) 

g      (1)  jard  (O.E.  geard),  (2)  ^^ellow, 
(3)  grass,  (4)  long,  (5)  to  stj", 
(6)  wa^'  (O.E.  weg),  (7)  wain, 
(8)  hatl,  (9)  borrow,  (10)  wedge 


Third  Period 
Second  Shifting 

German 
(1)  Bruder,  (2)  lieben, 
(3)  graben,  (4)  Kalb, 
(5)  Rippe 

(1)  Tür,  (2)  Witwe, 
(3)  Wort,  (4)  bit_ten 
(1)  Garten,  (2)  gelb, 
(3)  Gras,  (4)  lang, 
(5)  steigen,  (6)  Weg, 
(7)  Wagen,  (8)  Hagel, 
(9)  borgen,  (10)  Weck 


Note  1.  We  often  find  in  literary  German  bb,  gg  instead  of  pp,  ck:  Krabbe  (Eng.  crab),  flügge  (Eng.  fledge). 
Such  words  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Low  German,  which  in  general  has  much  influenced  the  literary  language. 

Note  2.  Within  tlie  third  period  the  t  that  had  developed  from  Germanic  d  became  voiced  after  nasals,  and  tlius 
regained  its  former  sound:  (O.H.G.)  bintan,  hunta,  &c.;  (N.H.G.)  binden,  Hunde,  &c.  In  a  few  words,  however, 
the  t  remaineil:  hinter,  hinten,  unter,  unten,  munter,  also  in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  as  nannte,  konnte,  &c.,  after 
the  analogy  of  liebte,  &c. 

Note  3.  The  characters  b,  d,  g  do  not  represent  the  same  sounds  in  different  periods  and  diiTerent  parts  of  the 
same  territory.  In  Germanic  in  the  early  stage  of  the  first  shifting  they  were  voiced  spirants,  b,  d,  g.  In 
prehistoric  High  German  they  developed  into  voiced  stops,  b,  d.  g.  and  still  later  in  oldest  South  German  appear  as 
voiceless  stops.  The  present  literary  language  recognizes  this  development  in  case  of  Germanic  d  by  employing  the 
character  t,  which  in  the  North  is  pronounced  t',  i.e.  as  an  aspirated  t,  in  the  South  also  f  in  choice  language  but  in 
colloquial  speech  and  dialect  as  an  unaspirated  t  or  a  voiceless  d.     In  case  of  the  sounds  that  have  developed  out  of 


40.  1.  b. INDO-EUROPEAN   bh,   dh,    gh   &   p,    t,   k 37 

Germanic  b  and  g  the  literary  language  uses  the  letters  b  and  g,  which  in  the  Soutli  are  pronounced  as  voiceless  b  and  g, 
in  the  choice  language  of  the  North  initially  and  medially  as  voiced  b  and  g,  finally  or  before  a  consonant  b  as  p  and  g 
as  c  or  X,  or  on  the  stage  k  (details  in  29).  In  English  the  Germanic  spirants  b,  d,  g,  except  g  before  front  vowels, 
became  voiced  stops,  b,  d,  g  initially  and  d  also  elsewhere  (for  exception  see  Note  4)  and  also  g  sometimes  elsewhere', 
especially  after  a  nasal  and  in  a  number  of  cases  when  doubled:  gold,  longer,  frog  (O.E.  froggal.  Initial  spirant  g' 
survives  before  front  vowels,  as  in  yellow  (German  gelb).  Where  initial  g  is  found  here  as  a  stop,  as  in  give,  gueal  (gest), 
it  is  usually  explained  as  the  result  of  Scandinavian  influence.  In  N.G.  and  M.G.  popular  speech  g  is  still  in  most 
positions  a  spirant.  For  full  explanation  see  29  and  also  a  thereunder.  In  Old  English,  g  remained  a  spirant  medialfy 
and  finally.  Later  it  developed  into  a  w,  y,  or  i,  and  still  later  had  also  other  developments,  so  that  the  original  sound 
is  no  longer  felt:  borgian  (O.E.),  borrow  (N.E.);  weg  (O.E.),  way  (N.E.);  hagol  (O.E.),  hail  (N.E.).  In  a  few  Ger- 
man words  medial  g  has  developed  in  much  the  same  way:  Getreide  (M.H.G.  getregede,  all  that  which  has  resulted 
from  bearing,  i.e.  grain,  from  tragen  to  bear),  Hain  (contracted  from  Hagen  forest,  grove,  now  entirely  replaced  by 
the  shorter  form).  Maid  (from  older  maget,  N.H.G.  Magd),  &c.  As  described  in  29.  a  there  is  a  voiced  spirant  b  in 
wide  use  medially  in  the  dialects  of  the  Midland,  Southeast,  and  in  sections  of  the  North.  This  voiced  spirant  is 
in  the  North  and  parts  of  the  Midland  the  old  Germanic  spirant  b  as  it  is  found  in  the  oldest  documents  of  these 
sections,  while  the  voiced  spirant  spoken  further  south  in  the  Midland  and  Southeast  has  developed  out  of  a  weakly 
articulated  voiceless  stop,  which  in  the  oldest  historic  period  was  a  strongly  articulated  voiceless  stop,  which  thru 
the  intermediate  stage  of  voiced  stop  had  developed  out  of  the  Germanic  spirant  b,  as  described  above.  Thus  thru 
several  intermediate  stages  this  modern  spirant  has  back-developed  into  the  original  Germanic  spirant  b.  The  group 
of  b's  which  developed  after  1  and  r,  as  described  in  40.  2.  c,  has  joined  this  group  of  b's.  In  the  literary  language 
they  are  pronounced  as  the  stop  b  but  in  the  dialects  of  the  Midland,  the  Southeast,  and  sections  of  the  North  they 
are  still  spoken  as  the  spirant  w,  as  in  older  German,  i.e.  with  the  same  pronunciation  as  the  spirant  b  just  described. 
In  English  we  have  the  survivals  of  Germanic  spirant  b  in  medial  v  and  final  f,  as  in  calves,  calf. 

For  another  group  of  b's,  d's,  g's  which  has  joined  this  one,  and  had  the  same  development  see  2.  a  below. 

Notei.  In  a  number  of  English  words,  d  (including  the  d's  which  resulted  from  th  in  accordance  with  Verner's 
Law;  see  2.  a  below)  has  in  comparatively  recent  times  developed  into  a  voiced  th  before  (e)r,  and  found  a  cor- 
responding expression  in  the  ortliography:  father  (O.E.  faeder),  Vater;  mother  (O.E.  modor).  Mutter;  weather 
Wetter,  &c. 

b.  Indo-European  p,  t,  k.  Where  in  Latin  we  have  the  voiceless  stops  p,  t,  k  (c,  q),  we 
find  in  Gothic,  Low  German,  and  English  the  voiceless  spirants  f,  th  (d  in  modern  L.G.),  h  (in 
English  also  written  gh),  and  in  High  German  f,  d,  h  (chj.  The  character  h  does  not  represent 
the  same  sound  in  the  different  periods.  Early  in  the  second  period,  immediately  after  the  first 
shifting,  it  was  pronounced  as  ch.  Even  as  early  as  the  Gothic  period  it  had  become  h,  at  least 
initially.  It  is  in  the  German  of  our  time  always  pronounced  as  h  initially,  and  elsewhere  is 
silent,  except  when  final  or  before  a  t  or  st,  where  the  older  pronunciation  is  still  sometimes  pre- 
served, and  is  indicated  by  the  character  ch:  hoher,  but  hoch,  höchst;  näher  but  nächst; 
schmähen,  but  Schmach;  sehen,  but  Gesicht;  (er)  flieht,  but  in  poetic  or  archaic  language 
(er)  fleucht.  Usually,  however,  final  ch  has  been  leveled  to  h  under  the  influence  of  medial  h 
that  stands  in  other  forms  of  the  same  word.  Thus  older  Schuch  (still  preserv^ed  in  the  proper 
name  Schuchardt  (=  M.H.G.  schuochworhte  shoe-worker,  i.e.  shoe-maker)  has  become  Schuh  after 
the  analogy  of  des  Schuhes.  In  isolated  words  where  this  analogy  does  not  present  itself  the 
old  final  ch  is  preserved:  doch,  durch,  nach,  noch.  In  oldest  German  double  h  was  pronounced 
ch.  It  survives  in  lachen  (lax-xan),  Zeche  (tseg-ga),  zechen  (tseg-gan),  altho  the  doubling  or 
dividing  is  not  indicated  by  the  orthography.  See  also  Note  7  below.  Also  in  English,  h  has 
become  h  initially,  elsewhere  it  has  disappeared,  or  is  represented  by  gh,  which  is  now  silent 
or  pronounced  as  f. 

The  various  changes  of  p,  t,  k  (c,  q)  in  the  different  periods  are  illustrated  by  the  following 
examples: 

First  Period,  Second  Period,  Third  Period, 

Latin.  English  (First  Shifting).  German   (Second  Shifting), 

pes  /oot  Fuß 

/res  three  drei 

cor,  seqiior  heart,  sight  and  see,  Herz,  Gesicht  and  sehen, 

hig/i,  rough  hoch,  rauh 

While  it  is  true  as  above  stated  and  illustrated  that  p,  t,  k  of  the  first  period  developed  into 
the  spirants  f,  th,  h  (=  ch)  in  the  second  period,  these  new  sounds  very  soon  even  before  the 
time  of  historic  records  experienced  a  further  development.  In  the  initial  position  and  after  a 
stressed  vowel,  f,  th,  h  (=  ch)  remained  f,  th,  h  (=  ch),  but  after  an  unaccented  vowel  between 
voiced  sounds  these  voiceless  spirants  became  voiced  spirants,  b,  d,  g  as  described  and  illustrated 
in  2.  a  below.  These  b's,  d's,  g's  joined  the  large  group  of  b's,  d's,  g's  in  a  above  and  developed 
later  along  with  them. 

The  f,  th  (i.e.  J)),  h  (originally  x)  of  the  second  period  developed  out  of  the  strengthening  of 
the  articulation  of  the  p,  t,  k  of  the  first  period,  i.e.  aspiration  (29.  a)  developed  after  p,  t,  k, 
expressed  phonetically  by  p',  t',  k',  and  later  became  so  strong  that  it  developed  into  an  inde- 
pendent spirant,  so  that  p',  t',  k'  became  pf,  tj),  kx.  Later  the  second  sound  in  each  combina- 
tion assimilated  to  itself  the  first  sound,  so  that  pf,  tf),  kx  became  f,  Jj,  x.  Still  later  x  lost  the 
velar  articulation  and  became  the  h  sound  as  we  hear  it  to-day  in  English.  Altho  the  first  stages 
of  this  development  are  not  disclosed  by  historic  records  they  may  be  regarded  as  assured,  for 
we  see  almost  the  same  development  repeated  later  in  historic  times,  as  described  in  c  below, 
last  par. 

Note  1.  The  consonants  p.  t,  k,  did  not  shift  when  the  final  sound  in  the  combinations  sp,  st,  sk.  pt,  kt:  spuo  (L.), 
spew  (E.),  speien  (G.);  hostis  (L.),  gasts  (Gothic),  guest  (E.).  Gast  (G.);  piscis  (L.),  fisc  (O.E.),  fisc  (O.H.G.), 
N.H.G.  Fisch,  Mod.  Eng.  fish;  captus  (L.),hsft  (O.E.),  Haft  (G.);  octo  (L.),  eahta  (O.E.),  eight  (Mod.  E.), 
acht  (G.).  While  the  final  sound  p,  t.  k  of  these  combinations  remained  unchanged  thruout  the  two  shiftings  the 
aspirated  p  before  t  developed  in  the  first  shifting  into  f,  and  the  aspirated  k  before  t  into  h  (i.e.  x),  as  in  the  last  two 
examples.  It  is  evident  here  that  aspiration,  now  a  marked  feature  of  the  Germanic  languages,  had  not  reached  its 
full  development  yet.  The  consonant  before  final  p.t,  k,  prevented  the  development  of  aspiration  after  p,  t,  k  and 
consequently  the  formation  of  a  spirant  liere.  In  late  O.H.G.  the  k  after  s.  as  in  fisc,  developed  into  x,  so  that  fisc 
became  fisx  and  still  later  fij,  as  described  in  32.  i.Note.  (2).     The  late  O.H.G.  development  of  k  here  into  x  indi- 


38 INDO-EUROPEAN    b,    d,    g 40.  1.  b. 

cates  clearly  that  after  the  second  shifting  aspiration  liad  developed  after  k.  In  our  own  time  there  has  been  a  further 
development  of  aspiration  after  p,  t,  k  in  combination  with  other  consonants,  but  in  certain  combinations,  as  de- 
scribed in  29.  a,  it  has  not  yet  appeared. 

The  ft's  and  ht's  have  been  increased  from  another  source.  In  Germanic  before  a  t  all  labials  appear  as  f,  and 
velars  as  h  (=ch):  give,  gift;  geben.  Gift;  may  (O.E.  mseg),  might  (O.E.  miht);  mögen,  Macht;  think,  thought 
(O.E.  dohte);  denken,  dachte.  This  movement  began  in  pre-Germanic,  and  is  so  complicated  that  it  cannot  be 
explained  here. 

Note  2.  In  the  earliest  history  of  English,  th  developed  into  d  after  or  before  /,  so  that  we  here  find  d  in  both 
English  and  German:  wild,  wild;  gold.  Gold;  needle,  Nadel,  &c.  In  the  eleventh  century  Low  German  th  began 
to  develop  into  d  in  all  positions,  thus  shifting  to  d  as  High  German  had  already  done,  so  that  modern  Low 
German,  differing  from  English,  now  has  the  same  sound  here  as  High  German:   dat  (L.G.),  das,  that. 

Note  3.  Indo-European  p,  t,  k  have  been  seemingly  preserved  in  Germanic  where  they  stood  before  an  accented 
syllable  with  initial  n.  The  Indo-European  p,  t.  k  became,  according  to  rule,  f,  th,  h  (ch),  which  according  to  Verner's 
Law  (see  2.  a  below)  developed  into  b,  d,  g,  as  the  preceding  vowel  was  unaccented.  By  assimilation  the  bn,  dn, 
gn  became  bb.  dd,  gg.  Simple  b,  d,  g  were  spirants,  but  bb,  dd,  gg  developed  into  stops,  and  later  became  voiceless 
pp.  tt,  ck,  perhaps  at  the  same  time  that  Indo-European  b,  d,  g  became  p,  t,  k,  as  described  in  c  below.  In  the  second 
shifting  pp,  tt,  ck  became,  according  to  c,  below,  pf,  tz,  ck,  so  that  in  case  of  k  there  is  no  difference  of  sound  in  the 
three  periods:  duco  (L.),  tuck  (Eng.),  zucken.  Related  words  will  have  different  sounds  here,  according  as  Indo- 
European  p,  t,  k  were  originally  simple  sounds  or  were  followed  by  an  accented  n:  schnauben  (regular  Germanic  f 
having  developed  into  b  according  to  Verner's  Law),  schnupfen;  sclineiden,  schnitt  (Germanic  th  having  developed 
into  d  according  to  Verner's  Law  and  later  in  H.G.  shifting  to  t),  sclinitzen;  ziehen,  zog,  Zug  (the  regular  Germanic 
h  having  developed  into  g  according  to  Verner's  Law),  zucken,  compare  English  tie  (O.E.  tiegan),  tuck;  biegen, 
bücken;   schmiegen,  schmücken. 

Xole  -i.  Corresponding  to  English  thousand  we  should  expect  Dausend  and  in  O.H.G.  the  form  with  d  is  found. 
After  much  fluctuation  the  form  with  t  has  become  established.  In  older  German  teutsch  was  often  used  for  the 
correct  deutsch,  but  it  has  disappeared. 

Note  .S.  In  Low  German  f  before  t  goes  over  into  ch,  which  is  also  found  in  the  literary  language  in  a  few  words 
from  L.G.:  sacht  (=  H.G.  sanft),  Schlucht  (H.G.  Schluft,  now  little  used  in  plain  prose,  but  not  infrequent  in  poetry 
and  even  in  prose  in  S.G.  writers,  as  in  Hermann  Hesse's  Peter  Camenzind,  p.  2),  Nichte  (H.G.  form  Niftel,  now  only 
archaic ).     For  the  dropping  out  of  n  in  sacht  see  2.  e  below. 

Note  6.  In  M.G.  dialects  nd  becomes  ng.  Luther  introduced  this  form  into  the  language  in  schlingen  to  swallow. 
The  original  form  survives  in  the  related  word  Schlund. 

Note  7.  The  old  final  ch  is  often  better  preserved  in  southern  dialects  than  in  the  literary  language:  Viech  instead 
of  the  literary  form  Vieh.  This  old  ch  often  spreads  in  these  dialects  to  the  medial  position:  Viecher,  pi.  of  Viech. 
In  the  literary  language  the  opposite  development  usually  takes  place,  medial  h  leveling  out  final  ch:  Schuh  instead 
of  older  Schuch,  as  it  follows  the  analogy  of  des  Schuhes. 

c.  Indo-European  b,  d,  g.  Where  In  Latin  we  find  the  voiced  stops  b,  d,  g,  we  find  in  Gothic, 
Low  German,  and  English  p,  t,  k  (c,  q,  in  EngHsh  also  ch,  tch),  and  in  High  German  two  dif- 
ferent groups,  according  to  their  position  in  the  word — pf,  z,  k,  on  the  one  hand,  and  f,  s  (ss,  ß), 
ch  on  the  other.  In  passing  from  the  second  to  the  third  period,  p  remained  p  before  p,  it  became 
pf  initially,  also  after  m  and  p  but  elsewhere  became  f ;  t  remained  t  before  t,  it  became  z  (tz) 
initially,  also  after  t  or  another  consonant,  but  elsewhere,  i.e.  medially  and  finally  after  a  vowel, 
became  ss,  ß,  or  s;  k  remained  unchanged  initially,  after  another  consonant,  or  when  doubled 
(written  ck),  but  a  single  k  developed  into  ch  medially  and  finally  after  a  vowel.  Thus  as  ex- 
plained below,  p  remained  unchanged  before  p,  t  unchanged  before  t,  k  unchanged  before  k,  also 
initially  and  after  k  or  another  consonant.  As  a  modification  of  this  statement  it  should  be 
noted  that  p  and  t  remained  unchanged  after  s,  and  t  unchanged  after  f  and  ch,  as  explained  in 
b.  Note  1.  Also  for  the  peculiar  development  of  k  after  s  see  b.  Note  1.  The  various  changes  de- 
scribed above  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  examples: 

First  Period,  Second  Period,  Third  Period, 

Latin.  English  (First  Shifting).  German  (Second  Shifting), 

du&us  (Lithuanian*  (1)  ^ool,  (2)  stum^,  (1)  Pfuhl,  (2)  Stumpf, 

word  corresponding  (3)  apple,  (4)  dee^,  (3)  Apfel,  (ap-pfal), 

to  (4))  (5)  hel^  (4)  tief,  (5)  helfen 

decern,  cor  (cor^/Is)  ten,   heart,   sittan    (O.E.;  zehn,  Herz,  sitzen  (zit-tsan), 

now    sit),    eat,    ate,    it  essen,  aß,  es 

jugum  yo^e,  ba^e,  cold,    drln^,  Joch,  bachen  or  backen 

mil/fe,     lick    (Note    4);  (iVo/e  5),  kalt,  trinken,  melken, 

bencÄ,  stretch  lecken,  Bank,  strecken 

Pf  and  z  or  tz  (both  =  ts)  in  German  are  the  result  of  the  strengthening  of  the  aspiration 
(29.  a.)  found  in  the  p  and  t  of  the  second  period,  which  is  still  preserved  In  English.  While  pf 
thus  developed  out  of  the  aspirated  p  after  a  p,  and  z  after  the  aspirated  t  after  a  t,  the  p  before 
the  aspirated  p  and  the  t  before  the  aspirated  t  remained  unchanged,  as  p,  t,  k  then  as  now  (see 
29.  a)  were  not  aspirated  before  an  aspirated  sound:  Apfel  (ap-pfal),  sitzen  (zit-tsan).  German 
pf  and  z  (ts)  further  developed  in  certain  positions  into  f  and  ss  or  ß,  as  the  first  sound  in  these 
combinations  was  assimilated  to  the  second.  Hence  we  should  naturally  expect  to  find  the 
strong  aspiration  qf  the  k  of  the  second  period  developed  into  kch  and  we  should  expect  to  find 
this  new  combination  in  certain  positions  developed  by  assimilation  into  ch.  All  these  changes 
have  actually  taken  place  and  are  still  clearly  discernible  in  the  extreme  South  as  described  in 
Note  6  below.  In  the  literary  language  only  the  final  stage  of  this  development  has  been  pre- 
served, namely  the  ch  which  developed  out  of  the  kch  which  had  developed  out  of  the  aspirated 
k  of  the  second  period,  as  in  Joch,  from  older  Jokch,  which  is  from  an  older  form  with  aspirated 
k,  which  is  still  preserved  in  English  yo/fee.  This  development  is  found  in  the  literary  language 
only  after  vowels,  but  it  is  old.  Later  it  spread  in  the  extreme  South  to  other  positions.  The 
development  here  of  p',  t',  k'  to  f,  ß  (i.e.  s),  ch  (i.e.  x)  is  almost  identical  with  that  described  in 

*As  b  was  a  rare  sound  in  the  original  language  it  is  difficult  to  find  apt  examples.  Lithuanian  is  used  for  the  illus- 
tration here  as  Latin  does  not  serve  the  purpose  so  \yell. 


40.  2.  g.  INDO-EUROPEAN   b,   d,   g  — VERNER'S   LAW 39 

b  (last  par.)  above,  where  the  p,  t,  k  of  the  first  period  became  aspirated  and  developed  into  the 
f,  th  (i.e.  J),  a  lisped  s),  h  (in  its  oldest  stage  =  x)  of  the  second  period. 

Note  1.  As  Germanic  p,  except  before  p,  became  either  pf  or  f,  we  should  not  expect  to  find  any  p's  in  German 
except  the  p's  before  pf,  which  are  not  indicated  by  the  orthography,  as  in  Apfel  (ap-pfsl),  and  those  that  came  from 
Germanic  bb  and  sp  according  to  a  and  b  {Note  1 )  above,  but  in  fact  we  find  a  considerable  number  of  other  p's  and 
pp's.  They  are  not  exceptions  to  the  rule,  but  are  loan-words  in  large  part  from  the  Low  German:  picken,  puffen. 
Pumpe,  humpeln,  Knüppel,  schuppen  (N.G.,  but  in  S.G.  schupfen),  Lippe  (a  L.G.  and  M.G.  word  introduced  by 
Luther,  now  more  common  than  the  H.G.  Lefze),  &c.  Also  from  other  languages:  Pakt  (L.),  Parade  (Fr.),  &c. 
There  is  another  list  of  words  containing  p  from  another  source:  In  oldest  S.G.  b  was  often  strongly  articulated  and 
hence  was  \\Titten  p.  Later  the  articulation  except  in  certain  positions  was  weakened  to  voiceless  b  and  hence  was 
often  written  b.  Still  later  in  the  Midland  in  Saxony  and  Thuringia  we  find  both  b  and  p  pronounced  as  voiceless  b, 
so  that  b  in  Luther  and  other  M.G.  writers  from  this  section  was  very  often  written  p.  Thus  for  many  centuries 
there  was  considerable  fluctuation,  so  that  often  in  the  same  word  historic  b,  whether  of  German  or  foreign  origin, 
was  written  b  or  p,  or  both  forms  occur.  On  the  other  hand,  historic  p  often  appeared  as  b.  Later,  scholars  in  many 
cases  regulated  here  the  orthography  in  accordance  with  historic  principles  and  Midlanders  from  the  Rhine  region 
and  North  Germans  worked  unconsciously  in  the  same  direction  as  they  distinguished  in  their  native  speech  between 
b  and  p.  In  some  words,  however,  historical  b,  whether  of  German  or  foreign  origin,  is  still  written  p:  Polster  (Luther, 
but  in  O.H.G.  bolstar  or  polstar.  Eng.  bolster).  Panier  (Luther,  Fr.  banniere),  gepott  (Luther,  but  later  changed  by 
him  to  its  present  form  Gebot),  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  in  a  few  words  Low  German  and  foreign  p  appears  as  b: 
Bremse  (Middle  Low  German  premese),  Birne  (L.  pira),  &c.  Luther  under  S.G.  influence  wrote  Bapst  (Old  French 
papes,  from  L.  papa),  which  later  under  learned  influence  became  Papst  in  order  that  it  might  better  indicate  its 
origin. 

Note  2.  Tt  (or  t)  before  er  (older  r)  did  not  shift  in  the  change  from  the  second  to  the  third  period:  baitrs  (Gothic), 
bitter  (Eng.),  bitter  (G.);  wintrus  (Gothic),  winter  (Eng.),  Winter  (G.);  otter  (Eng.).  Otter  (G.);  true  (Eng.), 
treu  (G.). 

Note  3.  The  student  might  naturally  think  there  should  be  no  double  t's  in  German  aside  from  those  in  the  words 
given  in  Note  2,  as  the  others  shifted  totz.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  tt's,  not  exceptions  to  the  rule  but  a 
modern  development.  In  M.H.G.  a  short  vowel  was  often  found  in  an  open  syllable  before  a  single  consonant:  ve-ter, 
hä-mer,  &c.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  vowel  here  usually  became  long,  as  illustrated  in  4.  1.  b.  Note,  but  often  before  t 
and  m  the  syllable  became  closed,  so  that  the  vowel  remained  short  and  the  consonant  was  doubled  to  indicate  the 
closedness  of  the  syllable  and  the  shortness  of  the  vowel:  M.H.G.  ve-ter,  hä-mer,  but  N.H.G.  Vet-ter,  Ham-mer. 
See  also  4.  1.6.  Note. 

Note  4.  English  lick  and  German  lecken,  which  belong  here,  are  related  to  Latin  lingere  to  lick,  which  comes 
from  the  Indo-Europea'n  stem  ligh  and  hence  belongs  to  group  a  as  confirmed  by  Gothic  laigön  to  lick,  which  is  the 
corresponding  Germanic  form  of  the  second  period.  The  Germanic  stem  lig-  had  another  form,  lign-,  which  was 
formed  by  adding  the  accented  suffix  n.  Later  this  form  became  ligg-  by  assimilation.  Double  b,  d,  g  did  not  remain 
spirant  b,  d,  g  thruout  the  early  Germanic  period  as  did  the  simple  sounds,  but  developed,  as  described  in  b.  Note  3, 
above,  along  with  the  original  Indo-European  voiced  stops  b,  d,  g  into  voiceless  stops,  i.e.  pp,  tt,  kk  (ck).  In 
this  way  *liggön  became  lecken,  and  passed  out  of  the  group  a  and  joined  the  words  in  this  group  (c),  which  had 
developed  a  k  out  of  Indo-European  g. 

Note  5.  As  the  simple  and  double  sounds  had  a  different  development,  we  find  different  consonants  in  related 
words  or  related  languages,  according  as  the  sounds  were  simple  or  double:  wachen,  wecken;  bake,  batch;  bacheo 
(early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  S.G.;    see  203.  i),  backen  (literary  word). 

Note  6.  Corresponding  to  the  H.G.  change  of  t  and  p  to  tz  and  pf  is  the  change  of  k  to  kch  (kx)  found  in  certain 
positions  in  certain  dialects  of  the  extreme  South:  (Tyrol)  Kchind  for  Kind,  Finkch  for  Fink,  but  ch  (x,  from  older 
kx)  after  1  and  r,  as  in  Pirche  (from  older  Pirkche)  for  Birke.  Initial  ch  from  older  kch  is  found  further  west  in  most 
parts  of  Switzerland:  Chopf  for  Kopf.  This  ch  from  older  kch  is  widely  found  in  different  positions  in  Swiss  dialects. 
Where,  however,  Germanic  k  stood  after  n  or  where  it  was  doubled  it  did  not  in  most  dialects  develop  further  than 
kch:  Finkch  for  Fink,  tekche  for  decken  (dek-ksn).  Instead  of  kch  in  these  two  positions  we  find  simple  k  in  certain 
sections  of  eastern  Switzerland  where  there  was  a  large  Romance  population  at  the  time  of  the  original  occupation  of 
the  country  by  the  Germans.  The  Romance  people  in  speaking  the  language  of  the  invaders  substituted  for  the 
difficult  German  combination  kch  their  native  k,  which  finally  became  established  in  the  dialect.  In  loan-words 
from  the  literary  language  and  in  foreign  words  we  find  in  the  different  Swiss  dialects  kch  for  foreign  k  instead  of  the 
native  sound  ch  as  an  attempt  is  made  to  approach  the  foreign  pronunciation:  kchriegen  for  literary  kriegen  to  get, 
Kchamerad  for  Kamerad,  &c. 

.^11  these  changes  of  k  to  kch  and  the  further  development  to  ch  are,  except  after  vowels,  of  much  later  date  than 
the  change  of  t  to  tz  and  that  of  p  to  pf.  The  change  of  k  thru  kch  to  ch  after  vowels,  however,  as  in  Joch  (Eng. 
yofee)  belongs  to  the  early  period  of  the  first  High  German  consonantal  changes  and  took  place  over  the  entire  terri- 
tory, hence  is  not  only  found  in  Switzerland  and  Tyrol  but  everi'where  in  High  German. 

Note  7.  In  many  words  we  find  t  instead  of  z  and  ß.  They  are  for  the  most  part  introductions  from  Low  German: 
Talg,  Teer,  Boot,  Beute,  &c. 

2.     OTHER  CONSOXANT.^L  CHANGES. 

The  above  consonantal  changes,  the  main  points  of  which  were  in  part  discovered  by  Jacob 
Grimm,  in  part  formulated  by  him  from  the  older  discoveries  of  Raskand  then  published  in  1822, 
in  part  presented  to  scholars  later  by  other  investigators,  have  been  sketched  only  in  their 
roughest  outlines.  There  are  many  exceptions  and  also  additional  changes.  Attention  is  here 
called  to  a  few  of  the  more  important: 

a.  Verner's  Law.  In  1876  the  Danish  scholar  K.  Verner  published  his  discovery  that 
the  cause  of  the  deviation  of  a  certain  group  of  words  from  the  laws  given  in  the  preceding  ar- 
ticles lay  in  a  difference  of  accent  in  the  prehistoric  period.  From  this  discovery  it  becomes 
evident  that  in  the  pre-Germanic  period  at  the  time  that  Indo-European  p,  t,  k  shifted  to  the 
spirants  f,  th  (pronounced  as  in  English),  h  (=  ch)  the  accent  did  not  rest  regularly  upon  the 
first  syllable  of  a  word  as  to-day  but  often  rested  upon  another  and  often  even  fell  upon  different 
syllables  in  the  same  inflectional  system,  so  that  pre-Germanic  accent  must  have  been  in  general 
the  same  free  stress  as  that  originally  found  in  the  Indo-European  family  of  languages  and  still 
preserved  in  part  in  Sanskrit  and  Greek.  In  this  prehistoric  period,  as  can  be  later  seen  in 
Gothic  and  less  perfectly  in  Old  English  and  other  Germanic  languages,  the  voiceless  spirants 
f,  th,  h  (=  ch),  s,  remained  voiceless  only  initially  and  after  an  accented  vowel,  but  between 
voiced  sounds  after  an  unaccented  vowel  became  voiced  b,  d,  g,  z  (voiced  s):  'kleptö  (Greek), 
hli/an  (Gothic)  io  steal,  but  he/>'ta  (Greek),  siöun  (Gothic)  seven;  'fräter  (Latin),  brö/Äar  (Gothic), 
but  pa'4er  (Greek),  fat/ar  (Gothic)  father;  'decem  (Latin),  tai/nm  (Gothic)  ten,  but  de'^u  (pre- 
Germanic),  tigus  (Gothic)  decade;  c\ms  (Latin)  some  one  or  other,  hwazuh  (Gothic)  any  one  at  all, 
every  one.  Also  the  unaccented  prefix  ge  (cognate  with  Latin  co-,  con-,  cum)  shows  a  voiced 
form  of  an  originally  voiceless  consonant,  i.e.  ch.  English  should  also  in  general  show  the  same 
consonants  here  as  the  Gothic,  but  in  the  course  of  their  development  b,  d,  g  have  changed  con- 
siderably, as  described  for  the  b's,  d's,  g's  in  1.  a,  above,  and  also  Notes  3  and  4  thereunder. 


40 OTHER   CONSONANTAL   CHANGES     40.  2.  a. 

Both  of  these  groups — the  b's,  d's,  g's  from  Indo-European  bh,  dh,  gh  and  the  b's,  d's,  g's 
from  Germanic  f,  th,  h  (=  ch)  according  to  Verner's  Law — which  had  come  from  originally 
quite  different  sources  merged  into  one  in  prehistoric  Germanic.  From  then  on,  the  b's,  d's,  g's 
from  both  of  these  sources  had  the  same  development.  Germanic  z  became  r  in  English,  and 
all  the  other  members  of  the  German  family  before  the  period  of  the  second  shifting:  Eng. 
was,  were;  was  (15th  century,  later  leveled  to  war  by  the  plural  form),  waren.  The  r  from 
older  z  is  found  in  the  pronouns  er,  ihr,  mir,  wir,  ihr,  wer,  in  the  plural  ending  -er,  in  the 
comparative  ending  -er,  in  the  inseparable  prefix  er-,  &c. 

After  the  second  shifting  of  the  consonants  had  taken  place  in  High  German,  the  b,  d,  g, 
which  resulted  from  f,  th,  h  (ch)  according  to  Verner's  Law,  appear  as  b,  t,  g,  while  the  f,  th,  h  (ch) 
which  followed  the  accented  vowel  appear  as  f,  d,  h  (ch).  Germanic  z  had  already  become  r 
previous  to  this  shifting,  while  Germanic  s  remained  s.  Hence  different  consonants  may  still 
be  found  in  the  different  grammatical  forms  of  the  same  word  or  in  related  words,  owing  to  the 
original  difference  of  accent.  Thus  we  find  an  occasional  change  of  f  to  b,  d  to  t,  h  to  g,  s  to  r: 
Hof  and  hübsch,  schneiden  and  schni_tt,  ziehen  and  zog,  zehn  and  zwanzig,  Frost  and  frieren. 

The  English  consonants  here  as  elsewhere  did  not  participate  in  the  second  shift.  Low  German 
differing  from  English  suffered  also  the  change  of  th  to  d,  but  the  change  took  place  much  later 
than  in  High  German. 

Note.  A  force  somewhat  similar  to  Verner's  Law  was  again  at  work  in  English  at  the  close  of  the  Middle  English 
period,  especially  in  the  final  position  after  a  vowel:  oath  with  voiceless  th  after  a  stressed  vowel,  but  tlie  unstressed 
preposition  with  with  voiced  th\  stressed  o// with  voiceless/,  but  unstressed  o/ with  voiced  f,  i.e.  v;  voiced  s  after  an 
unstressed  vowel,  as  in  kisses  (kisiz),  &c. 

b.  The  labialized  velars  g'^h,  k'^,  g^  of  the  parent  Indo-European  language  shifted  ir- 
regularly in  different  languages,  altho  they  in  general  followed  the  laws  described  in  the  pre- 
ceding articles.  They  consisted  of  a  velar  and  a  labial  element.  In  the  course  of  their  develop- 
ment they  lost  by  assimilation  sometimes  one  of  these  elements,  sometimes  another,  and  were 
otherwise  variously  affected.     The  following  table  presents  a  general  view  of  these  changes: 

I.-E.  g"h  Lat.  f,  gu,  v  Germanic  gw,  g,  w. 

,,      k"  ,,      qu  ,,  hw,  h;  gw,  g,  w. 

,,      g"  ,,     v,  gu  ,,  qu  (i.e.  kw). 

The  Germanic  g's  in  the  second  line  are  the  result  of  development  from  h  (=  ch)  under  the 
operation  of  Verner's  Law  (see  a  above)  and  hence  once  followed  an  unaccented  vowel.  Only 
a  few  examples  can  be  given  here:  angustus  (L.),  aggwus  (Goth.),  eng  (G.);  quis  (L.),  who 
(Eng.),  wer  (G.);  linquo  (L.),  leihwan  (Goth.),  loan  (Eng.),  leihen  (G.);  tranquillus  (L.), 
hweila  (Goth.),  while  (Eng.),  Weile  (G.);  aqua  (L.),  ahwa  (Goth.),  -ach  (G.;  see  245.  I.  18.  a), 
as  in  Salzach  (river),  where  the  older  sound  of  Germanic  h  is  preserved;  vivus  (L.),  quick 
(Eng.),  Quecksilber  (G.),  erquicken  (G.).  It  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  the  table  that  it  does 
not  contain  consonants  that  were  usually  affected  by  the  second  shifting,  so  that  in  general  we 
find  the  Germanic  consonants  still  surviving  in  both  English  and  German.  In  the  individual 
life  of  the  two  languages,  however,  these  consonants  have  here  developed  somewhat  differently, 
as  can  be  seen  by  the  examples. 

c.  Germanic  thw  has  developed  peculiarly.  It  went  over  regularly  into  dw  in  O.H.G.,  and 
later  in  M.H.G.  developed  into  tw,  and  still  later  in  that  period  into  zw:  thwingan  (Old  Saxon), 
dwingan  (O.H.G.),  twingen  (M.H.G. ),  zwingen   (late  M.H.G.  and  N.H.G.). 

Germanic  dw  has  had  a  similar  development:  dwarf  (Eng.),  twerg  (O.H.G.),  twerc  (M.H.G.), 
Zwerg  (N.H.G.). 

High  German  tw,  whether  derived  from  Germanic  thw  or  dw,  has  developed  into  zw  or  qu. 
A  number  of  words  fluctuate  between  the  two  forms,  and  in  other  cases  independent  differen- 
tiated forms  have  become  established:  Zwerg  (literary  German),  Querg  (East  Aliddle  German); 
Quinger  (Lamentations  II.  8)  in  modern  editions  Zwinger;   Zwerchfell  diaphragm,  quer  across. 

Also  Iw  and  rw  have  had  a  peculiar  development.  In  O.H.G.  In  the  final  position  the  w,  at 
that  time  bilabial  like  English  w  (34.  1.  Note),  became  o  or  u,  which  later  was  reduced  to  e  and 
at  the  close  of  the  M.H.G.  period  disappeared,  but  medially  the  w  in  late  M.H.G.  developed 
into  b,  at  that  time  the  bilabial  spirant  v  (34.  1),  a  sound  closely  resembling  the  w  but  later 
developing  into  the  stop  b  (29),  altho  It  is  still  widely  heard  in  the  dialects  of  the  Midland  and 
the  Southeast,  also  in  sections  of  the  North  as  a  spirant:  Mehl  (O.H.G.  melo),  but  Schwalbe 
(O.H.G.  swalawa,  Eng.  swallow);  gar  (O.H.G.  garo),  but  gerben  (O.H.G.  garawen).  In  case 
of  Inflected  words  we  should  expect  to  find  a  form  without  b  in  the  final  position  and  a  form 
with  b  when  a  vowel  follows  in  the  inflectional  ending,  but  usually  leveling  takes  place,  so  that 
the  one  or  the  other  form  is  extended  thruout  the  Inflectional  system.  In  case  of  M.H.G.  val, 
gen.  valwes  both  forms  survive  as  fahl  and  falb,  sometimes  without  differentiation,  sometimes 
slightly  diflerentiated.  This  group  of  b's,  the  stop  as  well  as  the  spirant  b's,  has  joined  the 
group  of  b's  in  1.  a.  Note  3  above. 

d.  In  the  M.H.G.  period,  final  m  in  an  unaccented  syllable  developed  into  n:  Busen  bosow, 
Faden  fathom,  &c.  Atem  forms  an  exception  as  the  original  final  m  has  been  retained  after 
the  analogy  of  the  verb  atmen  (M.H.G.  atemen),  which  naturally  keeps  the  m  as  it  Is  not  the 
final  sound. 

e.  Suppression  of  n.  In  the  literary  language  n  has  disappeared  in  the  combination  -ing  in 
those  words  the  stems  of  which  ended  in  an  n:  König  for  older  Köning,  &c.  The  form  Pfenning 
was  still  in  limited  use  in  the  classical  period. 


4r OTHER    CONSONANTAL   CHANGES 41 

In  dialect  final  n  has  disappeared  in  large  parts  of  the  Midland  and  South,  especially  in  un- 
accented syllables.  Occasionally  such  forms  appear  in  books  which  reflect  colloquial  usage: 
Fräulein,  wie  gefällt  es  Ihne  (for  Ihnen)  denn  in  Schwaben?     (Raabe's  Pechlin,  chap.  12). 

The  opposite  tendency,  the  insertion  of  an  n,  appears  occasionally  in  the  literary  language 
a*s  well  as  in  dialect:   genung  (Goethe,  Schiller,  &c.)  for  genug,  &c. 

Notice  that  the  m  and  n  which  preceded  Germanic  f,  th,  s  have  disappeared  in  English,  while 
they  still  remain  in  German  in  the  form  of  n:  soft  (O.E.  softe),  but  sanft  (O.H.G.  semfti  adj., 
samfto  adv.);  other,  but  ander;  tooth,  but  Zahn  (O.H.G.  zand  and  zan);  goose,  but  Gans; 
us,  but  uns.  Of  course,  also  in  Low  German,  the  parent  of  English,  consequently  also  in  literary 
German  wherever  Low  German  words  with  such  a  development  have  become  established:  sacht 
(from  older  L.G.  säfto,  High  German  sanft;   see  Note  5  under  1.  ö  above),  English  soft. 

/.     The  older  tongue  r  has  been  replaced  by  a  uvular  sound.     See  34.  6  and  37.  2. 

g.      The  Origins  and  Developments  of  the  S  Sound: 

(1).  Germanic  S.  The  original  Germanic  s  was  a  sound  between  s  and  $.  In  the  prehistoric 
period  in  accordance  with  Verner's  Law  (a  above)  it  became  voiced  between  vowels  after 
an  unaccented  syllable  and  later  developed  into  r.  For  examples  see  a  above.  In  other 
positions  it  was  in  older  periods  a  voiceless  s.  In  North  Germany  this  voiceless  sound  survived 
only  in  the  positions  described  in  33.  2.  (1),  (2).  Initially  before  a  vowel  and  medially  between 
vowels  it  became  voiced,  i.e.  became  z:  Sohn  (zo:n),  lesen  (le:z3n).  Initially  before  1,  m,  n,  w,  p, 
t,  as  illustrated  below,  it  developed  into  $•  In  the  South  the  old  voiceless  s  remained  intact 
except  initially  before  1,  m,  n,  w,  p,  t,  where  it  developed  into  $.  This  change  to  5  began  in  the 
South  and  in  dialect  has  gone  much  farther  there,  taking  place  sometimes  also  before  vowels 
and  in  the  final  position  in  case  of  the  genitive  ending  s. 

The  development  of  s  into  5  has  aftected  a  large  number  of  words.  The  present  orthography 
reflects  this  change  of  sound  in  case  of  schl,  schm,  sehn,  schw,  but  not  in  case  of  initial  sp  (=  5p) 
and  St  (=  St):  sieht  (O.H.G.),  but  schlecht  (N.H.G.);  smuz  (O.H.G.),  but  Schmutz  (N.H.G.); 
sprehhan  (O.H.G.)  and  sprechen  (N.H.G.).  The  beginning  of  this  change  cannot  be  accurately 
assigned  to  any  definite  time.  It  was  a  gradual  development.  It  began  in  the  South  at  the 
close  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  then  spread.  The  orthography  was  slow  to  recognize  these 
changes.  As  late  as  the  sixteenth  century  we  still  find  instances  of  si,  sm,  &c.,  even  in  the  South. 
This  movement  has  not  yet  come  to  a  close,  for  sp  and  st  are  still  pronounced  sp  and  st  in  Han- 
over, Holstein,  Friesland,  and  Mecklenburg.  The  general  pronunciation  5p  and  ^t  has  not  yet 
found  expression  in  the  orthography  as  the  pronunciation  developed  after  the  spelling  had  been 
well  established  in  the  usage  of  the  printers.     The  sound  changed,  but  the  orthography  remained. 

Medial  and  final  s  became  sch  in  a  number  of  cases  after  r:  Bursche  (M.H.G.  burse),  herrschen 
(M.H.G.  hersen),  &c.,  but  Durst,  Ferse,  &c. 

(2).  S  from  Germanic  T.  In  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  number  of  voice- 
less s's  in  German  was  increased  by  accessions  from  a  new  source.  In  the  High  German  shift- 
ing of  consonants  Germanic  t,  corresponding  to  t  in  English  bi/e,  developed  after  a  vowel  thru 
ts  into  a  voiceless  lisped  s.  This  sound  is  written  z  in  O.H.G.  and  M.H.G.  manuscripts  but  in 
learned  works  of  to-day  is  represented  by  z,  in  order  to  indicate  this  pronunciation  and  distinguish 
it  from  the  z  =  ts,  which  stood  in  other  positions  than  after  a  vowel:  M.H.G.  zwei  (tsvae), 
English  two;  biz  (in  M.H.G.  manuscripts,  but  in  modern  learned  works  bi?),  English  bite.  In 
the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  z,  fell  together  with  Germanic  s,  but  it  must  have  been 
a  little  more  strongly  articulated  because  it  did  not  later  become  voiced  between  vowels  as 
Germanic  s:  reisen  (naezan,  from  M.H.G.  reisen),  but  reißen  (naesan,  from  M.H.G.  rl^en). 
When  final,  before  a  consonant,  or  doubled  they  both  still  have  the  same  voiceless  sound,  i.e.  s, 
as  at  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century:  Kuß  (kus,  from  M.H.G.  kus),  küßte  (kvsta,  from 
M.H.G.  kuste),  küssen  (kys-san,  from  M.H.G.  küssen);  aß  (a:s,  from  M.H.G.  a^),  es  (es, 
now  representing  both  the  M.H.Ct.  neut.,  nom.,  and  ace.  e^  and  gen.  es  (see  140.  c)),  gutes 
(gu:t3s,  from  M.H.G.  guotc^),  ißt  (ist,  from  M.H.G.  i^^et),  essen  (ss-san,  from  M.H.G.  e^^en). 
Initial  s  before  a  vowel  is  always  the  old  Germanic  s,  but  it  is  now  voiced  in  the  North:  Sohn 
(zo:n),  &c. 

h.  Foreign  words  of  course  form  exceptions  to  the  general  rules  for  the  development  of  Ger- 
man consonants  and  their  relation  to  kindred  languages.  Recently  adopted  loan-words  usually 
have  the  same  form  as  they  have  in  the  language  from  which  they  were  taken,  sometimes,  how- 
ever, conforming  to  German  orthography:  Chaussee  (Fr.  chaussee),  Fabrik  (Fr.  fabrique), 
&c.  The  older  the  words  the  more  of  course  they  have  changed  and  taken  on  German  form. 
If  the  words  were  borrowed  before  the  period  of  the  second  shifting  they  developed  in  the  same 
manner  as  German  words:  Pflaume  (L.  prOnum),  Kelch  (O.H.G.  kelich,  from  the  L.  calicem), 
Kerker  (from  L.  carcerem;  Karzer,  derived  from  the  same  word,  was  introduced  into  the  lan- 
guage later  by  those  acquainted  with  the  form  of  the  Latin  but  employing  the  modern  pro- 
nunciation of  it),  Kreuz  (from  the  L.  crucem;  a  later  introduction  than  Kerker,  as  can  be  seen 
by  the  modern  pronunciation  of  the  c),  &c. 

Syllables  in  Individual  Words. 

41.  A  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  contains  separate  vowels  or  diphthongs: 
Se^en,  bauten.  In  dividing  words  into  syllables  when  there  are  consonants  at 
the  close  of  the  syllable,  the  division  is  based  upon  the  following  principles: 


42 SYLLABIC    DIVISION 41.  1. 

1.  As  in  English  a  single  consonantal  sound  between  vowels  belongs  after 
a  long  vowel  or  diphthong  to  the  following  syllable,  which  is  uniformly  dynamic, 
i.  e.  begins  with  an  increase  of  breath  impulse:  höhlen,  'Spräche,  'heilig.  After 
a  short  vowel  it  is  in  the  North  as  in  English  divided  equally  between  the  two 
syllables:  hassen,  alle,  er'schrecken,  lachen  (laxgn),  singen  (ziggn).  Such 
divided  consonantal  sounds  are  usually  represented  by  double  consonants  (double 
k  usually  written  ck)  except  in  case  of  ch  and  ng.  Altho  the  written  language 
in  these  two  cases  does  not  by  doubling  indicate  that  the  syllabic  divide  is  within 
the  consonant  this  division  regularly  takes  place  in  the  spoken  language.  In  case 
of  explosive  consonants  the  explosion  takes  place  in  the  second  syllable  at  the 
end  of  the  sound,  as  in  t  in  Hütte  (hyta).  Wherever,  as  in  all  these  cases,  the 
double  consonant  is  in  a  simple  word  the  second  syllable  is  static,  i.  e.  begins 
without  an  increase  of  breath  impulse  so  that  the  articulation  glides  along  almost 
evenly  and  the  two  syllables  are  thus  not  separated  by  any  appreciable  mark. 
Where,  however,  the  double  consonant  is  in  a  compound  the  second  syllable  is 
dynamic,  as  in  mittun  (mit^tu:n,  or  better  mittü:n,  as  explained  in  2  below). 
For  convenience  to  indicate  the  kind  of  syllable  the  consonant  is  written  single 
in  the  phonetic  transcript  to  show  that  the  second  syllable  is  static  and  double 
when  it  is  dynamic.  Sometimes,  however,  when  it  is  desirable  to  call  especial 
attention  to  the  fact  that  a  consonant  before  a  static  syllable  is  divided  it  is 
written  twice  with  a  hyphen  between  the  two  characters:  al-le,  has-sen,  &c., 
but  mitHun,  &c.  with  the  sign  for  secondary  stress  to  indicate  that  the  syllable 
is  dynamic. 

In  the  Southwest  there  is  often  quite  a  different  system  of  syllabic  divi- 
sion. There  it  is  usual  to  carry  over  the  consonant  to  the  next  syllable  wherever 
it  can  be  easily  done,  not  only  after  a  long  vowel  but  also  after  a  short  one: 
holen  (ho:M9n),  fassen  (fa-s9n),  &c.  This  syllabic  division  is  not  a  modern 
development  but  a  survival  of  older  usage.  See  4.  L  b.  Note  and  4.  2.  B.  b. 
Note.  (1). 

2.  In  common  German  words  two  or  more  consonantal  sounds  are  after  a 
long  vowel  or  a  diphthong  carried  over,  wherever  it  can  be  easily  done,  to  the 
following  syllable,  which  is_ uniformly  dynamic:  hülsten,  Au^ster,  re^gnen, 
ReMner,  duzen  (du:^ts9n),  hätscheln,  &c.  The  consonants,  however,  must  be 
conveniently  divided  up  between  the  syllables  if  it  is  difficult  to  carry  them 
over:  sagte  (za:k^t9),  rauchte  (Raox^tg),  &c.  After  a  short  vowel  the  second 
syllable  is  static,  i.  e.  begins  without  a  marked  increase  of  breath  impulse,  so 
that  the  articulation  glides  along  almost  evenly  and  the  two  syllables  are  thus 
not  separated  by  any  appreciable  divide:   fasten,  etc. 

In  case  of  compounds  the  second  element,  of  course,  begins  with  an  increase 
of  breath  impulse  as  in  a  dynamic  syllable  in  a  simple  word,  but  the  impulse 
is  much  stronger  and  there  is  a  slight  pause  between  the  two  components: 
taufeucht  wet  with  dew.  The  stress  mark  over  the  vowel  indicates  that  the 
accent  is  group-stress  (50.  A.  6)  rather  than  word-stress,  for  compounds  origi- 
nated in  a  group  of  words  in  a  sentence  and  are  still  felt  as  groups  as  can  be 
clearly  seen  in  English,  where  a  large  number  of  Old  English  compounds  are 
to-day  represented  by  modern  groups.  Similarly  in  English  we  distinguish 
bee'' stings  (first  milk  from  a  cow  after  calving)  from  beestings  and  selfish  (without 
an  increase  of  breath  in  the  second  syllable)  from  shellfish. 

Note.  Syllabic  Division  in  Foreign  Words.  In  foreign  words  where  the  vowel  stands  before  a  single  consonant, 
ti  (tsi),  z  (ts),  qu  (kv),  a  stop  (p,  t,  k,  b,  d,  g)  +  r  or  1,  or  a  double  consonant  which  is  followed  by  an  accented  vowel, 
tlie  syllable  is  open,  i.e.  terminates  in  a  vowel  and  this  vowel  is  long  or  half  long  except  before  a  double  consonant, 
where  it  is  short:  Etymologie  ('e-ty'mo-lo-"gi:),  Bibliographie  ('bibli-o-'gRa-"fi:),  Nation  (na-'tsio:n),  Akazie 
(a-'liai^tsia),  reziprok  (Retsi-'pRo:k),  konsequent  (kon^e'kvcnt),  Metrum  (me:'tRum),  Kommode  (ko'mo:Mo), 
Kollege  (kyie:'g.5).  The  accents  indicate  the  beginning  of  a  dynamic  syllable  and  probably  also  the  dots  after  the 
vowels  indicate  a  faint  increase  of  breath  impulse.  In  all  these  cases  the  consonants  are  carried  over  to  the  next 
syllable.  Notice  how  differently  we  pronounce  these  words  in  English:  *eti'm:)U'd?i,  'bibh'ogra'fi,  &c.  As  these 
vowels  are  in  large  measure  short  the  syllables  are  closed,  i.e.  terminate  in  a  consonant,  which  leads  to  the  formation 
of  static  syllables.  There  is  thus  a  tendency  to  form  the  syllables  into  groups  of  two  or  three,  where  only  the  first 
syllable  in  each  group  is  dynamic.  The  German  only  forms  static  syllables  after  a  double  consonant  which  is  not 
followed  by  an  accented  syllable  and  after  a  combination  of  consonants  other  than  a  stop  -|-  r  or  1:  Kollation 
(k3la-'tsio:n),  Kolportage  (kalpoR'ta:?»),  Zirkus  (tsmkus).  Notice  that  the  first  vowel  here  is  short  and  that  the 
syllable  is  closed.     Compare  4.  2.  B.  c.  Note. 


44.  SEPARATION  OF  SYLLABLES  AT  END  OF  LINE 43 

3.  Compound  words  form  exceptions  to  the  above  rules,  as  the  syllabic 
division  is  made  on  etymological  principles,  and  hence  falls  between  the  com- 
ponents:  Haus^tiir,  ent'äußern. 

a.  Exceptions  are  dar,  war,  her,  hin,  when  they  stand  before  a  vowel  in  compounds:  da'riiber, 
wa'rum,  he'rum,  hi'nem.  In  the  pronunciation  of  ordinary  conversation  other  excep- 
tions occur,  as  the  distinct,  etymological  elements  are  not  always  in  the  consciousness  of 
the  speaker:  be'ö'bachten,  Ö^bacht,  vollenden  (fo'lendan),  allein,  Au-fent'halt,  &c.,  especially 
where  the  etymology  has  become  obscured  by  sound  changes,  as  in  em'pfangen  (p  for  older  t),  &c. 

4.  In  unaccented  el,  em,  en,  er,  the  e  in  rapid  talking  often  drops  entirely 
out,  and  the  consonants  1,  m,  n,  r  become  syllabic,  i.  e.  form  of  themselves  syl- 
lables, which  is  indicated  by  phonetists  by  the  sign  ^  under  the  letter:  Hügel, 
liebem,  lieben,  pro.  hy:gl,  li:bm,  li:bn.  In  careless  speech  the  front  nasal,  i.  e. 
the  dental  nasal  n,  when  syllabic,  often  becomes  the  labial  nasal  m  after  the 
labials  b,  p,  m,  and  becomes  the  velar  nasal  r)  after  the  velars  r)  and  k  and  the 
uvular  R,  i.  e.  becomes  a  back  nasal  after  a  back  consonant:  li:bm,  lipm,  na:mm 
instead  of  lieben,  Lippen,  Namen;  zigr),  dagkr),  varRi)  instead  of  singen,  danken, 
waren. 

All  syllabic  consonants  fill  out  about  the  full  time  required  to  pronounce  an 
unaccented  syllable,  and  hence  words  containing  them  cannot  form  good  rhymes 
with  words  containing  unsyllabic  consonants:  thus  Karren  (kann)  should  not 
rhyme  with  Garn. 

Syllables  in  Connected  Discourse. 

42.  In  ordinary  language,  words  often  lose  their  etymological  identity  in 
our  consciousness  and  different  words  blend  together,  and  are  often  treated 
in  actual  practice  as  one  word  with  different  syllables,  in  which  case  the  rules 
given  above  for  separating  syllables  apply  also  here:  Heute  nahm  er  das  Buch 
mit  is  pronounced  Heute  nä-mer  das  Buch  mit. 

Separation  of  Syllables  at  the  End  of  a  Line. 

43.  The  separation  of  long  words  at  the  end  of  a  line  usually  takes  place 
according  to  the  natural  laws  of  separation  in  the  spoken  language  as  given  above, 
but  a  few  variations  occur,  and  hence  the  complete  rules  are  given  as  follows: 

1.  A  consonant  between  two  vowels  belongs  to  the  following  syllable:  hii-ten, 
Le-ben,  &c. 

2.  If  several  consonants  stand  between  vowels  usually  only  the  last  one  is 
carried  over:  Rit-ter,  Sperlin-ge  (pro.  'Spenligg,  i.e.  r)  being  pronounced  as  any 
double  consonant  with  both  syllables),  klir-ren,  Klemp-ner,  Ach-sel,  krat-zen, 
Städ-te,  Verwand-te,  kämp-fen,  Karp-fen. 

3.  ß,  ch,  sch,  ph,  st,  th  are  never  separated:  Bu-ße^  Be-cher,  Hä-scher, 
(but  Häus-chen;  see  6  below),  Geogra-phie,  La-sten,  Klo-ster,  Ma-thilde. 

4.  ck  is  separated  into  k-k:   Dek-kel. 

5.  In  foreign  words  all  combinations  of  b,  p,  d,  t,  g,  k  with  1  or  r  are  carried 
over:  Pu-blikum,  Me-trum,  Hy-drant. 

6.  Compound  words  are  separated  first  into  the  different  elements  of  which 
the  compound  consists,  and  within  each  element  the  rules  given  above  are  ob- 
served: Fürsten-schloß,  Tür-an-gel (pro.  ar)9l),  Häus-chen.  Notice  Schiffahrt, 
&c.  but  at  the  end  of  the  line  separated  Schiff-fahrt,  &c. 

a.  This  separation  at  the  end  of  the  line  of  compound  words  into  their  component  elements 
will  not  always  be  the  same  as  the  pronunciation:  darum  (=  dar  +  um)  is  separated  dar-um, 
but  pronounced  da'rum;  Inter-esse  (=  L.  inter  +  esse),  but  pronounced  Inte'resse. 

Accent. 

44.  Particular  syllables  in  a  word  or  particular  words  in  a  sentence  may  be 
made  prominent  above  others  and  distinguished  by  especial  stress.  Thus  there 
is  a  word  accent  and  a  sentence  accent,  the  latter  of  which  is  usually  called  group- 
stress,  as  the  sentence  falls  into  groups  of  words,  each  with  a  chief  stress. 


44 GENERAL   RULES    F'OR   WORD   ACCENT 45. 

L     Word  Accent. 

45.  In  polysyllabic  words  there  may  be  not  only  the  principal  accent,  but 
also  a  secondary  accent,  and  even  a  third,  besides  the  unaccented  syllables. 
The  principal  accent  in  the  following  articles  will  be  marked  by  ',  or,  if  there 
are  three  accents,  by  ",  the  secondary  by  \  or,  if  there  are  three,  by  ',  the  third 
accent  by  \  the  unaccented  syllable  by  -  :  Ber'lin,  'Luther,  lu'the'risch,  'Eigen- 
tum, 'Vorur'teil,  "Un'eben'heit.  The  mark  of  accent  is  placed  immediately 
before  the  stressed  syllable.  Where  the  principal  accent  is  upon  the  first  syl- 
lable the  mark  is  usually  omitted  as  the  place  of  the  accent  is  self-evident. 
When  the  marks  of  accent,  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  are  placed  before  the 
accented  syllables  of  a  word  the  desire  is  to  indicate  the  word-stress,  the  usual 
stress  that  the  syllables  of  a  word  have.  When  the  mark  is  placed  over  the 
vowel  the  desire  thruout  this  book  is  to  indicate  group-stress,  the  stress  which 
the  word  has  when  it  stands  as  a  component  in  a  syntactical  group  of  words, 
as  in  der  Aufgang  der  Sonne.  As  such  words  often,  as  explained  in  247.  2, 
assume  a  oneness  of  meaning  and  hence  are  then  written  as  one  word,  as  in 
Sonnenaufgang  siin-rise,  the  mark  is  still  often  placed  above  the  vowel  to 
indicate  that  the  word  was  originally  a  group  of  words  and  has  retained  its 
original  group-stress. 

Accent  must  not  be  confounded  with  quantity.  A  syllable  may  be  long, 
i.e.  contain  a  long  vowel,  or  diphthong,  or  a  short  vowel  followed  by  two  or  more 
consonants,  and  yet  have  weaker  accent  than  a  short  syllable,  as  in  'Ab'grund. 

The  placing  of  the  accent  in  German  is  regulated  by  the  following  principles: 

/     1.      Normal  accent.     Some  particular  syllable  in   a  word,   usually  the  root 

'syllable  in  a  simple  word  or  a  derivative  and  the  modifying  component  element 

(see   248)    in   a  compound,   receives   the   principal   accent:     'singen,    Ge'sang, 

'Schulhaus. 

In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  a  secondary  stress  often  becomes  necessary. 
If  the  word  is  a  compound,  that  syllable  in  the  basal  component  receives  secon- 
dary accent,  which  would  have  principal  accent  if  the  component  were  an  inde- 
pendent word :   'Durch'messer,  'Fahr'wasser,  'Haus'herren. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  these  examples  that  this  normal  accent  usually  brings 
the  chief  stress  upon  the  first  syllable.  This  principle  of  accenting  words  is 
the  leading  one,  but  deviations  occur,  as  described  in  2,  3,  4  below. 

Note.  The  results  of  the  operation  of  Verner's  Law  (40.  2.  a)  make  it  plain  that  in  the  prehistoric  period  of  the 
Germanic  languages  at  the  time  of  the  shifting  of  the  Indo-European  stops  p,  t,  k  to  the  spirants  f,  th,  h  (  =  ch)  the 
accent  had  not  yet  become  fixed  upon  the  first  syllable  of  a  simple  word  as  we  find  it  to-day.  The  original  causes  that 
later  in  this  prehistoric  period  led  to  the  fixing  of  the  stress  upon  the  first  syllable  of  simple  words  are  not  known. 
.•\s  becomes  probable,  however,  from  215.  3.  Historical  Note  and  247.  2  the  first  member  of  a  syntactical  group  of 
words  was  in  the  prehistoric  period  regularly  stressed.  A  large  number  of  compounds  formed  directly  from  these  old 
syntactical  groups  have  come  down  to  us  with  their  old  stress.  It  seems  quite  probable  that  in  the  prehistoric  period 
the  stress  of  simple  words  gradually  conformed  to  this  old  type,  found  not  only  in  compounds  but  everywhere  in  the 
normal  syntactical  groups  of  the  sentence.  This  seems  all  the  more  probable,  as  in  our  own  time,  as  seen  in  47.  3.  A.  e 
and  g,  a  very  large  number  of  modern  formations,  an'statt,  he'rab,  berg'auf,  &c.  have  the  new  group-stress  of  our  day, 
which  now  has  the  accent  upon  the  second  member  of  the  group,  and  many  old  formations,  as  seen  in  47.  3.  D.  a, 
are  giving  up  their  older  accent  and  are  now  conforming  their  stress  to  the  new  group-stress. 

2.  Emphatic  Accent.  The  speaker  may  for  some  emotional  reason  place 
unusual  stress  upon  some  particular  word,  but  he  is  then  not  content  with 
accenting  the  syllable  which  usually  has  the  stress,  but  also  puts  equal  or  per- 
haps a  little  stronger  stress  upon  some  other  syllable,  even  tho  it  is  usually 
unaccented,  and  thus  arises  a  double  accent:  'undank'bares  Kind!  eine  'ausge- 
'sprochene  Schönheit,  'end'loser  Gram,  'wunder'licher  Gedanke,  'ge'rechter 
Himmel!  Er  ist  ein  'abge'feimter  Schurke!  Wir  sind  'furcht'bar  zurück! 
'Unter'steh  dich!  The  tendency  here  is  to  make  the  second  stress  slightly 
stronger  in  order  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  word.  Words  that  have  this 
double  accent  are  indicated  in  this  treatise  by  a  chief  stress  upon  each  of  the 
two  strongly  accented  syllables,  altho  the  second  stress  is  probably  slightly 
stronger. 

This  emphatic  stress  is  most  commonly  found  in  exclamations,  especially  in 
words  that  stand  in  the  attributive  relation:  ein  'unge'zogenes  Betragen!,  but 
usually  in  the  predicate:   Sein  Betragen  ist  'ungezogen  (Th.  Ameis  in  Herrig's 


46^ GENERAL   RULES   FOR   SENTENCE   ACCENT 45 

Archiv,  49,  p.  231).  Exclamations,  which  are  among  the  oldest  forms  of  speech, 
have  had  from  earliest  times  the  old  attributive  type  of  sentence  structure,  as 
explained  in  252.  L  b.  Note,  and  do  not  even  yet  conform  readily  to  the  newer 
normal  type  of  sentence  which  requires  the  predicate  adjective  to  stand  after 
the  copula. 

In  a  number  of  cases  this  emphatic  stress  has  become  so  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  certain  words  which  are  often  spoken  with  emphasis  that  the  stronger 
of  the  two  stresses,  i.e.  the  one  which  rests  upon  the  syllable  that  originally  did 
not  have  the  chief  stress,  often  or  in  some  cases  even  regularly  remains  in  normal 
speech  as  the  principal  accent  of  the  word:  ab'scheulich,  all'mählich,  aus- 
'driicklich,  ausge 'zeichnet,  außer'ordentlich,  eigen'tümlich  (in  the  meaning 
peculiar,  but  'eigentümlich  in  the  sense  as  one's  oivn  property,  as  in  etwas 
'eigentümlich  an  sich  bringen  to  purchase  something  so  that  it  becomes  one's 
own  property),  glück'sehg,  haupt'sächlich,  über'schwenglich,  un'endlich, 
unge'heuer,  un'sterblich,  ur'sprünglich,  vor'züglich,  wahr'haftig,  wahr'schein- 
lich,  zu'künftig. 

3.  Rhythmical  Accent.  For  physiological  reasons  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce 
two  strongly  accented  syllables  in  succession.  Therefore  in  such  a  case  the 
accent  is  divided  so  that  there  will  be  a  rhythmical  succession  of  strong  and  weak 
syllables.  This  rhythmical  principle  is  quite  an  important  one  in  German  and 
often  disturbs  the  normal  accent.  Thus  it  is  more  common  to-day  to  say 
'Endur'teil,  'Schwimman^stalt,  'unab^hängig,  'unachtsam,  than  'End^urteil, 
'Schwimm^anstalt,  'un^abhängig,   'un^achtsam. 

4.  Foreign  Accent.  In  many  foreign  words  the  German  principle  of  accent- 
ing is  entirely  abandoned  in  favor  of  the  original  accent  of  the  foreign  word,  and 
hence  in  many  words  from  the  French  and  Latin  the  chief  stress  is  found  upon 
the  last,  or  less  frequently  upon  the  next  to  the  last,  syllable:  Ele'fant,  Initia'tive. 
The  accent  upon  the  last  syllable  is,  however,  for  rhythmical  reasons  sometimes 
removed  to  the  first  when  the  final  syllable  is  followed  by  an  accented  syllable 
in  the  next  word:  'General  'Blücher  instead  of  Gene'ral  'Blücher;  So'fie,  but 
'Sofie  'Krause;  der  Rentier  (Ren'tie:),  but  der  'Rentier  'Schmidt.  This  rhythmi- 
cal accentuation  has  not  yet  become  so  well  established  in  German  that  it  usually 
displaces  the  regular  stress  upon  the  last  syllable. 

The  secondary  accent  in  these  foreign  words  is  usually  upon  the  first  syllable: 
^Aktivi'tät,  akkompagnieren  (^ak3mpan'ji:R9n).  Here  again  the  rhythmical 
tendency  to  distribute  the  accented  syllables  so  as  to  make  a  succession  of  strong 
and  weak  syllables  sometimes  disturbs  the  usual  position  of  the  secondary 
accent:  a^kompan'ji.'Rsn  instead  of  ^akompan'ii:R9n.  In  long  words  there  may 
be  a  third  stress:  Respektabilität  ('Re-spek^ta-bi-li-"te:t  or  Re-'spekta-^bi-li-"te:t), 
Etymologie  ('e-ty-^mo-lo-"gi:).  A  marked  peculiarity  of  German  stress  in  these 
long  foreign  words  is  that  the  accents  are  distributed  over  the  whole  word,  so  that 
the  different  vowels  do  not  suffer  much  in  quantity  or  quality,  while  in  English 
one  strong  stress  carries  two  or  more  weak  syllables,  so  that  the  weakly  stressed 
vowels  suffer  in  quantity  and  quality.  A  fuller  discussion  is  found  in  4.  2.  B.  c. 
Note  and  41.  2.  Note. 

II.    Sentence  Accent. 

46.  Logical  and  emphatic  stress  prevail  in  sentence  accent.  All  that  seems 
to  the  speaker  logically  more  important  or  as  weightier  from  the  standpoint  of 
his  own  feeling  is  made  prominent  by  accent.  The  number  of  shades  in  stress 
is  here  much  greater  than  in  word  accent,  some  being  more  or  less  marked, 
others  very  fine  and  scarcely  perceptible.  The  short  sentence  Wo  wollt  ihr  denn 
hin?  may  be  read  with  the  following  accentuations  according  as  the  one  or  the 

14  2  5  3  4 

Other  word  becomes  logically  more  important:    Wo  wollt  ihr  denn  hin?  or  Wo 

3  1  B  2  4  2  3  6  1 

wollt  ihr  denn  hin?  or  Wo  wollt  ihr  denn  hin?  The  lower  numbers  here  denote 
stronger,  the  higher  numbers  weaker  accent. 


46  ACCENT  OF  WORDS  WITH  SUFFIXES  &  PREFIXES         47.  1. 


DETAILS   CONCERNING  ACCENT. 
I.    Word  Accent. 

Principal  Accent. 

47.  1.  Accent  in  Simple  Stem  Words.  The  root  syllable  has  here  the  accent:  'Sprache, 
'gingen,  'gutem. 

2.  Accent  in  Derivative  Words.  Words  with  suffixes  and  prefixes  are  often  differently  ac- 
cented. 

A.  Accent  of  Words  with  Suffi.xes.  In  words  with  suffixes  the  principal  accent  rests  upon 
the  root  syllable:    'Bäcker,  'hei'iig,  'traum'haft. 

The  following  exceptions  occur: 

a.  Words  ending  in  the  suffix  -lei  have  fluctuating  stress  with  the  principal  accent  now  upon 
the  root  syllable,  now  on  the  suffix.     See  47.  3.  A.  b.  cc. 

b.  A  few  words  have  from  various  causes  shifted  their  accent  from  the  root  syllable:  the 
A'erbs  in  178.  2.  A.  b.  (3)  so  far  as  they  are  of  German  origin,  as  schar'wenzeln,  schma'rotzen, 
kla'bastern,  kar'niiffeln,  &c.;  Hor'nisse  (also  'Hornisse),  le'bendig  (in  the  eighteenth  century 
also  the  older  form  'lebendig),  Wa'cholder,  Ho'lunder;  sometimes  offen'bar,  unmitterbar  (or 
more  commonly  'offenbar,  'unmittelbar),  and  regularly  a  number  of  other  similar  words  given 
in  45.  2;  Fo'relle,  Herme'lin,  Warküre  (on  the  stage  'Walküre);  a  few  feminine  Christian 
names,  the  second  component  of  which  ends  in  an  unaccented  syllaljle,  as  Ger'trude  (but  'Ger- 
trud), Kuni'gunde,  &c.;  in  the  North  often  names  in  -lin,  as  Böck'lin  (instead  of  the  more 
correct  S.G.   'Böcklin). 

Note.  The  origin  of  many  of  the  German  verbs  in  178.  2.  A.  6.  (3)  referred  to  above  is  not  clearly  understood. 
Some  see  in  the  first  syllable  an  arbitrary  insertion  of  a  vowel  and  a  consonant,  so  that  the  accent  remains  in  fact 
upon  the  root  syllable:  schar'wenzeln  from  schwänzeln,  &c.  In  many  cases  it  seems  more  probable  that  these  verbs 
are  onomatopoeic  formations  and  hence  naturally  in  accordance  with  47.  3.  A.  e.  (11)  are  accented  on  the  last  clement. 
In  some  words,  as  will'fahren,  where  the  syntactical  relation  of  the  components  is  not  clear,  there  is  a  natural  ten- 
dency to  stress  the  second  element  and  thus  conform  to  normal  group-stress  (50.  A.  6),  which  requires  accent  upon 
the  second  member.  The  accent  in  le'bendig,  Ho'lunder,  Wa'cholder,  Fo'relle,  &c.  is  usually  explained  by  the  weight 
of  the  second  syllable,  but  there  may  be  other  factors  involved.  Tlie  stress  le'bendig  may  be  tlie  result  of  emphatic 
stress,  as  in  45.  2,  for  it  is  often  used  in  emphatic  language,  as  in  Er  ist  ein 'le'bendiger  Beweis  dafür!  The  same  is 
true  of  offen'bar,  unmittel'bar.  Fo'relle,  Hor'nisse,  Herme'lin,  Ho'lunder,  Wa'cholder  may  have  developed  their 
present  stress  from  the  resemblance  of  their  form  to  foreign  words  of  similar  appearance,  as  Li'belle,  Nar'zisse,  Ber'lin, 
Ka'lender,  Ole'ander. 

c.  A  very  large  number  of  foreign  words  have  the  accent  upon  the  last  or  next  to  the  last 
syllable:  Infini'tiv,  Initia'tive,  &c.  There  is  a  tendency  for  those  accented  upon  the  last  syl- 
lable to  shift  it  upon  the  first  in  accordance  with  German  fashion:  'Infinitiv,  &c.;  especially 
in  case  of  contrast,  as  in  'Singular  in  contrast  to  'Plural,  'Objekt  in  contrast  to  'Subjekt,  &c. 
Some,  as  'Kompaß,  have  become  thoroly  naturalized  and  have  the  accent  upon  the  first  syl- 
lable. Those  in  -ik  have  the  accent  upon  the  stem  where  they  are  derived  directly  from  the 
I.atin  but  receive  the  stress  upon  the  suffix  where  they  have  entered  the  language  thru  the  French: 
Ar'senik,  Bo'tanik,  'Chronik,  Gra'mmatik,  'Metrik,  Po'etik,  Rhe'torik,  'Taktik,  'Technik; 
Fa'brik,  Katho'lik  (but  ka'tholisch),  Poli'tik,  Phy'sik,  formerly  'Musik  with  Latin  accent, 
now  in  French  form  Mu'sik;  sometimes  with  fluctuating  stress:  Arithme'tik  or  Arith'metik, 
Meta'physik  or  Metaphy'sik,  Mathema'tik  or  Mathe'matik,  &c.  Notice  especially  the  ac- 
cented ending  in,  as  in  Ber'lin,  (S:c. 

Foreign  names  of  nationalities  in  -er_accent  the  next  to  the  last  syllable,  if  that  syllable  is 
long,  otherwise  the  first  syllable:   He'bräer,  Kar'thäger,  but  'Araber,  'Itäler. 

A  number  of  accented  foreign  sufüxes  are  also  now  added  to  German  words,  especially  'age, 
'älie,  'äner,  'ant,  'ei,  'eien  (infinitive  ending),  'enser,  'ieren  (infinitive  ending),  'ierung,  'ist, 
'ös:  La'ppälie,  Weima'räner,  inhabitant  of  Weimar,  Bäcke'rei,  kas'teien,  Je'nenser  inhabitant 
of  Jena,  storzieren,  schaude'rös  (slang)  frightful,  pe'chös  (slang)  unfortunate. 

d.  In  adding  the  German  suffix  isch  to  words,  foreign  adjectives  have  the  accent  upon  the 
syllable  preceding  isch,  while  German  words  accent  the  root  syllable:  a'rabisch,  ä'therisch, 
but  'klopstockisch  or  'klopstocksch.  Only  lu'therisch  Lutheran  among  German  words,  as 
in  die  lu'therische  Kirche,  has  here  foreign  accent.  This  word  has  also  a  regular  German  ac- 
cent, but  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning:  'Luther(i)sch  Luther  s,  coming  from  Luther,  as  die 
'luther(i)sche  Bibelübersetzung.  Catholics  and  often  Protestants  pronounce  this  word  'luthe- 
risch in  both  of  these  meanings. 

B.  Accent  of  Words  with  Prefixes.     Prefixes  are  differently  accented,  as  follows: 

a.  Adjectives  or  substantives  with  the  prefix  ge-  are  accented  upon  the  root  syllable,  those 
with  ant-,  et-,  miß  upon  the  prefix,  those  with  un-  sometimes  upon  the  root  syllable,  sometimes 
upon  the  prefix:  Ge'sang,  'Antwort,  'etwas,  'Mißmut;  'Unhold,  but  unüber'sehbar.  Nouns 
with  un-  and  monosyllabic  and  also  polysyllabic  adjectives  with  un-,  provided  they  do  not  end 
in  -lieh,  -bar,  or  -sam,  accent  usually  the  prefix,  while  perfect  participles  with  un-,  and  poly- 
syllabic adjectives  with  un-  and  at  the  same  time  the  suffixes  -lieh,  -bar,  or  -sam,  take  usually 
the  stress  upon  the  root  syllable,  the  last  group,  however,  only  when  the  words  have  passive 
force:  'Unmensch,  'Ursprung,  'unpaß,  'unabhängig,  'unvorteilhaft,  'unvermögend;  unent'wegt, 
unge'logen,  unver'dient,  unbe'schäftigt;  uner'f erschlich,  unaus'führbar,  unaufhaltsam,  but 
'unerfreulich,  'untauglich,  &.c.,  as  they  have  active  force.  The  passive  idea  naturally  suggests 
verbal  force  and  leads  to  the  stressing  of  the  verbal  stem.     A  few  in  -lieh  have  the  accent  upon 


47.  2.  B.  c.  aa.       ACCENT  OF  WORDS  WITH  PREFIXES 47 

the  root  syllable,  altho  they  do  not  have  passive  force,  as  they  have  emphatic  accent  (see  45. 
2  above):  un'möglich,  un'endlich,  un'sterblich,  unver'ziiglich,  &c.  Even  where  the  meaning 
is  passive  we  find  the  accent  upon  the  prefix  if  the  idea  is  that  of  actuality  rather  than  mere 
possibility:  'unausführlich  not  carried  out  in  detail,  but  unaus'führlich  or  unaus'fxihrbar  imprac- 
ticable. The  un-  is  stressed  in  the  first  example  as  the  idea  of  actuality,  a  finished  condition  of 
things,  suggests  adjective  force,  while  the  idea  of  possibility  suggests  verbal  force,  hence  stress 
upon  the  verb  in  the  second  and  third  examples.  Usage  fluctuates  with  regard  to  the  accent 
of  the  participle  with  the  prefix  un-,  but  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  place  the  accent  upon 
the  root  syllable  in  the  predicate  relation  and  upon  un-  in  attributive  function:  Der  Brief  ist 
unge'öffnet,  but  der  'ungeöffnete  Brief.  The  un-  is  stressed  in  the  attributive  relation  standing 
before  the  governing  noun,  as  the  adjective  force  in  this  form  is  vividly  felt.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  verbal  stem  is  stressed  in  the  predicate  relation  as  the  verbal  force  is  here  distinctly  felt', 
while  the  un-  naturally  loses  its  accent  as  the  negative  with  verbs  is  usually  unstressed.  See 
also  246.  I.  9.  Ö  (2nd  par.).  The  strong  stress  on  un-  in  adjectives  often  causes  a  following  ac- 
cented syllable  to  lose  its  stress.  See  45.  3.  Participles,  however,  in  which  un-  stands  before 
an  accented  prefix  take  the  chief  stress  upon  un-  in  the  attributive  relation  but  have  it  usually 
upon  the  following  accented  prefix  in  the  predicate  relation:  eine  ganz  'unange^brachte  Spar- 
samkeit, but  Sparsamkeit  ist  hier  ganz  un'ange'bracht.  With  reference  to  un-  it  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  here  as  elsewhere  logic  is  sovereign  and  may  disturb  all  these  rules:  ein  'unfeines 
Benehmen,  ein  'unkluges  Benehmen,  but  ein  un'feines  und  zugleich  un'kluges  Benehmen. 
Der  Leib  des  Menschen  ist  'sterblich,  seine  Seele  aber  ist  'unsterblich. 

b.  The  verbal  prefi.xes  be,  emp,  ent,  er,  ge,  ver,  zer,  and  usually  miß,  are  unaccented: 
be'fehlen,  zer'schlagen.  For  the  explanation  of  the  lack  of  accent  in  these  prefixes  see  c  below 
and  215.  I.  3.  Historical  Note.  The  accent  of  verbal  prefixes  is  treated  at  length  in  articles 
215.  I  and  II  and  246.  II.  8. 

c.  Nouns  and  adjectives  on  the  one  hand  and  verbs  on  the  other  are  sometimes  differently 
treated  with  regard  to  accent.  Derivative  and  compound  nouns  and  adjectives  have  the  accent 
upon  the  first  component,  while  firm  derivative  and  compound  verbs  with  the  same  components 
have  the  stress  upon  the  second  component:  'Durchstich,  but  durch'stechen.  This  difference 
is  explained  by  prehistoric  conditions.  In  the  prehistoric  period  nouns  and  adjectives  readily 
formed  compounds  as  attested  by  the  large  number  that  have  come  down  to  us.  At  that  time 
as  to-day  a  compound  was  made  up  of  a  group  of  words  that  stand  in  a  syntactical  relation  to 
each  other:  'Haustür  (=  die  Tür  des  Hauses).  In  this  book  such  a  compound  is  often  called 
a  group-word.  See  247.  2  for  fuller  information.  In  these  oldest  compounds  or  group-words 
the  modifying  component  regularly  preceded  the  governing  component  and  in  accord  with  its 
importance  regularly  received  the  principal  stress.  In  the  later  development  of  the  language 
the  modifier  usually  followed  the  governing  word  but  retained  its  old  stress,  so  that  in  these 
modern  groups  the  second  member  has  the  principal  accent:  die  Mütter  des  Jungen.  When 
such  a  modern  group  was  felt  as  a  unit  and  thus  became  a  modern  compound  or  group-word  it 
retained  its  modern  group-stress:  die  Müttergottes  the  picture  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Thus  there 
are  two  types  of  compounds  or  group-words,  the  older  group  with  the  stress  upon  the  first  com- 
ponent, the  modern  group  with  the  stress  upon  the  second  member.  The  older  type,  however, 
is  still  a  powerful  factor  in  the  language  and  sometimes  influences  the  modern  compounds,  as 
described  in  249.  II.  2,  and  often  leads  to  the  formation  of  new  compounds  and  group-words 
with  the  form  and  accent  of  the  old  type.     Compare  3.  B.  a  below. 

On  the  other  hand,  firm  verbal  compounds  with  the  stress  upon  the  first  component  have  not 
had  such  a  rich  development.  Few  such  firm  verbal  compounds  have  come  down  to  us  from 
the  prehistoric  period  and  these  few  soon  disappeared,  as  explained  in  215.  I.  3.  Historical  Note. 
Even  to-day  verbs  cannot  enter  into  firm  compounds  with  the  stress  upon  the  first  component. 
Thus  tho  there  are  a  very  great  number  of  such  adjective  and  substantive  compounds  there  is 
not  a  single  firm  compound  verb  of  this  type.  In  oldest  German,  however,  just  as  to-day,  we 
find  verbs  that  have  entered  into  firm  relations  with  weakly  stressed  adverbs  which  stand  before 
them  and  modify  somewhat  their  meaning  or  serve  as  prepositions  to  indicate  the  direction  of 
the  activity:  ir'teilen,  duruh'faran,  modern  er'teilen,  durch'fahren.  Some  of  these  adverbs 
have  lost  much  of  their  older  form  thru  loss  of  stress,  as  er-  (from  older  nr),  ver-  (=  Gothic 
faur,fra,  fair  in  the  fourth  century),  &c.  If  such  adverbs  are  also  found  as  the  first  component 
in  compound  nouns  they  have  a  fuller  form,  as  their  strong  stress  in  nouns  has  preserved  their 
older  fuller  form,  as  in  'Urteil  (corresponding  in  etymology  tho  not  in  meaning  to  er'teilen). 
See  also  215.  I.  3.  Historical  Note. 

This  difference  of  development  in  derivative  and  compound  nouns  and  verbs  has  left  the 
following  traces  behind: 

aa.  Ant  and  ur,  prefixes  of  nouns,  are  accented,  and  have  thus  with  the  aid  of  accent  retained 
their  full  vowels,  while  the  same  prefixes  have  in  verbs,  by  reason  of  their  weak  accent,  lost  their 
fullness  of  vowel  and  been  reduced  to  the  forms  ent  and  er:  'Urteil,  but  er'teilen;  'Antwort, 
but  ent'sprechen.  When  nouns  are  formed  with  ent  and  er,  they  are  not  direct  compounds, 
but  are  derived  from  verbs:  Ent'schuldigung  from  ent'schuldigen,  Er'werbung  from  er'werben. 
Antworten,  urteilen  are  derived  from  the  nouns  Antwort,  Urteil. 

In  oldest  German  also  be-  and  ver-  were  stressed  when  used  as  prefixes  of  nouns,  just  as  at 
present  ant-  and  ur-.  Later  they  lost  their  accent  as  they  were  so  much  used  in  verbs  with 
weak  stress  that  this  stress  became  uniform.  A  few  isolated  examples  of  stressed  be-  in  its 
older  form  bi-  survive,  as  the  present  form  is  so  different  from  be-  that  it  is  not  felt  as  the  prefix 
be-:   'bieder,  from  M.H.G.  'biderbe;   'Beichte  from  M.H.G.  biht,  from  older  'bijiht. 


48 ACCENT   OF   OLD    COMPOUNDS  41.  2.  B.  ebb. 

bb.  In  nouns  and  adjectives  the  prefix  miß  is  usually  accented,  while  in  verbs  it  is  usually 
unaccented:  'Mißbrauch,  'mißbräuchlich,  but  miß'brauchen.  In  verbs,  however,  there  is  at 
present  a  marked  tendency  to  shift  the  accent  upon  the  prefix:  'mißbrauchen  instead  of  miß'brau- 
chen. For  explanation  of  this  shifting  of  the  accent  see  246.  II.  8.  Nouns  derived  directly 
from  verbs  have  verb  accent:  Miß'handlung  from  miß'handeln.  Sometimes  the  same  word 
has  verb  or  noun  accent  according  as  the  influence  of  the  verb  or  noun  is  felt:  das  Miß'trauen  in 
die  (the  ace.  showing  the  direction  of  an  activity  toward)  Bevölkerung  distrust  in  the  people, 
but  das  'Mißtrauen  in  der  Bevölkerung  the  distrust  that  prevails  among  the  people. 

cc.     The  difference  in  the  accent  of  compound  nouns  and  verbs  is  treated  in  3.  B.  a  below. 

3.  Accent  of  Compounds.  The  compound  formations  of  the  different  periods,  which  in 
2.  B.  c  above  and  in  247.  2.  a,  b,  c  are  distinguished  more  accurately  as  old,  younger,  and  modern 
group-words,  are  here  for  sake  of  brevity  called  compounds.  The  rules  here  given  refer  uni- 
formly to  the  older  formations  except  where  otherwise  expressly  stated. 

A.  Acce7it  of  Compound  Nouns  and  Adjectives.  The  modifying  component  usually  takes 
the  principal  accent:  'Hauptmann,  'Lesebuch.  This  brings  the  accent  usually  upon  the  first 
syllable. 

There  are  a  number  of  exceptions: — 

a.  A  number  of  compound  adjectives  and  adverbs  in  -ig,  -lieh,  -los,  have  the  accent  upon 
the  stem  of  the  second  component:  not'wendig,  ab'sichtlich,  heil'los.  This  accent  is  the  result 
of  the  emphatic  stress  which  they  often  have  in  forcible  language.  See  45.  2.  The  regular 
accent  upon  the  modifying  component  is  also  common:  'notwendig,  &c.  A  number  of  other 
common  compounds  much  used  in  emphatic  language  take  emphatic  stress:  ausge'zeichnet 
excellent,  &c. 

In  a  number  of  other  compounds  the  accent  upon  the  second  component  seems  to  result  from 
the  tendency  to  follow  the  rhythm  of  the  sentence,  i.  e.  to  conform  to  normal  group-stress  (50. 
A.  6),  which  requires  accent  upon  the  second  member  of  a  group:  barm'herzig,  drei'einig,  leib'haf- 
tig,  leib'eigen,  teil'haftig,  &c.  In  all  these  words  there  is  an  unaccented  syllable  after  the  second 
root  syllable.  Compare  3.  D.  a  below.  Also  the  strong  descriptive  force  in  these  compounds 
tends  to  favor  the  stress  upon  the  second  component.     See  247.  2.  b. 

b.  In  some  compounds  the  accent  has  not  yet  settled  down  definitely  upon  either  element, 
since  the  logical  force  of  neither  is  strongly  pronounced.  In  this  case  the  accent  fluctuates 
according  to  the  position  of  the  word  in  the  sentence.  At  the  end  of  the  sentence  or  within 
the  sentence  wherever  no  strongly  stressed  word  immediately  follows,  the  word  is  accented 
upon  the  second  element,  within  the  sentence,  when  an  accented  word  follows,  the  first  element 
is  accented:  Der  Mensch  ist  noch  blut'jung,  but  ein  'blutjunger  Mensch.  Words  that  have 
this  fluctuating  accent  are  indicated  in  this  treatise  by  a  chief  stress  upon  each  element:  'blut- 
'jung. This  must,  however,  not  be  construed  as  equality  of  stress,  for  the  one  or  the  other  of 
the  elements  is  usually  stressed  with  a  little  more  force  to  indicate  the  unity  of  the  group.  There 
is  a  tendency  here,  as  elsewhere  in  modern  groups  with  descriptive  force  (247.  2.  b.),  toward  a 
stronger  stress  upon  the  second  element:  'schnee'weiß,  but  Schnee'weißchen  or  Schnee'witt- 
chen  (name),  etc.  Many  of  these  words  are  used  in  emphatic  language  and  the  stress  is  then 
the  emphatic  stress  described  in  45.  2. 

These  words  are: — 

aa.  Compounds  of  which  the  first  element  is  a  substantive  that  does  not  contain  an  essential 
modification  of  the  basal  component,  but  only  strengthens  it  by  giving  a  concrete  illustration 
of  the  general  idea  already  contained  in  it:  'haar'scharf,  'mause'tot,  'blut'rot,  'pech'schwarz, 
'baum'stark,  'wunder'schön,  'feder'leicht,  'sonnen'klar,  'stock'blind,  'gras'griin,   &c. 

Similar  to  these  formations  are  the  compounds  the  first  component  of  which  does  not  have 
its  literal  meaning  but  contains  mere  strengthening  force,  such  as  often  the  prefixes  erz-,  un-, 
ur-  and  nouns  like  Hunde-,  Mords-,  <S:c.:  'Erzbe'triiger,  'erz'dumm,  'Un'summen,  'ur'alt, 
'Hunde'kälte,  'hunde'müde,  'Mords'kerl,  &c. 

bb.  Thus  also  compounds  of  which  the  first  element  is  an  adjective  or  adverb  that  does  not 
contain  an  essential  modification,  but  only  strengthens  or  defines  more  definitely  the  general 
idea  contained  in  the  second  element:  'hell'geib,  'dunkel'gelb,  'wild'fremd,  'schreiend  'rot, 
'vielge'nannt,  'klein'winzig,  &c. 

cc.  A  number  of  uninflected  compounds:  'aller'hand,  'aller'lei,  'der'Iei,  'einer'lei,  'meines- 
'gleichen,  &c.;   certain  adverbs,  as  'aller'orts,  &'c. 

c.  Sometimes  there  is  a  difference  of  meaning  in  connection  with  a  difference  of  accent: 
'steinreich  stony,  but  'stein'reich  very  rich;  'Erzbischof  archbishop,  but  'Erz'schelm  arrant  knave; 
'Unmensch  inhumane  creature,  but  'Un'summen  enormous  sums;  ein  'außerordentlicher  Pro- 
fessor an  assistant  professor,  but  ein  'außer'ordentlicher  Professor  a  professor  of  extraordinary 
merit;  'Donnerwetter  thunderstorm,  but  'Dormer'wetter  (exclamation  or  oath);  'ausgezeichnet 
(participle)  distinguished,  but  ausge'zeichnet  (adj.)  splendid.  The  accent  upon  the  first  syl- 
lable marks  the  element  as  a  modifying  one,  while  the  double  accent  indicates  fluctuating  {b)  or 
emphatic  (45.  2)  stress  and  the  lack  of  stress  upon  the  first  element  shows  the  result  of  emphatic 
stress,  as  in  45.  2. 

d.  The  adjectives  and  adverbs  all,  groß,  and  especially  words  that  have  intensifying  force, 
as  hoch,  wohl,  &c.,  usually  have  chief  stress  in  compound  nouns,  while  they  have  secondary  or 
fluctuating  (see  h.  aa  and  bh  above)  stress  in  adjective  compounds:  'Allmacht,  'Großmacht, 
'Hochdeutsch,  'Wohlstand,  but  all'mächtig,  'groß'mächtig,  'hoch'weise,  wohl'edel,  'hoch'fein, 
&c.  It  must  be  noticed,  however,  that  nouns  made  from  these  adjectives  also  have  the  accent 
of  the  adjectives:    allge'mein  and  AUge'meinheit.     Notice  'Alltag  week-day,  'alltäglich  on  week 


47.  3.  B.       ACCENT  OF  MODERN  COMPOUNDS  &  NAMES 49 

days,  but  all'täglich  daily.  The  difference  in  accent  usually  found  between  nouns  and  adjectives 
comes  from  the  fact  that  the  modifying  force  of  the  component  is  felt  in  nouns,  while  in  adjectives 
it  is  destroyed  by  emphatic  accent,  or  the  first  component  has  only  strengthening  force,  as  in 
b.  aa  and  bb  above.  Also  in  adjectives  the  first  component  must  have  accent  when  it  really 
contains  an  essential  modification  of  the  basal  component:  'allseitig,  'großmütig,  'hochdeutsch, 
'wohlgeboren.  Notice,  however,  that  the  second  component  in  other  compounds  may  take 
the  accent  for  quite  a  different  reason  from  that  given  for  the  above-mentioned  adjectives, 
namely,  because  it  becomes  logically  emphatic:  alt'indisch  in  contrast  to  alt'nordisch,  but 
'altenglisch  in  contrast  to  'neuenglisch. 

e.  Accent  of  Modern  Compounds.  A  large  number  of  compounds,  called  modern  compounds 
(247.  2.  c),  have  the  stress  of  a  modern  group.  In  spoken  language  a  sentence  is  not  a  unit, 
but  is  made  up  of  groups  of  words.  The  unity  of  each  group  is  usually  indicated  by  a  stress 
upon  the  last  member  of  the  group.  A  few  illustrations  of  this  modern  group-stress  may  serve 
to  explain  many  deviations  from  the  rules  given  above  for  accent  in  compounds:  (1)  Adjectives 
compounded  with  a  substantive  have  usually  the  accent,  but,  as  adjectives  standing  before 
nouns  in  the  syntactical  structure  of  a  sentence  shift  the  accent  upon  the  noun,  so  may  such 
syntactical  constructions  retain  their  original  group-stress  when  they  are  written  together  and 
spoken  as  one  word,  i.e.  as  a  modern  compound:  'Jungfrau,  'Graubart,  but  der  Hohe'priester, 
Geheime'rat  (but  Ge'heimrat,  when  the  syntactical  structure  is  broken  and  an  old  compound 
is  formed).  Compare  50.  A.  6.  b.  (2)  The  articles  in  modern  compounds  remain  unaccented 
as  in  a  modern  group:  der'selbe,  des'gleichen,  ein'mal  (but  'einmal  once,  as  ein  is  a  numeral  and 
not  an  article)  once  upon  a  time,  but  'derjenige,  as  the  demonstrative  force  is  felt.  (3)  An 
attributive  genitive  in  modern  compounds  takes,  as  in  a  modern  group,  the  accent  if  it  follows 
the  dependent  noun:  Mutter'gottes,  zeit'lebens.  If  the  governing  noun  follows,  it  is  accented 
in  case  of  compounds  denoting  a  period  of  time,  as  in  Tages'anfang,  thus  retaining  here  also  the 
original  modern  group-stress,  while  other  compounds  of  this  form  are  usually  old  compounds 
and  take  the  accent  upon  the  first  component.  (4)  A  name  of  a  material  or  something  measur- 
able when  compounded  with  some  word  denoting  a  measure,  quantity,  or  weight  takes  the 
accent  as  in  a  modern  group:  Viertel'stunde,  Viertel'jahr,  but  'Halbjahr,  as  it  is  an  old  com- 
pound. (5)  Prepositions  in  modern  compounds  remain  unaccented,  as  in  a  modern  group: 
ab'handen,  ab'seiten.  (6)  Numeral  compounds  take  the  accent  upon  the  last  element,  except 
in  the  attributive  relation,  where  the  first  element  is  accented:  fiinfund'zwanzig,  drei'hundert, 
dritte'halb,  but  'fünfundzwanzig  Mann,  'dreihundert  Mann,  'drittehalb  Liter.  (7)  The  last 
part  of  the  name  of  an  individual  takes  the  accent  as  in  a  modern  group:  Hans'wurst  (also 
'Hanswurst)  jack-pudding.  (8)  When  a  whole  sentence  becomes  a  compound,  the  accent 
varies  according  as  it  is  felt  as  a  modern  or  an  old  compound:  Lebe'hoch,  gott'lob,  but  'Kehraus, 
'Saufaus,  'Packan.  Compare  carefully  249.  II.  2.  Modern  group  stress  is  very  common  in 
a  large  number  of  fragments  of  sentences,  as  berg'an,  berg'auf,  nach' dem,  &c.  (9)  Points  of 
the  compass  have  accent  upon  the  last  element:  Nord'ost,  Süd'ost,  Nord'west.  (10)  Co-ordina- 
tion is  indicated  by  a  strong  accent  upon  each  element  but  with  a  little  stronger  stress  upon 
the  last  one  to  indicate  the  unity  of  the  group,  as  in  schwarzweiß'rot,  deutschfran'zösisch, 
Schleswig-'Holstein.  (11)  In  a  very  large  number  of  words,  especially  onomatopoeic  forma- 
tions and  compounds  in  which  the  original  meaning  of  the  components  is  no  longer  clear  and  in 
which  there  is  no  essential  modification  of  the  basal  component  felt,  the  unity  of  the  different 
elements  of  the  word  is  indicated  as  in  a  group  of  words  in  a  sentence  by  placing  the  accent  upon 
the  last  member  of  the  group:  kladdera'datsch,  par'dauz,  piff'paff,  kla'bastem  (see  47.  2.  A.  b. 
Note),  Schla'fittchen,  Schla'raffe,  das  Ab'c,  &c. 

/.  The  following  modern  formations  have  the  accent  upon  the  second  element  as  that  ele- 
ment distinguishes  them  from  other  words  of  similar  formation:  Jahr'hundert,  Jahr'tausend, 
Jahr'zehnt. 

g.  Accent  of  Compound  Proper  Names.  No  absolute  rules  can  be  given  for  the  accent  of 
names  of  places,  as  there  are  two  different  types  without  fixed  rules  for  their  use.  In  most  words 
the  place  is  pointed  out  by  a  strong  logical  stress  upon  the  first  member  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  places  with  the  same  basal  component:  'Altenburg  in  contrast  to  'Neuenburg;  'Königs- 
berg in  contrast  to  'Fürstenberg,  'Wittenberg,  'Friedberg,  &c.  In  many  words,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  evident  aim  is  not  to  distinguish  one  place  from  another,  but  rather  to  point  it  out  by 
describing  it  in  normal  language,  i.e.  with  the  stress  upon  the  second  component  as  in  a  modern 
group  (247.  2.  b,  c  and  249.  II.  2.):  ^Neuen'teich  (  =zum  neuen  Teich),  'Witten'berge,  ^Hohen- 
'zoUern,  ^Hohen'staufen,  ^Schön'brunn,  ^Neu'york,  ^Großber'lin,  ^Zwei'brücken,  Triedrichs- 
'hafen,  ^Wilhelms'höhe,  ^Ludwigs'lust,  ^Königs'hütte,  «&c.  In  many  words  where  the  first 
component  cannot  possibly  be  construed  as  having  logical  distinguishing  force  it  is  natural  to 
put  the  stress  upon  the  second  member  as  in  a  modern  group:  ^Osterreich-'Ungam,  ^Elsaß- 
'Lothringen,  ^Schleswig-'Holstein.  Compare  e.  (10)  above.  The  first  component,  however, 
must  in  all  cases  take  the  accent  when  it  becomes  essential  to  the  thought,  as  for  instance  to 
make  a  contract:  ^Alt'strelitz,  ^Neu'strelitz,  but  Ich  wohne  nicht  in  'Neu^strelitz,  sondern  in 
'Alt^strelitz.  There  is  considerable  fluctuation  in  stress  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  as 
to  one  section  descriptive  stress  is  sufificiently  clear,  while  to  another  distinguishing  stress  seems 
necessary  in  order  to  keep  the  place  distinct  from  an  other  name  with  the  same  basal  com- 
ponent.    See  249.  II.  2.     Compare  247.  2.  b,  c. 

B.  Accent  of  Compound  Verbs.  The  accent  here  depends  upon  whether  the  parts  are  sep- 
arable or  firmly  united:  (1)  If  the  modifyins;  component  is  separable,  it  is  accented:  'aufstehen, 
'untergehen,   'ausgehen.     (2)    If  the  modifying  component  is  inseparable,  it  is  unaccented: 


50  STRESS  OF  COMPOUND  VERBS  &  DECOMPOSITES      47.  3.  B. 

iiber'setzen,  voU'ziehen.  The  adjective  voirkommen  complete,  perfect,  belongs  here,  as  it  is 
in  fact  the  perf.  participle  of  the  lo<t  inseparable  voU'kommen.  The  adjective  participle  will- 
'kominen  luelcome  has  been  influenced  in  its  accent  by  voU'kommen.  (3)  If  the  verbal  compound 
is  not  directly  compounded,  but  has  been  formed  from  a  compound  noun,  it  has  noun  accent: 
'frühstücken.  This  subject  is  treated  at  length  in  articles  215-218.  For  the  historical  explana- 
tion of  the  accent  of  compound  verbs  see  2.  B.  c  above  and  215.  I.  3.  Historical  Note. 

a.  Nouns  formed  from  these  verbs  retain  the  accent  of  the  verb:  voU'ziehen,  Voil'zug;  'vor- 
fallen, 'Vorfall. 

However,  here,  as  in  2.  B.  c.  aa  above,  we  find  in  one  group  of  words  a  different  treatment 
of  noun  and  verb.  Nouns  in  composition  with  durch,  hinter,  über,  um,  unter,  wider,  have 
uniformlv  the  accent  upon  the  preflx,  altho  the  corresponding  verb  is  accented  upon  the  verbal 
stem:  'Widerspruch,  but  wider'sprechen;  'Durchstich,  but  durch'stechen;  'Überschlag,  but 
über'schlagen;  'Unterhalt,  but  unter'halten.  Many  of  these  nouns  are  modern  formations, 
as  'Überschlag,  and  tho  formed  from  verbs  with  the  accent  upon  the  second  component  of  the 
compound,  they  have  the  stress  upon  the  first  component  after  the  analogy  of  the  many  old 
compound  nouns  of  the  language  which  have  this  stress,  as  described  in  2.  B.  c  above.  This  is 
true,  however,  only  when  they  are  felt  vividly  as  nouns.  Whenever  the  noun  has  an  ending 
which  has  strong  verbal  force,  such  as  -ung  and  the  -en  of  the  infinitive,  they  have  the  stress  of 
verbs:  der  'Durchstich  the  cut,  excavation  that  has  been  made  thru  a  dike,  hill,  &c.,  but  beim  Durch- 
'stechen or  bei  der  Durch'stechung  des  Deiches,  where  the  idea  of  verbal  activity  is  prominent. 

b.  In  older  periods  of  the  language  the  perfect  participle  like  other  adjectives  took  the  ac- 
cent upon  the  first  syllable  and  hence  upon  the  prefix,  while  in  case  of  verbs  compounded  with 
a  proclitic  adverb  (i.e.  an  inseparable  prefix)  the  pure  verbal  forms  had  group-stress,  i.e.  accent 
upon  the  verbal  stem,  as  explained  in  2.  B.  c  above.  The  old  manner  of  accenting  the  participle 
may  still  survive  in  the  one  participial  adjective  'untertan  subject  to,  participle  of  the  now  obsolete 
unter'tun  (still  found  in  early  N.H.G.;  see  i  Cor.  xv.  27).  It  is  quite  possible  here,  however, 
that  the  present  accent  of  the  adjective  participle  is  modern,  the  accent  shifting  from  the  verbal 
stem  to  the  prefix,  as  the  word  was  felt  as  an  adjective  and  noun,  and  all  relation  to  the  lost 
unter'tun  was  forgotten.  Aside  from  this  isolated  example  the  accent  of  the  participle  now 
follows  that  of  the  verb:   voU'zogen,  part,  of  voU'ziehen, 

C.  Accetit  of  Compound  Adverbs  and  Interjections.  The  accent  here  rests  usually  upon  the 
last  syllable  as  modern  group-stress  prevails  here  (see  3.  A.  e.  (8)  and  (11)  above):  berg'auf, 
strom'ab,  hi'nüber,  her'vor,  da'rauf,  vie'lleicht,  viel'mehr,  juch'hei!  The  logical  importance  of 
some  other  syllable  often  causes  exceptions  to  this  rule:  da' durch,  da'rin,  &c.  become  'dadurch, 
'darin  when  the  demonstrative  force  is  felt.     See  141.  5.  A.  b. 

D.  Accent  of  Decomposite  Words.  Altho  a  compound  may  consist  of  two  words  or  several, 
it  can  as  a  rule  have  only  two  component  elements — the  basal  component,  which  contains  the 
more  general  idea,  and  the  modifying  component,  which  contains  an  essential  modification.  Either 
component  may  be  a  compound.  The  stress  of  the  modifying  component  of  decomposites  is 
regulated  by  the  principles  given  in  A  and  B  above  for  simple  compound  nouns,  adjectives, 
and  verbs:  'Bundestagsbeschluß  ('Bundestag  +  Be'schluß),  'vorurteilsfrei  ('Vorurteil  +  frei), 
über'vorteilen  (über  +  'vorteilen),  and  many  compounds  (see  245.  IV.  3.  B)  which  are  not  yet 
generally  written  as  one  word,  such  as  in'stand  setzen,  zu'grunde  legen.  Nouns  made  from 
this  last  class  of  verbs  retain  the  verb  accent  and  are  usually  written  as  true  compounds  in  one 
word:  In'standsetzung,  Zu'grundelegung.  If  the  compound  has  more  than  two  components 
it  is  usually  a  modern  compound,  i.e.  a  whole  sentence  or  a  syntactical  fragment  of  a  sentence 
which  is  written  as  one  word,  or  it  may  be  a  mere  co-ordination  of  words.  Such  a  modern  com- 
pound has  in  some  cases  group-stress  upon  the  last  member  and  in  others  accent  upon  the  first 
syllable  after  the  manner  of  an  old  compound:  Einmal'eins,  sechshundertund'dreißig,  schwarz- 
rot'goldene  Fahne,  but  'Stelldichein,  'Springinsfeld.     For  fuller  discussion  see  249.  II.  2. 

a.  Many  exceptions  are  found  to  the  above  general  rules.  There  is  an  evident  tendency  in 
long  words,  which  in  reality  consist  of  a  group  of  words,  to  shift  the  accent  from  the  first  com- 
ponent to  the  second,  if  the  latter  is  compound,  in  accordance  with  the  natural  impulse  to  con- 
form to  the  usual  law  observed  in  stressing  groups  of  words  in  the  sentence,  namely  in  a  group 
consisting  of  two  distinct  components  to  stress  the  second  component,  as  described  in  50.  A.  6. 
This  occurs  especially  in  case  of:  (1)  The  names  of  certain  church  festivals  or  holidays:  Palm- 
'sonntag,  Kar'freitag,  Ascher'mittwoch,  &c.  (2)  Many  titles  or  ofiicial  positions:  Feld'zeug- 
meister,  Vize'feldwebel,  General'postmeister,  especially  those  in  ober-  and  unter-,  as  Ober- 
'staatsanwalt.  Unter 'Staatssekretär.  Many  other  words  of  this  form  but  with  different  mean- 
ing, as  Kriegs'schauplatz,  &c.,  often  have  this  stress,  as  it  is  a  question  of  form  not  meaning. 
The  longer  the  compound  the  stronger  the  tendency  to  conform  to  the  normal  group-stress  of 
the  sentence.  In  the  North,  where  we  often  hear  Vor'mittag,  Nach'mittag,  &-c.,  instead  of  the 
regular  'Vormittag,  &c.,  this  tendency  is  more  widespread  than  in  the  South,  is  found  sometimes 
even  in  compounds  with  a  simple  basal  component,  as  in  Bürger'meister,  Rats'keller  (in  Bremen), 
Lebens'mittel,  &c.  This  stressing  of  the  basal  component  has  become  generally  established  in 
the  words  in  47.  3.  A.  a  (2nd  par.)  with  a  dissyllabic  basal  component,  as  leib'haftig,  also  in  certain 
names  ending  in  an  unaccented  syllable,  as  Ger'trude,  Ma'thilde,  &c.,  but  not  Ger'trud.  The 
hesitation  to  follow  this  tendency  where  the  accent  would  fall  on  the  last  syllable  is  observable 
elsewhere.  Many  words  like  Landge'richtsrat  with  a  compound  modifying  component  and  a 
simple  basal  component  often  have  the  chief  stress  upon  the  second  member  of  the  modifying 
component  instead  of  the  regular  stress  upon  the  first  member  and  thus  conform  in  general  to 
the  normal  group-stress  of  the  sentence  in  that  the  stronger  stress  follows  the  weaker.     Such 


48.  2.  c. SECONDARY   ACCENT ^1 

words  cannot  take  the  stress  upon  the  monosyllabic  basal  component  and  thus  conform  closely 
to  the  normal  group-stress  of  the  sentence,  for  the  stress  upon  the  final  syllable  of  a  word  would 
give  the  impression  of  foreign  origin.  A  modern  group  takes  the  stress  upon  the  final  member 
but  a  native  German  word  is  only  stressed  on  the  last  syllable  when  it  originated  in  a  modern 
group:    Neuen'teich  (zum  neuen  Teich),  Schön'bronn,  an'statt,  Viertel'jahr,  &,c. 

E.  Accent  of  Derivatives  formed  from  Compounds  and  Compounds  formed  from  Derivatives. 
A  deriv^ativ^e  formed  from  a  compound  is  accented  as  a  derivative,  but  a  compound  in  which 
the  basal  component  is  a  derivative  is  accented  as  a  compound:  Liebhabe'rei  ('Liebhaber  +  el), 
but  'Stadtpolizei  (Stadt  +  Poli'zei) ;  Schriftstelle'rei  ('Schriftsteller  +  ei),  but  'Paßschererei 
(Paß  +  Schere'rei). 

4.  Pronunciation  of  Fore-igti  Words.  The  accent  here  depends  upon  whether  the  word  is  still 
distinctly  felt  as  a  foreign  or  as  a  German  word.  Many  foreign  words  have  been  thoroly  natural- 
ized and  have  received  German  accent,  many  others  arc  sometimes  pronounced  as  foreign  words 
sometimes  as  German  words;  the  greater  number,  however,  still  retain  the  accent  of  the  language, 
from  which  they  were  borrowed.  Some  words  which  are  now  accented  as  German  words  had 
foreign  accent  in  earlier  periods  of  the  language.  In  view  of  the  great  irregularity  that  here 
prevails,  this  subject  cannot  be  treated  in  a  grammar,  and  the  student  must  be  referred  to  his 
lexicon.  The  German  dictionaries  in  use  in  Germany  avoid  these  foreign  words,  but  they  are 
usually  treated  in  a  separate  work  called  Fremdwörterbuch. 

Secondary  Accent. 

48.  Secondary  accent  is  not  bound  so  closely  to  certain  syllables  as  is  the  principal  accent, 
but  is  often  under  different  circumstances  shifted  from  one  syllable  to  another.  There  are  two 
factors  involved  in  determining  secondary  accent,  the  normal  stress  and  a  physiological  principle. 
Sometimes  both  unite  in  fixing  the  accent  upon  a  certain  syllable,  sometimes  one  principle  gains 
the  victory  over  the  other. 

1.  Normal  Secondary  Accent.  The  normal  stress  in  compound  and  derivative  words  is  as 
follows: 

A.  In  compound  words,  that  syllable  receives  secondary  accent  which  would  receive  prin- 
cipal accent  if  the  component  were  an  independent  word;  'Fahrwasser,  'Haus^herrin,  'aus^mer- 
zen.  In  decomposites,  altho  there  may  be  a  number  of  different  words,  there  will  be  usually  only 
two  components,  so  that  the  principal  accent  falls  upon  the  principal  syllable  of  the  modifying 
component  and  the  secondary  accent  upon  the  principal  syllable  of  the  basal  component:  'Vater- 
landsliebe ('Vaterland  +  'Liebe),  'FeldMiebstahl.  The  accent  here  is,  however,  often  dis- 
turbed by  the  tendency  (described  in  2  below)  to  distribute  the  accents  so  as  to  make  a  regular 
and  rhythmical  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables:  'Voran^zeige,  'EndurHeile 
instead  of  'Vor'anzeige,  'End^urteile.     Compare  45.  3. 

B.  Accent  of  Suffixes.  After  a  root  syllable  which  contains  the  principal  meaning  and  chief 
accent,  certain  suffixes  from  their  logical  force  as  modifying  elements  take  secondary  accent, 
some  of  which  are  the  remnants  of  once  independent  words.     These  sufifixes  are: 

a.  Substantive  suffixes:  ät,  üt,  öd,  heit,  in,  keit,  lein,  ling,  nis,  sal,  schaft,  tum:  'Hei^maten, 
'Klei'node,  'Köni^gin,  'Ewig^keit. 

b.  Adjective  sufifixes:   bar,  haft,  icht,  ig,  isch,  lieh,  säm,  selig:   'brauch^bar,  'lehrhaft. 

2.  Physiological  Principle  in  Secondary  Accent.  For  physiological  reasons  it  is  difficult  to 
pronounce  two  accented  syllables  one  after  the  other.  It  is  easier  and  at  the  same  time  more 
rhythmical  to  place  an  unaccented  syllable  between  the  first  and  second  accent.  Thus  to  avoid 
the  clashing  of  principal  and  secondary  accent  the  latter  is  often  removed  from  the  syllable 
logically  important  to  one  of  minor  importance:  'Voran^zeige  instead  of  'Vor^anzeige.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce  more  than  two  unaccented  syllables  one  after  the  other, 
and  hence  the  natural  tendency  is  to  give  one  of  several  unaccented  syllables  a  secondary  accent, 
provided,  however,  that  it  will  not  clash  with  another  accent  of  the  same  strength:  'besse^re 
Gestalt,  but  the  secondary  accent  upon  a  final  syllal^le  must  be  suppressed  or  shifted  when  it 
would  stand  before  another  accent:  sie  er'wartete  ^Mari'annen;  das  'EndurHeil  er'folgt,  but 
das  'EndWteil  'spricht.  Thus  secondary  accent  depends  largely  upon  the  accents  in  the  pre- 
ceding or  following  syllables.     The  following  details  should  be  noted: 

a.  In  polysyllabic  words  the  secondary  accent  depends  upon  the  logical  value  or  the  position 
of  the  syllable.  The  important  syllables  as  described  in  1  above  are  accented  if  their  position 
admits  of  it.  Also  a  short  logically  unimportant  syllable  receives  an  accent  if  it  is  at  a  distance 
of  two  or  more  syllables  from  the  principal  accent,  providing  it  is  not  followed  by  an  accent: 
'heite're  Ge'sellschaft. 

The  intensity  of  all  secondary  accents  increases  with  their  distance  from  the  principal  accent, 
and  sometimes  becomes  stronger  than  the  accent  upon  a  logically  more  important  syllable: 
in  "Auf^sehe'rinnen  the  suffix  in  has  a  stronger  accent  than  the  root  syllable  seh.  Similarly  in 
"mitHeil'sam,  "wirt^schaft'lich,  <S:c.  Here,  how^ever,  as  elsewhere,  the  secondary  accent  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  accent  of  the  following  word,  as  two  accents  must  not  come  together:  'Hoffnu^ngen 
er'weckt,  but  'Hoffnungen  'täuscht. 

b.  A  single  syllable  between  two  accents  is  unaccented:  Das  'Alter  'schützt  vor  'Torheit  'nicht. 

c.  If  there  are  two  syllables  between  two  accents,  they  are  both  unaccented  if  short,  but  the 
first  may  be  accented  if  it  is  long:  'Widerlich'keit,  but  "Un'eben'heit,  "selt^säme  'Art.  The 
second  of  the  two  syllables  standing  between,  accents  can  be  accented  only  when  the  word  stands 
before  a  pause  in  the  sentence  or  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  in  which  cases  it  does  not  really  stand 


52 UNACCENTED   SYLLABLES 48.  2. ;;. 

between  two  accents,  but  between  an  accent  and  a  pause:  Dem  ^Glücklichen  'kann  es  an  'nichts 
ge'brechen,  or  Dem  'GlücklTchen  |  'kann  es  an  'nichts  ge'brechen.  Dem  'wechselnden  'Leben, 
but  Gar  wechselnd  ist  des  Mannes  rascher  Sinn,  dem  Leben  Untertan,  dem  'wechselnden. 

d.  If  there  are  three  syllables  between  two  accents,  the  middle  syllable  usually  takes  the 
secondary  accent  unless  it  be  considerably  lighter  and  shorter  than  the  first  syllable,  in  which 
case  the  first  syllable  is  accented:  ein  'undank'bäres  "Kind,  but  eine  'un'glückliche  "Liebe. 
The  third  of  these  syllables  can  never  have  the  accent,  as  it  would  bring  it  immediately  before 
the  principal  accent  (see  e). 

e.  A  secondary  accent  can  stand  before  the  principal  accent,  but  never  immediately  before  it: 
Vider'legen,  ^Theolo'gie.  Here  as  elsewhere  the  intensity  of  the  secondary  accent  increases 
with  its  distance  from  the  principal  stress.  Thus  the  secondary  accent  is  much  stronger  in  the 
second  of  the  two  preceding  examples. 

/.     For  secondary  accent  in  foreign  words  see  45.  4  (2nd  par.). 

Unaccented  Syllables. 

49.  The  limitation  of  the  principal  accent  in  the  main  to  the  root  syllable  is  now  a  principle 
quite  generally  observed  thruout  the  Germanic  family  of  languages,  including  both  English  and 
German.  This  system  has  not  always  obtained,  as  fossil  remnants  still  show,  but  since  its  adop- 
tion has  been  of  great  influence  in  shaping  the  form  of  the  German  language.  Since  the  principal 
syllable,  which  is  usually  the  root  syllable,  receives  the  main  accent,  the  inflectional  endings, 
many  suftixes,  and  the  prefixes  be,  emp,  ent,  er,  ge,  ver,  zer,  are  neglected  in  accenting,  and 
hence  they  have  lost  the  full  vowel  forms  which  they  once  had.  The  various  vowels  and  diph- 
thongs of  the  languages,  as  a,  o,  u,  au,  &c.,  have  been  preserved  only  in  the  accented  syllables, 
while  in  the  unaccented  syllables  the  same  vowels  and  diphthongs  have  all  been  reduced  quite 
uniformly  to  e:  er'füllen  (Gothic  usfuUjan).  In  words  hke  'Eigentümer  the  secondary  accent 
has  preserved  the  vowels  from  decay,  while  the  unaccented  vowels  have  been  reduced  to  e. 
Many  words  have  lost  their  fulness  of  sound,  many  vowels  have  disappeared  for  ever.  The 
process  of  decay  has  not  yet  ceased.  Sometimes  the  vowel  e  is  now  of  so  little  importance  that 
it  can  be  pronounced  or  omitted:  gerade  or  grad,  bange  or  bang.  Sometimes  the  e,  altho  it 
has  dropped  out  in  comparatively  recent  times,  is  no  longer  felt  at  all.  No  one  thinks  any  more 
of  the  e  once  after  g  in  Glaube,  Glück,  &c.  In  the  different  inflectional  systems,  e  is  often  in 
familiar  language  entirely  suppressed,  while  in  a  more  choice  style  it  can  be  skilfully  dropped  or 
employed  according  to  the  rhythmical  requirements  of  the  sentence.  See  62.  F.  b.  It  will  also 
in  this  connection  he  noticed  thruout  the  Grammar  that  the  German  is  especially  fond  of  the 
trochee  (-  ^ )  or  the  falling  spondee  (-  .i.)  as  a  word  foot,  and  is  now  often  disposed  to  change 
longer  feet  into  these  favorite  shorter  feet  by  dropping  an  unaccented  e,  if  it  can  be  conveniently 
done.  Thus  ^  ^  ^,  ^  ^  ^,  ^  ^  ::.,  become  .::.-,  ^  .:.:  'Königs,  not  'Königes;  'MonHags, 
often  instead  of  'Montages;  'himmMisch,  not  'himme^lisch.  It  must  be  noticed  that  the  drop- 
ping of  e  here  is  solely  a  question  of  accent,  for  in  dissyllabic  forms  the  same  words  retain  the  e: 
(des)  Tages,  (der)  Himmel.  Also  in  words  closely  united  by  thought  we  can  notice  the  tendency 
to  divide  up  the  syllables  into  dissyllabic  feet:  heute,  but  'heutzu'tage.  Thus  also  trisyllabic 
rising  feet  become  disyllabic:  be'gleiten,  from  be  +  geleiten;  be'gnügen,  from  be  +  genügen. 
Compare  62.  C.  Note  and  D.  It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  literary  form  of  speech  is 
averse  to  all  these  changes  of  feet,  if  the  clearness  of  the  thought  could  thereby  be  endangered. 
Thus  we  must  say  wandelte  (past  indie.)  and  not  wandelt,  for  the  latter  form  would  be  the  same 
as  the  pres.  indie,  and  would  thus  endanger  the  thought.  In  the  e-less  plural  class  of  strong 
nouns,  however,  even  the  literary  language  has  endorsed  this  dropping  of  e,  altho  the  plural 
became  thereby  identical  in  form  with  the  sing.  See  68.  Dialect  goes  much  farther  in  sup- 
pressing unaccented  sounds  than  the  written  language.  In  S.G.  dialect  also  unaccented  final  n 
has  disappeared:    Du  muscht  (mußt)  bei  mir  bleibe  (for  bleiben) — Auerbach. 

In  many  words  full  vowels  have  been  preserved  in  the  unaccented  syllable,  but  such  words 
are  quite  uniformly  of  foreign  origin:  Mu'latte,  'Doktor,  Mi'nute,  &c.  Only  in  such  words  as 
'Uhu,  and  in  a  number  of  names,  as  Otto,  Herta,  &c.,  has  the  unaccented  vowel  been  preserved 
in  German  words. 

n.  Sentence  Accent. 

50.  Just  as  a  word  may  have  different  syllables  with  different  degrees  of  stress  so  has  a  sen- 
tence words  with  different  degrees  of  stress,  which  in  long  sentences  form  definite  groups  each 
with  its  principal  and  secondary  accent.  Just  as  logic  and  emotion  may  influence  the  stress 
of  a  word  so  do  they  often  in  a  sentence  change  the  character  of  a  group  of  words.  The  different 
forces  at  work  in  the  accentuation  of  a  sentence  are  discussed  in  the  following  articles. 

A.     Grammatical  or  Group  Accent. 

As  certain  syllables  of  a  word  take  accent,  so  also  are  certain  grammatical  elements  in  a  sen- 
tence stressed.  The  factors  that  enter  mto  stress  are  largely  mechanical.  Just  as  words  are 
usually  distinguished  as  separate  units  in  speech  by  a  heavy  stress  upon  the  first  syllable  of  each 
word  different  grammatical  groups  are  usually  distinguished  as  larger  units  by  a  strong  accent 
upon  the  last  member  of  each  group,  as  illustrated  in  6  below.  There  are,  however,  many  varia- 
tions from  this  simple  principle,  for  which  general  rules  can  be  laid  down,  but  it  must  be  remem- 


50.  A.  5. GRAMMATICAL  OR   GROUP  ACCENT 53 

bered  that  they  are  only  general  rules  and  are  set  aside  whenever  the  logically  important  idea 
shifts  to  other  elements.  As  will  be  seen  below,  the  question  of  accent  is  sometimes  intimately 
connected  with  that  of  word-order.  The  marks  denoting  accent  are  placed  above  the  vowels 
and  indicate  not  word-stress  but  group-stress,  i.e.  the  stress  which  the  word  receives  when  it 
stands  in  a  syntactical  group  of  words. 

The  following  general  hints  on  grammatical  or  group  stress  may  be  useful: 

1.  In  general  the  predicate  as  the  most  important  thing  to  be  communicated  is  more  strongly 
accented  than  the  subject:    Der  Hund  bellt. 

2.  Stress  of  Predicate  Word  and  Copida  or  Auxiliary.  The  predicate  adjective  or  noun,  the 
dependent  infinitive  or  participle,  the  separable  prefix  of  a  separable  verb,  are  of  more  importance 
than  the  copula,  auxiliary,  or  finite  verb  which  bind  them  to  the  subject,  and  hence  receive  the 
accent,  and  according  to  German  usage  stand  at  the  end  of  the  sentence:  Er  ist  reich.  Er  ist 
sicher  angekommen  (compare  3.  o  below).  Er  ist  ein  tüchtiger  Märm.  Er  ist  ein  tüchtiger 
Mann  geworden.     For  this  important  point,  see  215.  II.  1.  A  and  285.  II.  B.  b.  gg. 

a.  Auxiliary  or  Copida  Stressed.  The  copula  or  auxiliary  is  more  strongly  stressed  than  the 
participle  or  infinitive  wherever  it  is  desired  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  actuality  or  non-actuality 
of  an  act:  „Und  ich  wette,  Sie  haben  wieder  einen  Eierkuchen  gebacken,"  „Hab  ich  auch." 
Many  examples  of  stressed  auxiliaries  are  given  in  190.  1.  A.  c,  190.  2,  252.  1.  b.  (2nd  par.). 

b.  Stress  in  Threatening  Language.  Utterances  spoken  in  a  threatening  tone  usually  have 
the  strongest  stress  upon  the  first  word  even  tho  it  be  logically  unimportant,  so  that  the  predicate 
words  which  are  usually  strongly  accented  have  here  less  stress  than  the  first  word:  Willst  du  auf- 
merken! Do  you  intend  to  pay  attention?!  Gehst  du  gleich  her!  (verb  stressed  more  heavily 
than  the  prefix  her)  Don't  you  intend  to  come  at  once?!  Daß  du  mir  aufmerkst!  Ob  du  hergehst  1 
Wenn  du  das  noch  einmal  tust!  (Albert  Debrunner  in  Deutsche  Literaturzeitung,  1919,  p.  739). 
Das  tust  du  mir  nicht  mehr!  (id.).  Laß  mir  das  ein  andermal  bleiben!  (id.).  Nimm  dich  in 
acht,  daß  das  nicht  mehr  vorkommt!  (id.). 

3.  Stress  of  Verb  and  Adverb.  If  the  predicate  verb  has  an  object  or  adverbial  modifier,  these 
usually  in  normal  or  inverted  word-order  take  a  stronger  accent  than  the  verb  itself,  except  in 
case  of  a  reciprocal,  reflexive,  or  personal  pronoun:  Das  Werk  lobt  den  Meister.  Er  spricht 
laut.  Sie  reden  zusammen  (at  the  same  time) ,  hut  Sie  reden  zusammen  (=  miteinander).  Er 
freut  sich. 

a.  Modal  adverbs,  i.e.  such  as  modify  not  the  verb  but  the  thought  of  the  whole  sentence, 
are  usually  stressed  less  than  the  verb:  Er  geht  nicht.  Du  kennst  ihn  ja.  The  use  of  such 
weakly  accented  adverbs  in  connection  with  heavy  stress  on  the  verb  is  the  characteristic  German 
way  of  emphasizing  the  activity  expressed  by  the  verb:  Ich  arbeite  ja  (unstressed)  I  do  work. 
See  also  185.  B.  I.,  2.  e.  (2)  and  223.  XI.  A.  a.  The  unstressed  adverb  nur  placed  after  the  stressed 
verb  indicates  that  the  subject  engages  only  in  the  activity  expressed  by  the  verb:  Blinder  Eifer 
schadet  nur.  Stress  upon  an  object  or  an  adverb  calls  attention  to  some  detail  in  the  state- 
ment. Stress  upon  the  verb  emphasizes  not  only  the  verbal  activity  but  the  statement  as  a 
whole.  Hence  when  the  attention  is  called  to  the  thought  as  a  whole  the  verb  is  more  strongly 
stressed  than  an  adverb  or  an  object.  Er  geht  sicher  He  is  pursuing  the  proper  course,  but  Er 
geht  sicher  He'll  be  sure  to  go.  Er  wird  sicher  gehen.  Er  ist  sicher  angekommen  (com- 
pare 2).  Er  rächt  sicher  diese  Kränkung.  Er  wird  diese  Kränkung  rächen.  In  most  prin- 
cipal propositions  with  normal  or  inverted  word-order  the  attention  is  directed  to  some  detail 
expressed  by  an  object  or  an  adverbial  element,  so  that  the  verb  is  usually  stressed  less  than  its 
modifiers,  but  when  as  in  these  examples,  the  attention  is  directed  to  the  thought  as  a  whole 
and  the  question  of  achievement  is  involved  the  verb  is  more  heavily  stressed  than  its  modifiers. 
See  also  b. 

b.  As  in  a  subordinate  clause  or  an  utterance  with  transposed  word-order  the  attention  is 
usually  directed  to  the  thought  as  a  whole  the  simple  verb  is  usually  distinctly  stressed,  so  that 
the  simple  verb  of  the  subordinate  clause  has  for  the  most  part  a  distinctly  stronger  stress  than 
the  simple  verb  in  a  principal  proposition  with  normal  or  inverted  word-order  Er  kömmt  morgen, 
but  Ich  möchte  gern  wissen,  ob  er  morgen  kommt,  ob  er  morgen  oder  übermorgen  kömmt. 
Wie  sie  ihn  liebte,  liebte,  liebte!  (Wildenbruch 's  Schivesterseele,  chap.  VII).  For  further 
treatment  see  284.  I.  3.  o  (toward  end).  Where,  however,  in  the  principal  proposition  the  at- 
tention is  called  to  the  thought  as  a  whole  the  verb  is  distinctly  stressed.     See  a. 

The  stress  of  the  simple  verb  in  English  is  much  the  same  as  in  German  in  both  the  principal 
proposition  and  the  subordinate  clause.  Enelish  no  longer  has  the  verb  at  the  end  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause,  but  the  stronger  stress  of  the  verb  still  usually  distinguishes  the  subordinate 
clause  from  the  principal  proposition:  He  entered  the  room  and  noticed  the  condition  of  things, 
but  As  soon  as  he  entered  the  room,  he  noticed  the  condition  of  things, 

c.  A  simple  verb  in  the  initial  position  is  always  stressed  just  as  other  important  words  that 
stand  in  the  first  place:  Reiche  mir  das  Buch!  Reisen  Sie  dieses  Jähr  wieder  nach  Karls- 
bad?    Sah  ein  Knäb'  ein  Roslein  stehn  (Goethe's  Heidenröslein).^    Compare  284.  I.  2.  a. 

d.  The  stress  of  the  verbal  elements  in  compound  tense  forms  is  discussed  in  215.  II.  1.  A; 
285.  II.  B.  b.  aa,  bb,  cc;   237.  1.  B.  a.  Note. 

4.  If  there  are  a  number  of  objects  or  adverbial  modifiers,  the  logically  more  important  are 
accented  and  stand  toward  the  end  of  the  sentence,  especially  an  adverb  of  place:  Columbus 
fuhr  am  3.  August  1492  von  Palos  ab.     The  order  here  is  treated  in  detail  in  285.  II.  B.  c,  d,  e. 

.5.  Pronouns,  articles,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  auxiliaries  receive  less  stress  than  other  parts 
of  speech.  These  classes  of  words  often  become  enclitics  or  proclitics,  when  an  accented  syllable 
immediately  precedes  or  follows,  that  is,  they  here  lose  their  accent  and  are  treated  as  if  they  were 


54 GRAMMATICAL   OR   GROUP   ACCENT 50.  A.  5. 

a  part  of  the  preceding  or  following  word:  (enclitics)  hast  du  (pro.  hastu),  die  Nacht  durch, 
&c.;  (proclitics)  durch  Liebe,  es  ist,  er  weiß,  but  er  bekennt  because  the  pronoun  is  followed 
by  an  unaccented  syllable.  Often  monosyllabic  pronouns  or  articles  become  enclitics  after 
prepositions,  and  are  sometimes  even  contracted  and  thoroly  fused  into  one  word  with  the  preposi- 
tion:   mit  euch,  bei  ihm,  auf  das  or  aufs,  in  dem  or  im,     See  also  57.  B  and  C,  and  58.  B.  b,  c. 

6.  Different  Kinds  of  Group-siressf  When  two  or  more  elements  are  closely  related,  there 
is  often  a  marked  tendency  to  form  a  unit,  i.e.  to  bind  the  parts  closely  together  by  one  principal 
accent,  which  rests  upon  the  last  element.  The  strong  stress  upon  the  last  member  of  the  group 
marks  the  unity  of  the  group,  indicating  the  end  of  one  group  and  distinguishing  it  from  the  next 
one  if  the  discourse  is  continued.  This  is  normal  or  descriptive  (247.  2.  b.)  group-stress.  The 
strong  stress  that  is  occasionally  found  on  the  first  member  calls  attention  to  the  logical  im- 
portance that  it  has  assumed  under  the  special  circumstances,  hence  it  is  often  used  to  distinguish 
one  person  or  thing  from  another.  This  is  logical,  or  distinguishing  or  classifying  stress.  It  is 
not  only  employed  in  the  usual  syntactical  groups  of  a  sentence,  but  is  very  common  in  group- 
words  (247.  2).  Examples  are  given  in  247.  2.  b  and  255.  II.  1.  Descriptive  stress  and  distinguish- 
ing or  classifying  stress  are  also  characteristic  of  English,  which,  however,  has  developed  a  more 
uniform,  consistent  use  of  the  two  principles.  Compare  255.  I.  b  (2nd  par.).  In  German  a 
sharp  discrimination  here  has  been  prevented:  (1)  by  the  survival  of  an  older  descriptive  stress 
upon  the  first  member  in  certain  attributive  adjective  groups  (247.  2.  a);  (2)  by  the  development 
of  a  new  normal  or  descriptive  group-stress  with  the  accent  upon  the  first  member  at  the  end  of 
sentences  or  clauses  which  have  a  compound  tense.  This  new  normal  or  descriptive  stress  is  in 
this  treatise  called  end-stress.     It  is  discussed  more  at  length  in  215.  II.  1.  A  (3rd  par.). 

The  following  groups  of  normal  or  descriptive  stress  are  common: 

c.  The_ adverb  is  less  stressed  than  the  following  adjective,  participle,  or  adverb:  Das  Buch 
ist  ungewöhnlich  reichhaltig  und  interessant.  Of  course,  the  logical  importance  may  shift 
upon  the  preceding  adverb:  Das  Buck  ist  ungewöhnlich  reichhaltig  und  interessant.  Thus 
the  chief  stress  upon  either  the  first  or  the  last  element  of  the  group  does  not  destroy  the  gram- 
matical relations,  but  an  eqtial  stress  upon  the  preceding  adverb  and  the  two  following  adjectives 
may,  as  here,  entirely  destroy  the  grammatical  relations:  Das  Buch  ist  ungewöhnlich,  reich- 
haltig und  interessant.  Here  ungewöhnlich  is  an  adjective  on  a  par  with  the  two  adjectives  that 
follow  it. 

Emphatic  descriptive  stress  is  very  common  here  in  strong  excited  language.  The  adverb  is 
accented  strongly  but  just  a  little  less  strongly  than  the  following  adjective:  Das  Buch  ist  zu 
dumm! 

b.  An  adjective  usually  receives  less  stress  than  the  noun  which  it  limits:  das  Deutsche  Reich. 
If,  however,  a  numeral  precedes  a  noun  denoting  a  weight  or  measure  and  its  dependent  substan- 
tive the  adjective  numeral  has  a  heavier  stress  than  the  following  noun:  drei  Pfund  Zücker. 
Here  as  in  h  below  Pfund  Zücker  forms  a  group.  Now  when  this  group  enters  as  a  unit  into 
the  larger  group  drei  Pfund  Zücker  the  first  member  drei  must  have  a  stronger  stress  than 
Pfund  or  else  it  would  be  felt  as  forming  a  group  with  Pfund  instead  of  with  the  larger  unit 
Pfund  Zücker.  The  strongest  stress  upon  Zucker  in  drei  Pfund  Zücker  clearly  shows  that 
the  end  of  the  group  is  Zucker,  not  Pfund.  Of  course,  the  logical  importance  often  shifts  from 
the  noun  upon  the  preceding  adjective:  Gib  mir  das  bräune  Pferd.  This  logical  or  distinguish- 
ing stress  is  also  found  in  group-words  and  compounds:  Jungfrau,  &c.  See  also  247.  2.  a,  b,  c, 
and  249.  II.  1.  A.  This  logical  stress  which  is  stronger  than  the  accent  upon  the  governing  noun 
must  be  distinguished  from  emphatic  descriptive  stress,  which  is  also  strong  but  just  a  little  less 
strong  than  that  of  the  governing  noun:  O  allzu  rascher  Mann!,  dieser  Schüft!,  Der  Jörg  (pet 
name  for  Georg)  ist  ein  Säufer!  Logical  stress  distinguishes  one  person  or  thing  from  another. 
Emphatic  stress  describes  one  person  or  thing  and  often  indicates  strong  feeling  or  shows  an 
emotional  interest  in  the  statement.     For  another  form  of  descriptive  stress  see  111.  9. 

c.  When  the  second  word  stands  as  an  appositive  to  the  first:  Mütter  Natur.  Wer  soll 
dein  Hüter  sein,  Väter  Rhein?  Schiller  der  Dichter,  der  Dichter  Schiller.  Also  d  con- 
tains this  appositional  construction.  In  older  German  the  appositive  was  stressed  as  to-day, 
but  it  preceded  the  governing  noun.  This  older  usage  survives  in  compounds  and  group-words: 
der  Rheinström.     See  255.  II.  1.  G.  a  (2nd  par.). 

d.  When  a  title  and  a  proper  name  form  one  idea:  Kaiser  Wilhelm;  but  König  Karl,  nicht 
Herzog  Karl. 

e.  In  case  of  Christian  and  surname:  Jakob  Grimm;  but  Erich  Schmidt,  nicht  Johannes 
Schmidt. 

/.  Usually  in  case  of  a  noun  and  its  modifying  genitive,  generally  with  clear  descriptive  force: 
Er  wird  die  Schwelle  meines  Hauses  nicht  übertreten,  or  Er  wird  meines  Hauses  Schwelle 
nicht  übertreten.     Goethes  Väter,  or  der  Väter  Goethes.     See  255.  II.  1. 

Of  course,  the  logical  importance  often  shifts  from  the  second  member  to  the  first  and  we 
then  have  logical  stress:  Selbst  die  Kräuter  und  Wurzeln  miß'  ich  ungern,  wenn  auch  der  Wert 
der  Wäre  nicht  groß  ist.  Das  ist  Wilhelms  Buch,  nicht  meines.  This  logical  stress  is  very 
common  in^  compounds  and  group-words  (247.  2):  Knäbenärt,  Fräuenhänd,  Manneswort, 
Lungenentzündung,  Äugenentzündung,  &c.  Also  often  in  old  group-words  (247.  2.  a), 
where  the  genitive  relation  as  in  the  older  period  of  uninflected  speech  is  not  marked  by  an  ending: 
Kopfverletzung,  Herzklopfen,   &c. 

Quite  different  from  this  logical  accent  is  emphatic  stress,  which  calls  attention  to  the  important 
member  of  the  group:  (Johannes)  Was  führt  Dich  denn  zu  uns?  (Vockerat)  Gottes  Wille, 
tja!     Der  Wille  Gottes  führt  mich  zu  Euch   (llauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  V).     Sie  sagte 


53.  1. LOGICAL  &  EMPHATIC  STRESS  —  PITCH 55 

neulicTi:  Wir  Frauen  lebten  in  einem  Zustand  der  Entwürdigung  (id.  II).  Where  the  em- 
phasis, as  in  these  examples,  rests  upon  the  second  member  the  stress  can  be  as  strong  as  desired 
without  disturbing  the  modern  group-stress.  If,  however,  the  emphatic  member  precedes,  it  is 
strongly  stressed,  but  its  force  must  be  a /«7//e  less  than  that  of  the  second  member,  so  that  the 
modern  group-stress  is  preserved:  Es  gibt  vielleicht  Dinge  zu  verrichten,  die  augenblicklich 
wichtiger  sind  als  sämtliche  Malereien  und  Schreibereien  der  Welt  (id.).  If  the  first  member 
were  more  strongly  stressed  it  would  be  felt  as  logical  stress. 

Logical  stress  distinguishes  one  object  from  another  or  classifies  it.  Emphatic  stress  describes 
one  object  and  shows  an  interest  in  it  praising  or  censuring  it. 

Of  course,  if  two  groups  with  emphatic  stress  stand  in  contrast  to  each  other  the  stress  be- 
comes logical:  Die  Flexion  der  Nomina  hat  sich  nicht  so  reich  entfaltet  wie  die  der  Verba 
(Wilmanns's  Deutsche  Grammatik,  III,  p.  317). 

Z.  Usually  in  case  of  a  noun  with  its  modifying  prepositional  phrase,  when  they  together 
form  one  idea:    Das  Buch  auf  dem  Tisch. 

h.  When  a  noun  denoting  a  weight  or  measure  and  the  following  noun  denoting  a  material 
or  something  measurable  together  form  the  idea  of  a  complete  whole:  ein  Stück  Tuch,  ein  Glas 
Wein. 

i.  In  case  of  several  words  which  are  connected  by  a  preposition  or  conjunction  and  form 
together  one  idea:  Zweig  auf  Zweige  one  branch  upon  the  otiicr,  i.e.  all  upon  one  pile,  weit  und 
breit,  Grund  und  Böden  property,  real  estate;  jung  und  alt,  groß  und  klein,  arm  und  reich. 
The  unity  of  the  idea  arises  here  from  the  fact  that  the  words  are  either  synonyms,  and  thus 
represent  the  same  thing  from  two  different  standpoints,  or  are  opposites  or  complements,  and 
thus  show  the  whole  range  of  the  idea  from  the  two  extremes.  Of  course  the  logical  importance 
of  the  first  word  may  sometimes  require  it  to  be  accented:  Zweig  auf  Zweig  (compare  with 
first  example  above)  one  branch  at  a  time.  The  accent  upon  the  first  word  here  shows  that  it  is 
to  be  taken  separately. 

j.     Co-ordination:  Hans,  Max  und  Wilhelm  waren  da. 

B.     Logical  and  Emphatic  Accent. 

Logical  accent  is  sovereign  and  can  set  aside  all  the  preceding  rules,  disturbing  both  the  group 
and  word  accent.  Any  word  or  syllable  can  for  logical  reasons  receive  the  accent:  Der  Mann 
(the  maji,  not  the  woman)  ist  nicht  alt.  Der  Mann  ist  alt.  Der  Mann  ist  nicht  (contradicting) 
alt.  Der  Mann  ist  nicht  alt,  sondern  jung.  Der  (that)  Mann  ist  nicht  alt.  Thus  also  that 
syllable  or,  in  a  compound,  that  component  may  for  logical  reasons  take  the  principal  accent, 
which  under  normal  conditions  uniformly  has  the  secondary  accent,  or  remains  unaccented:  Der 
Hase  ist  nicht  furchtbar,  sondern  furchtsam.  Er  hat  nicht  eine  Brennerei,  sondern  eine 
Bräuerei  angelegt.  Ich  habe  das  mir  nicht  erbeten,  sondern  verbeten.  Aufgeschoben  ist 
nicht  aufgehoben.  Nicht  die  Gartentür,  sondern  die  Gartenmauer  ist  beschädigt.  One  says 
in  correcting  an  incorrect  grammatical  form:    geben,  nicht  gebe. 

Emphatic  stress  results  from  emotion.  Its  effect  on  words  is  described  in  45.  2,  its  effect  on 
groups  of  words  in  A.  6.  a,  b,  f  above. 

51.  Sentence  Accent  affected  by  the  Rhythm.  Words  that  are  comparatively  unimportant  to 
the  meaning,  and  hence  do  not  absolutely  demand  stress,  may  be  with  or  without  accent,  ac- 
cording to  the  requirement  of  the  natural  rhythm  of  the  sentence.  They  remain  unaccented  if 
their  accentuation  would. bring  two  accented  syllables  together;  but  when  they  are  preceded  or 
followed  by  other  less  important  unaccented  syllables  they  may  recci\'e  accent  in  order  to  make 
an  easy  and  rhythmical  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  Thus  in  the  following 
sentences  the  predicate  verb,  which  in  general  is  weakly  accented  when  it  has  modifiers,  has  in 
the  one  instance  no  accent,  because  it  is  followed  by  an  accent,  while  in  the  other  it  is  accented, 
as  it  is  followed  by  an  unaccented  syllable:  Borgen  macht  Sorgen,  but  Kleider  mächen  Leute. 
However,  when  the  logical  force  of  the  words  becomes  strong,  they  must  receive  accent,  even  tho 
the  accent  disturbs  the  rhythm.  Thus  we  answer  an  inquiry  after  the  number  and  sex  of  the 
children  that  a  man  has  with  the  words:   Er  hat  drei  Töchter. 

52.  Sentence  Accent  affected  by  the  Tempo.  Aside  from  the  points  mentioned  above,  there 
are  other  factors  which  influence  the  accent.  Among  these  the  tempo  plays  an  important  role. 
As  the  movement  in  the  sentence  increases  in  speed,  the  number  of  accents  decreases,  and  their 
intensity  becomes  greater.  Also  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  sentence  or  before  a  pause  the 
accent  becomes  more  pronounced. 

Pitch,  or  Tone. 

53.  1.  The  pitch  in  which  something  is  spoken  indicates  the  attitude  of  the 
mind  or  the  state  of  the  feelings.  In  a  foreign  language  pitch  is  one  of  the  most 
subtle  of  things,  but  in  English  and  German,  so  closely  related  by  a  common 
origin,  it  is  for  the  most  part  the  same.  There  are,  however,  differences.  A 
number  of  scholars  have  observed  in  the  English  of  England  that  pitch  is  con- 
siderably lower  than  in  German,  which  indicates  that  the  people  of  England 
give  to  their  feelings  a  more  restrained  expression  marked  by  less  variation  in  tone. 
On  the  other  hand,  pitch  differs  somewhat  in  different  parts  of  the  same  country, 
also  in  individuals  according  to  health,  age,  and  sex.     In  spite  of  these  differences 


56 INTONATION  —  USE   OF   CAPITALS 53.  1. 

the  tone  in  which  something  is  spoken  is  usually  understood  quite  clearly  by 
men  and  often  even  animals,  and  hence  there  must  be  fixed  rules  which  underlie 
these  phenomena.     This  subject,  however,  cannot  be  discussed  here. 

2.  Falling  and  Rising  Intonation.  Falling  intonation  is  indicated  by  a  period, 
rising  intonation  by  a  raised  period.  Attention  is  here  called  to  only  a  few 
important  fundamental  points,  which  in  general  correspond  to  English  usage: 

a.  Falling  intonation  usually  indicates  completeness,  hence  is  employed  at 
the  end  of  a  statement:  Karl-  ist-  krank-  ge.we.sen. 

h.  Rising  intonation  usually  indicates  incompleteness,  expectancy,  hence  is 
used  at  the  close  of  a  question  that  is  to  be  answered  by  yes  or  no:  1st.  er.  hier, 
ge-we-sen-?  In  other  kinds  of  questions  the  voice  usually  falls  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence  as  there  is  no  state  of  expectancy  or  suspense  as  to  the  outcome  of  a 
decision  or  an  act  but  a  mere  demand  for  information:  Wer-  hat-  das-  ge-tan.? 
If,  however,  one  repeats  the  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb  with  emphasis  in 
impatient  tone  the  voice  rises  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  to  indicate  that  one 
expects  an  answer:  Wer.  hat-  das-  ge-tan-? 

The  voice  rises  at  the  end  of  a  clause  which  precedes  another  clause  and 
falls  at  the  end  of  the  sentence:  Er  ruft  mich-,  wenn  ihr  fertig  seid.  Wenn 
ihr  fertig  seid-,  ruft  er  mich.  In  a  sentence  containing  a  direct  quotation  the 
principal  proposition  closes  with  rising  intonation  if  it  precedes  the  quotation, 
but  if  it  follows  the  quotation  it  has  the  intonation  of  the  syllable  which  imme- 
diately precedes  it:  Er.  sag-te-;  „Ge-hen-  Sie-  mit.!"  „Ge-hen-  Sie-  mit.!," 
sag.te.  er.  ,,Ist.  er.  hier,  ge-we-sen-?",  frag-te-  er-  (Siebs's  Bühnenaussprache, 
p.  87).     Compare  269.  1.  h  and  164   (toward  end). 

Use  of  Capital  Letters. 

54.  The  use  of  capital  letters  in  German  differs  from  the  English  in  several 
points.     The  following  are  begun  with  a  capital: 

1.  Every  complete  sentence  in  prose,  and  in  poetry  every  verse. 

2.  Every  direct  quotation:   Der  Bettelsack  sagt  nie:    „Ich  habe  genug." 

3.  Every  noun  and  any  word  used  as  a  noun,  if  it  can  take  the  definite 
article,  an  adjective,  or  any  other  modifying  word  before  it:  der  Mann,  der 
Alte,  der  Junge,  but  alt  und  jung  old  and  yoiing,  because  no  article  can  stand 
before  these  words  in  this  set  expression;  das  Weinen;  das  trauliche  Du; 
Schönes,  etwas  Schönes. 

a.  Pronominal  adjectives,  indefinite  pronouns  and  numerals,  tho  otten  used 
substantively,  are  written  with  a  small  letter:  mancher,  niemand,  man,  einer, 
ein  wenig,  &c. 

h.  Also  many  nouns  in  certain  set  expressions,  used  adverbially,  are  written 
with  a  small  letter:  zuliebe  tun;   zustatten  kommen,  von  alters  her,  anfangs. 

4.  Adjectives  and  ordinals  preceded  by  the  article,  when  they  stand  after 
proper  names,  forming  with  the  name  the  designation  of  one  individual:  Friedrich 
der  Große  or  der  Zweite. 

5.  Adjectives  and  possessives  in  titles:  Seine  Majestät;  das  Königliche 
Zollamt;    der  WirkUche  Geheimrat;   die  Norddeutsche  Schulzeitung. 

6.  Certain  pronouns  in  direct  address,  as  explained  in  138.  1,  and  also  those 
referring  to  the  speaker  in  the  proclamations  and  words  of  emperors  and  kings. 
Also  other  pronouns,  pronominal  adjectives,  and  the  numeral  ein  sometimes 
take  a  capital  to  indicate  emphasis,  but  more  commonly  are  written  with  a  small 
letter  with  an  accent  above  the  vowel,  as  ein,  or  are  spaced,  as  e  i  n.  If,  how- 
ever, groups  of  words  or  whole  sentences  are  to  be  emphasized  the  letters  are 
spaced  in  German,  or  they  appear  in  heavier  type.  Differing  from  English,  the 
pronoun  of  the  first  person,  ich  /,  is  written  with  a  small  letter,  unless  it  begins 
a  sentence  or  direct  quotation. 

7.  Adjectives  in  sch  derived  from  names  of  persons  and  those  in  -er  from 
names  of  places:  die  Grimmschen  or  Grimm'schen  Märchen;  der  Kölner 
(sometimes  also  kölner)  Dom. 


55.3. USE   OF   CAPITALS  —  APOSTROPHE 57 

a.  But  adjectives  made  from  proper  names,  whether  of  persons,  peoples,  or 
countries,  are  written  with  a  small  letter  when  used,  not  with  reference  to  one 
person  or  thing,  but  in  a  general  universal  sense:  die  lu'therische  Kirche; 
römisch,  preußisch,  kölnisch,  &c. 

8.  Usually  only  the  first  element  of  compound  nouns  is  written  with  a 
capital,  but  sometimes  other  elements  take  a  capital,  especially  in  the  following 
cases:  (1)  When  a  misunderstanding  might  arise  from  the  use  of  small  charac- 
ters: Erd-Rücken  to  keep  it  from  being  confounded  with  Er-driicken;  der 
Z-Laut,  &c.  (2)  Proper  names  and  adjectives:  Schleswig-Holstein,  Nieder- 
schlesisch-Märkische  Eisenbahn.  (3)  The  last  component  element  in  long 
compounds:  Dampfschiffahrts-Gesellschaft,  Appellationsgerichts-Präsident.  (4) 
Common  class  nouns  in  compounds  containing  a  prep,  phrase:  das  In-die-Höhe- 
Kommen,  but  with  a  small  letter  where  the  thought  is  clear:  das  Imamtbleiben. 
Notice  that  in  the  above  cases  a  hyphen  (-)  must  be  used  when  an  element  with- 
in the  compound  has  a  capital. 

Apostrophe. 

55.     An  apostrophe  is  used  as  in  English  to  indicate  that  a  sound  which  can 
be  pronounced  is  suppressed:  wen'ge  for  wenige;   er  redet'  for  redete. 
The  exceptions  are  as  follows: 

1.  An  apostrophe  is  not  used  in  the  common  contractions  of  the  article  with 
a  previous  preposition:  am,  ans,  &c.  for  an  dem,  an  das,  &c. 

2.  It  is  not  now  usual  to  place  an  apostrophe  before  s  in  the  gen.:  Schillers, 
Goethes,  &c.     Older  usage:   Schiller's,  &c. 

3.  If  a  proper  name  ends  in  a  sibilant  s.  ß,  tz,  &c.,  no  additional  s  appears  in 
the  printed  or  written  form  of  the  gen.,  altho  an  additional  s  is  actually  spoken. 
In  the  printed  and  written  form  the  apostrophe  is  usually  employed  here  to 
indicate  the  case:  Voß'   (now  sometimes  Voß's)  Luise.     See  also  86.  2.  a. 


PART  II. 

THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 
THEIR  GRAMMATICAL  FORMS,  USE,  NATURE. 

Preliminary. 
Number,  Case,  Gender. 

56.     a.     There  are  in  German  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  plural. 

b.  There  are  four  cases:  the  ?iominative,  the  genitive,  the  dative,  the  accusative. 
The  meaning  and  uses  of  these  cases  are  treated  in  the  Syntax. 

c.  There  are  three  genders,  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter.  The  general 
rule  for  the  gender  of  nouns  denoting  living  beings  is  that  the  noun  is  masculine 
or  feminine  according  to  the  natural  sex  of  the  object  represented  by  it,  but  there 
are  many  exceptions  to  the  rule.  The  gender  of  nouns  denoting  things  destitute 
of  sex  is  not  always  neuter  as  in  English,  but  is  masc,  fem.,  or  neut.,  regulated 
in  part  by  the  meaning  or  the  form  of  the  word.  Some  rules  for  gender  are 
given  in  98  and  99,  but  in  general  the  gender  of  each  word  must  be  learned,  as 
there  is  much  irregularity.  The  gender  of  the  noun  is  usually  indicated  by  the 
form  of  the  preceding  article  or  other  modifying  word. 


INFLECTION   OF  THE   ARTICLES. 

Definite  Article. 

57.  A.  The  definite  article  has  in  the  development  of  the  language  become 
ever  more  and  more  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  the  noun.  It  stands  imme- 
diately before  the  noun,  and  thus  not  only  indicates  its  gender,  but  also,  as  it  is 
richer  in  forms,  marks  its  case  more  distinctly. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

M.,  F.,  and  N.  alike, 

Nom.     . 

.     der 

die 

das 

die  the. 

Gen.  .     . 

,     des 

der 

des 

der  of  the. 

Dat.  .     . 

.     dem 

der 

dem 

den  to  {or for)  the. 

Ace.  .     . 

.     den 

die 

das 

die  the. 

B.  The  definite  article  is  an  enclitic,  i.e.  it  leans  upon  a  preceding  word,  the 
voice  passing  rapidly  over  it,  as  if  it  were  a  part  of  the  preceding  word.  For  this 
reason  the  article  suffers  many  contractions  with  a  preceding  preposition  or 
other  word,  especially  the  contraction  of  dem  (neut.  and  masc.  dat.)  and  das 
(ace.)  with  a  preceding  monosyllabic  preposition.  Zur  for  zu  der  is  the  only 
fem.  contraction  allowed.  The  more  common  contractions  are  am,  ans,  aufs, 
beim,  fürs,  im,  ins,  vom,  zum,  for  an  dem,  an  das,  auf  das,  bei  dem,  für  das, 
in  dem,  in  das,  von  dem,  zu  dem;  sometimes  in  the  familiar  language  of  every 
day:  aufm,  hinterm,  gegens,  übern,  &c.,  for  auf  dem,  hinter  dem,  gegeri  das, 
über  den,  &c.  In  the  spoken  language  contraction  with  a  preceding  verb  is  also 
very^common:   Er  hat's   (hat  das)  große  Los  gewonnen. 

a.  In  the  classics  we  find  the  contractions  zun  for  zu  den  (dat.  pi.),  an  (pronounce  an'n) 
for  an  den  (ace.  sing.  masc.  and  dat.  pi.),  and  in  (pronounce  in'n)  for  in  den  (ace.  sing.  masc. 
and  dat.  pi.),  which  have  since  disappeared  from  the  literary  language:  vom  Kopf  bis  zun  Füßen 
(Schiller's  Rauher,  2,  .3).  Ihr  warft  sie  dem  Feind  an  Kopf  (Goethe's  Götz,  1,  2).  Und  setz' 
dich  in  Sessel!  (id.,  Faust,  1.  242S).  Er  fabelte  gewiß  in  letzten  Zügen  (ib.,  1.  2962).  Such 
contractions  are  still  common  in  colloquial  and  popular  language. 

58 


58.  B.  b:  INFLECTION   OF   INDEFINITE  ARTICLE 59 

b.  Contraction  is  the  rule  in  all  the  above  cases  in  the  numerous  set  phrases  where  the  article 
loses  its  demonstrative  (see  D)  force  entirely,  and  hence  its  importance,  pointing  to  no  concrete 
object  in  particular  which  thus  needs  to  be  pointed  out  or  described,  in  order  to  be  identified, 
but  to  one  which  has  taken  on  abstract  and  general  force:  Er  schlug  die  Gegner  aufs  Haupt 
He  defeated  his  opponents  (lit.  hit  them  upon  the  head).  Er  faßte  ihn  scharf  ins  Auge  He  looked 
at  him  sharply.  Er  geht  zur  Schule  (no  reference  to  a  particular  school,  but,  in  general,  to  the 
place  where  one  learns). 

Outside  of  these  set  expressions  the  article  is  also,  on  the  same  general  principle,  very  often 
contracted  when  it  has  no  demonstrative  force,  especially  in  familiar  language  where  the  rela- 
tions of  the  persons  and  objects  to  each  other  are  perfectly  clear  and  need  not  be  pointed  out. 
However,  when  the  least  demonstrative  force  enters  into  the  article,  it  cannot  be  contracted, 
especially  in  choice  language:  Ich  habe  im  guten  Glauben  gehandelt  /  acted  in  good  faith.,  but 
Ich  habe  in  dem  guten  Glauben  gehandelt,  daß  ich  in  meinem  Rechte  wäre. 

c.  Instead  of  being  contracted  the  article  is  sometimes  lengthened.  The  lengthened  gen. 
and  dat.  forms  derer  (for  der)  and  denen  (for  den)  are  found  more  or  less  frequently  up  to 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century:  die  Befolgung  derer  Gesetze  (Klopstock).  Vielleicht 
daß  G'Ott  denen  Großen  die  Augen  auf  tut  (Goethe).  Occasionally  still  in  language  colored  by 
dialect:  Aber  geholfen  hat  er  schon  vielen,  weil  er  mir  die  Wissenschaft  von  denen  Kräutern 
gegeben  hat  (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Somtenopfer,  I). 

C.  The  definite  article  is  also  a  proclitic  (i.e.  leans  upon  the  following  word), 
the  voice  passing  rapidly  over  it  and  resting  upon  the  next  word:  Der  Mensch 
ist  sterblich.  Hence  the  article  is  often  contracted  or  written  as  a  part  of  the 
following  word:  's  Morgens  =  des  Morgens  of  mornings,  der'selbe  the  same. 
The  article  is  a  proclitic  or  enclitic  according  as  it  precedes  or  follows  a  stronger 
accent  to  which  it  naturally  attaches  itself. 

D.  The  definite  article  is  in  fact  only  the  unaccented  and  shorter  form  of  the 
demonstrative  adjective  der  that  (see  129.  1),  and  still,  tho  in  greatly  reduced 
degree,  retains  its  demonstrative  force.  Owing  to  its  enclitic  nature  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  def.  article  difi^ers  according  to  circumstances  just  as  the 
English  the,  tho  always  more  or  less  short  and  obscure,  thus  differing  from  the 
demon,  adjective  der,  which  has  a  strong  accent. 

Indefinite  Article. 

58.     A.     Its  declension  is  as  follows: 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.       Fem.  Neut.  M.,  F.,  and  N. 

Nom.    .     .     .     ein  eine  ein       a  ...     meine     my 

Gen.      .     .     .     eines        einer  eines  of  a  ...     meiner  of  my 

Dat.      .     .     .     einem      einer  einem  to  (for)  a  ...     meinen  to   (for)  my 

Ace.      .     .     .     einen       eine  ein       a  ...     meine     my 

B.  Of  course  there  can  be  no  plural  of  ein,  but  as  all  the  other  words  declined 
like  ein  have  a  plural,  mein  is  declined  as  a  model  for  the  whole  group  in  the  plural. 
The  words  declined  like  ein  are:  kein  wo  and  all  the  possessive  adjectives,  mein 
my,  unser  otir,  dein  thy,  euer  your,  sein  his,  its,  ihr  her,  ihr  their.  Notice  that 
this  group  has  no  ending  to  shozv  gender  in  nom.  sing,  of  the  masc.  and  nom.  and 
ace.  sing,  of  the  neut.  Of  these  words  ein  is  the  only  one  that  is  an  enclitic,  and 
hence  is  the  only  one  that  can  suffer  apheresis   (see  h). 

a.  The  indefinite  article  like  the  definite  is  an  enclitic  or  proclitic,  being  the  unaccented 
form  of  the  accented  numeral  adjective  ein  one,  which  is  sometimes  distinguished  from  the 
indef.  article  by  being  written  with  a  capital  or,  more  commonly  by  an  accent,  or  by  spaced 
letters:   Ein,  ein,  e  i  n. 

b.  Owing  to  its  enclitic  or  proclitic  nature  the  indef.  article  is  often  contracted  after  or  be- 
fore a  word,  forming  in  the  familiar  language  of  every  day  a  complete  shorter  declension  as 
follows: 

Singular. 

Masc.  Fem.  Neut. 

Nom 'n  'ne  'n 

Gen 'nes  'ner  'nes 

Dat 'nem  (or  'm)  'ner  'nem  (or  'm) 

Ace 'nenor'n  (=n'n)     'ne  'n 

Example:   Es  war  'ne  furchtbare  Zeit   (M.  Dreyer's  Drei,  I). 


60 USE   OF  THE   ARTICLES 58.  B.  c. 

c.  This  group  of  words  had  in  early  N.H.G.  other  abbreviated  forms,  as  eins  (gen.  masc. 
and  neut.)  for  eines,  eim  or  em  for  einem,  einn  or  ein'  for  einen,  &c.  These  forms  are  often 
found  in  the  language  of  Luther  and  occasionally  in  the  works  of  Goethe:  Es  ist  besser  wonen 
im  wüsten  Lande  |  Denn  bey  eim  zenckischen  vnd  zornigen  Weibe  (Proverbs  21.  19).  Mit  eim 
leidlich  Geld  (Goethe's  Urfaust,  1.  258).  Wenn  ich  so  saß  bei  'em  Gelag  (ib.,  1.  1372)  In 
the  careless  spoken  language  of  every-day  life  these  contractions  still  continue  to  take  place: 
Mit  eim  Mai?  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,  I.)  In  the  same  manner  we  find  earlier  in  the 
period  contracted  forms  of  the  other  words  inflected  like  ein,  namely,  kein  and  the  possessive 
adjectives,  and  in  poetry  and  popular  language  such  contractions  still  appear:  König  Sifrid  liegt 
in  seim  roten  Blute!    (Uhland's  Die  drei  Lieder). 

d.  In  more  choice  language  the  indefinite  article  is  pronounced  in  full,  but  with  weak  accent. 


USE  OF  THE  ARTICLES. 

I.     General  Statement. 

59.  A.  The  indefinite  article  ein  a,  in  form  the  unaccented  numeral  ein  one, 
true  to  its  origin  singles  out  one  object,  action,  or  quality  from  among  a  number. 
It  designates  an  individual  object  in  different  ways: 

a.  It  points  to  an  individual  person  or  thing  without  fixing  its  identity: 
Ein  Kind  begegnete  uns.  Ein  Buch  liegt  auf  dem  Tisch.  If  the  individual 
introduced  by  the  indefinite  article  is  afterwards  referred  to,  it  is  designated  by 
the  definite  article,  since  it  is  considered  as  known:  Es  war  einmal  ein  König. 
Der  König  hatte  kein  Kind. 

b.  In  its  more  indefinite  sense,  ein  is  equal  to  irgend  ein  any,  designating  no 
individual  in  particular:   Nie  ist  ein  Kaiser  so  reich  gewesen. 

c.  The  indefinite  article  can  usually  stand  before  a  proper  name  in  only  two 
cases:  (1)  to  designate  one  member  of  a  family:  Ich  habe  einen  Schmidt  ge- 
kannt I  knew  a  man  by  the  name  of  Schmidt;  (2)  to  convert  a  proper  name  into 
a  common  class  noun:  Für  einen  Knaben  stirbt  ein  Posa  (a  man  like  Posa) 
nicht  (Schiller's  Don  Carlos,  5,  9).  Em  Goethe  kommt  nicht  alle  Jahrzehnte 
vor.     Compared. 

d.  Ein  always  indicates  individualization,  but  usually  without  definite 
reference.  In  M.H.G.,  however,  there  are  abundant  evidences  of  a  tendency 
toward  definite  reference  as  ein  often  assumes  the  force  of  a  weak  demonstrative 
or  determinative.  (130.  2):  wer  was  ein  maget,  diu  den  gral  truoc?  {Parzival, 
500.  24)  =  Wer  war  die  Jungfrau,  die  den  Gral  trug?,  ///.  Who  was  a  certain 
maiden,  who  carried  the  grail?  In  early  N.H.G.  the  weak  demonstrative  force 
of  ein  is  still  common:  Geitz  ist  eine  (now  die)  wurtzel  alles  vbels  (1.  Tim.  vi. 
10).  In  a  few  instances  it  still  survives  in  official  language:  An  ein  hohes 
Ministerium  instead  of  the  now  more  common:  An  das  hohe  Ministerium. 
This  old  demonstrative  force  is  still  sometimes  used  where  in  English  we  may 
render  ein  by  such  a  man  as,  such  men  as,  such  distinguished:  Die  Erhebung  des 
deutschen  Volkes  im  Befreiungskriege  ward  von  den  poetischen  Klängen  eines 
Körner,  Arndt,  Eichendorff  begleitet.  Die  Darstellung  und  Inszenierung  war 
eines  Burgtheaters  würdig  (Dr.  Hans  Hartmeyer  in  Hamburger  Nachrichten, 
Feb.  13,  1906,  describing  the  presentation  of  a  play  in  the  Burgtheater,  Vienna). 
Zum  zweiten  Male  will  man  vom  Deutschen  Reich  zwei  Provinzen  (Elsaß  und 
Lothringen)  losreißen,  die  ständig  zu  Deutschland  gehörten  bis  zu  den  Raub- 
zügen eines  Ludwig  XIV  (definite  person)  (Lokalanzeiger,  Jan.  12,  1917). 
This  ein  is  quite  different  from  the  ein  described  in  c.  (2)  above,  altho  it  is  some- 
times impossible  to  distinguish  them  by  reason  of  insufficient  context.  Here  the 
reference  is  to  definite  individuals,  while  in  c.(2)  the  name  denotes,  not  a  definite 
individual  but  any  member  of  a  certain  class  of  persons  or  things. 

In  colloquial  language  the  old  determinative  force  of  ein  is  still  quite  common 
where  it  has  the  meaning  of  ein  solcher:  Es  war  eine  Nacht,  in  der  man  nicht 
gern  einen  Hund  hinausjagt.     Er  hat  eine  Freude,  es  ist  kaum  zu  glauben. 

B.  Definite  Article  with  Individualizing  Force.  The  definite  article  der  the, 
in  form  the  unaccented  demonstrative  der  that,  true  to  its  origin,  points  out  a 


69.  I.  D.  GENERALIZING  ART.  —  OMISSION  OF  ART. 61 

definite  object  or  thing,  not  directly  by  a  gesture,  as  the  demon,  der,  but  by 
implication,  referring  to  a  person  or  thing  which  has  already  been  brought  before 
the  mind  by  previous  mention,  or  which  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  context,  and 
hence  is  either  a  weak  demonstrative  or  a  weak  determinative  (130.  2):  Trudchen 
hatte  eine  arme  Mutter.  Aber  die  Mutter  war  sehr  fromm  und  gottesfürchtig. 
Der  damalige  Kaiser  von  Deutschland;  die  zwei  letzten  Kaiser  von  Deutsch- 
land; das  Buch  auf  dem  Tische;  das  Buch,  das  auf  dem  Tische  Hegt.  The 
definite  article  individualizes  persons  and  things,  i.e.  it  points,  not  to  a  class  but 
to  a  definite  individual  or  to  definite  individuals  within  a  class. 

Altho  originally  the  definite  article  pointed  out  a  definite  individual  within 
a  class,  the  idea  of  a  definite  individual  often  so  overshadows  that  of  a  class  that 
the  idea  of  a  class  in  part  or  entirely  disappears:  (the  idea  of  a  class  still  felt) 
der  Montag,  der  Januar,  der  Merkur,  &c. ;  (the  idea  of  a  class  almost  or  entirely 
absent)  der  Erlöser  the  Redeemer,  Friedrich  der  Große  Frederick  the  Great, 
der  Grunewald  (forest  near  Berlin),  die  Vereinigten  Staaten  the  United  States, 
&c.  Thus  for  many  centuries  common  class  nouns  have  been  developing  into 
proper  names,  so  that  a  large  number  of  these  strong  individualizations  of  the 
new  type  with  the  definite  article  now  stand  over  against  the  strong  individual- 
izations of  the  old  type,  the  articleless  proper  names  in  D.  A  number  of  the 
words  of  the  new  type  have  already  dropped  or  occasionally  drop  the  definite 
article  and  have  joined  or  occasionally  join  the  older  group:  Deutschland 
(formerly  das  deutsche  Land),  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  this  new  group  has 
been  greatly  increased  by  accessions  from  the  older  group,  as  illustrated  in 
II.  B,  C,  D,  E,  G,  H,  1.(1). 

C.  Both  A  rtides  with  Generalizing  force.  Both  ein  and  der  have  individual- 
izing force,  both  indicating  individualization  within  a  class.  Hence  in  general 
statements,  i.e.  where  there  is  no  reference  to  a  definite  individual,  ein  and  der 
both  assume  generalizing  force,  i.e.  the  representative  idea  becomes  more  prom- 
inent than  the  conception  of  a  sharp  individualization,  one  individual  repre- 
senting a  whole  class.  Here  ein  corresponds  in  general  to  English  a,  both  ein 
and  a  representing  a  less  definite,  a  less  vivid  form  of  individualization  than  der. 
In  general,  der  corresponds  to  the  articleless  form  in  English,  as  man  in  Man  is 
mortal  but  is  much  more  widely  used,  the  German  form  with  der  representing 
the  new  type  of  individualization  described  in  B  (2nd  par.),  the  English  form 
of  expression  representing  the  old  style  of  individualization  as  found  in  proper 
names.  The  new  type  of  individualization  with  der,  so  common  in  German,  is 
also  often  found  in  English  with  the  definite  article  where  the  idea  of  a  class  is 
strongly  pronounced.  Examples:  Das  weiß  ein  Kind.  Eine  Ratte  ist  größer 
als  eine  Maus  A  rat  is  larger  than  a  mouse,  or  Die  Ratte  ist  größer  als  die  Maus 
The  rat  is  larger  than  the  mouse.  Ein  Mensch  ist  in  seinem  Leben  wie  Gras 
As  for  man  his  days  are  as  grass.  Ein  Dieb  ist  furchtsam,  ein  Löwe  stark. 
Der  Mensch  ist  sterblich  Man  is  mortal.  Der  afrikanische  Elefant  ist  größer 
als  der  indische.  Der  Tisch  ist  ein  Hausgerät.  Du  bist  doch  die  geborene 
alte  Jungfer  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap,  i)  You  are,  indeed,  a  regular  old  maid. 
War  er  nicht  der  Generalbösewicht?  (Kröger's  Leute  eigener  Art,  p.  117)  Wasn't 
he  a  consummate  villain?  Das  ist  die  reine  Lüge  That  is  a  downright  lie.  The 
plural  of  the  article  is  also  used:  Beide  waren  ja  noch  die  reinen  Kinder  (R. 
Voss's  Psyche,  XIII)  Both  were  still  mere  children.  Der  Blinde  erregt  or  die 
BUnden  erregen  unser  Mitleid. 

D.  Omission  of  Article.  Proper  names  do  not  usually  take  an  article,  as  the 
name  itself  points  out  clearly  the  object  in  question:  Hans  ist  angekommen. 
This  is  the  survival  of  a  once  much  wider  usage.  In  oldest  Germanic  the  definite 
article  was  little  used  with  nouns,  not  even  with  common  class  nouns.  All 
things  living  and  lifeless  were  conceived  of  as  individuals.  Gradually  the  old 
idea  of  individuality  became  much  restricted.  It  is  now  common  only  with 
proper  names,  in  a  much  less  degree  with  names  of  materials  and  abstract  nouns, 
sometimes  in  names  of  planets,  ships,  &c.,  and  in  a  few  accessions  from  the  new 
type,  such  as  titles,  as  discussed  below  in  II.  C,  D,  E.  c,  g.  Note.      It  is  most 


62 ARTICLE   WITH    MODIFIED    NOUN 69.  I.  D. 

restricted  in  the  genitive,  where  it  is  now  Httle  used  except  with  proper  names 
as  the  idea  of  a  living  personality  has  become  closely  associated  with  the  articleless 
genitive:  Gold  (II.  C.  b)  schmilzt  bei  1064°,  but  das  Atomgewicht  des  Goldes 
ist  197,2.  See  also  IL  E.  g.  Note.  On  the  other  hand,  the  absence  of  the 
definite  article  to-day  is  often  felt  as  a  contrast  to  its  presence  and  hence  indicates 
an  indefinite  portion,  amount,  or  extent,  as  illustrated  below  in  II.  C,  D,  or  a 
class  or  kind  in  contrast  to  a  definite  object,  as  illustrated  in  E  below  and  HI./. 
Also  words  which  in  the  sing,  usually  require  the  article  often  drop  it  in  the 
plural,  as  the  reference  is  not  to  definite  individuals  but  only  in  a  general  way  to 
a  class  or  indefinite  number:  Kinder  und  Narren  sagen  die  Wahrheit.  In  all 
these  cases  when  the  reference  becomes  a  definite  one  the  article  must  stand. 

E.  Use  of  the  Article  ivith  Modified  Nouns.  Nouns  which  do  not  usually 
take  an  article  require  it  at  once  when  they  become  modified  by  an  adjective,  a 
genitive,  a  phrase,  or  relative  clause,  provided  the  modifier  thus  with  the  aid  of 
the  article  marks  the  noun  as  a  definite  and  distinct  thing,  but,  of  course,  a 
modified  noun  is  without  the  definite  article  if  the  reference  is  to  something 
indefinite  or  to  the  general  conception  of  a  class  or  kind:  Wilhelm  William, 
Frankreich  France,  but  der  kleine  Wilhelm  little  William,  das  sonnige  Frank- 
reich sunny  France,  as  German  contrary  to  modern  English  usage  requires, 
except  in  direct  address,  the  article  before  modified  proper  names  as  before  other 
modified  nouns  wherever  the  reference  is  to  a  definite  individual,  i.e.  as  in  older 
English  usage,  often  still  surviving  in  poetic  or  choice  language,  modern  German 
still  employs  here  regularly  the  new  type  of  individualization  described  in  B 
(2nd  par.),  while  modern  English  drops  the  article  after  the  analogy  of  usage 
with  the  unmodified  proper  name.  Aside  from  proper  names  usage  is  here  in 
general  the  same  in  both  languages.  The  absence  of  the  article  suggests  some- 
thing indefinite  or  the  general  conception  of  class  or  kind  with  only  a  general 
characterization,  while  the  definite  article  points  to  something  definite  or  to  a 
definite  individual:  Sie  hat  nervösen  Kopfschmerz  (idea  of  class  or  kind,  not 
the  idea  of  a  definite  attack),  heftige  Kopfschmerzen  (indefinite  number),  but 
Sie  hat  den  gestrigen  Kopfschmerz  (definite  attack)  noch  nicht  überwunden. 
Schwarze  Tinte  (idea  of  class,  kind)  sieht  hier  besser  aus  als  rote.  China  pro- 
duziert schwarzen  und  grünen  Tee  (idea  of  class  or  kind  and  indefinite  quantity). 
Feines  Weizenmehl  fine  wheat  flour  (general  indication  of  class  or  kind),  das 
feinste  Weizenmehl  zu  dem  billigsten  Preise  the  finest  wheat  flour  at  the  lowest 
market  price  (the  superl.  in  both  cases  with  the  art.  as  a  definite  quality  and 
price  are  stated),  but  feinstes  Weizenmehl  zu  billigstem  Preise  very  fine  flour  at 
a  very  low  price  (not  entirely  definite);  in  hohem  Alter  at  an  advanced  age 
(indefinite),  but  im  hohen  Alter  von  78  Jahren  (definite);  Gott  sei  Dank! 
thanks  be  to  God!  but  dem  Gotte  Israels  to  the  God  of  Israel.  Der  Gott,  der 
Eisen  wachsen  ließ,  der  wollte  keine  Knechte  (Arndt's  Vaterlandslied).  The 
article  is  of  course  dropped  in  case  of  persons  when  the  identity  of  the  individual 
is  perfectly  clear  and  the  modifier  is  added  only  to  call  attention  to  some  par- 
ticular fact,  not  to  point  out  the  individual:  Gott,  der  uns  bisher  beigestanden 
hat,  wird  uns  auch  in  der  Zukunft  nahe  sein. 

F.  The  article  must  often  be  used  on  merely  formal  grounds  to  make  clear 
the  case:  Er  zieht  den  Rosen  Nelken  vor,  but  when  the  substantive  clearly 
shows  the  case,  the  article  in  such  instances  drops  out,  as  the  reference  is  an 
indefinite  one:  Er  zieht  Äpfeln  Pfirsiche  vor.  Gold  (IL  C.  b)  schmilzt  bei 
1064°,  but  to  indicate  the  dative  clearly:  Dieses  Metall  gleicht  dem  Golde. 
Likewise  Er  studiert  Mathematik  (IL  H),  but  Er  hat  sich  der  Mathematik  ge- 
widmet. Zinn  ist  dem  Zink  ähnlich.  Er  läuft  der  Ehre  nach.  In  the  genitive: 
Die  Geschichte  der  Mathematik,  ein  ganzer  Tag  der  Arbeit  a  whole  day  of  work; 
in  Prima  or  in  der  Prima,  but  der  deutsche  Unterricht  der  Prima;  der  Glanz 
des  Goldes.  Er  liebt  Ruhe  or  die  Ruhe,  but  only  Er  bedarf  der  Ruhe,  even  tho 
the  reference  is  to  an  indefinite  amount,  where  there  is  usually  no  article.  The 
use  of  the  articles  is  especially  frequent  before  names  of  persons  to  bring  out 
clearly  the  case:  Ich  ziehe  Homer  dem  Virgil  vor. 


59.  IL  C.  a. USES   OF  THE   ARTICLE 63 

IL     Detailed  Statement  of  the  Uses  of  the  Articles. 

A.  Common  class  nouns  take  the  article  both  in  the  sing,  and  pi.,  when  they  are  the  names 
of  definite  objects,  or  stand  as  representatives  of  their  class  or  genus,  but  drop  it  in  all  cases 
where  they  express  an  indefinite  number  or  an  abstract,  general  idea:  Die  Blätter  sind  der 
Schmuck  der  Bäume,  but  Der  Baum  treibt  Blätter.  Das  Buch  auf  dem  Tisch,  but  Jeder  Kauf- 
mann muß  gehörig  Buch  führen  Every  merchant  must  keep  his  book  account  (no  definite  book, 
but  his  accounts  in  general)  properly.  Das  ist  der  Welt  Lauf  That  is  the  way  of  the  ivorld,  but 
Aus  jedem  ihrer  Worte  sprach  die  Dame  von  Welt  From  every  ivord  that  she  spoke  it  was  dear  that 
she  zvas  a  lady  familiar  with  the  ways  of  polite  society  (=  Welt,  here  used  in  its  abstract  appli- 
cation). Der  Mensch  ist  sterblich  Man  (as  the  representative  of  his  race)  is  mortal,  but  Mensch 
sein  heißt  Kämpfer  sein  To  be  a  man  (here  =  alive  to  all  that  is  of  human  interest)  means  to  be  a 
fijihter  in  life's  battles.  Gläser  zerschmettern  wäre  Wirtshaus  gewesen  {the  tvay  they  do  it  in  a 
Wirtshaus,  i.e.  coarse  and  vulgar).  In  the  last  two  sentences  Mensch  and  Wirtshaus  neither 
refer  to  definite  individuals  nor  do  they  picture  a  man  or  a  tavern  as  the  representatives  of  their 
kind,  but  are  used  in  a  general  abstract  sense  almost  with  the  force  of  a  predicate  adjective. 
See  III.  a. 

a.  If  a  genitive  precedes  its  governing  noun,  the  latter  must  drop  the  definite  article,  as  the 
genitive  points  out  definitely  the  particular  object,  and  hence  must  itself  require  the  article: 
Der  Herr  des  Hauses,  or  des  Hauses  Herr. 

Note.  In  an  earlier  period  the  gen.  which  preceded  its  governing  noun  often  did  not,  as  to-day,  have  an  article  of 
its  own,  as  the  genitive  did  not  point  to  a  definite  individual  but  to  a  class  and  its  characteristics,  so  that  it  often 
had  almost  or  quite  the  force  of  an  adjective.  Many  survivals  of  this  construction  occur  in  the  form  of  compound 
nouns:  Manneswort  the  word  of  a  man,  Freundesherz  the  heart  of  a  friend,  Menschenherz  the  human  heart,  and  thus 
also  many  fem.  compounds  ending  in  en,  the  old  weak  gen.  form  for  the  singular  as  well  as  the  plural  (see  76.  II.  I): 
Frauenstimme  the  voice  of  a  woman,  eine  Mahnung  aus  Frauenmund  an  exhortation  from  the  mouth  of  a  woman,  &c. 
Compare  249.  II.  1.  B.    Note. 

h.  The  definite  article  stands  very  frequently  for  a  possessive  adjective  when  no  ambiguity 
could  thus  arise,  especially  before  parts  of  the  body  or  articles  of  clothing,  often  accompanied 
by  the  dat.  of  the  pronoun  or  noun  referring  to  the  person  affected:  Der  Kopf  tut  mir  so  weh 
My  head  aches  so  badly.  Man  nahm  den  Besiegten  die  Waffen  ab.  Er  steckt  die  Nase  in  alles. 
Er  schloß  ihm  die  Augen  He  closed  his  (a  friend's)  eyes.  Er  schloß  die  Augen  He  closed  his 
(own)  eyes.  Er  verlor  das  Leben.  Er  kam  herein  mit  dem  Hut  in  der  Hand.  Er  rieb  sich 
die  Augen. 

c.  In  a  distributive  sense  the  definite  article  in  German  often  corresponds  to  the  English 
indefinite  a  (in  last  example  not  the  indef.  art.  a,  but  a  form  of  the  prep,  on):  Dieses  Tuch  kostet 
90  Pfennigfe)  die  Elle  This  cloth  costs  90  pfennigs  a  yard.  Er  ruft  Hosenträger  aus,  das  Dutzend 
zu  einer  Mark  He  is  off^ering  suspenders  for  a  mark  a  dozen.  Fünfmal  das  Jahr  five  times  a  year. 
The  definite  article  used  here  in  German  and  the  indefinite  in  English  except  in  the  last  example 
is  the  generalizing  article  described  in  I.  C 

d.  A  title  in  the  form  of  an  attributive  gen.  takes  the  indef.  art.  in  German,  while  in  English 
no  article  at  all  is  used:  Wilhelm  I.  nahm  den  Titel  eines  Kaisers  an  William  I.  accepted  the 
title  of  emperor. 

e.  The  indefinite  article  in  German  is  used  in  many  idiomatic  expressions:  ein  jeder  or  ein 
jeglicher  each,  everybody,  ein  solcher  (Mann,  &c.)  such  a  (man,  &c.),  so  ein  (großes  Land), 
or  ein  so    (großes  Land)  such  a    (large  country),  &c. 

B.  Collective  nouns  are  treated  as  common  class  nouns,  as  they  point  to  definite  groups  of 
persons  or  things:  die  Armee  the  army,  pi.  die  Armeen,  die  Mannschaft  the  crew,  pi.  die  Maim- 
schaften,  &c.  Many  are  felt  as  strong  individualizations  of  the  new  type  described  in  I.  B  (2nd 
par.):  das  Parlament  parliament,  der  Kongreß  congress,  das  Altertum  antiquity,  das  Mittelalter 
the  middle  ages,  die  Natur  nature,  die  Menschheit  mankind,  die  Gesellschaft  society,  die  Wissen- 
schaft science,  &c.  Notice  that  in  English  the  noun  is  usually,  as  in  the  older  type  of  individ- 
ualization, unaccompanied  by  the  article,  as  it  is  felt  as  representing  something  single  in  kind, 
like  a  proper  name.     Compare  I   (1)  below. 

If  the  collective  noun  is  felt  as  a  common  noun  denoting  a  definite  thing  the  article  is  used 
if  the  reference  is  to  the  entire  body,  but  dropped  when  the  reference  is  to  an  indefinite  portion: 
Nach  dem  Treffen  erschien  das  Pappenheimsche  Fußvolk  After  the  engagement  Pappenheim's 
infantry  came  up,  but  Es  erschien  Pappenheimsches  Fußvolk  Some  of  Pappenheim' s  infantry 
came  up. 

C.  Names  of  materials  usually,  differing  from  English,  have  the  article  as  they  are  felt  as 
individualizations  of  the  new  type  described  in  I.  B  (2nd  par.)  above,  but  as  in  the  old  type  of 
individualization,  so  common  in  English,  the  noun  is  still  often  unaccompanied  by  an  article 
as  it  is  felt  as  representing  something  single  in  kind,  like  a  proper  name:  Gold  or  perhaps 
more  commonly  das  Gold  gehört  nächst  dem  SUber  zu  den  besten  Leitern  der  Elektrizität  und 
der  Wärme.  Compare  I  (1)  below.  The  article  is  often  dropped  because  the  idea  of  an  indefinite 
mass  or  of  a  class  is  present:  Man  schlägt,  spaltet  Holz.  Kohlenstaub  deckt  Weg  und  Gras. 
Trinken  Sie  Tee  oder  Kaffee?  Bänke,  Stühle  von  Holz;  grünes,  dürres,  faules  Holz.  Of  course, 
an  article  is  used  if  a  definite  portion  or  mass  of  the  material  is  indicated :_  Der  Tee  auf  dem  Tische, 
ein  (or  das)  Tuch  a  shawl,  ein  (or  das)  Glas  a  glass  (drinking  utensil),  ein  Stein  a  stone,  ein 
Eisen  a  horse-shoe. 

a.  The  indefinite  article  is  often  placed  directly  before  a  noun  indicating  a  food  or  drink, 
where  in  English  such  nouns  are  commonly  preceded  by  some  other  noun  or  an  indefinite  pro- 


64 USES   OF   THE   ARTICLE 69.  II.  C.  a. 

nominal  adjective  indicating  the  usual  amount  of  the  substance  served  at  one  time  to  one  person, 
or  the  usual  amount  prepared  at  one  time  in  one  mass:  eine  Suppe  a  dish  of  soup,  ein  Butterbrot 
a  piece  of  bread  and  butter,  eine  Kartoffel  some  potatoes,  a  dish  of  potatoes,  ein  Bier  a  glass  of 
beer,  ein  Bitterer  a  glass  of  bitters,  ein  Brot  a  loaf  of  bread.  Meine  Frau  bringt  mir  einen  Kaffee 
mit  einem  Rum  My  wife  is  bringing  me  a  cup  of  coffee  with  rum.  Mylord  bereitete  sich  einen 
Tee  My  lord  made  himself  some  tea. 

b.  Origin  of  the  Article  with  Names  of  Materials  and  Abstract  Nouns.  As  the  names  of  ma- 
terials and  abstract  nouns  in  older  periods  had  no  article,  whenever  it  was  desired,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  give  expression  to  the  idea  of  a  strong  individualization  of  the  old  type  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  the  idea  of  a  class,  an  indefinite  mass,  extent,  amount  it  was  often  unclear  from 
the  language  used  which  of  these  ideas  the  speaker  intended  to  convey.  It  gradually  became 
the  custom  to  prefix  the  definite  article  to  express  individualization.  As  this  idea,  however,  is 
most  forcibly  expressed  in  the  old  style  as  in  case  of  proper  names,  it  is  still  quite  common  to 
employ  the  old  style:  Gold  schmilzt  bei  1064°.  Redlichkeit  ist  die  Lebensluft  alles  guten 
Stils    (Engel's  Deutsche  Stilkunst,  p.  23). 

D.  Abstract  nouns,  differing  from  English,  usually  have  the  definite  article  as  they  are  felt  as 
strong  individualizations  of  the  new  type  described  in  I.  B  (2nd  par.),  but  as  in  the  old  type  of 
individualization,  so  common  in  English,  the  noun  is  still  often  unaccompanied  by  an  article 
as  it  is  felt  as  something  single  in  kind,  like  a  proper  name:  Der  Geiz  ist  die  Wurzel  alles  XJbels, 
but  in  1.  Tim.  vi.  10  Geitz  ist  eine  wurtzel  alles  vbels.  Der  Mut  verlernt  sich  nicht,  wie  er 
sich  nicht  lernt  (Goethe's  Götz,  4,  .3).  Nu  aber  bleibt  Glaube  |  Hoffnung  I  Liebe  |  diese  dry  |  Aber 
die  Liebe  ist  die  grossest  vnter  jnen  (1.  Cor.  xiii.  13).  The  simple  noun  without  the  article 
is  still  often  preferred  as  a  more  vivid  form  of  individualization:  Kleinmut  erzieht  nicht,  Glaube 
erzieht  (Cauer).  Eine  Reformation  ist  ein  gesellschaftliches  Werk,  und  als  solches  bedarf 
sie  des  Zusammenwirkens  von  Führung  und  Masse  (F.  Wieser  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  March 
1920,  p.  352).  Zeit  ist  Geld.  Very  common  in  old  saws:  Ehrlichkeit  währt  am  längsten. 
Müßiggang  ist  aller  Laster  Anfang.  Zeit  bringt  Rosen.  Kommt  Zeit,  kommt  Rat.  See  C.  b 
above  and  I.  (1)  below.  On  the  other  hand,  abstract  nouns  regularly  appear  without  the  article 
when  the  idea  of  amount,  extent,  degree,  or  kind  of  the  quality,  condition,  or  activity  is  defined 
in  only  a  general  way,  but  they  at  once  demand  an  article  or  a  pronominal  adjective  when  the 
idea  is  individualized,  that  is,  when  the  extent  or  kind  becomes  definite,  or  the  attention  is 
directed  to  some  particular  case  or  cases,  or  when  the  abstract  noun  is  used  in  the  singular  in 
a  generalizing  sense  to  represent  the  idea  in  all  its  entirety,  in  its  widest  sense,  and  not  as  limited 
to  one  individual  case  or  several:  Der  Mensch  muß  Ruhm  und  Tadel  ertragen  lernen  Man  must 
learn  to  bear  both  praise  and  censure.  Glück  macht  Mut.  Er  trägt  alles  mit  Geduld.  Ich 
fange  nur  mit  freier  Hand,  aber  Gelenkigkeit  gehört  dazu  I  catch  fish  with  my  hands,  but  it 
takes  some  skill.  Der  Alte  versank  in  Nachsinnen.  Jammern  ist  unjiütz.  But:  Ich  finde 
dazu  die  Zeit  nicht  I  have  not  the  time  (for  this,particular  task).  Den  Ärger  möcht'  ich  sehen! 
Whoever  saw  such  an  ag(^ravation?,  or  ?:imp\y  Der  Argerl  Eine  Geduld,  welche  nichts  erschüttern 
kann;  der  Friede  der  Seele,  die  Liebe  Gottes,  die  öffentliche  Meinung  public  opinion,  diese 
Meinung.  Solche  Ungerechtigkeiten  sind  unerhört.  Das  Jammern  ist  unnütz  Your  lamenting 
will  do  no  good.  Das  war  ein  guter  Rat  That  was  good  advice  or  a  piece  of  good  advice.  Geben 
Sie  mir  einen  guten  Rat  Give  me  some  good  advice.  Er  war  ganz  liebevoller  Sohn,  die  Rück- 
sicht und  Ehrerbietung  selbst  He  was  quite  an  affectionate  son,  the  very  personification  of  con- 
sideration and  respect.  1st  denn  das  die  Möglichkeit?  Is  it  possible,  within  the  range  of  the 
possible?!  or  in  shorter,  weaker  form:    Ist's  die  Möglichkeit?  You  don't  say  so! 

E.  The  names  of  persons  in  general  need  no  article,  as  the  name  itself  indicates  with  sufficient 
clearness  the  individual.  This  is  the  old  style  of  individualization  described  in  I.  D.  The  definite 
article,  however,  is  often  found  here  in  the  following  cases: 

a.  When  the  reference  is  to  a  person  already  mentioned,  or  one  that  is  explicitly  designated 
by  some  adjective  modifier:  Das  ist  der  Karl  That  is  Carl  (of  whom  we  were  speaking).  Friedrich 
der  Große,  or  der  große  Friedrich,  der  dicke  Wilhelm,  der  alte  Herr  Schmidt.  Since  the  six- 
teenth century  it  has  been  quite  common  to  place  the  definite  article  before  a  name  not  desig- 
nated by  any  modifier,  as  the  name  is  felt  as  a  strong  individualization  of  the  new  type  described 
in  I.  B  (2nd  par.),  i.e.  an  individualization  within  a  class,  so  that  the  person  is  felt  as  being  a 
definite  member  of  a  definite  class  or  circle:  Wenn  die  Kinder  ihn  nur  von  weitem  sahen,  so 
riefen  sie  schon:  Mutter,  der  Brezelkaspar  kommt!  Whenever  the  children  saw  him  even  afar 
off,  they  cried  out:  Mother,  Jasper  the  brezel-seller  is  coming!  Mit  dem  Theodor  (member  of 
the  same  class  at  school)  will  ich  gar  nicht  mehr  umgehen.  Ich  mag  und  will's  nicht  glauben, 
daß  mich  der  Max  verlassen  kann  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  3,  18,  where  Wallenstein  speaks 
of  his  friend  Max).  In  familiar  language  the  definite  article  sometimes  takes  the  place  of  Herr 
Mr.  and  Frau  Mrs.  or  Fräulein  Miss  before  surnames,  when  the  persons  spoken  of  are  individ- 
ualized, are  felt  as  being  definite  members  of  a  definite  circle  of  acquaintances  or  friends:  Der 
Schmidt  or  Herr  Schmidt,  die  Schmidt  or  Frau  Schmidt.  It  is  quite  common  to  use  the  article 
before  the  name  of  a  celebrated  writer,  statesman,  &c.,  who  has  become  distinguished  in  his 
class:  die  Marlitt,  die  Ebner  (Frau  Baronin  Marie  von  Ebner-Eschenbach),  die  Elliot,  &c.; 
der  Bismarck,  &c. 

Note.  Origjti  of  the  Article  with  Names  of  Persons.  The  definite  article  before  names  of  persons  and  animals  is 
more  common  in  the  spoken  than  written  language,  and  very  much  more  common  in  the  Soutli  tlian  in  the  North: 
der  Karl  instead  of  Karl,  der  Pluto  (name  of  a  dog).  The  use  of  the  article  with  names  of  persons  comes  from  the 
fondness  of  Germans  to  individualize  within  a  class,  a  tendency  already  perceptible  in  M.H.G.,  as  illustrated  in  b  be- 
low: Ich  wundere  mich,  warum  des  Doktors  (93.  \.  a)  nicht  kommen  .  .  .  des  Löwenwirts  haben  mir's  sogar  ver- 
sprochen  (Auerbach's  Edelweiß,  .xi).     Thruout  the  story  the  latter  character  is  called  not  by  his  name  but  der  Lö- 


59.  ll.E.d. USES   OF   THE   ARTICLE 65 

wenwirt  and  his  wife  is  die  Löwenwirtin.  Likewise  within  the  family  circle  der  Vater,  die  Mutter  are  often  used 
instead  of  Vater,  Mutter  as  names.  This  usage  is  especially  rtrm  with  diminutives,  which  according  to  245.  I.  8.  1. 
/.  Note  3  originally  meant  the  son  or  the  daiighler  of  the  person  mentioned  in  the  stem  of  the  word  and  still  are 
widely  used  as  terms  of  endearment  within  the  family  and  even  elsewhere  and  hence  are  felt  as  individualizations 
within  a  definite  group.  As  the  use  of  diminutives  is  more  deeply  rooted  in  the  South  than  in  the  North  the  use  of 
the  article  with  names  in  general  is  more  common  in  tlie  South  than  in  the  North.  On  the  other  hand,  in  both 
North  and  South  the  custom  of  using  proper  nouns  without  the  article  is  often  extended  to  common  class  nouns 
when  used  as  familiar  names  just  as  in  English:    Mutters  Kleid  mother's  dress.     See  90. 

b.  In  direct  address  the  name  or  title  is  usually  without  the  definite  article  as  the  old  style 
of  individualization  has  in  this  category  gained  a  complete  victory:  Otto,  tue  das  nicht!  Thus 
also  in  letters:  Teuerste  Luise!  Geehrter  Herr!  Lieber  (or  Liebster)  Schmidt!  My  dear 
friend  Schmidt.  In  conversation  the  manner  of  address  is  as  in  English:  Herr  Schmidt  Mr.  S., 
Frau  Schmidt  Mrs.  S.,  Fräulein  Schmidt  Miss  S.,  &c.,  but  Guten  Morgen, Herr  Doktor!  Good 
morning,  Doctor.  Boys  are  addressed  by  their  Christian  names  for  short,  and  men  in  familiar 
language  call  each  other  by  their  surnames,  or  -chen  is  added  to  the  surname,  as  Stengelchen 
my  dear  Stengel.  In  M.H.G.  as  in  oldest  German  a  proper  name  has  in  direct  address  as 
elsewhere  no  definite  article  before  it,  but  a  title  or  a  common  class  noun  used  in  direct  address 
takes  the  definite  article  or  sometimes  the  indefinite  article  (in  M.H.G.  ein  =  der;  see  I.  A.  d), 
as  the  noun  is  felt  as  a  strong  individualization  of  the  new  type  described  in  I.  B  (2nd  par.), 
i.e.  an  individualization  within  a  class,  so  that  the  person  is  felt  as  being  a  definite  member  of 
a  definite  class:  Ich  wil  dich  warnen,  Hagene,  daz  Adrianes  kint  {Nibelungenlied,  aventiure  25). 
Sit  willekomen  Sifrit,  ein  (=  der)  künic  uz  Morlande.  Ich  sol  gehorsam  iu  nu  sin,  |  swester  sun 
unt  der  herre  min  {Parzival,  789,  9-10).  The  idea  of  a  class  gradually  became  dim  here  and 
disappeared  almost  entirely  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  so  that  each  noun  in  direct 
address  together  with  its  modifiers  is  now  felt  as  representing  a  definite  person  like  a  proper 
name  and  as  a  proper  name  drops  the  article  but  often  takes  a  possessive  adjective,  which  serves 
to  bring  the  speaker  into  close  relation  to  the  person  addressed:  O  Hagen,  Kind  Adrians  or  Adrians 
Kind!,  lieber  Freund!,  mein  bester  Freund!,  mein  Herr!,  meine  Herren!,  meine  Damen  und 
Herren!  The  only  survival  of  older  usage  with  the  definite  article  is  the  employment  of  der 
after  Herr  in  early  N.H.G.,  as  in  Herr  der  "Wirt!  (Hans  Sachs)  =  Herr  Wirt!  In  English, 
however,  the  old  usage  lasted  much  longer  and  still  lingers  on  in  poetic  style:  The  last  of  all 
the  Romans,  fare  thee  well!  {Jul.  Ccesar,  5,  3).  What  ho!  The  Captain  of  our  Guard!  Give  the 
offender  fitting  ward  (Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake,  V.  26).  , 

At  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  became  common  according  to  140.  a.  Note  (4th  par.) 
to  address  persons  indirectly  instead  of  directly,  i.e.  instead  of  employing  the  articleless  form 
of  the  noun  or  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  second  person,  the  forms  which  are  usually  employed 
in  direct  address,  it  became  common  to  use  a  noun  with  the  definite  article  and  the  third  person 
of  the  verb,  if  a  verb  was  used,  the  forms  which  are  usually  employed  when  speaking  indirectly: 
Was  wollen  die  Herr'n?  (close  of  sixteenth  century)  =  Was  wollt  ihr?  Gott  grüß  den  Wirt 
und  die  weisen  Herr'n!  (Hans  Sachs)  =  Gott  grüße  Euch,  Herr  Wirt,  und  Euch,  weise  Herren! 
The  definite  article  here  in  direct  address  is  thus  of  entirely  different  origin  from  that  described  in 
the  preceding  paragraph.  This  old  usage  lingers  on  in  provincial  speech:  Guten  Abend,  die 
Herren!  Good  evening,  gentlemen!  In  the  literary  language  in  archaic  style:  Gott  zum  Gruß, 
die  Herr'n!  {Wildenhruch's  Die  Qiiitzows,  2,  I).  Also  in  deferential  language:  Der  Herr  Haupt- 
mann wird  gewiß  die  Güte  haben  usw.  Captain,  you  surely  will  be  so  kind,  etc.  The  article 
is  often  dropped  after  the  analogy  of  the  usual  form  of  direct  address:  Ach,  Fräulein  sind  (253. 
I.  1.  a)  so  gut!  O,  Miss,  you  are  so  good!  The  use  of  an  article  in  the  indirect  form  of  address 
is  also  employed  in  colloquial  English:  How's  the  Captain?  =  How  do  you  do,  Captain?  That's 
a  good  boy. 

c.  Also  titles  in  the  third  person  which  precede  names  of  individuals,  whether  persons  or 
things,  usually  have  no  article,  as  they  are  felt  as  a  part  of  the  name:  Professor  Müller  Professor 
Müller,  Herr  Schmidt  Mr.  Schmidt,  König  Wilhelm,  Schloß  Walferdingen  Castle  VValferdingen, 
Kap  Skagen  Cape  Skagen.  In  an  earlier  period  the  omission  of  the  article  here  was  not  so 
common,  and  still  usage  fluctuates  in  certain  cases.  In  the  nom.  the  omission  of  the  article  is 
decidedly  more  common  than  its  retention,  and  also  common  in  the  ace,  but  not  so  much  so 
as  in  the  nom.;  in  the  gen.  the  article  is  retained  if  the  gen.  follows  the  governing  substantive, 
Ijut  is  dropped  if  the  governing  noun  follows.  Advokat  Müller  hat  eine  große  Praxis.  Ich 
habe  das  Vergnügen,  Herrn  Eioktor  Wespe  zu  sprechen?  Have  I  the  honor  of  addressing  Dr. 
Wespe?  Die  Praxis  des  Advokaten  Müller,  but  Advokat  Müllers  Praxis.  The  omission  of 
the  article  is  here  not  common  in  the  dat.  except  after  prepositions,  where  the  title  sometimes 
has  the  article  and  sometimes  drops  it:  Die  italienischen  Truppen  unter  Oberst  Arimandi. 
Der  König  und  die  Königin  von  Schweden  und  Norwegen  nebst  dem  Prinzen  Eugen,  Nach 
Kap  Flora  {Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeit.,  Aug.  26,  190.5,  p.  3S3),  am  Kap  Flora  (id.).  In  all 
the  above  cases  when  the  title  is  felt  in  its  full  force  and  not  as  a  part  of  the  usual  name  the 
article  must  be  used.  In  the  plural  all  such  titles  naturally  take  the  article,  as  they  are  felt 
in  their  full  force:  Doktor  B.  meint  Doctor  B.  thinks,  &c.,  but  die  Doktoren  B.  und  D.  meinen 
Doctors  B.  and  D.  think,  &c. 

Designations  of  relationship  before  a  name  are  sometimes  treated  like  titles,  so  that  we  occa- 
sionally find  the  article  before  the  designation  of  relationship:  Die  Tante  Löckchen,  wie  sie  in 
der  ganzen  Stadt  hieß  (Wildenbruch's  Schwester-Seele,  chap.  I).  But  much  more  commonly 
the  two  nouns  are  felt  as  a  name,  so  that  the  article  is  usually  omitted,  even  when  the  name  is 
in  the  genitive  and  follows  the  governing  noun:   Der  Liebling  Tante  Löckchens  (ib.). 

d.  Aside  from  the  previous  logical  reasons,  the  article  is  also  often  used  on  formal  grounds 
to  distinguish  the  different  cases.     The  article  is  much  more  frequently  used  in  the  gen.,  dat., 


56 USES   OF   THE   ARTICLE 59.  II.  E.  d. 

and  ace.  than  in  the  nom.,  and  is  avoided  also  in  the  dat.  and  ace.  if  the  colloquial  weak  ending 
-en  be  used:  Die  Werke  des  Praxiteles,  but  where  an  s  can  be  easily  added  die  Werke  Schinkels. 
Karl  sagt  es  dem  Fritz  or  sagt  es  Fritzen.  Karl  lobt  den  Fritz  or  lobt  Fritzen.  Also  in  case  of 
a  preceding  title  which  usually  has  no  article  orinflection,  being  felt  as  one  with  the  name,  the 
article  must  stand  if  the  name  itself  resists  inflection  by  reason  of  its  sibilant  ending,  and  the 
case  relation  is  not  otherwise  made  clear:  das  Leben  Kaiser  Wilhelms  I.,  but  das  Leben  des 
Kaisers  Tiberius.     But  occasionally  the  title  is  inflected,  but  is  without  the  art.     See  92.  1.  a. 

e.  Proper  names  of  course  take  an  article  when  they  are  used  as  common  nouns.  This  is 
the  ease  when  a  proper  name,  which  has  become  noted  for  some  one  thing,  is  applied  to  any 
individual  who  has  distinguished  himself  similarly,  or  when  by  way  of  metonymy  the  name 
of  an  individual  is  applied  to  one  of  his  works  or  creations,  or  a  work  of  art  is  named  from  the 
person  it  represents:  Wilhelm  der  Stille  weiht  sich,  ein  zweiter  Brutus,  dem  großen  Anliegen 
der  Freiheit.  Die  Gottsched  sind  zahlreicher  als  die  Goethe  Men  like  Gottsched  are  more 
numerous  than  those  like  Goethe.  In  Tertia  lesen  die  Schüler  den  Ovid.  Ich  habe  den  Goethe 
I  have  the  works  of  Goethe.  Ich  bringe  ihr  den  Ho'mer  I'll  bring  her  a  copy  of  Homer  ('s  poems). 
Der  Raphael  in  der  Dresdener  Galerie  the  painting  by  Raphael  in  the  Dresden  gallery,  der 
kleine  Sanders  the  smaller  edition  of  Sanders's  German  dictionary,  der  Herkules  the  statue  of 
Hercules,  Die  Miima  von  Barnhelm  (play  named  from  its  heroine),  der  Faust  (play  named  from 
its  leading  character).  On  the  contrary,  however,  in  case  of  names  of  books,  plays,  &c.  the 
article  is  often  dropped  after  the  analogy  of  proper  nouns  in  general:  Und  hier  habe  ich  Gerok— 
Palmblätter  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  2,  p.  47)  And  here  I  have  Gerok,  namely  his 
Palmblätter.  Frequenth^  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  Faust,  &c.,  but  usually  with  the  article  in  the 
genitive:    Der  erste  Teil  des  Faust. 

/.  A  proper  name  takes  the  article  as  any  common  class  noun  when  the  reference  is  to  one, 
a  definite  group,  or  the  entire  number  of  individuals  who  have  the  same  origin,  and  hence  a 
name  in  common:  ein  Bourbon  a  Bourbon,  die  Bour'bonen  the  Bourbons.  This  is  the  rule 
in  case  of  illustrious  or  well-known  houses,  but  in  case  of  private  families  the  article  is  more 
commonly  omitted,  as  according  to  93.  1.  a  the  form  was  originally  a  genitive  singular,  not  a 
plural:  Brauns  sind  nicht  reich  The  Browns  are  not  rich.  Illustrious  names  must  of  course 
drop  the  article  when  they  are  used  partitively:  Die  deutschen  Kaiser  des  achtzehnten  Jahr- 
hunderts waren  Habsburger. 

g.  Names  of  planets,  ships,  hotels  usually  take  the  definite  article  as  they  are  felt  as  strong 
individualizations  of  the  new  type  described  in  I.  B.  (2nd  par.),  i.e.  each  name  is  felt  as  an  in- 
dividualization within  a  class,  so  that  the  object  is  felt  as  being  a  definite  member  of  a  definite 
class:  der  Mars,  der  Jupiter,  die  Viktoria  (name  of  a  ship),  der  Polarstem  Polar  Star  (ship), 
der  Coriolan  (newspaper),  die  Union  (newspaper),  im  Blauen  Stern  at  the  Blue  Star  (hotel). 

Note.  In  lively  language  the  names  of  planets  and  ships  are  often,  as  in  the  old  style  of  individualization,  unac- 
companied by  the  article  as  each  name  is  felt  as  representing  something  single  in  kind,  like  a  proper  name,  usually 
however  only  in  the  nominative,  less  commonly  in  the  dative,  rarely  in  the  genitive:  Von  den  Planeten  ist  Merkur 
nur  noch  in  den  ersten  Tagen  des  Februar  am  Morgenhimmel  sichtbar  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Feb.  2,  190.S), 
but  die  Monde  des  Jupiter.  Hannover  (ship)  ist  gestern  Kap  Henry  passiert  (Hamburgi scher  Correspondent,  May 
30,  1901).  Die  Arbeiten  auf  „Brandenburg"  gehen  ihrer  Vollendung  entgegen  (Ilamb.  Nachr.,  Oct.  28,  1904). 
German  periodicals  sometimes  treat  the  names  of  newspapers  in  the  same  way,  especially  foreign  words:  „Daily  Tele- 
graph" meldet  usw.  (Allgemeine  Zeit.,  June  14,  1905).  Trotz  ihres  hohen  Alters  besitzt  aber  Tante  Voß  (familiar 
name  of  die  Vossische  Zeitung)  noch  immer  eine  ziemliche  Lebenskraft  (Hamb.  Nachr.  Oct.  29,  1904).  World 
berichtet  usw.  (Neue  Freie  Presse,  Oct.  3,  1919). 

F.  Geographical  names  fall  into  two  distinct  classes,  one  with  the  article,  the  other  with- 
out it: 

1.  The  names  of  the  natural  divisions  of  the  earth's  surface,  such  as  rivers,  lakes,  seas,  oceans, 
mountains,  forests,  peninsulas,  deserts,  plains,  valleys,  groups  of  islands,  &c.,  except  the  names 
of  individual  islands  and  the  names  of  continents,  take  the  article,  as  they  were  originally  com- 
mon class  nouns,  or  are  designations  of  familiar  objects  (see  E.  a  above)  and  hence  are  strong 
individualizations  of  the  new  type  described  in  I.  B  (2nd  par.):  der  Rhein  (Gallic  Renos  river) 
the  Rhine,  die  Salzach  (ach  related  to  Latin  aqua  water)  tributary  of  the  Inn,  der  Brocken  or 
Blocksberg  (peak  in  the  Harz  Mts.),  das  Matte'rhorn  (Mt.),  der  (or  das)  Wasgau  or  die  (pi.) 
Vogesen  (vo'ge:z3n)  the  Vosges  (Mountains),  die  Eifel  (highlands  in  the  extreme  western 
part  of  Prussia),  der  Grunewald  (forest  near  Berlin),  der  Pelopo'nnes  the  Peloponnesus,  die 
Sa'hara  the  Sahara,  die  Campagna  (kam'panja:),  das  Enga'din  the  Engadine,  das  Veltlin  (velt- 
'li:n),  die  Zy'kladen  the  Cyclades,  but  Kreta  Crete,  Eu'ropa  Europe,  &c. 

a.  The  article  may  drop  out  before  words  in  a  list  or  when  connected  by  und:  Das  Schicksal 
des  Luthertums  an  Donau,  Moldau  und  Elbe  (Lamprecht's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  7.  2.,  p.  532); 
der  nördliche  Westerwald,  durchströmt  von  Wied  und  Nister  (Emil  Hommer's  Studien  zur 
Dialektgeographie,  p.   1).  •  j      • 

2.  The  neuler  names  of  the  political  divisions  of  the  earth,  such  as  cities,  countries,  and  minor 
divisions  of  countries,  usually  have  no  article  when  they  are  unmodified  as  they  are  individualiza- 
tions of  the  old  type,  each  noun  being  felt  as  representing,  like  a  name  of  a  person,  something 
single  in  kind,  but  they  require  the  definite  article  when  modified  by  an  adjective,  a  gen.,  or  a 
relative  clause:  Berlin  Berlin,  Deutschland  Germany,  but  das  schöne  Deutschland  beautiful 
Germany,  &c..  Compare  I.  E.  Many  names  of  places  had  an  article  in  an  older  period,  as  they 
were  originally  common  class  nouns,  or  had  for  their  final  element  a  common  class  noun,  and 
hence  were  individualizations  of  the  new  type,  i.e.  individualizations  within  a  class.  Compare 
I.  B  (2nd  par.)  and  88.  1.  In  most  cases  all  feeling  for  the  origin  of  such  words  is  lost,  but  a 
few  groups  of  words  and  a  few  isolated  names  still  retain  the  article  in  accordance  with  older 
usage: 


59.  III. USES   OF   THE   ARTICLE  67 

a.  Only  one  town  or  city,  der  Haag  The  Hague  (lit.  the  hedge),  takes  the  article:  im  Haag, 
but  also  after  the  analogy  of  other  towns  in  Haag. 

b.  All  feminine  and  masculine  names  of  countries  and  districts  take  the  article:  a  number 
of  fern,  in -ei  or -ie,  as  die  Lombar'dei  Lombardy  (i.e.  land  of  the  Lombards),  die  Tiir'kei  Turkey, 
die  Tschechoslowa'kei  Czecho-Slovakia,  die  Norman'die  Normandy  (i.e.  land  of  the  Normans); 
some  fern,  in  -au,  as  die  Moldau  Moldavia;  fem.  in  -mark  anarch,  as  die  Altmark;  a  few  isolated 
fem.,  as  die  Schweiz  Switzerland,  die  Pfalz  the  Palatinate,  die  Lausitz  Lusatia,  die  Le'vante 
the  Levant,  die  Bretagne  (bRa'tanja)  Brittany,  die  Gaskogne  (gas'k3nJ9),die  Riviera  (Ri-'vie:Ra:) 
&c.;  masc.  in  -gau  district,  which  are  also  sometimes  neut.  in  accordance  wäth  the  earlier  gender 
of  the  word,  as  der  (das)  Rheingau;  der  Su'dan  the  Sudan;  der  or  more  commonly  das  Elsaß 
(sometimes  like  other  neuters  without  the  article:  durch  Elsaß — Hamburger  Nachrichten, 
Jan.  10, 1905)  Alsace.  Notice  also  die  Vereinigten  Staaten  the  United  States  according  to  I.  B 
(2nd  par.)  above. 

Note.  The  poet  sometimes  takes  liberties  with  these  words  and  drops  the  article,  thus  vividly  treating  them  as 
real  proper  nouns  instead  of  common  nouns  according  to  their  origin:  Weil  wir  es  satt  sind,  daß  Mark  Brandenburg 
jedem  geldgier'gen  Schuft  aus  Böhmerland  verschachert  wird  (Wildenbruch's  D/«  Quilzou's,  2).  The  article  usually 
drops  out  before  these  words  in  common  prose  when  they  stand  in  a  list:  Mit  je  einem  Studierenden  sind  vertreten: 
Schweiz,  Frankreich,  Griechenland,  Türkei  (Beilage  zur  AUg.  Zeit.,  Dec.  20,  1906). 

c.  Neuter  names  of  places  quite  uniformly  are  used  without  the  article,  except  the  few  in  b 
and  those  in  -land,  where  the  -land  is  felt  in  some  cases  as  a  common  noun,  and  thus  requires 
the  article,  or  in  most  cases  drops  it  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  that  neuter  names  do 
not  take  the  article:  im  Hessenland(e)  or  in  Hesseiiland  in  Hesse  (lit.  land  of  the  Hessians), 
das  Vogtland  section  in  Saxony  (lit.  land  under  a  governor),  once  a  bulwark  against  the  Slavs, 
das  Wendland  section  in  Hanover,  originally  land  of  the  Wends,  die  Niederlande  the  Nether- 
lands, &c.,  but  Deutschland  Germany,  Ermeland  and  Samland,  sections  along  the  Baltic,  &c. 
Notice  the  isolated  neuter  das  Ba'nat  the  Banat. 

G.  The  names  of  streets,  squares,  and  city-wards  naturally  take  the  article,  as  the  final  com- 
ponent element  is  a  common  noun:  die  Friedrichstraße,  der  Schillerplatz  Schiller  Square,  das 
Spandauerviertel  (part  of  Berlin).  These  are  strong  individualizations  of  the  new  type  de- 
scribed in  L  B  (2nd  par.)  above.  Compare  I.  (1)  below.  In  adverbial  expressions  indicating 
street  and  number  the  article  is  often  omitted.  Wo  wohnst  du?     Halbdorfstraße  fünfzehn. 

H.  The  names  of  the  seasons,  months  (see  also  94.  3.  A.  b),  days,  parts  of  the  day,  the  meals, 
the  classes  (in  school),  and  the  sciences  usually  require  the  article:  im  Sommer,  zu  Anfang  des 
August,  am  Sonntag.  Der  Morgen  graut.  Ist  das  Frühstück  fertig?  Die  Prima  (highest 
class  in  a  secondary  school),  die  Se'kunda,  die  Bo'tanik  botany,  die  Che'mie  chemistry,  die 
organische  Chemie  organic  chemistry,  die  Astrono'mie  astronomy,  die  Mathema'tik  mathe- 
matics, &c.  The  nouns  with  the  article  in  all  these  groups  are  individualizations  of  the  new 
type  described  in  I.  B  (2nd  par.)  above.  Compare  I.  (1)  below.  The  names  of  the  classes  at 
school  and  the  sciences,  however,  are  often  felt  as  each  representing  something  single  in  kind 
like  a  proper  name  and  hence  like  proper  names  they  often  drop  the  definite  article:  Hans  sitzt 
in  Prima,  kommt  nach  Prima.  Die  reine  Mathematik  zerfällt  in  die  Arithme'tik,  die  Algebra 
und  die  Geome'trie,  but  Mathematik  ist  die  Wissenschaft  der  Größen  and  Er  studiert  Mathe- 
matik. In  lively  style  also  elsewhere  in  this  category:  Der  Winter  verging,  Frühling  zog  ein  in 
die  flandrischen  Lande  (Prof.  Hans  von  Havek  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  Jan. 
1916,  p.  38).     Um  die  Mitte  Dezembers  (Mörike). 

I.  A  difference  of  development  or  conception  in  some  cases  leads  to  a  different  use  of  the 
article  in  the  two  languages:  (1)  From  a  glance  at  B,  C,  D,  E  it  becomes  apparent  that  English 
has  preserved  much  better  than  German  the  old  simple  form  of  the  noun  without  the  definite 
article  wherever  it  represents  a  person  or  thing  single  in  kind,  like  a  proper  name.  In  German 
after  the  definite  article  had  become  firmly  associated  with  common  class  nouns  the  idea  of 
individualization — inherent  in  the  definite  article  from  the  very  start,  at  first  however  only 
individualization  within  a  class — became  so  strong  that  often  the  idea  of  class  entirely  disap- 
peared. Thus  the  new  form  with  the  definite  article  often  has  the  same  force  as  the  old  simple 
articleless  noun  and  represents  a  person  or  a  thing  single  in  kind  like  a  proper  name,  only  per- 
haps with  a  little  more  concrete  force  and  a  little  less  vivid  individualization:  das  Schicksal 
destiny,  der  Tod  death,  die  Vorsehung  Providence,  der  Himmel  heaven,  die  Hölle  hell,  das 
Para'dies  paradise,  das  Elysium  elysium,  die  Ehe  matrimony,  die  Nachwelt  posterity,  das 
Christentum,  &c.  See  also  B,C,D,E  and  I.  B  (2nd  par).  (2)  On  the  other  hand  the  article 
is  often  dropped  in  German  even  tho  used  in  English,  to  indicate  that  the  thing  or  idea  is  not 
conceived  of  with  a  definite  extent  or  intensity:  Ich  habe  Kopfweh  I  have  a  headache.  Er  hat 
Familie  He  has  a  family.  Er  geriet  in  großen  Zorn  He  fell  into  a  great  rage.  Bekanntschaft 
mit  jemandem  machen  to  form  an  acquaintance  with  someone.  Er  hatte  bei  guten  Leuten 
Wohnung  (a  place  to  board)  gefunden.  (3)  German  often  uses  the  definite  article  where 
English  employs  the  indefinite:  einem  das  Leben  zur  Last  machen  to  make  life  a  burden  to 
someone,  im  Augenblick,  im  Nu  in  a  moment,  im  Galopp  in  a  gallop,  im  Schritt  at  a  foot-pace, 
im  Trab  at  a  trot,  in  der  Lage  sein,  Gutes  zu  tun  to  be  in  a  position  to  do  good,  zur  Abwechse- 
lung for  a  change,  &.c. 

III.     Omission  of  the  Article. 

The  article  in  general  is  omitted:  (1)  sometimes  when  the  noun  contains  an 
abstract  idea  and  regularly  when  it  contains  the  general  conception  of  a  class 
or  kind  and  hence  does  not  designate  a  definite  object;  (2)  when,  as  in  case  of 


68 OMISSION   OF   THE   ARTICLE 59.  III. 

proper  nouns  or  common  class  nouns  used  as  proper  nouns,  the  object  is  already 
sufficiently  defined,  also  when  the  noun  is  felt  as  representing  something  single 
in  kind,  like  a  proper  name;    and    (3)  in  many  set  expressions  and  proverbs 
coined  in  an  early  period  when  the  article  was  little  used. 
The  article  is  omitted  in  the  following  common  cases: 

a.  In  the  predicate  when  the  noun  does  not  designate  a  definite  individual  but  something 
abstract,  such  as  a  quality,  relation,  condition,  calling,  or  capacity  of  any  kind,  moreover,  any 
fact  or  idea  in  a  broad  general  sense,  also  indefinite  time:  Der  Mensch  ist  ein  Gott,  sobald  er 
Mensch  ist  Man  is  a  god  when  he  is  humane.  Ich  bin  Partei  I  am  biased.  Beispiel  ( =  illus- 
trative of)  einer  lebenden  flexivisch  reich  ausgebildeten  Sprache  ist  das  Russische.  Ich  bin 
Braut  I  am  betrothed.  Sie  fühlt  sich  Mutter.  Thu'kydides  war  ganz  und  gar  ein  Kind  der 
Sophistenzeit  wie  Hero'dot,  dessen  Werk  ihm  Vorbild  war.  Es  war  doch  etwas  anderes,  als 
letzten  Winter  auf  dem  Regimentsballe  in  Königsberg,  aber  freilich  Königsberg  ist  Provinz 
(provincial).  Und  doch  war  er  (the  artist  Menzel)  treuester  Diener,  Idealbild  eines  Beamten, 
ja  Verkörperung  des  urpreußischen  Begriffs  Soldat;  aber  sein  König  war  die  Kunst  (Karl 
Storch  in  Der  Türmer,  March  1905).  Er  wurde  preußischer  Untertan.  Sie  ist  noch  Kind. 
Im  Grunewald  (forest  near  Berlin)  ist  Holzauktion.  Es  ist  Aufgabe  des  Staates,  strenge  darüber 
zu  wachen,  daß  usw.  it  is  the  business  of  the  state,  etc.  Es  ist  Tatsache,  daß  usw.  It  is  a  fact 
that,  etc.  Das  ist  fast  Gewißheit  That  amounts  to  almost  a  certainty.  Er  ist  nur  Anfänger 
He  is  a  mere  beginner.  Er  ist  Baumeister,  Witwer,  Junggeselle,  Bürgermeister  von  Berlin, 
Professor  an  der  Universität  Berlin,  Inhaber  des  eisernen  Kreuzes,  Vater  vieler  Kinder,  Er 
kam  als  Retter  in  der  Not.  Die  Überproduktion  an  Staatsnoten  ist  gewöhnlich  Folge  eines 
Krieges.  Es  war  Eckzimmer  des  Hauses.  Es  wurde  Abend.  Es  wurde  Winter.  The 
adjective  nature  of  the  predicate  noun  is  sometimes  clearly  indicated  by  the  use  of  the  singular 
with  reference  to  a  plural  subject:  Er  sagte,  jeder  Friedensfreund  werde  herzlich  wünschen, 
daß  die  dem  Senate  vorliegenden  Schiedsgerichtsverträge  Gesetz  würden  {Hamburger  Nach- 
richten, Jan.  31,  1905).  Sometimes  the  predicate  substantive  assumes  almost  pure  adjective 
force  and  can  be  modified  by  an  adverb:  Ich  bin  nicht  Kenner  genug  (adv.).  Aside  frorri  this 
common  group  of  abstract  meanings  it  is  usual  to  employ  the  indefinite  article  in  the  predicate: 
Er  ist  ein  Esel,  ein  Schafskopf,  ein  Dieb,  ein  Verräter,  ein  Verächter  der  Weiber.  Der  Wal- 
fisch ist  ein  Säugetier.  Of  course,  the  slightest  approach  to  definiteness  calls  for  the  definite 
article:  Das  ist  der  Baumeister  That  is  the  architect  (of  whom  we  were  just  talking). 

Note.  This  omission  of  the  article  in  the  predicate  is  especially  frequent  in  appositional  and  parenthetical  phrases, 
which  are  often  contracted  clauses  in  which  the  appositional  substantive  is  the  real  predicate,  and  hence  the  omission 
of  the  article  is  natural,  but  the  omission  often  thus  occurs  even  when  in  a  complete  sentence  the  same  word  in  the 
predicate  would  require  the  article:  Als  Anfänger  (=  Obgleich  er  Anfänger  ist)  behandelt  er  die  Sache  doch  mit 
Meisterschaft.  Ich  Esel,  dreifacher  Esel  verscherze  auf  diese  Weise  meinen  Freund,  but  Ich  bin  ein  Esel.  Unter 
der  Regierung  des  Königs  Siegmimd,  Sohn  des  deutschen  Kaisers  Karls  IV.  (N alional-Zeitiing).  Ich  schreibe 
Ihnen  in  Aix  (ehemalige  Hauptstadt  der  Provinz). 

b.  If  a  genitive  precedes  its  governing  noun,  the  latter  must  drop  its  article.      See  II.  A.  a. 

c.  The  article  is  often  dropped  when  a  singular  noun  is  used  by  way  of  synecdoche,  to  desig- 
nate more  than  one  or  a  regular  succession,  as  the  idea  is  that  of  a  class  or  kind,  not  the  designa- 
tion of  a  definite  object:  Er  trug  sie  mit  starkem  Arm.  In  tiefem  Tal,  auf  schneebedeckten 
Höhen  war  stets  dein  Bild  mir  nah.     Mit  scharfem  Schritt  with  a  quick  step. 

d.  In  prepositional  phrases  the  indefinite  article  can  be  omitted  when  the  reference  is  evi- 
dently to  only  one  object:  ein  Gebäude  mit  flachem  Dach.  Ein  auf  bewaldetem  Berge  liegendes 
Schloß.     Auf  hagerem  Halse  hob  sich  ein  blasses  vergilbtes  Frauenantlitz. 

e.  The  article  is  dropped  before  a  noun  as  in  English  when  it  introduces  a  formal  definition 
of  itself,  as  it  represents  something  single  in  kind,  like  a  proper  noun:  Kunst  ist  (or  heißt)  die 
Darstellung  des  Schönen. 

/.  The  article  is  dropped  before  a  noun  which  does  not  represent  a  definite  object  or  thing 
but  is  used  in  a  broad,  general  sense  to  indicate  a  class  or  kind:  Blutigel  ist  Blutigel  A  leech  is  a 
leech  wherever  you  find  it.  Ende  gut,  alles  gut  If  the  end  is  good,  all  is  good.  Kinder,  ihr 
kommt  offenbar  von  der  Arbeit,  ihr  riecht  frisch  nach  Palette  (Wilbrandt's  Die  Maler,  1,  1). 
Seehauch  geht  durch  alles  hellenische  Leben,  seine  Schönheit  und  Poesie  (Prof.  Dr.  Ed.  Heyck 
in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  May  1905,  p.  275).  Nur  Leute  mit  jungen  Herzen 
könnten  wir  gebrauchen,  und  junges  Herz  hat  Mut  und  faßt  schnell  Vertrauen  (Paul  Keller's 
Das  letzte  Märchen,  p.  10).  Eigener  Herd  ist  Goldes  wert.  Altklug  (111.  7.  h.  (2).  (a))  lebt 
nicht  lang.  Examples  with  modifying  adjective  are  given  in  I.  E.  The  article  is  absent  thus 
in  many  pithy  sayings  some  of  which  date  back  to  a  time  when  the  article  was  little  used,  and 
thus  bear  the  stamp  of  an  earlier  coinage.  Older  usage  has  survived  in  such  expressions,  as  their 
general  meaning  and  the  idea  of  a  class  or  kind  contained  in  them  precluded  the  use  of  the  article 
with  its  definite,  individual  force.  This  old  type  has  also  influenced  modern  expression  consid- 
erably. 

The  article  is  frequently  omitted  before  the  absolute  superlative  to  express  a  high  degree  in 
a  general  way  without  reference  to  any  particular  comparison:  Einfachste,  tiefste  Harmonie 
ist  im  Sturm,  wie  in  der  Windstille  (Raabe).  Auf  fadeste  Dummköpfe  machte  er  Eindruck, 
auf  Arnold  nicht  (G.Hauptmann). 

g.  The  article  is  dropped  in  an  enumeration  of  things  or  particulars,  for  now  as  in  oldest 
German  the  idea  of  unit,  sovereign  individuality,  separate  item,  something  single  in  kind  usually 
overshadows  all  ether  conceptions,  but  of  course  the  article  is  used  if  for  any  reason  it  is  desired 
to  individualize  certain  objects  within  a  class:    Bei  der  Ausfüllung  der  Frachtbriefrubrik  „Art 


59.  III.  0. OMISSION   OF   THE   ARTICLE 69 

der  Verpackung"  hat  der  Versender  einen  möglichst  bezeichnenden  Ausdruck  (Faß,  Sack, 
Kiste,  Kasten,  Ballen,  u.  dgl.)  zu  wählen.  Die  falsche,  aber  bisher  landläufige  Ansicht,  daß 
Rhein,  Reuß,  Rhone  und  Tessin  am  St.  Gotthard  entspringen,  gab  auch  zu  einer  irrigen  Auf- 
fassung der  Straßenverhältnisse  Anlaß.  Herr  Schreiber  Witthoff,  Topfmarktecke,  Hinterhaus, 
vierte  Etage  links.  Zürich  am  Ausfluß  der  Limmat  aus  dem  Züricher  See,  jetzt  die  volkreichste 
Stadt  der  Schweiz,  Mittelpunkt  einer  großartigen  Industrie  in  Seide,  Baumwolle,  Maschinen 
u.  a.,  bedeutender  Handel,  Eisenbahnknotenpunkt  und  lebhafter  Fremdenverkehr.  But  the 
article  is  used  in  the  following  sentence,  as  the  objects  are  individualized  within  a  class:  Da 
(unter  dem  Christbaume)  lag  ein  braunes  Müffchen,  ein  schwarzer  Samthut,  ein  buntes  Kleid, 
ein  Märchenbuch,  ein  Bilderbuch,  sechs  Schreibebücher,  Federn  und  Schieferstifte,  Strick- 
garn und  auch  eine  wunderschöne  Puppe. 

h.  Similar  to  the  above  is  the  very  common  use  of  dropping  the  article  of  each  of  a  pair  of 
words  connected  by  und,  or  weder  —  noch  neither  —  nor,  nicht  —  noch  not  —  or,  for  the  idea 
of  unit,  sovereign  individuality,  something  single  in  kind  is  still  prominent  here  as  in  oldest  Ger- 
man: Tag  und  Nacht,  Leib  und  Seele,  Eingang  zu  Garten  und  Kegelbahn,  der  Blick  des  Pa- 
stors von  Kanzel  und  Altar,  auf  Sofa  und  Stühlen,  zwischen  Friedrichsdenkmal  und  Branden- 
burger Tor.  Da  wächst  weder  Baum  noch  Strauch.  In  blinder  Hast  jagte  Kaspar  dahin, 
achtete  nicht  auf  Stock  noch  Stein,  nicht  auf  Zaun  noch  Graben. 

Note.  This  omission  of  the  article  is  not  limited  to  set  expressions,  as  stated  in  some  grammars,  but  is  permissible 
before  all  words  thus  coupled  together,  except  in  the  Ren.  case,  where  as  yet  the  omission  does  not  uniformly  occur: 
Vater  und  Mutter  sind  heimgekehrt.  Liebe  Vater  und  Mutter.  Gehorche  Vater  und  Mutter,  but  Gedenke  des 
Vaters  und  der  Mutter.     Trotz  Sträubens  und  Stemmens. 

i.  The  article  is  dropped  before  nouns  which  are  used  twice,  once  before  and  again  after  a 
prep.:  Woge  auf  Woge,  von  Tag  zu  Tage,  Schritt  vor  Schritt,  Auge  um  Auge,  &c. 

j.  The  article  is  dropped  in  a  very  large  number  of  set  expressions,  most  of  which  have  this 
in  common — that  they  either  indicate  sovereign  individuality  or  something  single  in  kind,  or 
on  the  other  hand  have  a  broad  general  meaning,  and  do  rot  refer  to  definite  objects  or  things. 
These  expressions  are  survivals  of  a  very  old  period  when  the  article  was  not  as  now  required 
with  nouns.  Later  the  demonstrative  der  became  attached  to  the  noun  as  an  article,  weakened 
in  accent  but  still  with  enough  of  its  former  force  to  point  out  something  definite.  Older  usage 
survived  in  many  expressions  where  the  original  idea  of  singleness  in  kind  was  still  distinctly  felt 
and  the  absence  of  the  article  was  thus  felt  as  natural  and  on  the  other  hand  where  the  general 
meaning  naturally  precluded  the  use  of  the  definite  article.  The  following  groups  of  expressions 
are  thus  used  without  the  article,  tho  in  some  cases  the  newer  form  with  the  article  can  also  be 
found: 

aa.  The  adverbial  gen.  of  time,  place,  manner,  condition:  morgens  or  des  Morgens  of  mornings, 
sommers  in  the  summer  time,  bei  erster  Gelegenheit,  höheren  Orts  before  a  higher  authority, 
flugs  quickly,  schlimmstenfalls  if  the  worst  happens,  in  the  worst  event,  &c. 

bh.  The  ace.  as  object  of  a  verb,  or  the  dat.  or  ace.  after  preps,  in  numerous  set  expressions 
in  which  the  substantive  does  not  retain  its  literal  meaning,  but  enters  into  close  relations  with 
the  verb,  forming  with  the  latter  one  idea,  usually  of  a  general  or  figurative  application:  reinen 
Mund  halten  to  remain  mum.  Hand  anlegen  to  put  one's  hand  to,  to  go  to  work,  teilnehmen 
to  take  part  in;  zu  Berge  fahren  to  ride  up  hill,  or  sail  up  stream,  zu  Kreuze  kriechen  to  become 
humbled.     See  245.  IV.  3.  B. 

cc.  The  dat.  or  ace.  in  numerous  prep,  phrases  in  which  the  substantive  retains  its  separate 
meaning,  independent  of  the  verb,  but  has  a  general  or  indefinite  application.  The  more  com- 
mon cases  are  the  following: 

(1)  In  general  statements  of  time:  vor  Mittag  before  noon,  nach  Tisch  after  meal-time. 
Tag  über  all  day,  &c.     Nach  getaner  Arbeit  ist  gut  ruhn. 

(2)  In  adverbial  phrases  of  manner  and  reason:  zu  Fuß,  zu  Wasser  gehen  to  go  on  foot, 
by  water,  &c.;  vor  Angst  beben  to  tremble  on  account  of  anxiety,  aus  Liebe  handeln  to  act 
jirompted  by  love,  &c. 

k.  The  article  is  dropped  before  certain  adjectives  or  adjective-substantives  (see  111.  3.  a 
and  7.  h):  (1)  folgender  kleine  Roman,  &c.;  (2)  Alt  und  jung  waren  da.  In  the  first  group 
the  article  contrary  to  English  usage  is  omitted  as  the  adjective,  such  as  folgender,  erwähnter, 
&c.,  is  felt  as  having  demonstrative  force,  like  dieser,  jener,  &c.,  pointing  to  a  following  definite 
person  or  thing.  This  is  often  clearly  shown  by  the  weak  form  of  the  following  descriptive 
adjective.  In  the  second  group  the  adjective  has  no  article  before  it  as  the  reference  is  indefinite 
or  general. 

/.  The  indefinite  article  is  not  usually  used  before  hundert  hundred  and  tausend  thousand: 
hundert  Schüler  one  hundred  pupils. 

m.  The  article  is  dropped  in  short,  concise  commands  or  warnings:  Augen  links!  Kopf 
zurück ! 

n.  The  article  is  often  dropped  before  abstract  or  collective  nouns  and  names  of  materials 
when  they  represent  something  single  in  kind,  like  a  proper  name,  or  on  the  other  hand  when 
they  indicate  an  indefinite  portion,  amount,  or  extent.     The  details  are  given  in  II.  B.  C.  D. 

Also  any  noun  which  usually  has  concrete  meaning  loses  the  article  if  it  assumes  abstract 
meaning:  Der  Oberst  hatte  in  seiner  kurzen,  etwas  militärischen  Art  und  Weise  gesprochen, 
aus  der  jedoch  Herz  klang,  das  zum  Herzen  ging. 

0.  The  article  is  almost  always  dropped  before  proper  names  or  common  class  nouns  used 
as  proper  names  in  direct  address,  and  as  a  rule  elsewhere,  but  there  are  many  exceptions,  as 
enumerated  in  II.  E  and  the  sub-articles.     Also  the  following  points  come  under  this  head: 


70 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE  INFLECTIONS  OF  NOUNS      59.  III.  o.  aa. 


aa.  In  familiar  language,  titles  and  designations  of  relationship  are  often  used  as  proper 
names  and  as  proper  names,  of  course,  have  no  definite  article  before  them,  and  in  poetry  and 
folk-lore  also  the  names  of  familiar  objects,  may,  in  order  to  impart  vividly  the  idea  of  personality 
drop  the  definite  article  and  assume  the  force  of  proper  names  (see  II.  E.  a.  Note  and  90):  nach 
Hoheits  Befehl  according  to  the  command  of  your  Highness.  Herrschafts  sind  heute  ganz 
unter  sich  (words  of  a  hired  girl)  My  employer  and  his  family  are  to-day  entirely  to  themselves. 
Gnädiges  Fräulein  ist  in  ihrem  Recht!  (Hans  Hoffmann's  Iivan  der  Schreckliche,  chap.  IV,  where 
the  speaker  is  speaking  of  a  young  lady  whom  in  direct  speech  he  addresses  as  gnädiges  Fräu- 
lein). Tantes  Kleid  Aunt's  dress.  Mutter  hat's  erlaubt.  Kjiabe  sprach:  ich  breche  dich, 
Röslein  sprach:  ich  steche  dich  (Goethe's  TIeidenröslein).  Individualization  of  the  new  type 
described  in  I.  B  ("Jnd  par.),  i.e.  the  form  with  the  definite  article,  is  also  common  here:  Du 
kommst  doch  her,  um  den  Papa  zu  bitten,  daß  er  dir  heraushelfen  soll  (Wildenbruch 's  Schwester- 
Seele,  II,  chap.  XVII). 

bb.  In  official  language  or  a  familiar  style,  definite  persons  or  organizations  are  called  not 
by  their  proper  name  but  by  some  common  noun  that  represents  the  capacity  in  which  the  person 
or  thing  appears.  This  common  noun  like  a  proper  name  drops  the  article:  Beklagter  trete  vor 
Let  the  defendant  step  forth.  Schreiber  dieser  Zeilen  the  writer  of  these  lines,  Verfasser  the 
author,  &c. 

cc.  Names  of  books,  firms,  and  headings  and  addresses  like  proper  names  in  general  drop 
the  article:  Geschichte  der  Völkerwanderung  History  of  the  Migration  of  the  Nations,  Vorwort 
Preface,  Einleitung  Introduction,  Eisengießerei  von  R.  M.,  Artikel  bei  Stoffnamen  The  Use 
of  the  Article  before  Names  of  Materials  (heading  of  an  article  in  a  German  Grammar).  Mein 
Geschäft  befindet  sich  S.W.,  Friedrichst.  160  My  place  of  business  is  in  the  southwest  part  of 
the  city,  Frederick  Street,  No.  160. 

Inflection  of  Common  Nouns. 

60.  1.  Classification.  Nouns  are  divided  into  three  declensions,  the 
Strong,  Weak,  and  Mixed.  The  different  cases  and  numbers  in  all  these  declen- 
sions are  formed  by  adding  certain  vowel  or  consonant  endings  to  the  stem  of 
the  noun  and  sometimes  by  modifying  (indicated  below  by  ••)  the  stem  vowel. 
The  following  is  the  general  outline  of  the  different  systems  of  terminations  and 
different  methods  of  treating  the  stem  vowel:  — 


Strong. 

Weak. 

Mixed. 

E-Plural  Type 

Er- Plural  Type 

Singular. 

Singular. 

Singular 

Unmutated 

Mutated        E-less  Form 

— 

-                   Nom.   - 

— 

-(e) 

— 

-(e)s 

—  (e)s       Gen.    —  s 

-(e)s 

-(e)n 

-(e)s 

-(e) 

-  (e)         Dat.     - 

-(e) 

-(e)n 

-(e) 

-               Ace.     - 

— 

-(e)n 

— 

Plural. 

Plural. 

Plural. 
Lst  CI.        2nd  CI. 

— e 

••  e             Nom.  (••) 

•  er 

-(e)n 

—  (e)n       — s 

— e 

••  e             Gen.    (■•) 

•  er 

-(e)n 

—  (e)n       — s 

—  en 

••  en          Dat.    (-On 

•  ern 

-(e)n 

—  (e)n       — s 

—  e 

••  e             Ace.     ^•) 

^er 

-  (e)n 

—  (e)n       — s 

The  declensions  are  distinguished  by  the  case  ending  in  the  gen.  sing,  and 
nom.  pi. 

A.  The  Strong  declension  has  s  or  es  in  the  gen.  sing.:  der  Spaten  spade, 
gen.  des  Spatens.  It  subdivides  into  four  classes  in  the  plural  according  to  the 
formation  of  the  nom.  plural: 

a.  The  Unmutated  E-Plural  Type  adds  e  in  the  nom.  pi.  without  modifica- 
tion of  the  root  vowel:  der  Arm  arm,  pi.  die  Arme.  Such  a  noun  is  here  for 
short  called  an  unmutated  e-plural. 

b.  The  Mutated  E-Plural  Type  adds  e  in  the  plural  and  modifies  the  root 
vowel:   der  Fuß  foot,  pi.  die  Füße. 

c.  The  E-less  Form  of  the  E-Plural  Type  drops  the  regular  plural  ending  e  in 
the  nom.  pi.,  but  sometimes  modifies  the  root  vowel:  der  Spaten,  pi.  die  Spaten; 
der  Vater,  father,  pi.  die  Väter.     A  noun  in  this  class  is  here  called  an  e-less 


61.  &. PRESENT  FLUCTUATIONS  &  TENDENCIES n 

plural  and  is  further  distinguished  as  an  unmutated  e-less  plural  or  a  mutated 
e-less  plural  according  to  its  form  in  the  plural. 

d.  The  Er-Plural  Type  adds  er  to  form  the  nom.  pi.  and  modifies  the  root 
vowel:  das  Buch  book,  pi.  die  Bücher.  Such  a  noun  is  here  for  short  called  an 
er-plural. 

B.  The  Weak  declen'sion  has  n  or  en  in  every  case  sing,  and  pi.  except  nom. 
sing.:  der  Knabe  boy,  gen.  des  Knaben,  dat.  dem  Knaben,  acc.  den  Knaben, 
pl.  nom.  die  Knaben,  &c. 

C.  The  Mixed  declension  is  strong  (i.e.  takes  s  .or  es  in  gen.)  in  the  sing. 
and  falls  into  two  groups  in  the  pl. 

a.  The  first  group  takes  the  weak  pl.,  i.e.  ends  in  n  or  en  thruout  the  pl.: 
der  Staat  state,  gen.  des  Staat(e)s,  pl.  die  Staaten. 

b.  The  second  group  has  the  foreign  ending  5  thruout  the  pl.:  das  Echo  echo, 
gen.  des  Echos,  pl.  die  Echos. 

D.  In  any  of  these  declensions  where  the  case  ending  of  the  noun  is  deficient 
the  article  (which  is  ever  playing  a  more  important  role)  marks  distinctly  the 
case:   der  Omnibus,  des  Omnibus,  &c.     See  2  below. 

2.  Present  Fluctuations  and  Tendencies.  There  is  at  present  considerable 
confusion  in  German  declension  in  case  of  many  individual  words.  Grammars 
and  dictionaries  differ  very  much  in  the  types  of  inflection  which  they  recom- 
mend for  these  individual  words,  according  as  their  authors  are  looking  con- 
servatively into  the  past  or  hopefully  into  the  future.  In  the  language  itself 
there  is  evidently  a  marked  tendency  in  the  direction  of  uniformity,  a  movement 
away  from  the  complexity  of  older  inflection  with  its  many  groups  toward  a 
greater  simplicity  which  manifests  itself  by  a  gradual  gravitation  of  many  words 
toward  the  largest  groups  with  the  most  common  inflectional  forms.  Two 
types  of  inflection  are  gaining  the  ascendency  — for  feminines  the  weak  inflection, 
for  mascuUnes  and  neuters  the  unmutated  e-plural  with  the  e-less  form  after 

-el,  -en,  -er,  -chen,  -lein,  Ge e.     Words  from  the  different  groups  are  slowly 

finding  their  way  into  these  two  living  groups.  Foreign  words  accented  upon 
the  last  syllable  are  following  these  same  lines  of  development  with  the  excep- 
tion of  masculines  representing  living  beings.  These  masculines  denoting 
living  beings  still  cling  to  their  old  historic  inflection,  the  weak  declension,  as 
the  conception  of  life  has,  in  case  of  masculines,  become  intimately  associated 
with  the  weak  declension  since  it  now  contains  very  few  masculines  which  denote 
lifeless  things:  der  Ban'dit  bandit,  des  Ban'diten,  pl.  die  Ban'diten,  but  der 
Gra'nit  granite,  des  Gra'nits,  pl.  die  Gra'nite.  Also  here,  however,  there  is  a 
trend  toward  the  unmutated  e-plural,  as  masculines  ending'  in  accented  -al, 
-an,  -an,  -ar,  -är,  -eur  (g.-r),  -ier,  -on,  -or  are  usually  e-plurals  even  when  they 
represent  living  beings:   der  Ma'jor  major,  des  Ma'jors,  pl.  die  Ma'jore. 

Earlier  in  the  period  there  developed  a  tendency  to  drop  the  s  of  the  genitive 
singular,  especially  in  case  of  proper  nouns  preceded  by  the  definite  article,  as 
the  feeling  prevailed  that  the  preceding  inflected  article  marked  the  case  with 
sufficient  clearness.  At  the  present  time  usage  is  still  somewhat  unsettled  here, 
but  there  is  a  tendency  to  restore  the  s  in  certain  categories,  especially  in  titles, 
as  is  described  in  the  proper  places  below.  With  foreign  nouns,  common  and 
proper,  the  s  has  never  been  securely  fixed,  but  there  is  at  present  a  marked 
tendency  to  treat  foreign  class  nouns  as  far  as  possible  exactly  as  native  words. 

General  Rules  for  all  Declensions. 

61.  a.  Feminine  nouns  never  vary  in  the  singular,  the  article  or  context 
alone  showing  case.  Thus  feminines  belong  to  their  respective  classes  and 
declensions  only  in  the  plural.  Occasionally  traces  of  inflection  in  the  sing,  can 
still  be  found,  indicating  a  different  state  of  things  in  earlier  periods.  See  76. 
IL  1. 

h.  Nouns  ending  in  unaccented  ar,  e,  el,  em,  en,  er,  chen,  il,  ir,  lein,  sei,  ul, 
always  lose  the  e  of  the  case  ending:  der  Flügel  wing,  gen.  des  Flügels,  dat.  pl. 


72 GENERAL   RULES    FOR  STRONG    NOUNS 61.  h. 

den  Flügeln,  not  des  Flügeies,  den  Flügelen;  die  Feder  pen,  pl.  die  Federn; 
der  Ungar  Hungarian,  pl.  die  Ungarn,  but  der  Ta'tar  Tartar,  pl.  die  Ta'taren. 
c.  Usually  the  last  noun  of  compound  substantives  is  alone  declined,  and 
also  gives  the  gender  to  the  compound.  Certain  modern  compounds,  however, 
are  inflected  differently.     See  80.  2, 

Strong  Declension. 

General  Rules. 

62.  A.  In  every  strong  masc.  or  neut.  (for  fem.  see  61.  a)  noun  the  nom. 
and  ace.  sing,  of  the  respective  genders  are  the  same,  and  in  nouns  of  all  genders 
the  nom.,  gen.,  and  ace.  plural  of  the  respective  genders  are  alike,  the  accom- 
panying article  or  adjective  alone  marking  case  relations. 

B.  Every  strong  noun  ends  in  en  or  n   (see  61.  h)  in  the  dat.  pl. 

C.  The  case  ending  e  according  to  61.  h  is  dropped  after  the  suffixes  -e,  -el, 
-em,  -en,  -er,  -eben,  -lein,  -sei:  der  Engel  angel,  des  Engels  (not  Engeies), 
dem  Engel  (not  Engele),  &c.  In  case  of  those  ending  in  n,  no  additional  n  is 
added  in  the  dat.  pl.:  der  Spaten  spade,  gen.  des  Spatens,  dat.  pl.  den  Spaten; 
das  Fräulein  young  lady,  dat.  pl.  den  Fräulein. 

Noie.  The  rule  of  dropping  e  after  the  above-mentioned  suffixes  is  a  special  application  of  the  old  law  that  required 
the  suppression  of  the  most  weakly  stressed  vowel  or  vowels  in  words  of  more  than  two  syllables.  This  old  law  which 
began  to  operate  in  M.H.G.  and  was  still  at  work  in  early  N.H.G.,  has  produced  marked  results  in  the  form  and  in- 
flection of  words:  Händler  (from  older  'Hande'ler),  Wagner  (M.H.G.  'wage'ner),  Gärtner  (M.H.G.  'garte'nsere), 
himmlisch  (M.H.G.  'hime^isch),  &c.  Likewise  in  a  group  of  words  the  components  of  which  are  so  closely  related 
that  they  are  felt  as  one  word:  her  Parzival!  {Parzival,  315.  26)  in  direct  address,  but  elsewhere  herre,  now  always 
Herr;  similarly  Graf  and  Fürst,  which  hav'e  been  shortened  from  older  Gräfe,  Fürste  as  the  words  are  much  used  in 
titles  before  names,  where  they  have  weak  stress:  Graf  Älbrecht,  Fürst  Bismarck.  For  the  effects  of  this  law  in 
the  inflection  of  nouns  see  68.  As  the  tendency  increased  to  pronounce  the  vowel  of  the  root  syllable  more  forcibly 
and  give  it  relatively  much  greater  length  than  the  vowels  of  the  other  syllables  the  vowels  that  were  the  least  stressed 
gradually  lost  their  fulness  and  finally  disappeared.  Thus  as  a  result  of  this  old  law  the  trochaic  foot  (—  ^  )  has 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  dactylic  (—  ^  ^  ):  pl.  die  'Wagen  for  older  die  'Wagene.  Altho  this  law  under  S.G. 
influence  lias  after  the  suffixes  -el,  -em,  -en,  -er  prevailed  in  the  inflection  of  nouns  and  in  part  elsewhere,  it  usually 
yields  to  the  M.G.  usage  of  retaining  the  inflectional  endings  in  order  that  the  grammatjcal  relations  may  be  clearly 
indicated:  past  tense  er  dienete  (Luther),  later  diente,  not  dienet  or  dient;  pl.  die  'Käfige,  not  die  Käfig.  Com- 
pare 110.  A.  a,  b,  c  and  178.  1.  B.  a. 

D.  The  gen.  sing,  takes  es  when  it  ends  in  some  sound  difficult  to  unite  with 
the  s  of  the  case  ending  without  the  aid  of  e,  just  as  es  in  English  is  added  to 
form  the  pl.  when  ,s  alone  would  be  difficult  to  pronounce:  one  glass,  two  glasses. 
Usually  es  stands  after  final  b,  d.  Id,  nd,  mpf,  s,  ß,  ss,  z,  scb,  st,  or  after  a  final 
vowel  or  diphthong:  der  Fisch  fish,  des  Fisches;  der  Bau  building,  des  Baues. 
In  case  of  a  final  vowel  or  diphthong,  even  tho  in  print  the  e  (as  in  des  Baus ) 
be  suppressed,  it  is  nevertheless  slightly  heard. 

Also  in  the  other  cases  es  is  usually  employed  in  monosyllabic  forms,  especially 
in  choice  language,  but  simple  s  is  also  widely  used,  in  familiar  speech  even  after 
some  of  the  above-mentioned  consonants.  Simple  s,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used 
in  the  following  cases:  (1)  According  to  the  old  law  described  in  C.  Note  regu- 
larly in  the  e-less  plural  class  and  also  elsewhere  in  order  to  avoid  a  dactyl 
(-  w  ^),  in  less  measure  also  to  avoid  an  antibacchius  (-  -  w),  that  is,  when 
the  final  syllable  of  the  uninflected  form  of  the  word  is  unaccented  or  has  only 
secondary  accent:  der  Vogel,  des  Vogels,  not  des  'Vogeles;  der  Käfig  cage, 
des  Käfigs,  not  des  'Käfiges;  des  Hofes,  des  Mondes,  but  usually  des  'Kirch- 
^höfs,  des  'Voirmönds,  not  infrequently  however  also  des  'Kircb^böfes,  des 
'VolPmöndes,  as  we  feel  that  the  inflected  genitives  -hofes,  -mondes  are  not 
fixed  forms  but  living  genitives  and  ought  to  have  the  full  ending  -es  in  ac- 
cordance with  present  general  usage  outside  of  compounds.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  must  say  Schafskopf  blockhead,  Kindskopf  childish  person,  Blutsfreund 
kindsman,  &c.,  as  they  were  coined  earlier  in  the  period  when  the  old  law  de- 
scribed in  C.  Note  was  in  full  force  and  are  now  felt  as  set  forms.  But  we  say 
^Tages'anbruch,  'Tages^presse,  'Jahres'zeit,  'Kindes'pflicht  as  they  are  modern 
formations  and  stand  in  close  touch  with  the  genitive  groups  of  a  modern  sen- 
tence which  prefer  a  genitive  in  -es  to  one  in  simple  -s.  In  such  common  cases 
as  im  Anfang  des  zweiten  'Kriegs'jahres  {Neues  Wiener  Journal,  Oct.  12,  1919), 
&c.  we  find  groups  in  which  there  are  two  genitives,  as  in  Kriegsjahres,  the  first 


62.  F.  6.  GENERAL    RULES    FOR   STRONG   NOUNS 73 

a  set  form,  the  second  a  genitive  in  close  touch  with  the  genitive  groups  of  a 
modern  sentence.  Thus  where  we  find  traces  of  the  old  law,  as  in  the  first 
component  of  numerous  old  compounds  of  older  coinage,  in  the  e-less  plural 
class,  and  in  nouns  abbreviated  from  older  dactyl  form,  as  in  des  Käfigs  (from 
older  Käfiges),  it  is  preserved  rather  than  observed,  i.e.  it  has  become  fixed  in 
these  set  types.  (2)  Also  in  the  adverbial  genitive:  tags  drauf  on  the  next  day, 
hierorts  at  this  place,  falls,  flugs,  &c.,  all  set  expressions  and  hence  not  in  close 
touch  with  the  genitive  groups  of  a  normal  sentence,  which  prefer  a  genitive 
in  -es  to  one  in  simple  -s;  likewise  in  nichts  (145.  g.  Note  2),  Dings  (83),  &c., 
which  are  no  longer  felt  as  genitives.  (3)  Usually  in  foreign  words  except  after 
sibilants:  des  Lords,  des  Klubs,  &c.,  but  des  Kompasses.  The  -es,  however, 
is  not  infrequent  after  an  accented  syllable  in  very  common  foreign  words,  which 
naturally  assume  the  -es  that  is  now  so  common  in  German  words:  die  Prüfung 
des  gesamten  Materiales  (Wolf  von  Unwerth  in  Anzeiger  für  deutsches  Altertum 
XXXV,  p.  115).  (4)  In  proper  names  -es  is  now  not  used  at  all.  In  case  of 
names  of  persons  the  genitive  usually  ends  in  -s,  even  after  sibilants,  for  as 
explained  in  86.  2.  a  an  additional  5  is  actually  spoken  after  a  sibilant,  altho  in 
print  we  find  here  only  an  apostrophe:  Wilhelms,  Max'  (maks's).  Names  of 
persons  ending  in  a  sibilant,  however,  may  take  -ens  in  the  genitive:  Maxens. 
Names  of  places  take  -s  in  the  genitive,  except  those  ending  in  a  sibilant,  which 
take  a  von  before  the  name  instead  of  a  genitive  ending:  Berlins,  but  die 
Straßen  von  Pa'ris. 

E.  The  dative  sing,  ending  e  is  still  widely  used  in  choice  language,  but  it 
is  much  disregarded  in  familiar  language,  especially  in  words  of  more  than  one 
syllable.     In  certain  cases  it  is  not  used  at  all,  even  in  choice  language. 

It  is  not  usually  found:  (a)  in  the  e-less  plural  class:  mit  dem  Spaten;  (b)  in 
the  word  Gott  God  when  no  article  stands  before  it:  Gott  sei  Dank!,  but  dem 
Gotte  Israels;  (c)  in  proper  names:  in  Frankreich  in  France;  (d)  usually 
after  an  unaccented  syllable  when  it  would  form  a  dactyl  {-^  ^  ^)  or  anti- 
bacchius  (-  -^  ^):  mit  dem  'Konig,  vor  einem  'Mönät,  but  it  is  also  often 
found  here,  as  many  with  a  sensitive  grammatical  conscience  feel  that  the 
dative  sign  ought  not  to  be  suppressed:  dem  Könige,  dem  Monate;  (e)  after 
words  ending  in  a  vowel:  in  dem  See;  (/)  in  the  names  of  winds:  dem  Nord 
(but  in  gen.  des  Nordes)  ausgesetzt  exposed  to  the  north-wind;  (g)  in  case  of 
nouns  without  an  article  or  adjective  modifier  in  prepositional  phrases,  either 
in  the  attributive  or  the  adverbial  relation,  especially  in  case  of  names  of  ma- 
terials and  abstract  nouns  used  in  a  general  or  indefinite  sense  and  in  case  of 
prepositional  phrases  connected  by  a  conjunction:  ein  Tisch  von  Holz,  ein  Ring 
von  Gold,  der  Ankauf  von  Land,  Zufuhr  von  Fleisch,  eine  Art  von  Haus,  ein 
Mann  von  Geist;  zu  Fuß  on  foot,  von  Jahr  zu  Jahr,  von  Ort  zu  Ort,  aus  Neid, 
mit  Ernst,  mit  Weib  und  Kind,  mit  Mann  und  Maus,  von  Haus  und  Hof,  mit 
Rat  und  Tat;  but  with  an  article  or  adjective  modifier  the  e  may  appear:  das 
Ende  vom  Lied(e),  ein  Ring  von  gediegenem  Gold(e);  (h)  in  nouns  which 
are  preceded  by  a  name  of  a  weight  or  measure:  mit  einem  Liter  Wein;  (i) 
usually  in  foreign  words:  dem  Senat,  dem  Problem,  &c. 

Note.  The  large  group  of  words  referred  to  in  245.  IV.  3.  B  occurring  in  set  adverbial  expressions  form  often  a 
very  noteworthy  exception  to  the  rule  that  the  dative  drops  the  e  in  case  of  nouns  without  the  article  in  prepositional 
phrases.  The  e  was  attached  to  tliese  words  in  an  earlier  period  when  an  e  was  common  here,  and  now  it  remains 
in  a  complete  state  of  fossilization,  and  hence  cannot  always  be  used  and  dropped  at  will,  as  is  the  case  with  other 
words:  Er  zieht  sein  Wörterbuch  zu  Rate  (perhaps  more  common  than  Rat)  He  consults  his  dictionary,  but  Er  gehört 
zum  Rate  or  Rat.  In  some  cases  this  e  is  very  firm  in  these  adverbial  expressions:  Er  geht  zugrunde  He  is  going  to 
rack  and  ruin. 

F.  The  using  or  dropping  of  e  in  the  gen.  and  dat.  is  often  a  matter  of  euphony: 

a.  The  poet  feels  quite  free  to  drop  e  in  the  dative:  Die  Axt  im  Haus  erspart 
den  Zimmermann  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  1) .  The  suppression  of  e  in  Hause  here 
is  rather  for  the  sake  of  rhythm  than  to  avoid  a  hiatus,  for  in  German  a  hiatus 
here  does  not  seem  to  give  offense  either  in  poetry  or  in  prose:  mit  dem  Schwerte 
in  der  Faust   {id.  2,  2).     Er  ist  dem  Geize  ergeben.     Compare  178.  1.  B. 

b.  The  e  is  much  used  both  in  prose  and  poetry  to  avoid  two  accented  syl- 
lables coming  together,  and  thus  standing  between  accented  syllables  it  causes 


74 UNMUTATED   E-PLURALS 62.  F.  h. 

a   rhythmic  succession   of  accented   and   unaccented    syllables:     Nach    Golde 
drängt,  am  Golde  hängt  doch  alles! 

Unmut ATED  E-Plural  Type  of  the  Strong  Declension. 

63.  To  this  class,  which  forms  its  plural  by  adding  e  without  mutation  of 
the  root  vowel,  belong:  — 

1.     Masculine  monosyllabics: 

a.  Almost  all  masculine  monosyllabics  not  capable  of  mutation  in  the  plural, 
that  is,  those  monosyllabics  not  containing  one  of  the  vow^els  a,  o,  u,  au:  der 
Weg  way,  der  Dienst  service,  der  Preis  prize,  der  Plüsch  plush.  This  is  a  very 
large  group,  but  the  words  need  not  be  enumerated,  as  they  are  easily  recog- 
nized by  their  form. 

b.  The  following  masculine  monosyllabics  containing  one  of  the  vowels 
a,  0,  u,  au,  but  forming  their  plural  without  mutation.  Those  marked  with  * 
have  sometimes  a  mutated  plural,  only  occasionally  in  the  North,  but  in  the 
South  quite  frequently  or  even  regularly  earlier  in  the  period,  those  marked 
with  t  fluctuate  in  the  plural  everywhere  between  mutated  and  unmutated 
form,  but  mutation  is  much  more  common  in  the  South.  *Aal  eel.  Aar  eagle, 
Akt  act,  Alk  (also  wk.)  auk,  Alp  incubus,  Ar  (see  5.  c  below),  Arm  arm.  Ban 
ban,  ruler  of  a  banat.  Barsch  perch,  Bas  master,  *Bast  bast,  Bau  (pi.  Baue 
dwellings  of  animals,  pi.  Bauten  buildings)  building,  Blaff  bark  (of  a  dog), 
Bold  fellow,  dwarf,  Bord  (rarely  neut.)  edge,  Bord  (see  5.  c  below),  *Born 
fount,  *Borst  crack,  fissure,  Buchs  box-tree.  Bums  low  beer-saloon,  Butt  (pi. 
usually  wk. ;  also  a  wk.  fem.  die  Butte)  turbot,  Clan  (pi.  also  Clans)  clan, 
*Dachs  badger,  Dank  (pi.  rarely  Danke  or  Danke,  usually  Danksagungen; 
see  96.  5.  B),  Docht  wick,  Dolch  dagger,  Dom  cathedral,  *Dorn  (see  83),  *Dorsch 
torsk,  Drall  (also  a  wk.  fem.  die  Dralle)  groove  in  the  bore  of  a  rifle,  Drost 
(also  wk.)  magistrate,  Druck  (see  83),  j Drusch  thrashing.  Duns  (pi.  also  wk.) 
dunce,  Falz  groove,  *Fant  coxcomb,  Farn  fern,  Faun  (sometimes  wk.)  faun, 
*Fjord  (pi.  also  sometimes  Fjords,  Fjorden)  fiord,  Flachs  flax.  Flaps  boor, 
*Flaus  or  *Flausch  tuft,  Flor  (pi.  rare)  bloom,  blossom,  Flur  (sometimes  a 
wk.  fem.)  entrance  hall,  Forst  (79.  1.  a),  *Fund  find,  Fuß  (83),  Gau  (pi.  some- 
times Gauen,  especially,  however,  in  poetry  in  the  second  meaning;  sometimes 
neut.)  district,  field.  Golf  gulf  (of  sea),  Grad  degree.  Gran  (see  5.  c  below), 
Grand  coarse  sand,  *Grat  ridge,  Groll  (pi.  rare)  resentment.  Grunz  groan 
(sign  of  disapproval).  Guck  look,  Gurt  girth,  belt.  Hack  stroke  with  a  hoe, 
*Haft  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  clasp,  Hag  enclosure,  fence,  grove.  Hall  sound,  clang, 
Halm  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  blade  (of  grass).  Halt  halt,  Harst  (prov.)  troop, 
Haß  (pi.  rare)  hate.  Hau  place  where  timber  is  being  or  has  been  cut  down, 
blow,  often  in  the  pi.  with  the  meaning  flogging,  Hauch  breath.  Holm  holm. 
Hops  hop,  Horst  aerie,  Hort  safe  retreat,  treasure,  *Huf  (pi.  sometimes  wk.) 
hoof.  Hulk  (pi.  also  Hulks;  sometimes  fem.)  hulk  (naut.),  Hund  dog,  Hupf 
jump,  Jux  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  joke,  Kalk  lime,  *Karst  mattock.  Khan  (pi. 
sometimes  Khans)  khan,  Klapp  or  fKlaps  slap,  Klatsch  clash,  slap,  lash,  Klonz 
wedge,  Kloon  ball  of  spun  yarn.  Klopf  knock,  Klops  cooked  meat-ball.  Knack 
or  Knacks  crack,  break,  injury,  *Knall  crack,  loud  sound,  Knast  knot,  *Knorz 
knot,  Knups  thump.  Kohl  cabbage,  *Kolk  deep  pool,  whirlpool,  *Kork  cork, 
Krai  (sometimes  neut.)  kraal,  Krach  (pi.  also  Krachs)  crash,  panic  (in  busi- 
ness), Kran  (pi.  also  Kräne;  sometimes  wk.;  nom.  sometimes  Kranen)  crane 
(machine).  Kratz  scratch,  Kulm  peak,  Kult  or  Kultus  (pi.  Kulte)  cult,  fKumpf 
or  Kump  (N.G.)  basin,  Kurs  exchange,  course,  Kux  share  in  a  mine,  *Lachs 
salmon,  Lack  lac,  Lahn  plate-wire,  fLatz  breast-cloth,  Lauch  leek.  Laut  sound, 
Lolch  cockle,  Lorch  or  Lork  (N.G.)  toad,  *Luchs  lynx.  Lump  (often  also  wk.) 
worthless  fellow,  Lunch  (pi.  also  Lunches)  lunch,  Lurch  batrachian,  Lurks 
(colloq.)  awkward  fellow,  fumbler,  Maat  mate  (naut.  term),  Mahr  night- 
mare. Mast  (79.  1.  a),  fMatz  Mat,  little  fool,  Mohn  poppy,  Mohr  moreen, 
Molch  salamander,  Mond  (see  83),  Mord  (pi.  Morde  kinds  oj  murder,  pi.  Mord- 


63.  2.  g. UNM UTATED   E-PLURALS 75 

taten,  cases  of  murder),  Most  unfermented  wine,  Muck  or  Mucks  half-audible 
sound.  Muff  (sometimes  a  wk.  fem.  die  Muffe)  muff,  *Mund  (pi.  also  Münder) 
mouth,  Murks  (pop.)  dirty  or  contemptible  fellow,  Mutz  (sometimes  wk.) 
bobtail,  bear,  stupid  fellow,  short  coat,  Nord  north-wnnd.  Ohm  (also  neut.) 
aam,  Olm  proteus.  Ort  (83),  Ost  east-wind,  fPacht  (see  70.  1.  a),  fPack  pack, 
bundle,  Paff  report  (of  a  gun),  whiff  or  puff  (in  smoking),  Pakt  (pi.  sometimes 
wk.,  especially  in  Ehepakten  marriage-contract)  agreement,  Park  (pi.  also 
Parks)  park.  Part  (also  neut.)  part,  fPasch  doublets,  Pfad  path,  Pfau  (76. 1.  3), 
fPfropf  (nom.  also  Pfropfen,  an  unmut.  e-less  pi.),  cork,  stopper,  *Pfuhl  pool, 
Plan  (70.  I.  a),  Poch  rap,  Pol  pole  (north  and  south).  Port  port,  Prahm  (also 
a  wk.  fem.  die  Prahme)  fiat-bottomed  boat,  Prall  shock.  Puis  pulse,  Punkt 
point,  *Punsch  punch.  Putsch  revolutionary  attempt,  Putz  (pi.  rare  except 
in  compounds,  as  Kopfputze  different  styles  of  head-dress)  adornment,  *Qualm 
vapor,  thick  smoke,  Quarz  quartz,  *Quast  (more  commonly  a  wk.  fem.  die 
Quaste)  tassel,  Ratz  polecat,  *Rost  grate  (of  a  stove),  *Ruck  jerk.  Ruf  call, 
Rutsch  land-  or  snow-slide,  Salm  (sometimes  wk.)  young  salmon,  Samt  velvet, 
Sand  (see  83),  jSchacht  shaft  (in  mine),  *Schalk  rogue,  wag,  fSchall  sound, 
*Schaub  bundle  of  straw,  Schlaks  (colloq.)  ungainly  fellow,  long-shanks. 
Schlamp  (pop.)  feast,  train  (of  a  dress),  untidy  man,  Schlaps  lout,  *Schlot 
chimney,  *Schluck  swallow  (of  water,  &c.).  Schlump  (pop.  N.G.)  lucky  chance, 
jSchmatz  smack,  Schmuck  (pi.  more  commonly  Schmucksachen)  ornament, 
Schof  flock  (of  teals),  Schorf  scab,  *Schöß  shoot,  branch,  Schrat  sylvan  spirit, 
Schrot  (5.  c  below),  *Schuft  scamp,  Schuh  shoe.  Schupp  (N.G.)  or  Schupf 
(S.O.)  shove,  *Schurz  apron  (for  men),  Schwalch  opening  (in  a  furnace), 
Schwof  (colloq.)  dance,  hop.  Shawl,  better  Schal  (pi.  usually  Schals)  shawl, 
Skalp  scalp,  Sod  (pi.  sometimes  Söde,  Söder)  boiling,  Sog  wake  (of  a  ship), 
Spalt  split,  Spann  instep.  Spat  spar,  Sporn  (79. 1.  a),  Sproß  (also  w  k.  der  Sprosse) 
shoot,  offspring,  Spuk  ghost,  Spunt  (naut.  term;  sometimes  neut.)  a  small 
piece  of  timber,  Stahl  (see  Note),  Stäks  (N.G.)  lean  and  awkward  person, 
Star  (sometimes  wk.)  starling,  Start  (pi.  usually  Starts)  start.  Stock  story  (of 
a  house),  Stoff  stuff.  Stopf  stopper,  darned  place.  Strand  strand,  Strauß  (usually 
here  in  first  meaning,  sometimes  however  wk.,  pi.  usually  Sträuße  in  the  second 
meaning,  pi.  always  Sträuße  or  in  pop.  language  Sträußer  in  the  last  meaning) 
ostrich,  combat,  bouquet,  Strolch  vagabond,  Stups  (colloq.  N.G.)  or  Stupf 
(colloq.  S.G.)  prick,  punch,  blow,  *Sud  brewing,  Sund  sound,  strait,  Taft 
taffeta,  Tag  (pi.  sometimes  Tage  in  S.G.)  day,  Takt  time,  measure  (in  music), 
Talg  tallow.  Talk  talc.  Tang  tang.  Tank  (pi.  also  Tanks)  tank.  Taps  clumsy 
fellow,  Täß  (N.G.)  heap  (of  sheaves).  Thron  throne.  Toast  toast,  health.  Tod 
(pi.  Tode  kinds  of  death,  but  Todesfälle  cases  of  death)  death.  Ton  clay,  Topp 
(79.  1.  b),  Trakt  tract,  stretch,  Tran  train-oil,  fraß  trass,  Trauch  crank,  Troll 
hobgoblin,  boor,  Trosch  crest  of  feathers,  Troß  crowd,  gang,  Trupp  (83),  Tuff, 
tuft",  Tupf  (nom.  also  Tupfen)  dot,  spot,  Tusch  flourish  of  trumpets,  Ulk  joke, 
Ur  urus,  Wal  whale,  Walm  hipside  (of  a  roof),  Warl  swivel-hook.  Warp  kedge, 
Wart  warder,  Wau  weld,  Zapp  bald-coot,  Zoll  inch,  Zuck  jerk,  twitch,  Zulp 
sucking-bag. 

Nole.  This  list  can  be  increased  by  adding  (1)  other  nouns  denoting  materials,  plants,  and  animals;  (2)  a  large 
number  of  technical  and  provincial  words;  (3)  a  few  more  foreign  monosyllables.  The  plurals  of  nouns  in  the  first 
group  do  not  usually  denote  different  pieces  or  plants,  but  different  varieties  or  grades  of  the  material,  or  dift'erent 
varieties  of  the  species:   der  Quarz  quartz,  pi.  Quarze  different  kinds  of  quartz. 

Differentiation  of  meaning  takes  place  sometimes  in  the  plural  between  the  mutated  and  unmutated  form:  Stahl 
steel,  pi.  Stähle  butcher's  steels,  pi.  Stahle  different  kinds  of  steel.     See  also  96.  2. 

2.     Masculine  dissyllables  and  polysyllables: 

a.  A  number  of  derivatives,  the  first  component  of  which  is  a  prefix  and 
the  second  a  monosyllabic  noun  which  is  rarely  found  as  an  independent  word, 
or  as  such  does  not  belong  to  this  class:  Be'fehl  command,  Be'gehr  (also  neut.) 
demand,  desire,  Be'huf  purpose,  Belang  (in  the  first  meaning  without  a  pi., 
in  the  second  meaning  with  the  pi.  Belange  or  sometimes  Belangen)  importance, 
interest,  Be'richt  report,  Be'scheid  answer,  information,  Be'such  visit,  Be'wei» 
proof,  Er'folg  success,  *Erlaß  (Ablaß  indulgence  granted  by  the  church,  Aderlaß 


76 UNM UTATED   E-PLURALS  63.  2.  a. 

bleeding,  Anlaß  cause,  occasion,  always  with  mutation  in  the  pi.;  Auslaß  outlet, 
Durchlaß  culvert,  Einlaß  entrance,  more  commonly  with  mutation,  Nachlaß 
bequest,  that  ivKich  is  left  behind  after  death,  sometimes  with,  sometimes  without 
mutation  in  the  pi.)  decree,  Er'werb  acquisition,  gain,  Ge'mahl  (also  neut.  in 
the  meanings  husband,  ivife,  especially  the  latter)  husband,  Ge'span  (sometimes 
wk.)  comrade,  Ge'span  in  Hungary  a  count,  high  official,  Ge'spons  (also  wk.; 
also  neut.,  especially  in  the  meanings  bride,  wife;  now  rare,  usually  employed 
in  humorous  language)  bridegroom,  husband,  Ge'wahrsam  safe  keeping,  Ge'winn 
or  Ge'winst  gain,  Urlaub  leave  of  absence,  Ver'ein  society,  Ver'gleich  corn- 
parison,  Ver'hack  or  Ver'hau  abatis,  *Ver'lust  loss,  Ver'such  attempt,  experi- 
ment, Ver'weis  reproof,  Ver'zicht  renunciation. 

b.  A  few  compounds  the  last  component  of  which  is  rarely  found  as  an  inde- 
pendent word  or  as  such  does  not  belong  to  this  class:  *Aufruhr  uproar,  revolt, 
fHans'wurst  (sometimes  wk.)  buffoon,  -jan  (pi.  sometimes  -jans)  in  com- 
pounds (as  Dummerjan;  see  245.  I.  16.  b),  Mischmasch  hodgepodge,  Mitt- 
woch Wednesday,  Nachweis  proof,  Pausback  chubby-faced  child,  Unart  mis- 
chievous little  fellow,  Unhold  mischievous  being,  fiend,  Unterschlupf  shelter, 
Vielfraß  glutton,  -zack  in  compounds  (as  Dreizack  trident),  Zwieback  (pi. 
also  Zwiebäcke)  pieces  of  cold  toast. 

c.  A  number  of  dissyllabic  or  polysyllabic  nouns  with  accent  upon  the  first 
syllable  which  do  not  have  component  elements  of  an  appreciable  meaning, 
but  are  made  up  of  elements  not  distinctly  felt,  whether  it  be  from  the  fact 
that  they  have  been  in  the  course  of  time  corrupted,  or  because  they  are  of  an 
origin  that  is  not  clearly  felt,  including  a  number  of  foreign  words:  Abend 
evening,  Ahorn  maple-tree,  Alfanz  tom-fool,  Amboß  anvil.  Atlas  (pi.  Atlasse, 
also  At'lanten  in  the  second  meaning)  satin,  atlas,  'Balsam  (pi.  also  Bal'same) 
balm,  Barchent  fustian.  Bastard  (pop.  Bastert,  pi.  Basterte)  and  Bankert 
(vulg.)  bastard,  Bräutigam  intended,  Bussard  buzzard,  Derwisch  dervish, 
Eidam  (poetic)  son-in-law,  Fetisch  fetish,  Firlefanz  foolishness,  fool,  windbag, 
Hagestolz  (also  wk.)  bachelor,  Harnisch  armor,  Heiland  Savior,  Christ,  Herold 
herald,  Herzog  (see  70.  1.  c.  (2)),  Klimax  (see  4  below),  Kobalt  cobalt,  Ko- 
bold (see  245.  I.  16.  a.)  hobgoblin,  Kodex  (des  Kodexes  or  Kodex,  pi.  Kodexe 
or  Kodizes  ko:di-tses)  code,  Leichnam  corpse,  Oheim  or  Ohm  uncle,  Pallasch 
heavy  cavalry  sword,  Popanz  bugbear,  Scharlach  scarlet  (cloth),  Stieglitz 
(sometimes  wk.)  goldfinch,  'Tabak  (also  Ta'bäk)  tobacco.  Talisman  talisman, 
Tolpatsch  awkward  fellow.  Transit  (pi.  sometimes  Transits)  transit,  Ukas 
(des  Ukases  or  Ukas,  pi.  Ukase  or  Ukas)  ukase,  Wallach  (also  wk.)  gelding, 
Wiedehopf  hoopoe. 

d.  A  few  onomatopoeic  formations:  Kiebitz  lapwing,  Kuckuck  (pi.  also 
Kuckucks)  cuckoo,  Uhu  or  Schuhu  (pi.  also  Uhus,  Schuhus)  horn-owl,  Wau- 
wau (pi.  also  Wauwaus)  doggie. 

e.  A  small  but  growing  number  of  modern  compounds  (see  249.  II.  2), 
as  Springinsfeld  romp,  Guckindiewelt  greenhorn,  &c.:  Guckindiewelte  (Storm's 
Viola  tricolor,  II.  p.  71).  Most  compounds  of  this  kind  still  prefer  non-inflection: 
alle  Pharisäer  und  Gernegroß  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  XXXII.  p.  398).  See 
also  80.  2. 

3.  Masculine  derivatives  formed  by  the  aid  of  unaccented  suffixes  other  than 
those  employed  in  the  e-less  plural  class  and  -turn  of  the  er-plural  class,  namely, 
those  in  -at,  -  (i)ch,  -icht,  -ig,  -ing,  -ling,  -is,  -rich,  &c.:  Monat,  Zierat  (79.  1.  ö), 
Rettich,  Habicht,  Frühling,  Wegerich,  &c. 

Also  usually  unaccented  masculine  foreign  suffixes,  as  -al,  -ian,  -iv,  -ol,  &c., 
except  those  in  79.  2.  and  70.  4:  'Plural  (also  Plu'ral),  'Grobian,  'Superlativ 
(also  Superla'tiv),  'Alkohol,  &c.  Also  some  of  those  in  79.  2  are  trending  in 
this  direction.     See  79.  2.  d. 

4.  A  few  feminines:  a  number  in  -nis  and  -sal,  as  Betrübnis,  Drangsal, 
&c.;  Maid  (poetic)  maiden;  the  foreign  words  Ananas  (pi.  -sse  or  uninfl.) 
pineapple,  Klimax   (also  masc.)  climax,  Salpinx  salpinx.  Sphinx  sphinx. 


63.  5.  c. UNMUTATED   E-PLURALS 77 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  feminines  in  -nis  and  -sal  were  also  inflected  weak  after  the 
analogy  of  other  feminines  that  do  not  suffer  mutation  in  the  plural:  Verstehet  jr  diese  gleich- 
nissen  (now  usually  neut.)  nicht?  (Mark  iv.  13),     Warum  fliehe  ich  Trübsalen?  (Lessing). 

5.     Neuters: 

Historical  Nole.  In  early  N.H.G.  neuters  might  have  their  nom.  and  ace.  pi.  exactly  like  the  nom.  sing.:  meine 
grawe  (graue)  Har  (  =  Haare,  ace.  pi.;  Gen.  xlii.  .38).  This  former  manner  of  inflecting  the  pi.  is  still  very  common 
in  one  construction,  namely,  where  nouns  are  used  as  weights  and  measures,  as  sechs  Pfund  six  pounds.  See  96.  4.  1. 
Here,  however,  the  uninflected  forms  of  tlie  nom.  and  ace.  pi.  have  spread  to  tlie  gen.  and  dat. 

The  present  plural  ending  e  of  the  following  neuter  groups  is  after  the  analogy  of  the  masculines  in  this  same  class. 
This  new  development  was  at  an  end  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  case  of  monosyllabics,  which 
led  in  this  movement,  followed  soon  by  the  longer  neuter  forms.     See  also  h.  Note  below  and  68. 

The  following  neuters  belong  here: 

a.  All  ending  in  -icht,  -nis,  -sal:  Dickicht,  thicket,  Ereignis  event,  Schick- 
sal, fate. 

Note.  Neuters  in  -nis  had  earlier  in  the  period,  like  the  present  neuters  of  the  form  Ge  —  e  as  Gemälde,  an  -e 
in  both  singular  and  plural,  which  was  later  dropped  in  the  sing,  but  retained  in  the  plural,  so  that  these  neuters  like 
the  neuter  groups  in  6  and  c  might  be  conformed  to  the  masc.  e-plural  type  of  inflection.  Neuters  in  -icht  and  -sal 
conformed  to  this  type  by  simply  assuming  -e  in  the  plural. 

b.  All  beginning  with  ge-  and  not  ending  in  -6,  -el,  -er,  as  Ge'setz  laiv, 
except  the  few  in  74.  4. 

Note.  Nouns  in  this  group  had  earlier  in  the  period  both  in  the  nom.  sing,  and  pi.  an  e,  which  was  originally  not 
a  case  ending  but  a  part  of  the  stem.  Thus  tliis  group  was  once  identical  with  the  words  of  the  form  Ge  —  e  (as  in 
Gebirge)  in  the  e-less  plural  class.  The  words  in  this  group  were  separated  from  the  others  by  dropping  the  e  of 
the  nom.  sing.,  so  that  the  e  which  remained  in  the  nom.  pi.  was  construed  as  a  pi.  ending.  This  new  development 
became  quite  strong  in  the  seventeenth  century  after  the  monosyllabic  neuters  had  assumed  -e  in  the  plural,  as  de- 
scribed in  Historical  Note  above,  and  the  e-plural  had  thus  become  a  common  feature  of  neuter  nouns  as  well  as 
masculines.  The  words  whose  root  syllable  ended  in  b,  d,  g,  and  s,  usually  retained  the  e  in  the  sing.,  the  others 
dropped  it:  Gebäude,  Gebirge,  but  Gebell,  &c.  Contrary  to  this  rule  a  few  words  still  retain  more  or  less  frequently 
the  older  form  with  e:  Gefäll(e),  Geläut(e),  Gelüstfe),  usually  Gesenke,  and  regularly  Gerippe.  The  e  which  is 
still  in  the  sing,  of  these  words  or  was  once  there  was  originally  an  i,  and  hence  the  mutation  in  most  of  these  words: 
Gespräch  (O.H.G.  gisprächi). 

c.  The  majority  of  monosyllabic  neuters.  Among  these  words  are  many 
names  of  materials  the  plurals  of  which  we  translate  by  kinds  or  grades  of. 
See  1.  h.  Note  above.  The  list  is  as  follows:  Ar  falso  masc.)  are,  As  (des  Asses, 
pi.  die  Asse)  ace,  Beer  (in  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  dialects  as  in  the  works  of 
Rosegger;  now  a  wk.  fem.  in  the  form  of  die  Beere,  which  is  in  fact  the  old  pi. ) 
berry,  Beet  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  bed  (in  a  garden),  Beil  axe  (with  short  handle), 
Bein  leg,  Bett  (83),  Bier  beer,  Blei  lead,  Boot  (pi.  sometimes  Böte)  boat,  Bord 
(also  masc.)  shelf,  Bräu  brand  of  beer  (Löwenbräu,  Spatenbräu,  <Src.),  Brot 
(pi.  sometimes  Brote)  loaf  of  bread,  Bund  bundle,  bunch,  Deck  deck.  Ding  (83), 
Dock  (pi.  more  commonly  Docks)  dock,  Eck  (in  use  earlier  in  the  period  and 
still  occasionally  found;  now  usually  restricted  to  compounds  such  as  Dreieck 
triangle,  &c.;  elsewhere  now  replaced  by  the  wk.  fem.  Ecke)  corner,  Erz  ore, 
Fell  hide,  Fenn  fen,  Fest  festival,  Fett  fat,  Fjäll  (or  Fjeld)  elevated  plain  (in 
Scandinavia),  Flach  flat  bottom  of  a  boat,  Flet  (N.G.)  navigable  canal,  Flöz 
horizontal  stratum,  Frett  ferret,  Garn  yarn.  Gas  gas.  Gift  poison,  Gleis  track, 
Glück  happiness,  Gold  gold,  Gramm  gram.  Gran  (also  masc.)  grain  (weight). 
Gros  (des  Grosses,  pi.  die  Grosse)  gross,  Haar  hair,  Haff  (pi.  also  Haffs) 
fresh  water  bay  (along  the  Baltic),  Harz  gum  (of  tree).  Heck  stern,  Heer 
army,  Heft  note-book,  Heil  happiness,  salvation,  Hirn  brain,  Jahr  year,  Joch 
yoke,  Kap  (pi.  also  Kaps)  cape,  Kar  bowl,  dish,  pocket  (in  the  mountains), 
Kinn  chin.  Knie  knee,  Kreuz  cross,  Kumt  hame.  Land  (83),  Laub  (earlier  in 
period  with  the  plurals  Läuber  or  Laube  in  the  first  meaning,  now  usually  in 
the  second  meaning  without  pi.)  leaf,  foliage.  Leek  (also  masc.)  leak,  Liesch 
flowering  rush,  Lob  (pi.  usually  Lobeserhebungen  or  Lobsprüche)  praise,  Log 
(ship's)  log,  Los  lot.  Lot  plumb-line.  Maar  kind  of  crater,  Mahl  (pi.  also  Mahler, 
usually  so  in  Gastmähler)  repast,  Mai  (pi.  more  commonly  Maler,  especially  in 
Denkmäler  or  Denkmale,  Muttermäler,  but  now  always  Merkmale  characteris- 
tics, Wundenmale  or  Wundmale  scars,  Nägelmale  marks  of  nails)  mole,  mark, 
sign,  Mai  time  (two,  three  times,  &c.),  Malz  malt,  Maß  measure,  Meer  sea, 
Mehl  flour.  Moor  moor.  Moos  (pi.  Moser  swamps)  moss,  Mus  (pi.  sometimes 
Müser)  marmalade,  Netz  net,  Niet  (also  masc;  also  wk.  fem.  die  Niete) 
rivet,  Nock  yard-arm,  Öhr  eye  (of  a  needle),  01  oil.  Paar  pair,  Pech  pitch, 
Pferd  horse,  Pfund  pound,  Pult  desk.  Quart  quart,  Recht  right.  Reck  horizontal 
bar,  Reep  rope  (naut.  term),  Reff  reef  (in  a  sail),  Reh  doe,  Reich  empire,  Ried 
(pi.  sometimes  Rieder)  reed,  swampy  land,  Ries  ream,  Riff  reef  (of  rocks),  Rohr 


78 UNMUTATED    E-PLURALS 63.  5.  c. 

reed,  pipe,  Roß  (pi.  in  early  N.H.G.  Rösser,  as  in  Deut.  xvii.  16;  still  so  in 
Austria,  as  in  Rosegger's  Martin  der  Mann,  p.  80)  horse,  steed,  Rund  (some- 
times masc.)  circle,  Salz  salt,  Schaf  sheep,  Scheit  (83),  Schiff  ship,  Schilf 
(sometimes  masc.)  reed.  Schock  three-score,  Schott  (pi.  also  \vk.;  also  a  \vk. 
fem.  die  Schotte)  bulkhead,  Schrot  (also  masc.)  cylindrical  block,  coarse-ground 
grain,  Schwein  hog.  Seil  rope,  Sieb  sieve,  Siel  (also  masc.)  sewer,  drain,  Spiel 
play.  Spill  capstan,  Spind  (sometimes  masc,  also  a  wk.  fem.  die  Spinde)  case 
for  clothes,  books,  &c.,  Spriet  sprit.  Stag  stay  (naut.  term;  pi.  also  Stags),  Stück 
(pi.  sometimes  Stücken)  piece,  Tau  heavy  rope,  Teil  (83)  share.  Tief  deep 
'channel,  canal.  Tier  animal.  Tor  gate,  Tuch  cloth,  Vieh  (74.  1),  Vlies  fleece.  Watt 
(79.  1.  b)  ,  Wehl  (also  masc;  also  fem.  Wehle)  deep  place  wrought  by  the  waves, 
water-gall,  Wehr  dam,  Werft  (more  commonly  a  wk.  fem.)  wharf,  Werk  work, 
Wort  (83),  Wrack  (pi.  also  Wracks)  wreck,  Zelt  (pi.  sometimes  Zelten,  Zelter) 
•tent,  Zeug  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  masc.)  stuff,  troop  or  army  (early  N.H.G. ), 
Ziel  goal,  Zink  (sometimes  masc.)  zinc,  Zinn  tin,  and  a  few  more  names  of 
materials  and  a  few  technical  terms. 

d.  A  few  derivatives  and  compounds  the  final  component  of  which  does  not 
exist  as  an  independent  noun,  or  as  such  does  not  belong  to  this  class:  Antlitz 
(poetic)  face,  Augenmerk  aim,  Be'steck  (pi.  often  Be'stecks)  knife  and  fork, 
Darlehn  (now  usually  Darlehen,  e-less  plural)  loan,  Eiland  (83  under  Land), 
Elend  (pi.  rare)  misery,  Ge'bot  commandment.  Hundert  hundred,  Kleinod 
(79.  1.  h)  ,  Rückgrat  backbone,  Tausend  thousand,  Urteil  judgment,  Ver'bot 
prohibition,  Ver'lies  dungeon,  Ver'steck  (sometimes  masc.)  hiding-place,  Viel- 
flach  polyhedron,  Vollblut    (pi.  also  Vollblut)  thorobred    (horse,  &c.). 

e.  A  few  dissyllables  and  trisyllables  the  component  parts  of  which  do  not 
have  an  appreciable  meaning,  among  them  a  number  of  foreign  words:  Defizit 
(pi.  also  Defizits)  deficit,  Dutzend  dozen,  Fazit  (pi.  also  Fazits)  sum,  result, 
Mammut  (pi.  also  Mammuts)  mammoth,  Messing  brass,  Petschaft  seal,  Te- 
sching    (sometimes  masc;  pi.  also  Teschings)  a  gun  of  very  small  bore. 

6.  A  few  modern  compounds  (see  80.  2):  Vergißmeinnicht  forget-me-not, 
Lebewohl  farewell.  Non-inflection  or  a  form  in  -s  is  more  common  here  in  the 
plural,  and  non-inflection  is  also  found  sometimes  in  the  singular.     See  80.  2. 

7.  A  large  number  of  foreign  words  accented  upon  the  last  syllable.  The 
striking  feature  of  these  words  is  the  very  strong  preponderance  of  neuters. 
Almost  all  the  neuters  in  the  language  accented  upon  the  last  syllable  belong 
here,  except  a  few  in  74.  5  and  79.  2.  e  and  /,  and  a  number  of  words  in  these 
groups  are  trending  in  this  direction. 

In  some  of  these  foreign  words  there  is  a  tendency  to  shift  the  accent  upon 
the  first  syllable  after  the  manner  of  German  words.  Some  take  occasionally 
the  plural  in  -s  instead  of  the  regular  ending  -e,  as  die  Gra'veurs  instead  of  the 
more  common  Gra'veure.  In  general,  however,  there  is  now  a  strong  tendency 
in  choice  language  to  discard  -s  in  favor  of  the  German  ending  e. 

To  this  group  belong: 

a.  Masculines  and  neuters  ending  in  accented  ag,  ast,  at,  ct  (kt),  et,  il,  ist, 
it,  ith,  11,  ng,  og,  om,  op,  ost,  ot,  ph,  pt,  tt,  ut,  only,  however,  when  they  represent 
things,  for  nouns  which  have  these  same  endings  are  weak  when  they  represent 
persons  or  other  living  beings:  der  Appa'rat  apparatus,  des  Appa'rats,  pi.  die 
Appa'rate,  but  der  Ag'nat  agnate,  des  Ag'naten,  pi.  die  Ag'naten;  das  Ven'til 
valve,  des  Ven'tils,  but  Ä'dil  edile,  des  Ä'dilen;  der  Gra'nit  granite,  des  Gra- 
'nits,  but  der  Ban'dit  bandit,  des  Ban'diten;  der  Epi'dot  epidote,  des  Epi'dots, 
but  der  Idi'ot  idiot,  des  Idi'oten;  &c.  For  exceptions  see  76.  I.  4.  a.  Note. 
Also  das  Kroko'dil,  inflected  according  to  the  e-plural  type  and  a  few  other 
neuters  in  -'il  (79.  2.  c)  inflected  according  to  the  e-plural  type  or  the  mixed 
declension  form  exceptions  to  this  rule.  These  neuters  in  -'il  are  trending  toward 
h  below. 

The  list  of  the  above  endings  is  not  complete,  but  in  general  it  holds  good 
that  masc.  and  neut.  nouns  accented  upon  the  last  syllable  belong  here  if  they 
represent  lifeless  objects. 


65.6. UNM UTATED   E-LESS   PLURALS 79 

h.  Masc.  and  neut.  nouns  representing  either  beings  or  things  ending  in 
accented  al  (see  Note  1),  an  (see  Note  2),  an,  ar  (see  Note  2),  är,  äst,  em,  ert,  eur 
(pronounce  or),  ier,  iv.  It,  mm,  ol,  on  (see  Note  2),  or,  and  the  sibilants  s,  ß, 
X,  z:  O'pal  opal,  Pe'nnal  pen-case,  Admi'ral,  Aeroplan  (a-e-Ro-'pla:n;  =  Flug- 
zeug) aeroplane,  De'kan  dean,  Klis'tier  clyster,  Offi'zier  officer,  &c.  Occasionally 
the  accent  shifts  upon  the  first  syllable  after  German  fashion:  der  'Kompaß, 
des  'Kompasses,  &c.  But  if  the  sibilant  was  originally  unaccented  the  word 
does  not  belong  here:  der  Kon'sens  consent,  des  Kon'senses,  but  'Musikus 
(82)  musician,  des  Musikus. 

Note  1.  A  few  foreign  nouns  in  -'al  belong  to  the  mutated  e-plural  class,  and  several,  as  Admi'ral,  fluctuate  be- 
tween the  two  classes,  but  the  tendency  is  toward  non-mutation.     See  70.  4. 

Note  2.  A  few  nouns  representing  living  beings  are  weak:  Autoch'thon  (also  Autoch'thone )  autochthon,  Bar'bar 
barbarian,  Dialion  (also  an  e-pl.)  deacon,  Hospo'dar  (also  an  e-pl.)  hospodar,  Hu'sar  hussar,  Ka'waß  (or  Ka'wasse  ) 
kavass,  Koä'tan  one  of  the  same  age,  Kor'sar  pirate,  Pro'fös  or  Profoß  (both  forms  also  e-plurals)  provost,  Ri'val 
(also  an  e-pl.)  rival,  Scho'lar  (archaic)  pupil,  Ti'tan  (also  Ti'tane)  titan,  U'lan  uhlan,  Vete'ran  veteran. 

Note  3.  Pas'tor  and  Te'nor  form  the  irregular  plural  Pas'töre,  Te'nöre,  the  latter  of  which  is,  perhaps,  even  more 
common  than  the  regular  plural  Te'nore.  See  70.  4.  If  Pastor  is  accented  upon  the  first  syllable,  which  is  more 
common,  it  does  not  belong  here  at  all,  but  to  the  group  in  79.  2.  a.     Pas'tor  is  sometimes  weak. 

c.  The  isolated  masc.  Cha'rakter  character  has  the  accent  upon  the  final 
syllable  of  the  stem  only  in  the  pi.,  Charak'tere,  but  in  the  language  of  the 
common  people  the  pi.  is  Cha'rakter,  and  the  word  with  them  has  thus  passed 
over  into  the  e-less  plural  class.  This  plural  was  formerly  also  sometimes 
used  in  the  literary  language:  die  verschiedenen  Charakter  der  verschiedenen 
Bücher  (Goethe). 

General  Note.  It  will  be  observed  by  even  a  glance  at  the  preceding  groups  that  some  of  them,  especially  the  masc. 
monosyllables  and,  to  a  less  extent,  masc.  dissyllables  and  polysyllables,  stand  under  tlie  influence  of  the  mutated 
e-plural  class,  the  mutation  in  the  pi.  spreading  from  that  class  by  analogy  to  this.  Thus  a  number  of  words  are 
uncertain  in  their  pi.,  and  it  cannot  easily  be  determined  whether  the  regular  pi.  without  mutation  or  the  new  one 
with  mutation  is  the  more  common,  but  at  present  the  tide  has  turned  and  in  general  the  drift  is  toward  the  unmutated 
forms.  See  70.  1.  a.  Note.  Earlier  in  the  period  a  number  of  the  words  now  belonging  to  7  were  entirely  or  par- 
tially weak:  der  Roman  (pi.  wk.;  sing.  str.  except  in  compounds:  des  Romans,  but  Romanenheldin),  Monoiog  (wk.). 
Baron  (wk.),  Spion  (wk. ),  Koloß  (wk.);  das  Atom  ("wk.),  Epigramm  (str.  in  sing.,  wk.  in  pi.).  Phantom  (str.  in  sing., 
wk.  in  pi.),  &c.,  all  now  in  the  unmutated  e-plural  class. 

64.  Models  of  Inflection  for  the  Unmutated  E-Plural  Type: 

Singular. 

Arm,  arm,  m.  Gefängnis,  prison,  n.  Drangsal  distress,  f. 

N.  der  Arm  das  Gefängnis  die  Drangsal 

G.  des  Arm(e)s  des  Gefängnisses  der  Drangsal 

D.  dem  Arm(e)  dem  Gefängnis  (or-nisse)       der  Drangsal 

A.   den  Arm  das  Gefängnis  die  Drangsal 

Plural. 

N.  die  Arme  die  Gefängnisse  die  Drangsale 

G.  der  Arme  der  Gefängnisse  der  Drangsale 

D.  den  Armen  den  Gefängnissen  den  Drangsalen 

A.   die  Arme  die  Gefängnisse  die  Drangsale 

Note.  Words  in  s  preceded  by  a  short  vowel  double  the  s  when  a  vowel  follows;  see  the  inflection  of  Gefängnis 
above.     Thus  also  der  Iltis,  des  Iltisses;  der  Atlas,  des  Atlasses,  &c.     See  also  4.  2.  C.  a,  p.  17. 

Unmutated  E-less  Plural  Type  of  the  Strong  Declension. 

65.  To  this  class,  which  has  no  additional  ending  in  the  nom.  plural  and 
never  has  an  e  in  a  case  ending,  belong: 

a.  Masc.  and  neut.  nouns  ending  in  unaccented  -el,  -en  (always  contracted 
to  n  after  -el  and  -er  in  verbal  nouns:  das  Handeln  acting,  das  Stottern  stut- 
tering), -er,  -chen,  -lein,  -sei:  der  Spaten  spade,  der  Vater  father,  &c.  In 
popular  language  the  plural  here  is  often  weak.     See  79.  L  a.  Note. 

Also  the  diminutives  in  -erl  and  1,  which  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Ba- 
varian and  Austrian  dialects,  belong  here  when  used  in  the  literary  language: 
der  Gigerl  fop,  des  Gigerls,  pi.  die  Gigerl.  In  certain  dialects  the  words  of 
this  group  are  weak  in  the  plural  and  this  inflection  is  often  found  in  the  literary 
language.     See  79.  1.  b.  Note. 

b.  All  neuter  nouns  beginning  with  the  prefix  ge-  and  ending  in  -e:  das 
Gemälde  oil  painting,  &c. 


80 UNMUTATED   E-LESS  PLURALS 65.  c. 

c.  The  isolated  masculine  Käse  cheese,  and  two  neuter  verbal  nouns,  Tun 
doing  and  Sein  being. 

d.  Diminutives  in  -le  in  the  Swabian  and  Alsatian  and  -li  in  Swiss  dialects:  das  Herrle  the 
little  man,  des  Herries,  pi.  die  f,  der,  den,  die)  Herrle.  Some  Swiss  dialects  lengthen  the  stem 
in  the  plural:  das  Äugli  (=  Äuglein),  pi.  N.  Äugli,  G.  (lacking),  D.  Äuglene,  A.  Äugli.  The  n 
drops  out  in  all  these  dialects  in  the  dat.  pi.  of  this  group. 

66.  Models  of  Inflection  for  the  Unmutated  E-less  Plural  Type: 

Singular. 

N.  der  Spaten  das  Hündchen  das  Gemälde 

G.  des  Spatens  des  Hündchens  des  Gemäldes 

D.  dem  Spaten  dem  Hündchen  dem  Gemälde 

A.   den  Spaten  das  Hündchen  das  Gemälde 

Plural. 

N.  die  Spaten  die  Hündchen  die  Gemälde 

G.  der  Spaten  der  Hündchen  der  Gemälde 

D.  den  Spaten  den  Hündchen  den  Gemälden 

A.   die  Spaten  die  Hündchen  die  Gemälde 

67.  Notice  that:     (1)  if  the  noun  ends  in  en  it  does  not  add  another  n  in 

the  dative  plural.    (2)  Neuter  nouns  of  the  form  Ge e,  as  Gebäude,  often  (full 

explanation  in  Note  below  and  in  83.  h)  modify  the  root  vowel,  and  usually  so 
the  diminutive  endings  -chen  and  -lein,  as  das  Hündchen  or  Hündlein  little  dog 
(fuller  statement  in  245.  L  8.  1.  c).  This  mutation  is  not  a  sign  of  the  plural, 
but  goes  thruout  the  sing,  and  pi.  (3)  Words  of  the  forms  Ge — e,  -^chen, 
-^lein  are  usually  neuter:    der  Hund,  but  das  Hündchen,  &c. 

Note.  Words  of  the  form  Ge  —  e  or  Ge  —  (ending  in  el,  er,  as  Gefieder,)  often  have  modification  of  the  stem 
vowel  ijy  mutation  (see  aS.  A  and  C"),  as  they  once  had  after  them  an  i,  which  has  become  e  or  dropped  out:  Ge- 
dränge (O.H.G.  gidrengi),  Gefilde  (O.H.G.  gifiidi)  derived  from  Feld,  Gefieder  (O.H.G.  presumably  gifidari  or  gifidiri) 
derived  from  Feder.  However,  a  large  number  of  verbal  nouns,  usually  new  formations  formed  from  the  infinitive 
stem,  do  not  mutate:  das  Gelaufe.  When  the  mutated  form  and  the  unmutated  form  exist  side  by  side  there  is 
often  a  little  shade  of  difference  in  meaning.     See  83.  b. 

68.  This  class  is  historically  only  a  modified  form  of  the  e-plural  type.  The  old  rule  that 
did  not  allow  e  to  stand  after  -el,  -em,  -en,  -er,  caused  as  early  as  M.H.G.  many  words  that 
were  formerly  in  the  unmutated  e-plural  class  to  drop  the  plural  ending  e:  (O.H.G.)  engil  angel, 
pi.  engila;  M.H.G.  engel,  pi.  engel(e).  This  movement  has  thus  given  rise  to  a  new  class  of 
nouns  not  found  in  O.H.G.  The  neuters  with  these  endings  passed  over  into  this  new  class 
very  easily  and  naturally,  as  they  already  as  neuters  in  general  had  no  plural  ending  in  the  nom. 
and  ace.  as  early  as  O.H.G.,  and  hence  needed  only  to  drop  the  e  in  the  other  case  endings.  _  The 
fact  that  only  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  came  over  into  this  e-less  plural  class  indicates 
that  the  cause  of  dropping  the  e  lies  entirely  in  the  accent.  This  reduction  of  form  is  the  result 
of  the  older  tendency  to  suppress  the  most  weakly  stressed  vowel  in  words  of  more  than  two 
syllables — the  old  law  described  in  62.  C.  Note.  The  masculines  and  neuters  in  -e,  -el,  -em, 
-en,  -chen,  -er  went  over  entirely  into  the  new  class.  This  development  is  essentially  South 
German.  Middle  German  inclined  to  retain  the  e  in  the  plural  after  masculines  in  -el,  -en,  -er, 
as  in  Hiigele,  Meistere,  &c.  Luther  sometimes  followed  this  M.G.  usage,  but  in  general  adopted 
the  S.G.  tendency  to  drop  e  here.  Masculines  and  neuters  with  heavier  suffixes,  such  as  -at, 
-ich,  -ig,  -ing,  -ling,  -rich,  -nis,  -sal,  did  not  participate  in  this  movement.  The  old  law  described 
in  62.  (J.  Note,  which  required  the  suppression  of  the  unaccented  vowel  in  the  third  syllable, 
did  not  work  so  uniformly  after  a  secondary  accent  as  after  a  lightly  stressed  -el,  -en,  -er.  More- 
over the  general  tendency  of  the  literary  language  was  in  the  direction  of  developing  a  distinctive 
plural  ending,  so  that  many  neuters  instead  of  dropping  endings  assumed  the  clear  plural  ending 
e  after  the  analogy  of  masculines,  as  described  in  63.  5.  Historical  Note  and  the  Notes  under 
a  and  b  of  the  same  article.  Neuter  diminutives  in  -lein,  however,  did  not  add  -e  in  the  plural 
but  remained  unchanged  after  the  analogy  of  diminutives  in  -chen. 

The  words  in  the  new  e-less  plural  class  were  later  greatly  increased  by  accessions  from  the 
weak  declension:  M.H.G.  balke  beam,  G.  balken,  D.  balken,  &c.,  but  N.H.G.  Balken,  G.  Bal- 
kens, D.  Balken,  &c.  This  new  trend  of  weak  nouns  toward  the  e-less  class  of  the  strong  de- 
clension began  to  manifest  itself  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  new  development 
first  appeared  in  the  South  in  the  plural  of  nouns  denoting  lifeless  objects  in  the  form  of  muta- 
tion to  distinguish  the  plural  more  clearly:  schaden  instead  of  schaden.  _  About  the  same  time 
nouns  denoting  lifeless  objects,  much  less  commonly  nouns  denoting  living  beings,  began  to 
appear  with  the  strong  genitive  -s  added  to  their  regular  weak  genitive  as  there  had  arisen  a 
feeling  that  the  strong  ending,  so  widely  used  in  the  language,  was  a  more  characteristic  sign  of 
the  genitive:  des  Schadens,  des  knabens  instead  of  des  schaden,  des  knaben.  Later  the  geni- 
tive -s  was  dropped  in  case  of  the  nouns  denoting  living  beings  as  the  feeling  prevailed  that  the 
weak  genitive,  so  closely  associated  with  many  very  common  nouns  denoting  living  beings, 


70.  1.  a. UNM UTATED   E-LESS  PLURALS 81 

was  characteristic  of  the  genitive  of  these  words.  The  words  which  have  thus  come  from  the 
weak  declension  are  almost  wholly  the  names  of  lifeless  objects,  which  fact  accounts  for  their 
change  of  declension.  The  most  common  case  form  of  names  of  living  beings  is  the  nom.,  since 
a  living  being  is  naturally  thought  of  as  acting,  while  the  most  common  case  forms  of  names  of 
lifeless  objects  are  the  ace.  and  dat.,  since  we  think  of  them  as  things  we  use,  as  the  objects  of  an 
activity  or  a  preposition.  Hence  after  the  strong  genitive  -s  had  become  established  in  the  weak 
nouns  representing  lifeless  objects  their  frequent  dat.  and  ace.  form  in  -en  soon  became  fixed 
in  the  mind  as  the  usual  form,  and  gradually  displaced  the  less  familiar  nom.  form  in  -e.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  frequent  use  of  the  nominative  in  the  nouns  denoting  living  beings,  as  knabe, 
preserved  the  old  weak  ending  -e  there.  Also  most  of  the  nouns  denoting  lifeless  objects  in  69, 
such  as  Glaube,  Name,  Wille,  &c.,  on  account  of  their  frequent  use  in  the  nominative  kept 
their  old  weak  ending  -e  as  in  case  of  nouns  denoting  living  beings,  but  there  was  nevel-  any 
tendency  here  as  in  case  of  nouns  denoting  living  beings  to  restore  their  old  weak  genitive,  as 
the  new  strong  ending  -s  that  had  been  added  to  their  old  weak  genitive  was  in  harmony  with 
the  genitive  of  most  other  nouns  representing  lifeless  things.  As  the  nom.  form  remained  firm 
in  case  of  designations  of  living  beings,  and  the  ace.  form  supplanted  the  nom.  form  in  case  of 
names  of  things,  the  same  word  was  split  into  two  forms  if  it  had  two  meanings,  one  the  name 
of  a  person,  one  the  name  of  a  thing:  der  Franke  Frank  (race),  der  Franken  (in  Switzerland) 
franc  (coin);  der  Knote  low,  vulgar,  coarse  fellow,  der  Knoten  knot;  der  Lump  (formerly  Lumpe) 
ragged  beggar,  good-for-nothing  fellow,  der  Lumpen  rag;  der  Rappe  black  horse,  originally 
raven,  and  still  so  in  S.G.  dialect,  der  Rappen  (in  Switzerland  a  coin  upon  which  is  a  picture 
of  a  raven)  jJo  franc;    der  Tropf  (formerly  Tropfe)  simpleton,  der  Tropfen  drop. 

The  change  of  words  from  the  e-plural  class  and  weak  declension  to  this  class  was  a  gradual 
one,  and  the  former  order  of  things  can  still  be  seen  in  Luther's  works  in  a  number  of  cases: 
der  kuche  (Hosea  vii.  8)  old  wk.  nom.,  now  Kuchen,  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  number  of 
feminines  which  in  early  N.H.G.  had  their  sing,  and  pi.  in  most  part  alike,  and  hence  properly 
belonged  here,  especially  those  in  -e,  -in,  and  -ung,  passed  over  later  into  the  weak  declension, 
following  the  general  tendency  of  feminines  towards  the  weak  declension:  (dat.  sing.)  siinde 
(2  Cor.  v.  21),  (ace.  pi.)  siinde  (1  Cor.  xv.  3);  (nom.  sing,  of  Löwin)  die  Lewinne  (Ezek.  xix.  2), 
(nom.  pi.)  Lewinne  (Joel  i.  6);  (nom.  sing.)  wonunge  (only  in  the  earlier  editions  of  Luther's 
Bible,  later  wonung),  (ace.  pi.)  wonunge  (Ps.  Ixxxvii.  2). 

69.  Irregularities  in  the  Declension  of  the  Unmutated  "E-less  Plural  Type. 
Tho  usually  deficient  in  the  nominative  singular  ending  en,  the  following  mas- 
culine nouns  may  now  be  put  into  the  unmutated  e-less  plural  class:  Funke 
spark,  Gedanke  thought,  Glaube  faith,  Haufe  heap,  Name  name,  Same  seed, 
and  Wille  will.  Buchstabe  letter  (of  the  alphabet),  which  is  usually  a  weak 
masculine,  belongs  here  sometimes.  All  these  words  except  Buchstabe  (nom. 
Buchstaben  still  rare)  sometimes  have  the  singular  nominative  ending  in  -en. 
On  the  other  hand,  der  Gefallen  kind  act,  favor  is  more  common  than  der 
Gefalle  and  der  Frieden  peace  is  perhaps  a  little  more  common  than  der  Friede 
(see  a).  The  plural  of  all  these  forms  is  entirely  regular.  For  the  peculiar 
fluctuation  of  form  here  see  68  (2nd  par.). 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  der  Name(n)  die  Namen 

G.  des  Namens  der  Namen 

D.  dem  Namen  den  Namen 

A.  den  Namen  die  Namen 

a.  Friede  (O.H.G.  fridu)  was  not  originally  weak  but  strong.  It  had  in  early  N.H.G.  the 
following  inflection:  der  Friede,  des  Friedas,  dem,  den  Friede  alongside  of  the  forms  der  Friede, 
des  Friedens,  dem,  den  Frieden.  The  forms  in  -en  show  that  the  nom.  e  had  led  to  the  con- 
ception that  the  noun  was  weak.  The  old  strong  gen.  in  -es  is  now  obsolete,  the  nom.  in  -e  is 
still  quite  common,  and  the  old  strong  dat.  and  ace.  forms  in  -e  not  infrequent  in  the  classical 
period  when  no  article  precedes  the  noun,  and  still  occurs  so  occasionally:  Und  wie  lange  haben 
wir  schon  Friede?  (Lessing's  Minna,  2.  1).  Ihm  hatten  |  längst  die  stillen  Schwarzwaldtan- 
nen I  Friede  ins  Gemüt  gerauscht  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  1).  The  n  of  the  oblique  cases  has 
gradually  become  fixed  in  the  nom.,  but  has  not  yet  displaced  the  old  ending  e. 

Mutated  E-Plural  Type  of  the  Strong  Declension. 

70.  To  this  class,  which  mutate  the  root  vowel  in  the  plural  and  add  e, 
belong: 

1.     The  following  masculine  groups: 

a.  The  following  masc.  monosyllabic  nouns,  which  contain  a  mutatable  vowel 
(a,  o,  u,  au).     Those  marked  with   *  have  sometimes  an  unmutated   plural, 


82 MUTATED   E-PLURALS 70.  I.  a. 

those  marked  with  f  fluctuate  in  the  plural  between  mutated  and  unmutated 
form.  Abt  abbot,  Arzt  physician,  Ast  branch,  Bach  brook,  Balg  f83).  Ball  ball, 
Band  volume,  Bart  beard,  Baß  bass,  Bauch  belly,  Baum  tree,  Bausch  bolster, 
pad.  Block  block,  Bock  he-goat.  Brand  fire,  Brauch  custom,  Bruch  fracture, 
Bruch  (also,  perhaps  however  less  commonly,  a  neut.  er-pl.)  bog,  Bug  bend, 
Bund  alliance,  Busch  bush,  Chor  (see  3  below),  Damm  dam.  Dampf  vapor, 
Darm  intestine,  Draht  wire,  Drang  (pi.  rare)  impulse,  strong  desire,  fDrusch 
thrashing,  Duft  fragrant  odor,  Dunst  vapor,  Fall  fall.  Fang  catch,  tusk  (of  boar), 
tooth  (of  wolf),  talon,  claw.  Floh  flea,  *Flor  crape,  gauze.  Flöß  (see  3  below), 
Fluch  curse,  Flug  flight,  Fluß  river,  Frack  (pi.  also  Fracks)  dress-coat,  Frosch 
frog.  Frost  frost,  Fuchs  (S.G.  sometimes  also  wk.,  sometimes  wk.  also  elsewhere 
in  the  second  and  third  meaning)  fox,  chestnut  horse,  Freshman  (in  a  German 
university),  Fuß  (83)  foot.  Gang  walk.  Gast  guest,  *Gauch  (pi.  sometimes  wk. 
cuckoo,  fool,  *Gaul  horse,  nag,  Grund  ground,  reason.  Grüß  greeting,  Gul 
casting,  Hahn  (earlier  in  the  period  also  wk. )  cock,  Hals  neck.  Hang  declivity, 
Hof  court,  Hub  lift.  Hut  hat,  Kahn  boat,  Kamm  comb,  *Kamp  enclosed  field, 
Kampf  combat,  Kauf  purchase,  Kauz  (earlier  in  the  period  also  wk.  and  an  un- 
mut.  e-pl.)  brown  owl,  fellow.  Klang  sound,  fKlaps  slap,  Kloß  clod,  dumpling, 
Klotz  block,  Knauf  knob,  Knaus  (S.O.),  or  Knaust  or  Knüst  (N.G.)  heel  (of  a 
loaf  of  bread),  Knopf  button,  Knuff  cuff  (blow),  Koch  cook,  Kog  land  wrested 
from  the  sea,  Kopf  head,  Korb  basket,  Krampf  cramp,  Kran  (63,  1.  b),  Kranz 
wreath,  Kropf  craw,  wen,  Krug  pitcher,  fKumpf  (63.  1.  6),  Kuß  kiss,  Lauf 
(sometimes,  especially  earlier  in  the  period,  also  Lauft)  course,  time,  Lohn 
reward,  Markt  market,  Marsch  march,  fMatz  Mat,  little  fool.  Mops  pug  dog, 
Napf  bowl,  fPacht  (more  commonly  a  wk.  fem.)  lease,  rental,  fPack  (63.  1.  b), 
Papst  pope,  fPasch  doublets,  Paß  pass,  Pfahl  stake,  Pflock  peg,  Pflug  plow, 
Plan  (pi.  earlier  in  the  period  Plane,  which  is  still  often  used  in  the  second 
meaning)  plan,  grass-plot,  Platz  place,  Propst  provost  (of  a  church),  rector, 
*Puff  thump,  Ranft  crust.  Rang  rank.  Rat  councilor,  Raum  space,  Rausch 
intoxication.  Rock  coat,  Rumpf  trunk,  body,  Saal  room,  Sack  sack,  Saft  juice. 
Sand  (83),  Sang  song,  Sarg  coffin,  Satz  sentence,  Saum  hem,  fSchacht  shaft  (in 
mine),  *Schaft  shaft,  Schatz  treasure,  Schaum  foam.  Schlaf  (usually  a  wk.  fern. 
die  Schläfe)  temple  (on  the  head),  Schlag  blow,  Schlauch  leather  bag,  Schlund 
chasm,  Schlupf  hiding  place.  Schlurf  gulp,  Schluß  close,  fSchmatz  smack, 
Schmaus  feast,  Schnaps  whiskey,  Schopf  tuft  (of  hair,  feathers),  Schoß  lap. 
Schrank  case,  press,  Schrund  (usually  wk.  fern,  die  Schrunde)  cleft,  Schub 
push.  Schürf  scratch,  pit,  opening  (min.),  Schuß  shot.  Schwamm  sponge, 
Schwan  (76.  1.3.  b)  swan,  Schwang  swing.  Schwank  prank,  farce,  Schwanz  tail. 
Schwärm  swarm,  crowd,  Schwung  flight,  soaring.  Schwur  oath,  Sohn  son, 
Span  shaving,  Spaß  joke,  Spruch  saying,  saw.  Sprung  jump,  Spund  bung. 
Stab  staft",  Stahl  (63.  1.  b.  Note),  Stahl  (pi.  also  Stahle,  nom.  sing,  also  Stahlen, 
an  unmut.  e-less  pi.)  sample.  Stall  stable,  Stamm  trunk,  tribe.  Stand  stand, 
rank,  station.  Stock  stick,  cane,  Storch  (sometimes  wk.)  stork.  Stoß  push,  pile, 
Strang  rope,  trace,  Strauch  (pi.  now  perhaps  more  commonly  Sträucher)  bush, 
shrub,  Strauß  (63.  1.  b),  Strom  stream.  Strumpf  stocking,  *Strunk  stump,  Stuhl 
chair.  Stumpf  short  end,  stump,  Sturm  storm,  Sturz  (earlier  in  the  period  unmut. 
in  pi.)  fall,  Sumpf  swamp,  Tanz  dance.  Ton  tone,  Topf  pot.  Trank  drink,  Traum 
dream,  Trog  trough.  Tropf  (earlier  in  the  period  wk.  and  sometimes  still  so) 
simpleton,  Trumpf  trump,  Turm  tower,  Vogt  governor,  steward.  Wall  rampart, 
Wanst  paunch.  Wolf  wolf.  Wuchs  growth,  Wulst  (also  fem.;  see  2  below)  pad, 
bustle,  roll,  Wunsch  wish,  Wurf  throw,  Zahn  tooth,  Zaum  bridle,  Zaun  hedge, 
fence,  Zoll  toll,  Zopf  plait  of  hair,  cue,  Zug  train. 

Note.  This  mutating  group  is  a  little  smaller  than  the  unmutating  mutatable  group  in  63.  1.  h,  but  it  may  turn 
out  to  be  much  smaller,  as  the  latter  group  may  prove  to  be  larger  than  the  present  enumeration  shows,  as  explained 
in  the  Note  under  63.  1.  b.  The  mutating  group,  however,  contains  a  number  of  very  common  words,  and  has  thus 
naturally  from  the  earliest  historic  times  attracted  to  itself  words  from  the  other  group.  It  has  thus  been  slowly 
increasing  thruout  the  different  periods  almost  up  to  our  own  time,  and  in  dialect,  especially  in  the  South,  may  per- 
haps still  be  spreading,  but  at  present  in  the  literary  language  mutation  in  this  group  seems  to  be  losing  ground,  and 
a  number  of  words  have  gone  over  to  the  other  group  or  fluctuate  between  them.  Compare  63.  1.  b.  It  has  also 
not  the  prospect  of  attracting  foreign  monosyllabics  that  seems  to  be  before  the  non-mutating  group.  The  former 
inflection  of  some  of  the  words  that  have  come  from  the  non-mutating  group  to  this  class  can  still  be  seen  in  fossilized 
proper  names:    Königshofen  (dat.  pi.;   see  88.  1).     The  pi.  of  Hof  is  now  elsewhere  uniformly  Höfe. 


70.  3. MUTATED   E-PLURALS g3 

h.  Several  masculines  of  the  form  Ge-:  Gebrauch  custom,  Genuß  enjoy- 
ment, Geruch  odor,  Gesang  song,  Geschmack  (pi.  sometimes  Geschmäcker) 
taste,  Gestanl:  stench. 

c.  A  few  derivatives  and  compounds,  the  final  component  of  which  does 
not  exist  as  an  independent  word,  or  as  such  does  not  have  a  mutated  plural: 

(1)  Derivatives:  Bedacht  (pi.  rare)  consideration,  Belag  slice  of  meat  for 
a  sandwich,  veneer,  coating,  Bestand  amount  on  hand,  Betrag  amount,  Ertrag 
yield,  return,  Verdacht  (pi.  rare)  suspicion,  Verdruß  vexation,  Vertrag  contract. 

(2)  Compounds:  Ab-,  Aus-,  Ein-,  Händedruck  (see  Druck  in  83),  Ab-, 
Ader-,  An-,  Aus-,  Durch-,  Ein-,  Nachlaß  (63.  2.  a),  Antrag  offer,  *Anwalt  at- 
torney, Beitrag  contribution,  Diebstahl  theft.  Einwand  objection,  fHanswurst 
(63.  2.  h),  -hans  Johnny  in  compounds  (as  Prahlhans  braggart),  Herzog  (earlier 
in  the  period  wk.,  now  with  pi.  Herzoge,  still  used  in  choice  language,  or  more 
commonly  Herzöge;  still  wk.  in  compound  names  of  places,  as  Herzogenbusch) 
duke,  earlier  in  the  period  in  its  original  meaning  leader  of  an  army,  leader,  cap- 
tain, Lautschwund  suppression  of  a  sound,  Marschall  (early  N.H.G.  Marschalk; 
pi.  also  Marschalls)  marshal.  Vorwand  pretext.  Zwieback  (63.  2.  b). 

2.  The  following  feminines:  Angst  (see  a  below)  anxiety,  f Armbrust  (for- 
merly a  neut.  or  masc.  from  Latin  arcnbalista,  still  often  with  its  old  pi.  Arm- 
bruste, now  felt  as  a  compound  of  Arm  and  Brust,  which  accounts  for  its  new 
pi.  Armbrüste)  cross-bow,  Axt  ax.  Bank  bench,  Braut  bride,  Brunst  fire,  heat, 
desire,  lust,  Brust  breast,  Faust  fist,  -flucht  in  the  compounds  Ausflucht  evasion, 
Zuflucht  (pi.  rare)  refuge,  as  a  simple  noun  and  elsewhere  in  compounds  wk., 
Fluh  (Swiss;»  see  also  c  below)  wall  of  rock,  precipice,  Frucht  fruit,  Gans  goose, 
Geschwulst  (less  commonly  Schwulst)  swelling,  Gruft  vault.  Hand  hand.  Haut 
skin,  Kluft  (sometimes  wk.)  cleft,  Kraft  strength,  Kuh  cow,  -kunft  in  compounds 
(as  in  Einkunft  income),  Kunst  art,  Laus  louse,  Luft  air.  Lust  pleasure,  Macht 
might,  Magd  servant  girl.  Maus  mouse,  Nacht  night,  Naht  seam.  Not  (see  a 
below)  need,  necessity,  strait,  Nüß  nut,  Pracht  (pi.  Prachten  and  Prächte) 
splendor,  Sau  (usually  wk.;  see  83),  Schlucht  or  the  less  common,  rather  poetic 
form  Schluft  (the  former  now  usually  wk.)  defile,  cleft,  Schnur  (pi.  often  wk., 
sing,  sometimes  Schnure)  string,  Schnur  (obs.  or  bib.;  pi.  also  wk.)  daughter-in- 
law,  Stadt  city.  Sucht  (Hauptmann's  Heinrich,  1,  1.  p.  6;  meiner  Eifersüchte 
Qual  — Sudermann's  Das  eiuige  Männliche,  2;  jahrelang  gehegte  Sehnsüchte  — 
Otto  Ernst's  A.  S.  J.,  p.  268;  usually  wk.)  malady.  Wand  wall  (of  a  room), 
Wulst  (also  masc,  pi.  Wülste)  pad,  bustle,  roll,  Wurst  sausage,  Zucht  (wk.  in 
the  first  two  meanings)  breed,  brood,  modest  act  that  shows  good  breeding, 
Zunft  guild. 

a.  The  regular  dat.  pi.  Nöten  is  used  in  many  idiomatic  expressions,  and  its  frequent  use 
has  led  to  the  erroneous  idea  that  the  plural  thruout  is  Nöten,  which  is  thus  sometimes  used 
instead  of  the  regular  form  Nöte.  For  the  same  reason  we  also  find  sometimes  the  pi.  Ängsten 
instead  of  Ängste. 

b.  A  few  irregularities  indicate  a  different  declension  in  a  former  period:  ab'handen  (dat. 
pi.)  lost,  mislaid,  vor'handen  sein  to  exist,  bei  Händen  sein  to  he  at  hand,  and  other  such  fossilized 
expressions;  Weihnachten  (flat,  pi.)  Christmas;  Macht  is  regularly  wk.  in  the  two  compounds, 
Ohnmacht  swoon,  Vollmacht  //(//  poiver  to  act  -in  all  cases.  In  Goethe's  day  the  simple  word 
could  be  wk. :    Mit  Machten  sprudle,  Quell',  aus  deinen  Höhlen  (Goethe). 

c.  In  M.H.G.  the  sing,  of  these  feminines  was  not  uninflected  as  now,  but  the  gen.  and  dat. 
added  e  and  the  vowel  suffered  mutation.  This  former  inflection  can  still  be  seen  in  proper 
names,  also  in  a  few  compounds  in  which  the  first  component  is  a  gen. :  Klaus  von  der  Flue  (dat. 
of  Fluh)  a  character  in  Schiller's  Tell;  Gänsefeder  feather  of  a  goose,  goose-quill.  The  old  dative 
singular  also  survives  in  be'hende  (=  M.H.Ct.  behende),  i.e.  literally  bei  der  Hand  at  hand,  but 
usually  employed  as  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  with  the  meaning  nimble,  nimbly.  In  a  few  iso- 
lated cases  both  the  nom.  and  dat.  (or  gen.)  forms  of  a  simple  noun  have  been  preserved,  but 
they  are  not  felt  as  nom.  and  dat.,  for  they  have  become  independent  nouns  with  differentiated 
meanings:   Fahrt  journey,  drive,  Fährte  track,  trace,  scent;    Stadt  city,  Stätte  place. 

3.  Two  neuters:  Flöß  (sometimes  masc.)  raft  and  Chor  (neut.  and  masc, 
the  former  in  the  first  meaning  and  the  latter  in  the  other  meanings,  both  gen- 
ders sometimes  used  indiscriminately;  the  neut.  form  perhaps  more  commonly 
w.  pi.  Chore)  part  of  the  church  where  the  choir  sit,  also  used  for  the  body  of  singers 
and  the  song  they  sing,  also  crowd,  band,  company.     Here  belong  sometimes  the 


84 MUTATED   E-LESS   PLURALS 70.3. 

neuters  Boot  boat,  Brot  loaf  of  bread,  Rohr  pipe,  which  are  usually  unmutated 
e-plurals. 

4.  A  few  masc.  foreign  words  with  accent  upon  the  final  syllable,  but  some- 
times after  German  fashion  upon  the  first:  Al'tar  (and  in  earlier  N.H.G.  'Altar; 
pi.  also  Al'tare)  altar,  'Bischof  bishop,  Cho'ral  hymn,  Gene'ral  (pi.  in  choice 
language  more  commonly  Gene'rale)  general,  Ka'nal  canal,  Kap'lan  chaplain, 
Kardi'nal  cardinal,  Mo'rast  (pi.  also  Mo'raste)  morast,  Pa'last  and  'Palast 
palace,  Te'nor  (pi.  also  Te'nore)  tenor.  In  these  words  it  is  the  second  vowel 
that  suffers  the  mutation:  der  Al'tar,  pi.  die  Al'tare.  Sometimes  other  foreign 
words,  as  Admi'ral  admiral,  Korpo'ral  corporal,  join  this  group,  and  earlier  in 
the  period  the  list  was  still  larger,  comprising  such  as  Bibliothe'kar,  Po'kal,  &c., 
but  present  feeling  is  opposed  to  the  mutation  of  foreign  words. 

71.  Models  of  Inflection  for  the  Mutated  E-Plural  Type: 

Singular. 

Sohn  son,  m.  Floß  raft,  n.  Hand  hand,  f. 

N.  der  Sohn  das  Floß  die  Hand 

G.  des  Sohn(e)s  des  Floßes  der  Hand 

D.  dem  Sohn(e)  dem  Floß(e)  der  Hand 

A.   den  Sohn  das  Floß  die  Hand 

Plural. 

N.  die  Söhne  die  Flöße  die  Hände 

G.  der  Söhne  der  Flöße  der  Hände 

D.  den  Söhnen  den  Flößen  den  Händen 

A.   die  Söhne  die  Flöße  die  Hände 

Mutated  E-Less  Plural  Type  of  the  Strong  Declension. 

72.  To  this  class,  which  is  an  e-less  plural  type  with  the  same  inflection  as 
the  nouns  in  65  with  the  additional  feature  of  mutation  in  the  plural,  belong 
only  a  small  number  of  words  in  -el,  -en,  -er.  The  unmutated  e-less  plural 
group  in  65  is  very  much  larger.  Among  those  that  suffer  mutation  in  the 
plural  can  be  safely  counted:  only  one  neuter,  Kloster  cloister,  but  also  quite 
often  Wasser  (Stille  Wasser  sind  tief,  but  Mineralwässer,  Industrieabwässer 
waste  water  from  factories,  Kanalisationsabwässer  sewage  water,  &c.)  water, 
and  sometimes  Lager  camp,  warehouse,  bed  (of  ore,  &c.);  two  feminines, 
Mutter  and  Tochter;  the  following  masculines:  Acker  field,  Apfel  apple, 
Boden  (pi.  also  Boden)  bottom,  soil,  Bruder  brother,  Faden  (earlier  in  the 
period  without  mutation  in  the  pi.)  thread,  Garten  garden.  Graben  ditch, 
Hafen  harbor,  pot.  Hammer  hammer,  Handel  contention,  Laden  shutter,  shop 
(in  the  first  meaning,  pi.  also  die  Laden),  Mangel  lack,  Mantel  cloak,  Nabel 
(pi.  also  Nabel)  navel,  Nagel  nail,  Ofen  stove,  Sattel  saddle,  Schaden  damage, 
Schnabel  beak,  Schwager  brother-in-law,  Vater  father,  Vogel  bird.  In  the  ex- 
pression Es  ist  schade!  //  is  too  bad!  Schaden  preserves  an  older  nom.  sing, 
form,  just  as  the  nouns  in  69. 

a.  Many  other  masculines  also  lielonsr  here  sometimes:  Bogen  bow,  Hammel  wether,  Kasten 
box,  Kragen  collar,  Magen  stomach,  Wagen  wagon,  &c.  Grammarians  discourage  the  spread 
of  mutation  here,  as  these  words  were  unmutated  in  earlier  periods  of  the  language.  When  this 
class  was  formed  by  dropping  e  in  the  plural,  in  accordance  with  the  development  described  in 
68  a  number  of  words  which  entered  the  new  class,  Apfel,  Hafen  pot,  Hammer,  Mantel,  Nagel, 
Sattel,  Schnabel,  were  already  mutated  in  the  plural.  Mutter,  Tochter,  and  Bruder  had  no 
ending  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  plural  as  early  as  O.H.G.  and  a  little  later  Vater  joined  this  little 
group.  In  M.H.G.  these  four  words  had  assumed  mutation  in  the  plural  and,  with  the  seven 
nouns  with  mutated  e-less  plurals  mentioned  above,  established  in  the  language  the  mutated 
e-less  type  of  plural.  This  mutating  group  possessed  a  great  advantage  over  the  other  words 
in  the  e-less  class,  as  they  had  a  plural  form  clearly  distinct  from  the  singular,  and  the  economic 
instincts  of  the  people,  undisturbed  by  historical  considerations,  appreciated  this  advantage 
at  once,  and  extended  the  mutation  in  the  plural  to  other  words.  Even  originally  weak  words 
were  affected.  In  Luther's  language  der  Garten  is  still  weak  as  in  M.H.G. :  des  garten  (2.  Kings 
ix.  27).     Later  it  became  an  e-less  plural  like  a  number  of  other  weak  nouns  as  described  in  68 


74.  1. ER-PLURALS 85 

(2nd  par.),  and  finally  joined  the  above  mutating  group.  The  list  given  above  represents  the 
view  of  conservative  grammarians.  Literary  men  do  not  always  confine  themselves  to  it: 
Schubkästen  (Gutzkow),  die  Glaskästen  (Raabe's  Himgerpastor,  chap,  iv),  die  Köpfe,  die 
Herzen  und  Mägen  der  Menschheit  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap.  26),  preußische  Mägen  (H.  Hoff- 
mann's Rittmeister,  p.  141).  South  German  authors  use  mutation  here  still  more  freely.  There 
is  evidently,  however,  in  the  North  a  tendency  at  present  in  choice  language  against  the  ex- 
tension of  mutation  here  as  in  general  also  elsewhere. 

ER-Plural  Type  of  the  Strong  Declension. 

73.  This  class  adds  er  to  form  the  nominative  plural  and  mutates  the  root 
vowel  if  it  is  capable  of  it:  das  Buch  book,  des  Buchs,  pi.  die  Bücher.  Those 
ending  in  -turn  mutate  this  suffix  instead  of  the  root  vowel :  das  Herzogtum  duchy, 
pi.  die  Herzogtümer. 

a.  The  ending  -er  now  found  in  the  plural  of  these  words  was  once  -ir,  and  hence  the  muta- 
tion. This  -er,  however,  is  not  a  case  ending,  but  a  derivative  suffix,  and  was  in  earlier  periods 
also  found  in  the  sing.  It  finally  disappeared  in  the  sing,  and  was  then  felt  as  a  plural  ending. 
It  is  still  found  in  the  sing,  in  a  few  derivatives,  where,  however,  its  force  is  no  longer  felt.  See 
245.  II.  3.  a.  Note. 

b.  This  -er  as  plural  ending  is  a  very  popular  one,  and  is  often  used  in  dialect  or  familiar 
humorous  language  with  words  of  the  mutated  or  the  unmutated  e-plural  class  instead  of  the 
regular  ending  of  those  classes,  as  Sterner  for  Steine  stones.  Elender  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Lager, 
1.  521;  here  for  the  sake  of  a  pun  on  Länder),  in  diminutives  (see  245.  I.  8.  1./.  Note  2),  &c.  A 
number  of  words  fluctuate  between  the  unmutated  e-plural  class  and  this  class  even  in  the  literary 
language,  as  is  mentioned  in  particular  under  each  class.  Perhaps  the  forms  in  -e  are  choicer  than 
those  in  -er,  even  sometimes  bordering  upon  the  poetic,  but  they  are  often  much  less  common: 
Denkmale  and  Denkmäler,  Gewände  and  Gewänder.  In  a  number  of  cases  there  is  a  differen- 
tiation of  meaning  between  the  form  in  -e  and  that  in  -er.  See  83.  a.  A  number  of  words  which 
now  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  er-plural  class  were  in  earlier  periods  and  earlier  in  the  present  period 
in  the  unmutated  e-plural  class,  lacking  in  earlier  periods,  however,  endings  in  nom.  and  ace. 
pi.     See  63.  5.  Historical  Note,  and  74.  1.  a. 

Note.  Historical  Development.  This  group  was  small  in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  classical  period 
of  M.H.G.  The  spread  of  this  type  was  largely  due  to  South  German  influences.  In  M.H.G.  the  neuter  nom. 
and  ace.  plural  were  the  same  as  the  nom.  and  ace.  singular.  In  N.H.G.  there  arose  a  desire  to  distinguish  the  plural 
from  the  singular.  Middle  Germans  began  to  extend  to  the  endingless  neuter  plural  form  the  e-plural  of  masculines. 
In  South  German  this  could  not  be  done  as  final  vowels  were  regularly  suppressed.  Hence  South  Germans  began 
to  use  here  the  er-plural  which  had  already  become  established  in  a  few  words.  Middle  Germans  and  the  literary 
language,  which  in  general  rested  upon  Middle  German,  yielded  in  part  to  this  S.G.  movement,  but  later  there  arose 
a  reaction  against  it  guided  by  the  feeling  that  the  e-plural  was  in  accord  with  the  trend  toward  greater  simplicity 
of  form  in  the  language.  Present  literary  usage  became  fixed  about  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  dialect, 
however,  especially  in  the  South,  the  er-plural  is  still  widely  used. 

74.  To  this  class,  which  has  no  feminines,  belong: 

L  All  other  native  German  neut.  monosyllables  not  found  in  the  unmutated 
e-plural  group  in  63.  5.  c,  the  mutated  e-plural  group  in  70.  3,  and  in  the  mixed 
declension  in  79.  1.  b,  namely:  Aas  (pi.  also  Aase)  carcass,  Amt  office,  Bad  bath, 
Balg  (83),  Band  (83),  Blest  (pop.)  beast  (of  fleas,  bedbugs,  dogs,  &c.),  domestic 
animal,  Bild  picture,  Blatt  leaf,  Brett  board,  Bruch  (see  70.  L  a),  Buch  book. 
Dach  roof,  Daus  deuce.  Ding  (83),  Dorf  village,  Ei  egg,  Fach  compartment. 
Faß  barrel,  Feld  field.  Geld  money,  Gicht  convulsion,  Glas  glass,  Glied  link. 
Grab  grave,  Gras  grass,  Gut  property,  Haupt  head,  Haus  house,  Holz  wood, 
Horn  horn,  Huhn  fowl,  Kalb  calf.  Kind  child,  Kleid  dress,  Korn  grain.  Kraut 
herb,  Lamm  lamb.  Land  (83),  Licht  (83),  Lid  eyelid,  Lied  song,  Loch  hole, 
Mahl  (63.  .5.  c),  Mai  (63.  5.  c),  Maul  mouth  (of  animals),  Mensch  (83),  Moos 
(83),  Mus  (63.  5.  c).  Nest  nest,  Pfand  pledge,  Rad  wheel,  Reis  shoot,  Rind  beef, 
Scheit  (83),  Schild  shop  sign,  Schloß  castle,  Schwert  sword,  Stift  endowed  in- 
stitution, Tai  (in  poetic  language  sometimes  an  unmut.  e-pl.)  valley,  Tuch  (83), 
Vieh  (collective  noun,  hence  usually  without  pi.;  sometimes  referring  to  an 
individual,  occasionally  with  pi.  Viehe,  but  more  commonly  Vieher  animals, 
fig.  Rindvieher  stupid  fellows;  colloq.  and  pop.  S.G.  pi.  Viecher  beasts,  'critters', 
see  40.  1.  b.  Note  7)  cattle,  Volk  people.  Warns  (pi.  also  Wamse;  sometimes 
masc.)  waistcoat,  Weib  woman,  Welf  (also  a  masc.  e-pl.,  more  commonly  re- 
placed by  das  Junge,  ein  Junges)  cub,  whelp,  Wort  (83).  Here  also  belongs 
Trumm  (also  masc.)  ruin,  fragment.  Its  plural  is  usually  Trümmer,  and  only 
rarely  Triimme  and  Trumme.  The  sing,  is  very  little  used,  and  hence  its  form 
is  not  vividly  felt.  This  has  given  rise  to  new  formations  in  the  sing.  The 
usual  plural  form  is  sometimes  taken  for  a  sing.     This  new  sing,  is  either  fem. 


86 


ER-PLURALS 


74.  I. 


or  masc.     The  pi.  formed  from  this  new  sing,  is  of  course  wk.,  i.e.  Trümmern, 
if  it  is  regarded  as  fem.,  and  is  an  e-less  pi.,  i.e.  Trümmer,  if  it  is  felt  as  a  masc. 

a.  In  M.H.G.  and  even  later  in  early  N.H.G.  a  number  of  these  words  were  inflected  after 
the  model  of  the  unmutated  e-plural  class,  as  described  for  the  early  N.H.G.  period  in  63.5. 
Historical  Note.  This  can  still  be  seen  in  many  fossilized  forms,  as  in  Feld,  Haus,  Haupt  in 
names  of  places,  as  Rheinfelden  (dat.  pi.;  see  88.  1),  Rheinhausen  (dat.  pi.),  ßerghaupten  (dat. 
pi.);  also  in  the  dat.  pi.  form  Häupten  in  a  few  set  expressions,  as  zu  Häupten  (des  Bettes,  &c.) 
at' the  head  (of  the  bed,  Sec).  In  early  N.H.G.  Haupt  had  as  a  rival  the  M.G.  form  Haupt  (O.H.G. 
houbit,  and  hence  mutation),  which  still  in  such  expressions  as  the  preceding  survives  in  its  early 
N.H.G.  dat.  pi.  form  Häupten,  which,  however,  in  meaning  has  now  the  force  of  the  sing.  The 
pL  form  here  is  probably  after  the  analogy  of  zu  Füßen,  where  the  plural  has  a  real  meaning. 

2.  All  in  -tum,  of  which  two  only  are  masc.  (Irrtum  error  and  Reichtum 
ivealth)  and  the  rest  neut.:   das  Christentum,  &c. 

3.  A  few  isolated  masculines:  Bösewicht  (pi.  now  perhaps  more  commonly 
Bösewichte)  rascal.  Dorn  (83),  Geist  spirit,  Gott  God,  god,  Hundsfott  (pi. 
Hundsfötter)  scoundrel,  Leib  body,  Mann  man,  Mund  (63.  L  h),  Ort  (83), 
Rand  edge.  Ski  (Si:  or  ski-,  pi.  also  Skis,  Ski'e)  ski,  Strauch  (70.  La)  bush, 
shrub,  Strauß  (63.  L  b),  Vormund  (in  early  N.H.G.  wk.  with  form  Vormünd(e), 
later  str.  with  pis.  Vormünde,  more  commonly  Vormunde,  most  commonly 
Vormünder)  guardian,  Wald  (see  h)  forest,  Wurm  (pi.  rarely  Wurme;  see  83). 

o.  Masculines  did  not  originally  belong  to  this  class.  Some  of  these  masculines,  as  Ort, 
Gott  (M.H.G.  der  got  God,  but  da^  abgot  idol),  were  once  neut.  as  well  as  masc,  and  later  re- 
tained the  neut.  pi.  form,  altho  they  dropped  the  neut.  article  in  favor  of  the  masc.  Several 
masculines  were  attracted  into  this  class,  assuming  the  neut.  pi.  after  the  analogy  of  neut.  nouns 
of  a  similar  meaning:  Wälder  woods  after  the  analogy  of  Hölzer  woods;  Geister  spirits  after  the 
analogy  of  Götter  gods;  Leiber  bodies  after  the  analogy  of  Geister,  with  which  it  stands  in  con- 
trast; Männer  men  after  the  analogy  of  Weiber  women. 

b.  Wald  was  formerly  an  e-pl.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  fossilized  proper  name  Unterwaldea 
(dat.  pi.  =  unter  den  Wäldern). 

4.  A  few  neuters,  exceptions  to  the  e-pl.  cl.  (63.  5.  b):  Gehalt  (earlier  and 
sometimes  still  masc.  with  pi.  Gehalte)  salary.  Gemäch  room  (of  a  house), 
Gemüt  disposition,  Geschlecht  (poet.  pi.  Geschlechte)  generation,  Gesicht 
(83),  Gespenst  ghost,  Gewand  (pi.  sometimes  Gewände)  garments,  Gewölb 
(usually  Gewölbe,  an  e-less  pi.)  vault. 

5.  A  few  foreign  words:  (1)  exceptions  to  the  unmutated  e-pl.  class:  das 
Kapi'tell  or  Kapi'täl  (both  forms  usually  e-pls.)  capital  of  a  pillar,  der  Pe'nnal 
(pi.  sometimes  Pe'nnale,  Pe'nnäle;  nom.  sing,  more  commonly  Pe'nnäler,  an 
e-less  pi.)  gymnasium  student,  das  Prä'sent  (pi.  usually  Prä'sente)  present, 
das  Regi'ment  regiment,  das  Spi'tal  or  Hospi'tal  (pi.  sometimes  Hospi'tale) 
hospital;    (2)  der  Wiking  viking. 

75.     Models  of  Inflection  for  the  Er-Plural  Type: 


Buch  book,  n. 
N.     das  Buch 
G.     des  Buch(e)s 
D.     dem  Buch(e) 
A.     das  Buch 


N. 

die  Bücher 

G. 

der  Bücher 

D. 

den  Büchern 

A. 

die  Bücher 

Singular. 

Irrtum,  error,  m. 
der  Irrtum 
des  Irrtums 
dem  Irrtum 
den  Irrtum 

Plural. 
die  Irrtümer 
der  Irrtümer 
den  Irrtümern 
die  Irrtümer 


Bild  picture,  n. 
das  Bild 
des  Bild(e)s 
dem  Bild(e) 
das  Bild 


die  Bilder 
der  Bilder 
den  Bildern 
die  Bilder 


Weak  Declension. 

76.     I.     Present  Literary   Usage. 

The  weak  declension  ends  in  -n  or  -en  (see  61.  b)  in  every  case  sing,  and  pi. 
except  the  nom.  sing.,  and  never  modifies  the  root  vowel  in  the  pi.:  der  Knabe 
boy,  des,  dem,  den,  pi.  die,  der,  den,  die  Knaben.     Feminines  not  being  declined 


76.  I.  3. WEAK   NOUNS 87 

in  the  singular  have  only  the  plural  of  this  declension.     To  the  weak  declension 
belong:  — 

1.  All  the  native  and  foreign  fern,  nouns  in  the  language,  with  the  following 
few  exceptions:  (1)  Mutter  and  Tochter  in  the  mutated  e-less  plural  class;  (2) 
those  ending  in  -nis  and  -sal  in  the  immiUated  e-plural  class;  (3)  the  list  in  the 
mutated  e-plural  class  (see  70.  2);    (4)  a  few  foreign  words  (see  80.  1  and  63.  4). 

a.  Foreign  fern,  in  -a  and  -is  drop  these  letters  in  the  pi.  and  add  -en:  die  Firma  firm,  pi. 
die  Firmen;  die  Basis,  pi.  die  Basen.  All  in  -in  double  the  n  in  the  pi.:  Fürstin  princess,  pi, 
Fürstinnen.     The  plural  of  die  'Phalanx  phalanx  is  usually  die  Phalangen. 

2.  All  masculines  of  two  or  more  syllables  ending  in  unaccented  -e,  pro- 
vided they  represent  persons  or  other  living  beings:  der  Knabe  boy,  der  Preuße 
Prussian,  der  Löwe  lion,  &c.  Also  three  names  of  lifeless  things  belong  here: 
der  Buchstabe  (see  69),  der  Hirse  (usually  str.;  now  more  commonly  fem. 
die  Hirse)  millet,  der  Zehnte  tithe.  The  list  of  lifeless  things  was  once  much 
larger.  In  68  and  78.  A^ote  a  description  is  given  of  the  forces  that  have  with- 
drawn from  the  weak  declension  the  masculines  and  neuters  representing  lifeless 
things.  Hence,  of  the  many  masculines  and  the  smaller  number  of  neuters 
which  once  belonged  to  the  weak  declension  there  remain  only  the  masculines 
denoting  living  beings,  so  that  the  idea  of  life  has  become  associated  with  weak 
masculine  inflection, 

3.  The  following  list  of  masculines  representing  living  beings,  which,  having 
no  -e  in  the  nom.  sing.,  or  having  lost  there  the  e  which  once  belonged  to  them, 
cannot  now  be  recognized  by  an  ending  and  hence  in  a  number  of  cases  are  now 
often  felt  as  e-plurals,  i.e.  strong  nouns  with  -s  in  the  gen.  sing,  and  -e  in  the 
plural:  Ahn  (often  str.  in  sing.)  ancestor;  Bär  bear;  Bauer  (also  str.  in  sing.; 
always  str.  in  the  compounds  Ma'schinenbauer  machinist,  Orgelbauer  organ- 
builder,  &c.,  where  it  is  derived  from  bauen  to  build)  peasant;  Bayer  (sometimes 
str.  in  sing.)  Bavarian;  Bleß  (also  a  wk.  fem.  die  Blesse)  blazed  horse;  Bursch 
(pi.  not  infrequently  Bursche)  or  Bursche  young  fellow,  student,  servant; 
Christ  (but  an  e-pl.  in  the  meaning  Christmas  present)  Christian;  Dol- 
metsch (sing,  also  uninflected,  pi.  also  Dohnetsche;  usually  replaced  by  the  str. 
Dohnetscher)  interpreter;  Drost  (also  an  e-pl.)  magistrate;  Ehehalt  (early 
N.H.G.  and  still  used  in  the  South)  servant;  Elf  elf;  Farr  or  more  commonly 
Farre  (earlier  in  the  period,  still  in  the  Southwest)  bull;  Faun  (usually  an 
e-pl.)  faun  ;Fex  (more  commonly  an  e-pl.)  fool;  Fink  finch  ;Fratz  silly  fellow;  Fuchs 
(70.  l.a),Fürsprech  (also  an  e-pl.)  attorney;  Fürst  ruling  prince,  prince;  Geek  (ear- 
lier in  the  period  also  an  e-pl.)  vain  fellow;  Gesell  workman,  fellow,  and  with  the 
exception  of  Gemahl  (63.  2.  a),  Gespan  (63.  2.  a),  and  sometimes  Gespons 
(63.  2.  a)  all  other  masculines  of  this  form  (i.e.  beginning  with  Ge-  and  not  ending 
in  -e)  representing  persons;  Gnom  gnome;  Graf  count;  Greif  (also  an  e-pl.) 
griftin;  Held  hero;  Herr  (des  Herrn,  pi.  die  Herren)  Mr.,  gentleman,  lord,  mas- 
ter; Hirt  shepherd;  HohenzoUer  (the  form  Hohenzollern  is  also  used  as  a 
collective  noun  inflected  as  a  proper  name:  HohenzoUerns  Taten  [Wildenbruch's 
Quitzows,  3,  12]  the  deeds  of  the  family  of  Hohenzollern)  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Hohenzollern;  Kaffer  (also  str.  in  sing.)  clod-hopper;  Kaffer  (also  str.  in 
sing.)  Kafir;  Kakerlak  (see  79.  1.  a);  Kum'pan  (usually  an  e-pl.)  companion; 
Leu  (dat.  and  ace.  sometimes  Leu;  poetic  word  for  Löwe)  lion;  Lump  (63.  l.h); 
Mensch  human  being;  Mohr  Moor;  Muselman  (or  Muselmann,  gen.  -s,  pi. 
-manner)  Mussulman;  Nachfahr  (sing,  sometimes  str.)  successor,  descendant; 
Narr  fool;  Oberst  (or  more  rarely  Obrist;  sometimes  str.  or  uninflected  in 
sing.)  colonel;  Ochs  ox;  Pfaff  priest,  parson  (contemptuously);  Pfau  (often 
str.  in  sing.,  pi.  sometimes  Pfaue)  peacock;  Pommer  Pomeranian;  Prinz  son 
of  a  Fürst;  Protz  vulgar,  conceited  man  of  wealth;  Scheck  dapple  (horse); 
Schelm  (earlier  in  the  period  wk.  and  sometimes  so  still;  now  usually  an  e-pl.) 
rogue;  Schenk  cup-bearer;  Schöps  (usually  an  e-pl.;  only  rarely  wk.  as  a 
simple  word,  but  regularly  so  in  compounds,  as  in  Schöpsenfleisch)  wether; 
Schultheiß  mayor  (especially  of  a  small  place) ;  Spatz  (often  str.  in  sing.,  pi, 
sometimes  Spatze)  sparrow;  Steinmetz  stone-cutter;   Tor  fool;  Tropf  (70.  1.  a); 


WEAK   NOUNS  76.  I.  3. 


Truchseß  (also  an  e-pl.)  formerly  one  who  placed  food  before  his  lord;  Untertan 
(sing,  also  str.)  subject  (of  a  king,  &c.),  Vorfahr  (sometimes  str.  in  sing.)  prede- 
cessor, ancestor;  Weih  (also  an  e-pl.)  and  Weihe  (also  a  wk.  fern.)  kite  (bird); 
Welf  Guelph;  Zar  (sometimes  an  e-pl.)  czar;  also  a  few  names  of  nationalities 
and  famous  families  which  are  usually  found  only  in  the  plural:  Angeln  Angles, 
Zimbern  Cimbri,  Nibelungen  (pi.  sometimes  Nibelunge  as  in  M.H.G.)  Ni- 
belungs,  Billungen  (pi.  sometimes  Billunge),  &c.  Most  of  the  weak  nouns 
denoting  nationalities  have  e  in  the  nom.  sing,  (as  der  Däne  Dane,  der  Russe 
Russian,  &c.),  and  hence  belong  to  2  above. 

A  few  masculines  not  ending  in  -e  representing  lifeless  objects  are  weak: 
Frank  (10  Frank[en];  in  Austria,  also  str.  in  sing.;  in  Switzerland  entirely  re- 
placed by  the  unmut.  e-less  plural  Franken)  franc  (coin);  Spitz  (Schiller's 
Wallensteins  Lager,  6,  now  a  weak  fem.  die  Spitze,  usually  in  this  meaning 
found  in  the  plural)  lace;  Zeh  (also  str.  in  sing.,  usually  a  wk.  fem.  die  Zehe) 
toe.     This  list  was  once  larger. 

a.  Also  others  sometimes  drop  the  e  of  the  nom.  sing.,  as  der  Schranz  or  Schranze,  &c. 
Hirsch  stag,  Lenz  (poetic)  spring-time,  Mai  May,  März  March,  Salm  young  salmon.  Star  starling, 
and  Strauß  ostrich,  are  occasionally  weak,  but  are  more  commonly  e-plurals,  Mai  and  März 
however,  are  still  more  commonly  uninflected  (see  85.  a). 

b.  Some  of  the  words  which  used  to  belong  here,  especially  names  of  living  beings,  after 
throwing  off  the  -e  which  distinguished  them  as  weak,  drifted  over  into  the  strong  declension, 
but  still  show  their  original  weak  inflection  in  compounds:  Greisenalter,  Hahnenfuß,  Schwanen- 
gesang, Sternenhimmel,  &c.,  from  Greis,  Hahn,  Schwan,  Stern,  &c.,  all  now  mut.  e-pls. 
except  the  first  and  last,  which  are  unmut.  e-pls.  For  fuller  statement  see  249.  II.  1.  B.  a.  Pro- 
vincially,  especially  in  the  S.W.,  some  of  these  words  which  represent  animals  are  still  as  simple 
nouns  inflected  weak  when  used  as  names  of  taverns:  „zu  den  drei  Schwanen"  (on  a  sign)  'At 
the  Three  Swans,'  im  Hirschen  (see  a  above),  &c.  The  frequent  use  of  the  oblique  case  ending 
-en  of  these  weak  nouns  after  prepositions  has  left  the  impression  that  the  words  also  in  the 
nominative  end  in  en,  hence  such  forms  as  der  Hirschen,  der  Schwarze  Bären,  der  Pfauen 
(Spitteler's   Conrad,  p.  204),  all  names  of  taverns. 

c.  There  is  a  tendency  for  some  of  the  above  list  of  weak  nouns  to  become  strong,  which 
especially  manifests  itself  in  the  ace:  Da  lauerte  einst  der  wilde  Urgermane  auf  den  zottigen 
Bär  (instead  of  Bären)  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap.  xiü).  Less  frequently  in  the  gen.,  Init  sometimes 
also  there:  mit  des  Markgrafs  Weib  (Hauptmann's  Schluck  und  Jau,  p.  24),  but  des  jungen 
Markgrafen  Weib  (ib.). 

4.     Many  masc.  foreign  nouns: 

a.  Those  ending  in  accented  ag,  arch,  ast,  at,  aur,  ct  (kt),  et,  ik,  il,  ist,  it, 
ith,  11,  ng,  og,  om,  op,  ost,  ot,  ph,  pt,  rd,  tt,  urg,  ut,  yst,  only,  however,  when 
they  represent  persons  or  other  living  beings:  Le'gät  legate,  Pi'löt  pilot,  &c. 
Formerly  e  was  added  to  a  number  of  these  endings.  After  b,  d,  g  this  older 
usage  still  in  general  prevails  as  the  omission  of  e  here  would  in  the  nom.  sing, 
give  b,  d,  g  a  different  pronunciation  from  that  found  in  the  other  cases:  E'phebe, 
Rhap'sode,  Stra'tege,  Philologe,  &c.  After  nd  (see  c),  however,  the  e  is 
dropped:  Vaga'bund,  &c.  If  the  e  is  retained  these  words,  of  course,  belong 
to  2  above. 

Note.  The  following  exceptions  occur:  Pe'dell  fan  e-pl.  or  wk.)  beadle,  Hippo'gryph  (an  e-pl.  or  wk.)  hippogrif, 
Leo'pärd  (sometimes  an  unmut.  e-pl.)  leopard,  Prä'fekt  (also  an  e-pl.)  prefect;  the  following  masculines,  which  are 
wk.,  tho  they  represent  things:  Auto'mat  slot-machine,  Den'drit  dendrite,  Diph'thöng  (usually  an  e-pl.)  diphthong, 
Ko'met  comet,  Ma'gnet  ^usually  an  e-pl.)  magnet,  Mono'lith  (also  an  e-pl.)  monolith,  Pla'net  planet,  Sate'llit  satel- 
lite;  the  plural  A'nnälen  annals. 

h.  Names  of  peoples  having  a  consonantal  ending  which  is  accented  upon 
the  last  syllabi,  Ko'sak  Cossack,  Sara'zen(e)  Saracen,  Bul'gär  Bulgarian, 
Mag'yar  or  bette,  Mad'jar  (sometimes  str.  in  sing.)  Magyar,  Hungarian,  Ta'tar 
Tartar,  &c.  A  few  which  have  the  accent  upon  the  first  syllable  (see  61.  h): 
'Ungar  (sometimes  str.  in  sing.)  Hungarian,  'Kaffer  (see  3  above). 

c.  Masculines  ending  in  accented  and,  end,  und,  ant,  ent,  isk,  graph  repre- 
senting persons  or  things:  Multipli'kand  multiplicand,  Dokto'rand  one  who  is 
passing  his  doctor's  examination,  Dia'mant  (wk.  with  poetic  forms  'Demant  or 
De'mant,  which  are  e-pls.  or  wk.),  Konso'nant  consonant,  Ok'tant  octant, 
Stu'dent  student,  Quo'tient  quotient,  Obe'lisk  obelisk,  Tele'graph  telegraph, 
&c.  There  is  one  exception:  der  Ama'rant  amaranth,  des  Ama'rants,  pi. 
Ama'rante  or  Ama'ranten.  Neuters  having  these  endings  are  e-plurals:  Kom- 
pli'ment  &c. 


78. 


MIXED    NOUNS 


89 


d.     The  bird  der  Papa'gei  (sometimes  an  unmut.  e-plural)  parrot. 

Note.  The  above  lists  of  endings  are  not  complete,  but  in  general  all  foreign  nouns  accented  upon  the  last  syllable 
which  represent  persons  or  living  beings  are  weak  except  those  with  the  endings  listed  in  63.  7.  b.  The  less  common 
endings,  however,  have  not  become  closely  associated  with  a  particular  declension,  so  that  there  is  here  fluctuation: 
der  Ka'paun  capon,  usually  strong,  sometimes  weak.  &c.  The  tendency  toward  the  strong  declension  is  more  vigor- 
ous in  colloquial  speech  than  in  the  literary  language,  where  the  new  association  of  weak  inflection  with  the  idea  of 
life  is  now  well  established  within  the  limits  defined  above. 

II.     Older  Usage  and  Modern  Dialect. 

1.  In  an  earlier  period  of  the  language  and  often  as  late  as  early  N.H.G.  the  feminines  were 
also  inflected  in  the  singular,  and  forms  showing  weak  inflection  here  are  often  still  found  in  poetry, 
in  prose  in  a  ver>-  few  set  expressions,  such  as  auf  Erden  upon  earth,  and  quite  commonly  in  some 
dialects :  Ein  verkeret  Hertz  findet  nichts  guts  \  Vnd  der  verkereter  Zungen  ist  |  wird  in  vngliick 
fallen  (Prov.  xvii.  20).  Sah  ein  Knab'  ein  Röslein  stehn,  |  Röslein  auf  der  Heiden  (Goethe's 
Heidenröslein).  In  S.O.  dialect  the  n  of  the  oblique  cases  has  spread  to  the  nom.,  so  that  singular 
and  plural  end  in  en:  Scharf  atif  den  Tisch  fallen  lassen  muß  er  ja  das  Bügeleisen,  sonst  wird 
die  Hosen  nicht  glatt  (Rosegger's  Der  Baiierns pöttler),  in  the  plural  sonst  werden  die  Hosen 
nicht  glatt.  The  dropping  of  the  weak  endings  in  the  singular  of  feminines,  according  to  usage 
in  the  literary  language,  resulted  from  a  desire  for  clearer  expression.  As  the  weak  forms  were 
alike  in  singular  and  plural  in  all  the  cases  except  the  nominative  the  grammatical  relations  were 
not  always  clear.  Hence  it  gradually  became  common  to  have  weak  feminines  uninflected  in 
the  singular  after  the  analogy  of  the  group  of  strong  feminines  which  after  the  loss  of  their  dis- 
tinctive vowel  endings  seemed  in  M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.  to  be  uninflected  in  the  singular. 
Thus  arose  clear  forms  for  singular  and  plural.  In  the  same  manner  the  strong  feminines  of  the 
mutated  e-plural  class  which  were  once  inflected  in  the  singular,  as  described  in  71.  2.  c,  became 
uninflected  there  after  the  analogy  of  the  other  strong  feminine  group,  and  thus  all  feminines 
have  become  uninflected  in  the  singular.  On  the  other  hand,  of  the  large  number  of  feminines 
which  were  originally  in  the  strong  declension  the  large  majority  have  become  weak  in  the  plural, 
leaving  in  the  strong  declension  only  the  few  that  have  already  been  enumerated  under  the  first 
three  classes. 

2.  Earlier  in  the  period  strong  masc.  and  neut.  nouns  have  not  infrequently  in  the  gen.  plural 
the  seemingly  weak  case  ending  -en;  Das  preisen  die  Schüler  aller  Orten  (Goethe's  Faust,  1. 
1934).  As  this  peculiar  genitive  plural  was  from  the  start  most  common  in  adverbial  use  where 
it  had  much  the  same  force  as  the  dative  plural  after  a  preposition,  it  seems  quite  probable  that 
it  is  in  fact  only  the  extension  of  the  dative  form  to  the  genitive  in  adverbial  function:  aller 
Orten  after  the  analogy  of  an  alien  Orten.  The  common  adverbial  ending  -en,  as  in  draußen, 
drüben,  &c.  greatly  facilitated  this  development.  This  peculiar  pi.  gen.  ending  for  a  time  spread 
somewhat  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  adverbial  construction,  as  in  voller  süßer  Worten  und 
Sittensprüchen  (Goethe),  but  it  is  now  strictly  confined  to  it  and  survives  in  only  a  few  archaic 
expressions,  such  as  'aller'orten  everywhere,  'vieler'orten  in  many  places,  'aller'wegen  every- 
where, always. 

77.     Models  of  Inflection  for  the  Weak  Declension: 


Singular. 

Knabe  ^o.v,  m. 

Graf  count,  m. 

Frau  ivoman,  f. 

Feder  pen,  {. 

N. 

der  Knabe 

der  Graf 

die  Frau 

die  Feder 

G. 

des  Knaben 

des  Grafen 

der  Frau 

der  Feder 

D. 

dem  Knaben 

dem  Grafen 

der  Frau 

der  Feder 

A. 

den  Knaben 

den  Grafen 

Plural. 

die  Frau 

die  Feder 

N. 

die  Knaben 

die  Grafen 

die  Frauen 

die  Federn 

G. 

der  Knaben 

der  Grafen 

der  Frauen 

der  Federn 

D. 

den  Knaben 

den  Grafen 

den  Frauen 

den  Federn 

A. 

die  Knaben 

die  Grafen 

die  Frauen 

die  Federn 

Mixed  Declension. 

78.  This  declension,  which  is  a  mixture  of  the  strong  and  weak  declensions 
or  the  strong  and  foreign  declensions,  falls  into  two  groups  — one  strong  in  the 
sing,  and  weak  in  the  pi.,  the  other  also  strong  in  the  sing,  but  with  the  foreign 
ending  5  in  the  pi.:  der  Staat  state,  des  Staat(e)s,  pi.  die  Staaten;  das  Echo 
echo,  des  Echos,  pi.  die  Echos.  There  are  but  few  native  German  words  in 
the  mixed  declension,  but  a  large  number  of  foreign  nouns  in  both  groups,  among 
which  there  is  a  tendency,  not  now  so  marked  as  earlier  in  the  period,  to  drop 
sometimes  the  s  of  the  gen.  sing.:  das  Drama,  des  Dramas,  or  occasionally 
Drama.  Foreign  words  in  this  declension  do  not  so  frequently  take  the  accent 
upon  the  last  syllable  as  in  the  other  declensions. 


90  MIXED    NOUNS 78. 

Note.  Historical  Development.  The  mixed  declension  is  made  up  of  words  from  different  sources.  The  nucleus 
of  the  group  with  the  weak  plural  in  -en  consisted  of  weak  neuter  and  masculine  nouns.  On  account  of  their  frequent 
use  in  the  plural  they  were  prevented  from  following  the  weak  nouns  described  in  68.  into  the  strong  declension.  Their 
frequent  use  in  the  plural  preserved  their  old  weak  plural  form  in  -en,  which  in  these  words  developed  a  peculiar 
plural  meaning,  namely  the  idea  of  a  group  of  connected  parts  or  closely  related  individuals:  Augen,  Ohren,  Wangen, 
(wk.  neut.  in  M.H.G.),  Waden  (wk.  masc.  in  M.H.G. ),  Schmerzen,  Sporen,  Strahlen,  Vettern,  Ahnen,  Untertanen, 
&c.  As  the  en-plural  became  associated  in  these  words  with  the  idea  of  a  group,  the  ending  -en  could  not  be  used 
here  in  the  singular  to  indicate  a  single  individual  as  the  -en  in  the  other  weak  nouns  in  68  whicli  went  over  into  the 
strong  declension,  as  in  Balken  sing,  and  Balken  pi.  Thus  the  strong  inflection  came  to  be  used  here  in  the  singular, 
which  established  a  clear  distinction,  strong  inflection  in  the  singular  to  indicate  an  individual,  and  the  weak  en-plural 
to  indicate  a  group:  das  Auge,  des  Auges,  but  in  the  plural  die  Augen.  A  number  of  words  indicating  living  beings, 
however,  fluctuated  between  strong  and  weak  inflection  in  the  singular  as  the  idea  of  life  was  so  closely  associated 
with  the  weak  declension  that  it  often  suggested  weak  inflection  here.  These  fluctuations  with  the  indication  of 
present  usage  are  given  after  the  different  nouns  in  79.  1  and  76.  I.  3. 

This  association  of  the  idea  of  a  group  of  related  individuals  with  the  en-plural  created  a  new  masculine  and  neuter 
plural  type,  which  became  productive  and  thus  attracted  a  number  of  strong  nouns  into  this  new  plural:  Dornen, 
Stacheln,  Zieraten,  Forsten  (connected  tracts  of  forest  land),  Staaten  (first  used  in  a  collective  sense  of  the  States 
General  of  Holland),  Enden  (beide  Enden  after  the  analogy  of  beide  Augen),  Betten  (at  first  with  a  collective  idea 
of  all  the  beds  in  the  house),  Hemden  (at  first  with  a  collective  idea,  one's  shirts),  Gliedmaßen  (in  a  collective  sense 
of  the  limbs  of  the  body),  Kleinodien,  Unbilden.  A  number  of  Low  German  and  foreign  words  naturally  gravitated 
into  this  declension  under  the  influence  of  their  meaning,  which  in  the  plural  suggested  the  idea  of  a  group  of  related 
parts  or  individuals:  Masten,  Marsen,  Toppen,  Spanten,  Watten,  Muskeln,  Nerven,  Professoren,  Konsuln,  Dezem- 
vim,  Insekten,  Statuten,  Interessen,  Juwelen,  &c.  In  words  representing  living  beings,  however,  there  is  some 
fluctuation,  as  the  idea  of  life  often  suggests  here  weak  inflection,  as  indicated  below  after  the  different  words. 

As  these  words  are  so  frequently  used  in  the  plural  and  in  some  cases  so  little  in  the  singular  the  gender  is  not  firmly 
associated  with  the  word,  so  that  some  nouns  appear  in  the  singular  as  feminine  as  the  en-plural,  which  is  the  com- 
monest plural  for  feminines,  suggested  the  feminine  gender:  die  but  in  M.H.G.  das  Wange,  die  but  in  M.H.G.  der 
Wade,  der  or  now  also  die  Forst,  der  Zins  but  formerly  also  die  Zinse,  die  Unbill  or  less  commonly  die  Unbilde  for 
M.H.G.  da^  unbilde,  der  Nerv  or  sometimes  die  Nerve,  das  Juwel  or  sometimes  die  Juwele.  On  the  other  hand, 
as  in  some  words  (See,  &c.)  the  gender  was  either  masculine  or  feminine  the  weak  feminine  form  facilitated  the  en- 
trance of  the  strong  masculine  into  this  declension  by  suggesting  the  en-plural. 

In  colloquial  speech  there  is  a  tendency  to  inflect  strong  nouns  in  -el  and  -er  according  to  the  mixed  declension, 
strong  in  the  singular,  weak  in  the  plural,  in  order  to  distinguish  the  plural  from  the  singular.  See  79.  1.  a.  Note  and 
b.  Note. 

Many  foreign  words  with  unstressed  suffixes  are  inflected  according  to  this  declension,  strong  in  the  singular, 
weak  in  the  plural,  as  they  fit  in  here  best.  As  they  in  general  denote  lifeless  objects  they  were  naturally  inflected 
strong  in  the  singular,  but  as  their  foreign  unstressed  endings  did  not  adapt  them  to  strong  inflection  in  the  plural 
they  were  declined  according  to  the  weak  declension,  which  earlier  in  the  period  was  intimately  associated  with  for- 
eign words. 

The  rise  of  the  mixed  declension  has  greatly  hindered  the  development  of  .German  inflection  toward  greater  sim- 
plicity in  form,  toward  one  declension  for  all  masculines  and  neuters,  i.e.  the  e-plural  class  or  in  case  of  nouns  in  -el, 
en,  -er,  -chen,  -lein  its  e-less  form.  There  is  to-day  a  strong  reaction  against  the  mixed  declension  among  good 
writers  and  scholars.  The  plural  Sinnen,  common  in  the  classical  period,  has  made  way  for  the  regular  form  Sinne. 
Forms  like  Stiefeln,  Pantoffeln  are  yielding  to  Stiefel,  Pantoffel.  Foreign  words  are  manifesting  a  tendency  to  as- 
sume the  inflection  of  e-plurals,  as  indicated  below. 

79.  Strong  in  the  Singular,  Weak  in  the  Plural.  To  the  group  that  forms 
the  sing,  strong  and  the  plural  weak  belong: 

1.     A  few  native  German  or  naturalized  words: 

a.  Masculines:  Bur  (also  wk.)  Boer,  Butt  (sometimes  an  e-pl.,  sometimes  a  wk. 
fem.  die  Butte)  turbot,  Dom  (83),  Forst  (older  plural  Forste  still  often  used;  some- 
times a  wk.  fem.)  forest,  Gevatter  god  father,  Hader  old  rag,  Kakerlak  (sing,  also  wk.) 
albino,  Lorbeer  laurel,  Mars  (sometimes  fem.)  top  (naut.  term),  Mast  (pi.  also 
Maste)  mast,  Muskel  muscle,  Nachbar  (sometimes  wk.)  neighbor,  Nerv  (some- 
times a  wk.  fem.  die  Nerve)  nerve,  Psalm  psalm,  Schmerz  (des  Schmerzes,  &c.; 
earlier  in  the  period  nom.  also  Schmerze  or  Schmerzen,  gen.  Schmerzens,  dat. 
Schmerzen,  ace.  Schmerzen)  pain,  See  lake,  Sinn  (from  early  N.H.G.  almost  up  to 
our  time  pi.  Sinne  and  Sinnen,  now  usually  the  former)  sense,  Sporn  (pi.  usually 
Sporen,  but  also  sometimes  Spornen  and  Sporne,  the  latter  always  when  it  refers 
to  persons,  as  Heißsporne  hot  spurs)  spur,  Staat  state,  Stachel  sting,  Strahl 
beam,  ray,  jet  (of  water,  &c.),  Topp  (pi.  sometimes  Toppe,  Topps)  top  part  of 
the  mast,  Vetter  (sometimes  wk.)  cousin,  Zierat  (sometimes  an  e-pl.;  sometimes 
a  wk.  fern.)  ornament,  Zins  (pi.  earlier  in  the  period  Zinse;  sometimes  a  weak 
fem.  die  Zinse)  rent  (in  this  meaning  now  usually  Mietzins),  interest  (in  this 
sense  usually  in  the  pi.). 

'  Note.  In  the  language  of  the  common  people  many  words  that  belong  to  the  unmutated  e-less  plural  class,  espe- 
cially those  in  -el  and  -er,  are  inflected  according  to  this  group.  This  arises  from  the  feeling  that  the  plural  ought 
in  some  wav  to  be  distinguished  from  the  sing.  This  tendency  appears  occasionally  in  good  autliors:  spitze  Giebeln 
(Goethe);  das  einzige  Gelaß,  welches  noch  Fenstern  hatte  (Immermann);  die  schlimmsten  Gewissensskrupeln 
(Raabe's  .1.  T.,  chap,  xxiii);  die  Splittern  1  zerbrechender  Schäfte  (Scheffel).  Klirrend  flogen  die  Splittern  des 
Wurfgeschosses  (Raabe).  Die  neuen  Onkeln  und  Tanten  (Ertl's  Freiheit,  p.  79),  solche  Trotteln  lib.  p.  2.')!)),  kuglige 
Dinge  wie  Klinkern  und  Marbeln  (W.  A.  Lay's  Experimenlelle  Didaktik,  p.  09),  seine  Augen,  voll  blauer  heinüicher 
Feuern  (Frenssen's  Bismarck,  p.  :U  ).  The  plural  Stiefeln  hools  is  ciuite  common,  but  not  so  much  so  as  a  little  earlier 
in  the  period:  das  Paar  neuer  Stiefeln  (Raabe),  ein  Paar  hoher  Stiefeln  (Spielhagen's  Fauslulus,  p.  45),  Reitstiefeln 
(Hauptmann's  Und  Pippa  tanzt!,  1).  The  plural  Pan'toffeln  is  quite  common,  but  is  now  yielding  gradually  to 
Pan'toffel. 

b.  Neuters:  Auge  eye,  Bett  bed,  Ende  end,  Gör  (N.G.;  also  a  wk.  fem.  die 
Göre)  a  little  child,  urchin,  brat,  Hemd  shirt,  'Kleinod  (pi.  Klei'nödien,  also 
'Kleinöde,  always  when  figurative)  jewel,  Möbel  (pi.  earlier  in  the  period  Möbels 
and  Möbeln,  of  which  the  latter  is  still  used,  but  is  being  gradually  replaced  by 


79.  2.  d. MIXED   NOUNS 91 

Möbel)  article  or  piece  of  furniture,  Ohr  ear,  Schott  (63.  5.  c),  Spant  (used 
sometimes  in  the  sing,  in  a  collective  sense  as  in  das  Achterspant,  more  com- 
monly in  the  pi.,  die  Achterspanten)  frame  (of  ship).  Want  (used  sometimes  in 
the  sing,  in  a  collective  sense:  Ich  stieg  ins  Fockwant;  usually  in  the  pi.;  some- 
times fem.)  rigging,  Watt  (usually  in  the  pi.;  sometimes  e-pl.,  sometimes  a  wk. 
fem.  die  Watte)  shallow  place  bordering  upon  the  shore  only  covered  at  high 
tide,  and  Herz  heart,  which  inflects:  N.  and  A.  das  Herz,  G.  des  Herzens, 
D.  dem  Herzen,  pi.  die,  der,  den,  die  Herzen.  Rarely  with  Dative  dem  Herz: 
Schier  wird's  dem  Herz  zu  enge  (Scheffel 's  Trompeter,  Lieder  jung  Werners,  v). 

Nole.  In  Austrian  and  Bavarian  dialects,  nouns  with  the  diminutive  sufhx -el  are  declined  accordingto  this  group: 
das  Hendel  chicken,  pi.  die  Hendeln;  das  Mandl  male  fowl,  pi.  die  Mandeln;  das  Weibel  female  fowl,  pi.  die  Weibein; 
du  armes  Hascherl  du!  (Halbe's  Rosenhagen,  p.  100)  you  poor  fell  o-iv.',  ös  (  =  ihr;  see  140.  ,?)  Hascherln  (.-Xnzengruber's 
Die  Kreiizelschreiber,  1,  4),  &c.  Often  also  in  serious  prose:  eines  der  launigsten  Liedein  der  Sammlung  (A.  Bettel- 
heim in  Beilage  cur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  29.  Nov.  1901,  p.  11.  arme  Hascherln  (Ertl's  Freiheil,  p.  190).  Chiavacci 
stellt  die  Gigerln  dem  Gockel  an  die  Seite,  der  auch  stolz  auf  seine  Federn  am  Mist  einhersteigt  (Schranka's  Wiener 
Dialekt- Lexikon,  p.  .59).  -Also  outside  of  .Austrian  and  Bavarian  literature:  Ihr  dummen  Gösseln!  (Raabe's //a5/f«- 
beck,  p.  15).     Die  Mädeln  gehören  zu  den  Mädeln,  und  die  Buben  zu  den  Buben  (Isolde  Kurz' s  Nachbar  Werner.) 

2.     Many  foreign  nouns: 

a.  Masculines  ending  in  unaccented  -or,  which  is  short  and  unaccented  in 
the  singular,  but  long  and  accented  in  the  plural,  thus  conforming  to  the  Latin, 
which  shows  a  short  and  unaccented  o  in  dissyllabic  forms  and  a  long  and  ac- 
cented o  when  an  additional  syllable  is  added:  der  'Doktor  doctor,  des  'Doktors, 
dem  'Doktor  (not  'Doktöre),  den  'Doktor,  plural  die  Dok'tören,  &c. 

Note.  Of  course,  words  in  accented  -or  belong  to  the  unmutated  e-plural  class:  der  Ma'jör  major,  des  Ma'jörs, 
pi.  die  Ma'jöre. 

b.  Masculines  in  -'ismus:  der  Kate'chismus,  des  Kate'chismus,  pi.  die 
Kate'chismen.  They  do  not  add  an  additional  s  in  the  gen.  sing.,  and  they 
change  in  the  pi.  -mus  to  -men.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  words  of  this  group 
were  often  in  French  form  instead  of  the  Latin:  Despotism,  &c.,  instead  of 
Despotismus,  &c. 

c.  Neuters  in  -a,  which  sometimes  drop  the  s  of  the  gen.  sing,  and  usually 
change  -a  in  the  pi.  to  -en:  das  Drama  drama,  des  Dramas  or  sometimes  des 
Drama,  pi.  die  Dramen.  Sometimes  s  is  added  to  form  the  pi.:  die  Dramas. 
The  plural  of  das  KHma  climate  is  die  KUmate  or  Klimata,  Klimas,  Klimen, 
Klimaten.  The  plural  of  Komma  comma  is  die  Kommas,  Kommata,  Kom- 
maten.  Kommen. 

d.  Neuters  ending  in  -'eum,  -ium,  -uum,  -on  (unaccented)  and  masculines 
in  unaccented  -us  and  -ius,  all  of  which  take  s  (except  those  in  us  and  ius)  in 
the  gen.,  or  sometimes  remain  unchanged,  and  change  in  the  pi.  -urn,  -on,  and 
-us  to  -en:  das  Mu'seum  museum,  des  Mu'seums,  pi.  die  Mu'seen;  das  Par- 
ti'zipium  participle,  des  Parti'zipiums,  pi.  die  Parti 'zipie n ;  das  Indi'viduum 
individual,  des  Indi'viduums,  pi.  die  Indi'viduen;  das  Distichon  distich,  des 
Distichons,  pi.  die  Distichen  (also  Disticha),  &c.  Those  in  -us  and  -ius  usually 
remain  unchanged  in  the  gen.  sing.:  der  Nunzius,  des  Nunzius,  pi.  die  Nunzien. 
A  number  of  very  common  nouns  in  -us  are  manifesting  a  decided  tendency  to 
add  the  endings  of  the  e-plural  class  to  the  foreign  ending  -us,  more  frequently, 
however,  in  the  pi.:  der  Krokus,  des  ICrokus,  pi.  die  Krokusse  or  Krokus; 
der  Omnibus,  des  Omnibus  or  Omnibusses,  pi.  die  Omnibusse  or  Omnibus; 
der  Bambus,  des  Bambusses  or  Bambus,  pi.  die  Bambusse  or  Bambus;  like 
Krokus  also  Fokus,  Kaktus,  (pl.  also  Kak'teen),  Globus  (pl.  also  Globen). 
This  tendency  is  also  marked  in  a  number  of  proper  names  in  -us,  -es,  -as, 
whether  used  as  proper  names  or  as  common  class  nouns:  Brutus,  Herkules, 
Judas,  pl.  die  Brutusse,  Herkulesse,  Judasse.  A  number  of  words  may  drop 
the  foreign  ending  in  the  sing.,  and  then  add  s  in  the  gen.  sing,  and  ien  in  the 
plural,  or  may  be  inflected  according  to  the  unmut.  e-plural  class:  das  Parti'zip, 
des  Parti'zips,  pl.  die  Parti'zipien  or  die  Parti'zipe;  das  Kon'zil  (more  common 
than  Kon'zilium),  des  Kon'zils,  die  Kon'zilien  or  more  commonly  Kon'zile; 
das  Prin'zip,  des  Prin'zips,  pl.  die  Prin'zipe  or  Prin'zipien;  der  Typus  or  Typ, 
des  Typus  or  des  Typs,  pl.  die  Typen. 

Some  neuters  in  -um  take  s  in  the  gen.  and  change  um  to  a  in  the  plural: 
das  Masku'linum,  des  Masku'linums,  pl.  die,  der,  den,  die  Masku'lina.     Some 


92 MIXED    NOUNS 79Jl^d. 

of  these  nouns  often  drop  the  -um  of  the  sing.,  then  take  s  in  the  gen.,  and 
change  the  a  of  the  pi.  to  en:  das  Verb  or  Verbum,  des  Verbs  or  Verbums,  pi. 
die  Verben  or  Verba.  A  few  of  these  neuters  in  -urn  take  s  in  the  pi.:  das 
Album,  des  Albums,  pi.  die  Albums  (also  Alben,  Album,  Albume). 

e.  Neuters  formed  from  neuter  adjectives  which  in  the  Latin  end  in  e  in 
the  sing,  and  ia  in  the  pi.  The  German  nouns  drop  the  e  of  the  sing.,  thus 
ending  usually  in  -'il  and  -'äl,  and  change  the  Latin  pi.  ia  into  ien:  das  Fo'ssil 
fossil,  des  Fo'ssils,  pi.  die  Fo'ssilien;  das  Mine'ral  mineral,  des  Mine'rals,  pi, 
die  Mine'ralien,  &c.  A  number  of  these  words  are  drifting  toward  the  unmut. 
e-pl.  class:  das  Rep'til  reptile,  des  Rep'tils,  pi.  die  Rep'tile  or  Rep'tilien;  das 
Mine'ral,  des  Mine'rals,  pi.  die  Mine'rale  or  Mine'ralien. 

/,  A  number  of  isolated  foreign  words:  the  masculines  A'spekt  aspect  (astroL), 
prospect,  view,  'Augur  (pi.  'Augure  or  Au'guren;  also  wk.)  augur,  Cäsar  (pi. 
Cä'saren)  Caesar,  emperor,  'Dämon  (des  'Dämons,  pi.  die  Dä'monen)  demon, 
De'zemvir  (pi.  De'zemvirn;  also  wk.)  decemvir,  Fa'san  (also  an  e-pl.  and  wk.) 
pheasant,  'Großmogul  (pi.  'Großmoguln,  'Großmogule,  or  Großmoguls)  Great 
Mogul,  Konsul  (pi.  Konsuln)  consul,  Pharao  (pi.  die  Phara'onen)  Pharaoh, 
Satyr  satyr,  Tri'bun  (also  wk.  and  an  unmutated  e-pl.)  tribune  (magistrate), 
Tri'umvir  (pi.  Tri'umvirn;  sometimes  wk.)  triumvir,  Zen'turio  (also  wk.  des 
Zenturi'onen,  &c.;  pi.  die  Zenturi'onen)  centurion;  the  neuters:  Auto'graph 
autograph,  In'sekt  insect,  Inte'resse  interest,  Ju'wel  (sometimes  an  e-pl.;  often 
masc;  only  rarely  fern,  die  Ju'wele)  jewel,  Kon'klave  conclave,  Sta'tut  statute. 

g.  A  number  of  neuters  in  -'ens  remain  unchanged  in  the  sing,  and  change 
in  the  pi.  -ens  to  enzien  (entien):  das  Rea'gens  reagent,  des  Rea'gens,  pi.  die 
Rea'genzien  (Reagentien). 

h.  A  number  in  unaccented  -os  and  -as  remain  usually  unchanged  in  the 
sing,  and  change  in  the  pi.  the  stem  and  shift  the  accent  upon  the  suffix:  der 
'Heros  hero,  des  'Heros,  pi.  die  He'roen;  der  'Kustos  custodian,  des  'Kustos, 
pi.  die  Kus'toden;  der  'Atlas  atlas,  des  'Atlasses  or  des  'Atlas,  pi.  die  'Atlasse 
or  At'lanten;  der  'Primas  primate,  des  'Primas  (or  des  Pri'maten),  pi.  die 
Pri'maten,  'Primas,  or  'Primasse;  das  Epos  epic,  des  Epos,  pi.  die  Epen, 
but  das  Rhi'noze'ros  rhinoceros,  des  Rhi'noze'ro(sse)s,  pi.  die  Rhi'noze'rosse. 

80.     To  the  group  that  takes  the  s  in  the  gen.  sing,  and  thruout  the  pi.  belong: 

L  A  large  number  of  masc.  and  neut.  words  from  the  French,  English,  and 
other  languages,  ancient  or  modern,  which  are  still  felt  as  foreign  on  account 
of  their  foreign  sound,  accent,  or  endings  (often  a,  o,  u,  i;  the  French  nasal 
vowels,  ain,  ein,  im,  in,  om,  on,  um,  un,  for  which  see  25;  a  vowel  before  a  silent 
final  consonant)  that  cannot  easily  be  fitted  into  the  German  declensions:  der 
Domino  domino,  des  Dominos,  pi.  die,  der,  den,  die  Dominos;  das  (also  der) 
Kino  theater  in  which  moving  pictures  are  presented,  in  this  sense  =  Lichtspiel- 
theater, sometimes  also  kinetoscope  or  kinetograph,  in  this  sense  =  das  Kineto- 
'skop  or  der  Kineto'graph  (or  Kinemato 'graph),  des  Kinos,  pi.  die,  der,  den,  die 
Klinös;  das  Cha'mäleon  (k-)  chameleon,  des  Cha'mäleons,  pi.  die,  der,  den, 
die  Chamäleons;  das  Restaurant  (R8sto:'Rä:)  restaurant,  des  Restau'rants, 
pi.  die  Restau'rants;  der  Paletot  (pab'to:),  des  Pale'tots,  pi.  die  Pale'tots. 
Also  a  few  feminines  belong  here:  die  Lady,  pi.  die  Ladys;  die  Ma'ma,  pi.  die 
Ma'mas;  die  Miß,  pi.  die  Misses  or  Missen;  die  Villa,  pi.  die  Villas  or  Villen; 
die  Team  (ti:m;  fem.  after  the  analogy  of  the  corresponding  German  word  die 
Mannschaft)  team  (as  in  football  team),  pi.  die  Teams. 

Since  the  eighteenth  century  there  has  been  a  marked  tendency  in  choice 
language  to  replace  the  foreign  plural  ending  s  by  German  e  in  case  of  mascu- 
lines and  neuters,  and  thus  place  these  words  in  the  unmutated  e-plural  class, 
or  in  case  of  feminines  to  inflect  according  to  the  weak  declension.  A  large 
number  of  these  words  are  already  entirely  or  partially  naturalized :  das  Kos'tiim, 
des  Kos'tiims,  die  Kos'tiime;  der  (sometimes  das)  Lift  (usually  masc.  after  the 
analogy  of  the  corresponding  German  words  der  Aufzug  or  Fahrstuhl),  des  Lifts, 
die  Lifte  or  Lifts ;  der  Kaftan,  des  Kaftans,  die  Kaftane  or  Kaftans ;  der  Turban, 
des  Turbans,  die  Turbane  or  Turbans;    das  Defizit,  des  Defizits,  die  Defizite 


80.  3.  a. PLURALS    IN    S 93 

or  Defizits;  der  (or  das)  Schrap'nell,  des  Schrap'nells,  die  Schrap'nells  or 
Schrap'nelle ;  der  Kai,  des  Kais,  die  Kais  or  Kaie.  The  words  ending  in  a 
vowel  sound  or  the  French  nasals  offer  the  most  stubborn  resistance.  Where, 
however,  the  nasal  vowel  has  been  replaced  by  a  German  vowel  plus  dental  n, 
the  words  may  be  inflected  according  to  the  unmutating  e-plural  type:  das 
Bataillon  (batal'jorn),  pi.  die  Bataillone  (batal'jorna).  If  the  French  pro- 
nunciation is  retained  or  if  the  nasal  has  been  replaced  by  a  vowel  +  velar  n 
(r) )  the  words  resist  German  inflection:  das  Bassin  (ba'se:  or  ba'seg)  basin, 
pi.  die  Bassins  (ba's8:s  or  ba'segs). 

2.  A  few  German  words  not  really  substantives  may  take  an  s  m  the  gen. 
sing,  and  thruout  the  pi.,  such  as  letters  of  the  alphabet,  exclamatory  particles, 
other  parts  of  speech  used  as  substantives,  or  the  syntactical  fragment  of  a 
sentence  or  a  whole  sentence  used  as  a  modern  compound  (see  249.  II.  2;  for 
rule  as  to  gender  see  98.  2.  C.  e):  das  A  the  letter  a,  des  As,  pi.  die  As;  das  Ja 
the  word  yes,  des  Jas,  pi.  die  Jas;  das  Ach  the  exclamation  Oh!,  des  Achs,  pi. 
die  Achs.  Mein  früheres  Ich  my  former  self;  entweder  sind  die  Menschen 
von  ihren  Ichs  und  was  damit  Bezug  hat,  besessen  usw.  (Schiller).  Ein  ganzes 
Heer  von  Freilichs,  Dennochs  und  Abers  (Gutzkow).  Da  gibt's  Gutentags 
und  Gutenabends,  daß  kein  Ende  ist  (Goethe).  Der  Schlagetot  ruftian,  des 
Schlagetots,  pl.  die  Schlagetots,  der  Schubbejack  ragamuflin,  des  Schubbejacks, 
pl.  die   Schubbejacks  or  Schubbejacke. 

Others  prefer  non-inflection  here:  das  A,  des  A,  pl.  die  A.  Wie  so  schal 
dünkt  mich  dies  Leben!  .  .  .  Stets  das  Heute  nur,  des  Gestern  und  des  Morgen 
flaches  Bild  (Grillparzer's  Der  Traum  ein  Leben,  1).  Das  Bild  eines  frechen 
Tunichtgut  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  IV.  19);  alle  Pharisäer  und  Gernegroß 
(id.,  Stechlin,  XXXII);  die  Stellungnahme  des  Ich  zu  dem  Volke  (Hugo 
Gaudig  in  Zeitschrift  für  Pädagogische  Psychologie,  Nov.-Dec.  1918,  p.  360). 
Sie  (die  Jugend)  ist  durchaus  erfüllt  von  den  Aussichten  des  Morgen  und 
Übermorgen  (  Vossische  Zeitung,  June  8,  1919). 

In  a  number  of  cases  there  is  a  tendency  more  or  less  strong  to  inflect  such 
formations  according  to  the  regular  declensions:  mein  reizendes  Gegenüber 
(beim  Tisch),  meines  Gegenübers,  pl.  meine  Gegenüber;  das  JelängerjeUeber, 
des  Jelängerjeliebers,  die  JelängerjeUeber;  über  uns  deutsche  Gernegroße 
(W.  Anz  in  Zeit,  des  AUg.  d.  Sprachvereins,  1906,  p.  268),_lebhafte  Hoche  [Frank- 
furter Zeit.,  May  6,  1914;  pl.  also  Hochs  or  Hoch),  Übersehen  der  anderen 
Iche  {Zeit,  für  den  D.  Unterricht,  Jahrg.  2.5,  p.  387),  Nichtsnutze  (nom.  pl.,  quite 
common),  diese  Nimmersatte  (nom.  pl.,  quite  common),  alle  ihre  Stelldicheine 
(rare)  (J.  Paul),  Kehrauße  (pl.  more  commonly  unchanged  Kehraus),  Saufauße 
(often  in  colloquial  speech,  usual  pl.  in  literary  language  Saufaus),  Taugenichtse 
(nom.  pl.;  very  common),  die  Tunichtgute  (Fontane's  Pog.,  VIII),  Vergißmein- 
nichte (nom.  pl.;  quite  common).     See  63.  2.  e  and  6. 

3,  Many  words  in  the  regular  declensions,  mostly  words  representing  per- 
sons, take  colloquially  this  s  in  the  pl.,  especially  so  in  N.G.:  die  Kerls  the  fel- 
lows, die  Mädchens  the  girls,  die  Fräuleins  the  young  ladies,  and  even  in  case 
of  wk.  nouns,  which  add  the  s  to  the  regular  weak  plural:  die  Herrens  the 
gentlemen,  die  Jungens  young  chaps. 

a.  This  s  was  used  in  Gothic  to  form  the  pl.  of  all  masc.  and  fern,  words,  but  it  had  disappeared 
in  H.G.  before  the  O.H.G.  period.  It  was,  however,  still  preserved  in  Middle  Low  German 
in  a  few  words  representing  persons,  like  Herdes  (=  Hirten),  where  the  s  was  needed  to  dis- 
tinguish the  plural  from  the  singular.  After  the  analogy  of  these  words  it  was  employed  in  words 
in  -er  representing  persons  in  order  to  distinguish  the  plural  from  the  singular:  Borger  ( =  Bürger), 
pl.  Borgers.  This  Low  German  plural  in  s  was  greatly  favored  by  the  growth  of  the  plural  in 
s  for  i^roper  names,  which  was  originally  a  genitive  singular  (see  93.  1.  a),  as  found  also  in  High 
German  in  Müllers  haben  Besuch.  As  many  Low  German  family  names  are  diminutives,  as 
Gödeke,  Rötteken,  their  plural  in  s  spread  to  the  class  of  diminutives  as  a  whole,  so  that  this 
plural  became  common  for  many  names  of  things.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  furthered  by  strong 
Dutch  influence,  this  plural  spread  in  Low  German  and  was  extended  to  all  masculines  in  -el, 
-en,  -er  to  distinguish  the  plural  from  the  singular.  Altho  this  plural  ending  is  now  supported 
by  universal  usage  in  French  and  English  and  also  by  wide  use  in  Low  German,  and  is  much 
used  colloquially  in  the  North  by  those  speaking  High  German,  it  is  carefully  avoided  in  choice 
language. 


94 


DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS 


81. 


81.     Models  of  Inflection  for  Mixed  Declension: 


Staat  state,  m. 

N.  der  Staat 

G.  des  Staat(e)s 

D.  dem  Staat(e) 

A.  den  Staat 

N.  die  Staaten 

G.  der  Staaten 

D.  den  Staaten 

A.  die  Staaten 


Singular. 
Drama  drama,  n. 
das  Drama 
des  Dramafs) 
dem  Drama 
das  Drama 

Plural, 
die  Dramen 
der  Dramen 
den  Dramen 
die  Dramen 


Trupp  troop,  m. 
der  Trupp 
des  Trupps 
dem  Trupp 
den  Trupp 

die  Trupps 
der  Trupps 
den  Trupps 
die  Trupps 


Villa  villa,  f. 
die  Villa 
der  Villa 
der  Villa 
die  Villa 

die  Villas 
der  Villas 
den  Villas 
die  Villas 


Foreign  Words. 

82.  A  few  foreign  words  that,  on  account  of  the  retention  of  their  foreign 
endings  (us,  is,  urn,  o,  &c.),  cannot  be  declined  in  any  of  the  preceding  declen- 
sions remain  as  they  are  found  in  their  native  language,  the  form  of  the  nom. 
sing,  being  used  thruout  the  sing.,  and  the  nom.  pi.  thruout  the  pi.,  the  article 
alone  marking  the  other  cases:  der  (des,  dem,  den)  Musikus  musician,  pi.  die 
(der,  den,  die)  Musizi;   der  Kasus,  pl.  die  Kasus,  &c. 

Scholars,  however,  often  prefer  to  decline  Latin  words  thruout  as  in  the 
original,  more  frequently  so  earlier  in  the  period:  Imperfectum,  Imperfecti,  &c. 
This  is  most  common  with  grammatical  terms. 

a.  Note  the  following  irregular  formations:  der  Cherub,  des  Cherubs,  pl.  die  'Cherubim  (also  Cherube,  Cherubs, 
Cheru'binen) ;  der  Seraph,  des  Seraphs,  pl.  die  Seraphe  or  Seraphim. 

Differentiation  of  Substantive  Forms. 

83.  Many  nouns  have  two  forms  and  may  be  declined  according  to  the  one  or  the  other. 
This  redundancy  may  assume  one  of  four  forms:  (1)  The  noun  may  have  two  genders  for  the 
same  form,  as  der  or  more  commonly  die  Hirse  millet.  (2)  There  may  be  two  forms  for  the 
same  noun,  each  with  a  different  gender,  as  der  Quast  tassel  or  die  Quaste.  (3)  The  noun  may 
have  only  one  form  for  the  sing.,  but  two  in  the  pl.,  as  der  Ort  town,  pl.  Orte  or  less  commonly 
Örter,  (4)  The  same  word  may  have  in  different  dialects  the  same  gender,  but  different  forms 
or  declensions  or  both,  which  often  pass  from  their  respective  dialects  over  into  the  literary 
language  with  or  without  differentiated  meaning:  die  Schlaft  (H.G.,  but  now  little  used)  and 
die  Schlucht  (L.G.,  but  now  well  established  in  the  literary  language)  cleft,  gorge;  der  Brunnen 
well,  fountain,  Born  (L.G.  and  M.G.;  poetic)  fount,  well-spring.  Redundant  forms  occur  often 
in  the  spoken  and  written  language,  and  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  choose  between  them,  and 
no  harm  will  be  done  if  the  one  or  other  be  chosen,  unless  usage  at  last  settles  down  upon  one  of 
the  forms,  as  in  das  Bündel  bundle,  der  Docht  ivick,  der  Garaus  finishing  stroke,  der  Käfig  cage, 
&c.  Double  forms  have  always  existed  in  the  language  and  have  resulted  in  good,  for  many 
of  them  have  been  put  to  use  by  the  people  who,  led  by  an  economic  instinct,  have  given  to  each 
form  a  slightly  different  shade  of  meaning.  Words  also  which  have  only  one  form  for  different 
meanings  and  applications  tend  to  develop  different  forms  for  the  different  meanings  and  applica- 
tions. Also  nouns  which  are  derived  from  the  different  forms  of  the  same  verb  or  other  word 
tend  toward  a  distinct  differentiation  in  meaning. 

Either  the  difference  in  gender  or  in  the  form  of  the  noun  in  the  singular  or  plural  may  cause 
the  dift'erence  of  meaning,  as  can  be  seen  by  the  following  illustrative  examples: 

Der  Acker  field,  pl.  Äcker;  der  Acker  acre,  pl.  Acker. 

Der  Akt  act  (in  a  drama),  pl.  Akte;  die  Akte  act  (of  parliament  or  some  other  authority), 
document,  pl.  Akten. 

Der  Anticlirist  antichrist,  des  Antichrists,  pl.  die  Antjchriste ;  der  Antichrist  enemy  of  Chris- 
tianity, des  Antichristen,  die  Antichristen. 

Die  (Goethe's  Eginont,  5;  this  attempt  at  differentiation  has  not  been  generally  sustained, 
now  usually  das)  Ärgernis  anger;  das  Ärgernis  that  which  causes  anger,  i.e.  offense. 

Der  Balg  skin,  pl.  Bälge;  in  the  meanings  child,  thing  (in  familiar  language  referring  to  a 
child,  boy,  or  girl),  also  in  a  bad  sense  brat,  der  Balg,  j^l.  Bälge,  but  now  also  frequently  neuter 
with  plural  Bälger,  following  the  analogy  of  das  Kind;  in  the  meaning  bellows  with  the  plural 
Bälge  or  Balgen,  the  latter  usually  in  comi^ounds:  Die  Bälge  or  Balgen  einer  Orgel  treten, 
Balgenschwengel,  &c. 

Der  Ball,  pl.  Bälle  ball:   der  Ballen  bale. 

Der  Band  volume,  pl.  Bände;  das  Band  ribbon,  pl.  Bänder;  das  Band  tie  (of  friendship,  &c.), 
fetter,  pl.  Bande. 


83^ DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS 95 

Der  Bau  (see  63.  1.  6). 

Der  Bauer  peasant;  der  (also  das)  Bauer  bird  cage. 

Das  Beet  bed  (in  a  garden),  pi.  Beete;  das  Bett  bed  (for  sleeping),  river-bed,  pi.  Betten. 
In  the  meaning  river-bed  the  plural  Bette  is  sometimes  used:  längs  der  Flußbette  (Fr.  König, 
Ingenieur  und  Hydrotekt,  in  Deutsche  Kolonialzeit.,  Feb.  16,  1905),  die  Benützung  der  öffentli- 
chen Gewässer  bezw.  ihrer  Bette  ( Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Aug.  31,  1905). 

Der  Brunnen  well,  fountain,  ordinary  prose  word;    der  Bom  well-spring,  fount,  poetic  word. 

Der  Buckel /mm/),  in  popular  speech  back,  pi.  Buckel;  die  Buckel  6oj5  (on  a  shield),  pi.  Buckeln, 
but  in  this  meaning  also  der  Buckel,  pi.  Buckel. 

Der  Bund  alliance;   das  Bund  bundle. 

Der  Chor  song  sung  by  the  choir,  or  the  choir  itself;  das  (or  der)  Chor  place  in  the  church 
where  the  choir  sits.     See  also  70.  3. 

Der  Christ  (pop.;  also  in  Faust,  Abend)  Christmas  present,  des  Christes,  pi.  die  Christe; 
der  Christ  Christian,  des  Christen,  pi.  Christen. 

Das  Denkmal  monument,  pi.  usually  Denkmäler,  but  often  Denkmale  in  choice  language. 

Der  Dienstmann  man  on  the  streets  who  carries  bundles  for  hire,  vassal;  pi.  Dienstmänner  in 
the  first  meaning;   pi.  Dienstleute  servants  of  a  house;    pi.  Dienstmannen  vassals. 

Das  Ding  thing,  pi.  Dinge;  pi.  Dinger  when  speaking  in  a  tone  of  pity  or  playfully  of  the 
young  of  animals,  birds,  or  of  girls  (as  'queer  things'),  or  disparagingly  and  contemptuously  of 
things;  das,  der,  or  die  Ding,  or  more  commonly  Dings  (a  genitive  used  now  for  all  cases;  see 
255.  II.  1.  H.  c)  da  (when  memory  fails  to  recall  a  thing  or  person)  what-you-may-call-it,  what- 
you-may-call-him  or  -her.  The  form  Dings  is  also  used  of  girls:  das  kleine  Dings  (Storm's  Ein 
Doppelgänger,  p.  215). 

Der  Dom  thorn;  pi.  Domen  used  of  the  bush;  pi.  Dome  with  reference  to  different  varieties, 
as  Hage-,  Elreuz-,  Schwarz-,  WeiI5dome;  pi.  Dome  and  Dömer  of  the  individual  thorns,  and 
also  in  the  mechanical  arts  of  a  punch,  tongue  of  a  buckle,  &c.  Usage  in  all  these  points,  how- 
ever, is  not  yet  firmly  fixed.     Compare  78.  Note. 

Der  Druck  print,  pressure,_  pi.  of  the  simple  form  usually  Drucke;  pi.  in  compounds  usually 
unmutated  where  the  word  is  felt  as  belonging  to  drucken  to  print,  as  in  Nachdrucke  pirated 
editions,  Abdrucke  reprints,  Neudrucke  reprints;  pi.  in  compounds  usually  mutated  where  the 
word  is  felt  as  belonging  to  drücken  to  press,  as  in  die  Abdrücke  impressions  (by  stamping), 
proofs  (of  photos),  copies  (of  books).  Ausdrücke  expressions,  Eindrücke  impressions  (of  the 
mind),  Händedrücke. 

Der  Effekt  effect,  impression,  pi.  Effekte;   pi.  Effekten  effects,  movables,  stocks. 

Der  Erbe  heir;   das  Erbe  inheritance. 

Die  Erkenntnis  perception,  comprehension;  das  Erkenntnis  decision  of  a  judge;  die  Erkenntnis 
der  Schuld  geht  dem  Erkenntnis  des  Richters  voran. 

Der  Faden  thread,  pl.  Fäden;  der  Faden  fathom,  pl.  Faden. 

Der  Fleck  and  der  Flecken  both  have  the  meanings  stain,  spot,  blemish,  place,  and  large 
village,  but  the  tendency  is  to  use  Flecken  in  sense  of  village  and  Fleck  or  Flecken  in  the  other 
meanings.  Fleck  more  commonly  in  the  literal  meaning,  as  Ölfleck,  &c.,  and  Flecken  in  the 
moral  sense  of  blemish.  In  the  compound  Marktflecken  market-town,  borough  the  form  in  -en 
is  always  used. 

Der  (sometimes  die)  Flur  entrance  hall  of  a  house,  pl.  Flure  if  masc;  die  Flur  field  (poetic), 
pl.  Fluren. 

Der  Fuß  foot  (of  a  person),  pl.  Füße;  zwei  Fuß  (see  96.  4.  (1))  lang  two  feet  long;  Fuße  ver- 
schiedener Länge  feet  (standards  of  measurement)  of  different  length. 

Die  Gans  goose,  pl.  Gänse;  das  Gans  word  goose,  pl.  die  Gans  or  Ganses;  Das  erste  Gans 
ist  nicht  so  schön  geschrieben  wie  das  zweite.  Thus  any  noun  of  any  gender  becomes  neut. 
when  it  stands  not  for  a  person  or  object  but  for  the  written  word  which  represents  it. 

Der  Gehalt  intrinsic  worth  or  value,  also  der  Salzgehalt  des  Wassers,  (Sic;  das  (sometimes 
still  der,  in  accordance  with  older  usage)  Gehalt  salary,  pl.  Gehälter  (sometimes  as  formerly 
Gehalte). 

Das  Geschrei  cry,  clamor;   das  Geschreie  continued  disagreeable  screaming.     See  b  below. 

Das  Gesicht  face,  pl.  Gesichter;   das  Gesicht  vision,  pl.  Gesichte. 

Das  Gewand  garment;    pl.  Gewänder;    pl.  Gewände  (poetic).     See  also  73.  b. 

Die  Gift  (rare  except  in  the  compound  die  Mitgift)  present;    das  (see  100.  1)  Gift  poison. 

Der  Haft  clasp;   die  Haft  arrest. 

Der  Halt  support,  halt,  halting-place,  pl.  Halte;  ein  (neut.)  Halt  a  stop  or  end,  as  in  ein  Halt 
gebieten  to  put  a  stop  to.  This  is  a  case  of  only  seeming  differentiation.  The  second  form  is 
in  fact  the  imperative  of  the  verb  halten,  which  is  here  used  as  a  noun,  and  hence  is  neut.  accord- 
ing to  rule  (see  98.  2.  C.  e). 

Der  Heide  heathen;   die  Heide  heath. 

Das  Horn  horn,  pl.  Homer;   pl.  Home  kinds  of  horn. 

Der  Hut  hat;   die  Hut  guard;   die  Vorhut  vanguard. 

Der  Im'port  import,  pl.  Im'porte  (also  Importen):  Der  Wert  der  Importe  {Hambmgischer 
Correspondent,  Apr.  20,  1905);  Die  Importe  genuine  imported  Havana  cigar,  pl.  Im 'porten:  Die 
ersten  Züge  aus  der  eben  angezündeten  Importe  (W.  v.  Polcnz's  Liehe  ist  ewig,  p.  27). 

Der  Jude  Jew,  in  popular  language  der  Jude  (Raabe's  Höxter  und  Corvey,  chap.  xiv). 

Das  Kom  corn,  grain,  pl.  Kömer;  der  Kom  whiskey,  pl.  Kome  or  Koras:  feiner  Korn  Dutch 
gin. 

Der  Kunde  customer;   die  Kunde  information. 


96 DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS 83. 

Der  Laden  shutter,  pi.  Laden  (also  Läden);    der  Laden  store,  shop.  pi.  Läden. 

Das  Land  land,  pl.  Länder;  pl.  Lande,  the  older  pi.  form,  which  still  remains  (1)  in  poetry, 
as  in  über  alle  Lande  (in  prose  Länder);  (2)  in  proper  names,  as  in  die  Niederlande  the  Nether- 
lands, die  Rheinlande,  die  Vierlande  (four  islands  in  the  Elb  southeast  of  Hamburg);  (3)to 
designate  the  different  divisions  of  one  political  whole:  die  deutschen  Lande,  in  recent  usage, 
however,  assuming  more  and  more  a  general  poetic  meaning,  being  replaced  in  the  exact  meaning 
of  the  existing  states  by  die  deutschen  Länder  (Dr.  Fritz  Poetsch  in  Die  Woche,  Sept.  6,  1919, 
and  so  regularly  in  Die  Verfassung  des  Deutschen  Reichs,  Aug.  11,  1919).  See  also  a  below. 
(4)  in  Eilande  islands. 

Das  Licht  light,  candle;    pl.  Lichter  lights;   pl.  Lichte  candles. 

Der  Lump  poor,  ragged,  worthless  fellow,  pl.  die  Lumpe,  also  Lumpen;    der  Lumpen  rag. 

Der  Mai  (month  of)  May;  die  (formerly  der)  Maie  green  bough  (used  for  festive  decorations 
in  Mav),  Maypole,  pl.  Maien. 

Der  Makler  broker,  agent;    der  Mäkler  broker  or  more  commonly  faultfinder. 

Der  Mann  man,  pl.  Männer;  pl.  Mannen  warriors,  vassals;  pl.  Mann  (see  96.  4.  (1));  pl. 
-leute  (see  96.  9). 

Der  Mensch  human  being;  das  Mensch  w-ench,  strumpet,  pl.  Menscher.  The  neuter  is  some- 
times used  in  a  good  sense  in  the  meaning  woman:  Es  ist  gut,  daß  ich  altes  Mensch  noch  bei 
wege  bin,  wenn  ihr  mich  braucht  (Bernhardine  Schulze-Smidt's  Iin  finstern  Tal,  XII). 

Der  Mittag  noon;    das  (also  der)  Mittag  dinner. 

Der  Mo'ment  moment  (of  time),  das  Mo'ment  moment  (consequence,  weight). 

Der  Mond  moon,  satellite,  month,  now  an  unmutated  e-plural,  was  also  weak  earlier  in  the 
period.  The  weak  gen.  still  occurs  in  the  first  meaning  in  compounds  in  poetic  style,  as  in 
Mondenglanz.  In  the  last  meaning  Mond  is  still  sometimes  weak  in  poetic  style,  especially  in 
the  plural. 

Das  Moos  moss,  pl.  Moose;   das  Moos  (or  Ried)  swamp,  pl.  Moser  (Riede). 

Der  Muff,  pl.  Muffe,  or  sometimes  die  Muffe,  pl.  Muffen;  die  Muffe,  pl.  Muffen  sleeve  (in 
mechanics). 

Die  Mutter  mother,  female  screw:  pl.  Mütter  mothers,  Muttern  (earlier  here  also  Mütter) 
female  screws. 

Das  or  der  Nickel  nickel  (metal);   der  Nickel  ten  pfennig  piece. 

Der  (or  das)  Ort  awl  (from  the  original  meaning  point),  pl.  Orte  (or  Orte);  der  Ort  pjace, 
town;  pl.  Orte  places,  as  in  Man  kann  nicht  an  allen  Orten  zugleich  sein;  pl.  Orte  or  Örter 
towns.  Many  grammarians  favor  Örter  in  the  last  meaning,  so  as  to  distinguish  between  Orte 
places  and  Öriet  towns.     Actual  usage,  however,  favors  Orte  for  both  meanings. 

Der  Ost  east  wind,  Nord  north  wind,  Süd  south  wind,  <S:c.,  all  with  a  pl.  in  e;  der  Osten  the 
East,  Westen  the  West,  Norden  the  North,  Süden  the  South,  all  indicating  a  section  of  country. 
Both  forms  may  also  often  be  used  for  the  points  of  the  compass,  the  shorter  forms  especially 
in  maritime  expressions:  Der  Wind  kam  rein  aus  Ost(en).  In  plain  prose  it  would  be  more 
common  to  say  der  Ostwind,  Westwind,  &c.,  for  the  winds,  while  in  nautical  language  der  Ost, 
West,  &c.,  are  much  used. 

Der  (sometimes  das)  Pack  or  Packen  pack,  bundle;    das  Pack  rabble. 

Die  Pfirsiche  or  more  commonly  der  Pfirsich  (pl.  die  Pfirsiche)  peach  (fruit);  der  Pfirsich 
peach-tree,  more  commonly  Pfirsichbaum. 

Das  Pro'dukt  production,  pl.  die  Pro'dukte  productions  of  the  mind;  pl.  die  Pro'dukten  pro- 
ductions of  the  soil,  produce.  This  distinction  is  common  in  familiar  language,  but  the  pi. 
Produkte  is  the  only  form  used  in  the  literary  language  for  all  these  meanings  except  in  com- 
pounds:  Produkte,  but  Produktenhändler,  Produktenmarkt. 

Der  Rest  that  which  is  left,  ruin,  pl.  die  Reste,  pl.  die  Rester  remnants  of  cloth  in  a  dry  goods 
store. 

Der  Sand  sand,  strand,  sandy  plain,  sandbank;  pl.  Sande  kinds  of  sand,  in  poetic  style  strands, 
sandy  plains;    pl.  Sande  sandbanks   (in  river  or  sea). 

Die  Sau  soiv,  pl.  die  Säue  (early  N.H.G.)  sows,  swine,  in  the  latter  meaning  still  Säue  in  ex- 
pressions following  more  or  less  accurately  biblical  utterances,  as  in  Man  muß  die  Perlen  nicht 
vor  die  Säue  werfen  (G.  Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap,  xxxiii);  (eighteenth  century)  pl.  die  Säue  sows, 
domestic  swine,  Sauen,  wild  swin-e;  now  the  wk.  pl.  is  usually  used  for  domestic  sows  and  wild  swine, 
altho  Säue  is  sometimes  in  accordance  with  older  usage  employed  for  the  former  meaning. 

Das  Scheit  piece  of  wood;  pl.  Scheite  or  Scheiter  pieces  cut  for  a  purpose,  as  to  burn,  &c., 
pl.  Scheiter  pieces  broken  by  violence:    das  Schiff  geht  zu  Scheitern. 

Der  Scharlach  scarlet  (color,  cloth);    der  and  often  das  Scharlach  scarlet-fever. 

Der  Schild  shield;   das  Schild  shop  sign. 

Die  Schwulst  swelling,  or  more  commonly  die  Geschwulst;    der  Schwulst  bombast. 

Der  Schurz  apron  for  men,  pl.  Schurze;    die  Schürze  apron  for  women  and  children. 

Der  See  lake,  pl.  die  Seen;    die  See  sea. 

Die  Spalte  (sometimes  der  Spalt  in  the  first  meaning)  split,  column  (in  a  newspaper);  der 
Spalt  (pl.  die  Spalte)  split  in  a  figurative  sense,  contentious  division,  quarrel,  especially  common 
in  the  compound  Zwiespalt  dissension. 

Der  Stock  stick,  cane,  story  (of  a  house),  pl.  die  Stöcke  canes,  pl.  Stocke  or  Stock  stories: 
Spazierstöcke  walking  sticks,  but  ein  Haus  von  drei  Stocken  or  Stock  a  house  of  three  stories, 
and  Das  Haus  ist  drei  Stock  hoch. 

Der  Teil  part;   das  Teil  share. 

Der  Tropfen  drop;   der  Tropf  dull,  stupid  fellow. 


U. DIFFERENTL^TION   OF   SUBSTAXTI\'E   FORMS 97 

Der  Trupp  ,^vins,  unorganized  crowd,  flock,  pi.  die  Trupps  (or  Truppe),  as  ein  Trupp  Arbeiter, 
Menschen,  Kinder,  Hühner,  Gemsen;    die  Truppe  organized  company  or  troop. 

Das  Tuch  piece  of  cloth  (handkerchief,  shawl,  <S;c.),  pi.  die  Tücher;    pi.  Tuche  kinds  of  cloth. 

Eine  Uhr  a  clock,  watch,  pi.  die  Uhren;  ein  (neut.,  uninflected)  Uhr  (uninflected)  one  o'clock, 
pi.  zwei  Uhr  two  o'clock,  &c. 

Der  Verdienst  wages;   das  Verdienst  merit,  desert. 

Die  Vesper  vespers  (see  also  96.  Sj;  das  also  die  Vesper  afternoon  meal:  Nachmittage  lang 
hatten  sie  hier  gespielt  und  zum  Vesper  rjohe  Rüben  gegessen  (Hermann  Hesse's  Unterm  Rad, 
P.-21). 

Die  Walnuß  (pl.  Walnüsse)  walnut  (fruit);  der  Walnuß  (pl.  Walnüsse)  or  more  commonly 
der  Walnußbaum  walnut  (tree). 

Die  Wehr  defense;   das  Wehr  dam  (in  a  river). 

Das  Wort  word  with  reference  to  meaning  in  connected  discourse,  pl.  die  Worte;  pl.  die 
Wörter  words  apart  from  their  meaning:  Er  sprach  in  beredten  Worten,  but  Das  Telegramm 
hat  16  Wörter.  This  distinction  is  not  yet  universall}'  observed,  Worte  seeming  to  be  the  fa- 
vorite in  both  meanings. 

Der  Wurm  worm;    das  Wurm  helpless  babe,  'poor  thing'  (man  or  woman). 

Das  Zeug  material,  substance,  stuff,  das  Zeugs  (gen.  now  used  for  all  cases;  see  255.  II.  1. 
H.  c )  stuff  in  a  contemptuous  sense. 

The  similarity  in  form  is  sometimes  merely  accidental;  das  Tor  gate,  der  Tor  fool;  die  Mark 
mark  (coin),  das  Mark  marrow,  &c. 

a.  There  is  a  tendency  to  make  a  difference  between  the  neut.  pl.  in  -e  and  that  in  -er,  when 
they  both  occur  with  the  same  word.  The  former  has  in  a  number  of  cases  collectiv-e  force, 
denoting  a  number  of  connected  parts  or  related  individuals,  the  latter  form  has  separating, 
individualizing  force:  das  Wort  word;  pl.  Worte  words  in  connected  discourse  with  reference 
to  their  meaning;  pl.  Wörter  words  as  individuals  without  reference  to  their  connection  in  one 
sentence,  as  Wörterbuch,  lit.  word-book,  dictionary;  das  Band  tie,  ribbon,  pl.  Bande  ties  of 
affection  which  bind  us  together,  pl.  Bander  ribbons.  Thus  also  das  Land  country-;  pl.  Lande 
different  divisions  of  one  country,  in  a  poetic  style  emphasizing  the  idea  of  inner  unity,  pl.  Länder 
countries,  also  different  states  of  one  country',  emphasizing  the  idea  of  their  individual  political 
rights.  See  also  Land  and  Dom  in  the  above  list.  The  idea  of  a  number  of  connected  parts 
or  related  individuals  is  also  closely  associated  in  many  words  with  the  plural  ending  -en  of  the 
mixed  declension,  as  shown  in  78.  Note.  The  difference  between  plurals  in  -er  and  -e  is  some- 
times merely  a  matter  of  style.  See  73.  b.  The  forms  in  -e  are  older  than  those  in  -er,  and 
hence  often  naturally  incline  to  use  in  poetical  or  less  common  expressions. 

b.  There  is  a  tendency  to  distinguish  between  the  meaning  of  words  of  the  form  Ge  —  e 
and  on  the  other  hand  Ge  -:-:-.  The  form  Ge  —  e  (never  mutating  the  stem  vowel)  has  a  more 
abstract  meaning,  indicating  a  repetition  or  continuation  of  some  action,  or  often  implying  con- 
tempt or  dislike  for  the  performance,  and  hence  on  account  of  its  abstract  nature  without  a  pl., 
while  the  form  Ge  j^  (always  mutating  the  stem  vowel  if  capable  of  it)  has  a  more  concrete 
meaning,  and  admits  thus  of  a  plural:  das  Quellengerausche  the  noise  of  the  murmuring  spring 
(which  unceasingly  murmurs  on),  das  Geklirre  der  Tassen  und  Schüsseln  the  rattling  of  the  cups 
and  dishes  (in  washing),  das  Gesinge  tedious  singing,  das  Getue  an  affected  noisy  manner  that 
proceeds  about  doing  something  unimportant,  as  if  it  were  of  great  importance  (not  always, 
however,  in  a  disparaging  sense:  Ihr  Benehmen  war  ein  wenig  keck,  das  konnte  er  sich  nicht 
verhehlen,  aber  wie  so  ganz  frei  von  Dreistigkeit  war  diese  Keckheit,  wie  so  ganz  ohne  Gefall- 
sucht ihr  gefälliges  Getue  und  Gehabe — Wildenbruch's  Die  heilige  Frau,  p.  130),  das  Geklopfe 
a  continual  unpleasant  knocking  or  hammering,  das  Gelaufe  a  continual  unpleasant  running  to 
and  fro,  but  das  Geräusch  the  noise,  pl.  die  Geräusche,  &c.  The  form  Ge  —  e  is  usually  made 
directly  from  the  stem  of  the  verb  without  mutation,  but  if  the  verb  itself  is  mutated  the  vowel 
of  the  derivative  noun  must  of  course  also  be  correspondingly  modified:  das  Gehämmere,  &c. 
from  hämmern,  &c.  The  -e,  however,  sometimes  distinguishes  the  one  form  from  the  other, 
altho  the  distinction  cannot  appear  in  the  stem  vowel:  das  Geschreie  continued  disagreeable 
screaming,  but  das  Geschrei  a  cry,  clamor,  &c. 

Note.  But  the  distinction  between  these  forms  cannot  be  made  thruout,  as,  according  to  present  usage,  b,d,g, 
and  usually  s,  do  not  as  a  rule  stand  as  a  final  letter  in  these  formations,  and  hence  e  must  be  added,  thus  destroying 
in  all  words  not  capable  of  mutation  the  difference  of  form  and  hence  the  possibility  of  making  a  distinction  in  mean- 
ing: Getreide  gra:n  with  e  altho  with  concrete  meaning,  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  the  e  of  the  abstract  form  usually 
drops  out  after  -el  and  -er,  according  to  the  general  rule  that  e  cannot  stand  after  -el  and  -er,  and  thus  the  abstract 
form  cannot  here  be  distinguished  from  the  more  concrete:  Geklimper  drumming  (upon  the  piano).  The  e,  ho\yever. 
is  now  often  added  here  in  spite  of  the  rule,  as  it  seems  necessary  to  preserve  the  shade  of  meaning:  das  Gewinsele 
(Immermann),  Gehämmere  (Fontane);  often  also  in  case  of  nouns  that  clearly  show  this  shade  of  meaning  by  the 
unmutated  form  of  the  stem-vowel:   Gedudele  (Paul  Keller),  &.C. 

c.  There  is  a  tendency  to  differentiate  the  meaning  of  words  in  -nis  according  to  their  gender, 
the  feminines  assuming  more  abstract,  the  neuters  more  concrete  meaning:  das  Hindernis 
obstacle,  but  die  Befugnis  authority.  Compare  also  Erkenntnis  above.  There  is,  however,  much 
irregularity  and  fluctuation  here. 

IXFLECTIOX  OF  PROPER  NOUXS. 

84.  Proper  nouns  as  well  as  common  nouns  were  once  inflected  strong  and  weak.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  both  masculine  and  feminine  names  are  sometimes  still  inflected  weak 
thruout,  but  almost  all  traces  of  this  older  inflection  have  disappeared  from  the  literary  language 


98 INFLECTION   OF   PROPER   NAMES 84. 

except  the  plural  ending  -en  of  feminines  (see  93.  1.  b.  (2)),  the  rather  colloquial  dat.  and  ace. 
ending  en  (see  87),  and  the  corrupted  gen.  ens  (86.  2.  a),  which  is  in  fact  a  str.  gen.  added  to  a 
\vk.  gen.  Other  weak  forms  are  still  occasionally  found :  Was  ist  die  ganze  schleswig-holsteinische 
Geschichte  neben  der  Geschichte  des  Alten  Fritzen?  (Fontane's  Der  Tunnel  über  der  Spree, 
chap.  iv).  Mit  des  alten  Fritzen  eigenhändigem  Kjückstock  (id.,  Vor  dem  Shirm,  III.  chap.  ii). 
Mit  des  Herzogs  Moritzen  Obersten,  dem  Herrn  Sebastian  von  Walwitz  (Raabe's  Unseres 
Herrgotts  Kanzlei,  chap.  vi).  Er  redete  auch  den  jüngsten  Ursleuen,  sein  Paten-  und  Enkel- 
kind, an  in  einer  Weise,  die  mich  besonders  belustigte  (R.  Huch's  Liidolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xi). 
The  old  weak  gen.  has  also  been  preserved  in  a  number  of  compounds:  Ottendorf,  Luisenstraße. 
Outside  of  these  compounds  the  gen.  of  these  names  is  Ottos,  Luise (n)s.  Other  traces  of  weak 
inflection  in  the  names  of  persons  and  families  are  given  in  93.  1.  b.  (2)  and  (6).  The  ending  -en 
is  best  preserved  in  the  plural  of  feminine  names.  See  93.  1.  b.  (2).  It  is  often  found  in  the 
singular  in  the  dat.  and  ace.  of  unmodified  names.  See  87.  Tho  this  singular  form  in  -en  is 
now  felt  as  a  weak  case  form,  it  was  originally  in  all  strong  masculine  proper  names  an  ending 
borrowed  from  the  ace.  of  the  strong  adjective  declension,  as  in  diesen,  guten.  Later  it  spread 
to  the  dat.,  as  it  was  taken  for  a  weak  case  ending,  which  is  the  same  for  the  ace.  and  dat.  This 
misconception  w^as  all  the  more  natural,  as  many  masculine  and  feminine  proper  names  were 
originally  weak  and  hence  had  -en  in  the  dat.  and  ace.  Thus  this  -en,  now  used  uniformly  in 
the  dat.  and  ace.  of  masc.  and  fem.  proper  names,  had  a  twofold  origin. 

The  str.  declension  has  also  been  much  reduced,  and  there  is,  as  will  be  seen  below,  much 
fluctuation  in  present  usage.  There  is  a  general  tendency  in  all  classes  of  proper  nouns  and 
often  in  titles  to  drop  the  s  of  the  gen.  whenever  preceded  by  an  article  or  other  modifying  word 
that  marks  distinctly  the  case.     With  names  of  persons  this  can  now  be  considered  a  rule. 

85.  Those  proper  nouns  that  have  the  article  always  before  them  — i.e.  the 
names  of  natural  divisions  of  the  earth's  surface  (as  rivers,  lakes,  seas,  moun- 
tains, plains,  forests,  &c.),  the  names  of  countries  of  the  fem.  or  masc.  gender, 
names  of  newspapers,  works  of  art,  months,  days  of  the  week,  nations,  peoples, 
parties,  dynasties  — were  originally,  and  in  part  are  still,  common  class  nouns, 
and  hence  are  in  general  declined,  as  common  class  nouns  of  the  same  form 
would  be:  der  Rhein  the  Rhine,  des  Rheins,  &c.;  der  Brocken  (peak  in  the 
Harz  Mts.),  des  Brockens,  &c.;  die  Alpen  the  Alps,  der  Alpen,  &c.;  die  Schweiz 
Switzerland,  der  Schweiz,  &c.;  in  den  letzten  Tagen  des  Augusts  (Raabe); 
der  Preuße  the  Prussian,  des  Preußen,  &c.;  der  Karolinger  Carlovingian,  des. 
Karolingers,  &c. 

a.  The  names  of  months,  newspapers,  works  of  art,  literary  productions, 
organizations,  boats,  ships,  now  more  generally  drop  the  s  of  the  gen.:  Am 
Abend  des  22.  August  (Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  18.  Sept.  1901),  zu 
Ende  des  Februar  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Kraft,  I,  p.  41),  but  in  poetic  language 
where  the  genitive  precedes  its  governing  noun  inflection  is  preserved  as  in  des 
Maies  Erwachen;  der  Redakteur  des  Coriolan,  des  Bund,  &c.  editor  of  the 
Coriolan,  Bund,  &c.;  der  Dichter  des  Faust  the  author  of  Faust;  der  Gruß 
des  „Schubertbund"  the  greeting  from  the  Schubertbund  (musical  organization), 
auf  der  Kommandobrücke  des  „Sperber"  (Dominik's  Kamerun,  p.  43)  upon  the 
conning-bridge  of  the  "Sperber"  (name  of  boat)  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Dec. 
15,  1905),  &c.  The  names  of  days  of  the  week  are  inflected  when  used  adver- 
bially, but  when  used  after  prepositions  or  after  a  governing  noun  non-inflection 
after  the  article  is  common :  Die  Zusammenkunft  ist  des  Dienstags,  but  während 
des  ganzen  Montag  (Rundschau,  2.  5,  278,  quoted  by  Sanders  in  his  Ergänzungs- 
ivörterbuch,  p.  547  and  censured  by  him  as  careless,  but  to-day  this  dropping  of 
the  genitive  ending  s  is  quite  common  and  natural  in  accordance  with  usage  in 
case  of  names  of  months),  die  Ereignisse  des  Donnerstag  i Hamburgischer  Cor- 
respondent, May  5,  1905),  in  den  Morgenstunden  des  Montag  {Frankfurter 
Zeit.,  May  19,  1920).  Also  foreign  names  of  rivers  and  mountains  as  a  rule 
drop  the  s  in  the  gen.:  die  Höhen  des  Monte  Cavo  the  heights  of  Monte  Cavo, 
das  Tal  des  for  der  in  accordance  with  German  usage)  untern  Rhone,  im  Wasser- 
gebiet des  Po  und  des  Rheins  (K.  Bohnenberger  in  Zeitschrift  für  deutsche 
Philologie,  1913,  p.  372),  &c.  This  usage,  tho  strongly  condemned  by  gram- 
marians, is  spreading  even  to  German  geographical  names:  für  einen  An- 
wohner des  Stechlin  (lake)  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  III ),  auf  dem  Gipfel  des  Hohen- 
staufen  (Raabe's  Pechlin,  chap.  xiv\  am  Westhang  des  Schratzmännle  {Großes 
Hauptquartier,  Oct.  13,  1915),  die  Gewässer  des  Rhein  (Kutzen  and  Steinecke's 
Das  deutsche  Land,  p.  30),  diese  Gegend  des  Main  (ib.,  p.  223),  die  fernen 


86.  1.  b. INFLECTION    0¥   PROPER   NAMES 99 

Höhen  des  Spessart  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Kraßt,  I,  1,  p.  30)  the  distant  heights 
of  the  Spessart  (a  well-wooded  mountainous  district  of  Bavaria),  &c..  Examples 
can  even  be  found  in  textbooks  on  geography.  It  is  a  natural  impulse  towards 
uniformity,  as  all  other  proper  nouns  drop  s  in  the  gen.  when  preceded  by  an 
article  (see  86.  1). 

h.  The  names  of  the  months  often  drop  the  article  and  remain  uninflected 
after  Anfang,  Mitte,  Ende:   Ende  Mai  the  last  of  May.     See  94.  3.  A.  h. 

c.  The  great  mass  of  foreign  names  of  peoples  and  tribes  have  been  con- 
formed to  German  inflection,  but  those  which  still  retain  endings  (a,  i,  o,  u,  oi, 
&c.)  which  resist  inflection  according  to  German  models  take  an  s  in  the  gen. 
sing,  and  thruout  the  plural,  or  perhaps  more  commonly  remain  uninflected, 
especially  in  the  plural,  the  article  alone  indicating  the  case  and  number:  der 
Eskimo,  des  Eskimo(s),  pi.  die  Eskimo(s),  die  Herero  {Hamburger  Nachrichten, 
Oct.  18,  1904)  found  nine  times  in  this  issue  and  die  Hereros  in  this  same  issue 
three  times.  If  s  becomes  established  in  the  genitive  singular  and  the  unin- 
flected form  in  the  plural  the  inflection  will  be  conformed  to  that  of  the  e-less 
plural  type  except  in  the  dative  plural,  where  the  uninflected  form  or  the  form 
in  -s  must  be  used. 

86.  1.  Names  of  persons  and  all  political  divisions,  as  countries,  states, 
counties,  cities,  and  the  like,  do  not  in  general  take  an  article  except  when 
modified  by  an  adjective.  The  proper  name  takes  an  s  (never  es)  in  the  gen. 
sing,  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  an  article  or  limiting  adjective,  but  takes  no 
ending  when  preceded  by  an  article,  limiting  adjective,  or  the  genitive  of  a 
noun  with  which  it  stands  in  apposition :  Wilhelms  Hut,  but  der  Hut  des  klei- 
nen Wilhelm;  Annas  Hut,  or  der  Hut  der  Anna;  die  Universitäten  Deutsch- 
lands, but  die  Verfassung  des  republikanischen  Deutschland;  die  Einwohner  der 
Häuptstadt  Berlin;  das  Kind  des  Schuhmachers  Schmidt.  In  all  these  cases  the 
proper  name  forms  with  the  governing  noun  a  group  with  the  chief  stress  upon 
the  last  member. 

If  the  person  has  two  or  more  names,  the  last  one  only  takes  the  s:  die  Re- 
gierung Friedrich  Augusts;  Marie  von  Ebner-Eschenbachs  gesammelte  Schrif- 
ten, &c. 

a.  If  a  masculine  noun  in  the  tjenitive  modified  by  a  preceding  article,  limiting  adjective, 
or  the  genitive  of  a  noun  with  which  it  stands  in  apposition,  precede  the  noun  u])on  which  it 
depends,  it  usually  takes  an  s:  des  großen  Karls  Taten  (but  die  Taten  des  großen  Karl),  des 
Adolf  Bitrgers  Haus,  des  verratenen  Arthurs  Vater  (Lienhard's  König  Arthur,  5),  des  Pastor 
Friedrichs  Sohn,  des  Onkel  Heinrichs  Stimme.  Also  the  modified  name  preceding  the  prepo- 
sition wegen  takes  the  genitive  ending  s,  as  wegen  is  in  fact  the  dative  plural  of  the  noun  Weg: 
des  Rudolfs  wegen  (Ernst  Heilborn's  Zivei  Kanzeln,  II).  The  retention  of  the  genitive  ending 
in  all  these  cases  results  from  the  feeling  that  the  case  sign  ought  to  be  indicated  at  the  point 
where  the  genitive  comes  in  contact  with  the  governing  noun.  Hence  the  s  of  the  name  is  dropped 
when  it  stands  after  the  governing  noun  as  the  grammatical  relation  is  indicated  by  its  article 
which  stands  in  immediate  contact  with  the  preceding  governing  noun.  We  still,  however,  some- 
times find  the  s  in  the  genitive  also  when  it  follows  the  noun:  Er  (der  Mond)  guckte  mild  in  die 
Kutsche  des  zehnten  Karls  (Charles  X  of  France)  (Raabe's  Hungerpastor,  chap.  vi).  Der 
Streithengst  des  großen  Alexanders  (Karrillon's  O  Domina  mea,  p.  134).  The  s  in  the  genitive 
in  all  these  cases  is  the  survival  of  an  older  usage  which  always  required  an  s  in  the  genitive  of 
strong  masculine  names  (see  89).  Now,  however,  not  e^-en  the  above  mentioned  remnant  of 
this  rule  is  observed  closely:  des  Stabtrompeter  Raßmann  Blasen  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  6. 
Stück),  desHeinzl  Mutter  (Meinhardt),  des  alten  Sparr  Augen  (Wildenbruch),  des  alten  Petersen 
Tochter  (Fontane),  des  alten  Pastors  Reiche  Amtsnachfolger  (Fedor  Sommer's  Ernst  Reiland, 
p.  27).  These  examples  indicate  that  the  law  of  immediate  contact,  referred  to  above  and  also  in 
92.  1.  a,  is  not  yet  firmly  established.  It  is  opposed  by  the  feeling  that  a  name  ought  not  to  be 
inflected  if  it  is  preceded  by  an  article. 

In  case  of  neuter  names  of  countries,  continents,  and  cities  the  genitive  ending  is  much  better 
preserved,  occurring  not  infrequently  even  when  it  follows  the  governing  noun :  aus  einer  größeren 
Stadt  des  mittleren  Deutschlands  (Storm's  Eine  Malerarbeit,  vol.  ii.  p.  65),  die  drei  berühmtesten 
Genies  des  jetzigen  Europas  (Lienhard's  Münchhausen,  1).  Hier  (in  L' Adultera)  betritt  er 
(Fontane)  den  Boden  des  modernen  Berlins  (A.  Bartels's  Deutsche  Dichtung,  p.  214.).  Den 
Eindruck  des  vielhunderttürmigen  Moskaus  zu  schildern  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  April  2,  1905). 

b.  If  a  proper  name  is  used  as  a  common  class  noun  it  may,  like  class  nouns,  be  inflected  in 
the  sing,  and  pi.:  die  Reden  unseres  Ciceros  the  speeches  of  our  great  orator  (lit.  our  Cicero), 
die  Ciceros,  die  Cromwelle  und  Bismarcke  der  Zukunft.  But  like  a  proper  noun  it  is  often 
uninflected  after  an  article:  eine  alte  Auflage  des  Baedeker  (Rodenberg's  Klostermanns  Grund- 


100 GEN.  OF  NAMES  ENDING  IN  A  SIBILANT  86.  1.  h. 

stück.  III).  A  proper  noun  cannot  only  be  used  as  a  common  noun  with  reference  to  one  of  a 
class  of  individuals,  but  also  to  one  individual  in  different  stages  of  development  as  different 
characteristics  are  here  compared :  Wiewohl  diese  Szene  erst  in  der  Ausgabe  von  1808  hinzuge- 
kommen ist,  hat  sich  hier  Goethe  völlig  in  den  Charakter  des  Fausts  seiner  frühen  Jugend 
hineinzufühlen  vermocht  (Johannes  Volkelt's  Zwischen  Dichtung  und  Philosophie,  p.  7). 

c.  There  is  sometimes  a  shade  of  meaning  between  inflection  and  noji-inflection  after  a  pre- 
ceding noun:  die  Blüteperiode  der  Östseestädte  Stettin,  Danzig,  Königsberg  the  period  of 
greatest  prosperity  for  the  Baltic  cities  Stettin,  Danzig,  Königsberg,  but  Es  ist  die  Blüteperiode 
vornehmlich  der  Östseestädte:  Stettins,  Dänzigs,  Königsbergs  (Lamprecht 's  Deutsche 
Geschichte,  zweiter  Ergänzungsband,  p.  459)  It  is  the  period  of  greatest  prosperity,  especially  for  the 
cities  along  the  Baltic,  particularly  for  Stettin,  Danzig,  Königsberg.  In  the  first  example  Stettin, 
Danzig,  Königsberg,  appositives  to  Ostseestädte,  stand  in  such  a  close  gramanatical  relation 
to  the  two  preceding  nouns  that  they  form  with  them  a  group  and,  as  the  last  member  of  the 
group,  receive  the  chief  stress.  In  the  second  example  the  three  appositives  stand  in  a  looser 
grammatical  relation  to  the  preceding  nouns  and  hence  form  an  independent  group  with  inde- 
pendent stress  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  indicate  the  grammatical  relation  to  the  preceding 
group.  Similarly  der  Tod  der  zwei  bedeutenden  Forscher  Minor  und  Erich  Schmidt,  but 
mit  dem  Tode  zweier  bedeutender  Forscher,  Minors  und  Erich  Schmidts  (Jos.  Körner  in 
Literaturblatt  für  germanische  und  romanische  Philologie,  XXXIX.  Jahrg.,  p.   IS). 

2.  For  names  of  persons  and  places  not  preceded  by  an  article,  the  following 
variations  of  the  general  rule  for  the  formation  of  the  gen.  occur: 

a.  Names  of  persons  ending  in  a  sibilant  s,  ß,  sch,  x,  z,  may  remain  un- 
changed in  the  gen.  sing.,  adding,  usually,  however,  the  apostrophe:  Voß'  Ge- 
dichte, von  Ines'  kleinen  kräftigen  Händen  (Storm),  nach  Pentz'  Weisung 
(Fontane),  die  Stimmen  von  Felix'  Kameraden,  eine  Anzahl  von  Lenz'  Versen 
(Hermann  Grimm),  Agnes'  Hochzeit  (G.  Hirschfeld),  das  Bildnis  aus  dem 
dunkeln  Winkel  der  Studierstube  Adam  Olearius'  (Jensen),  Isolde  Kurz,  die 
Tochter  Hermann  Kurz'  (Bartels's  Deutsche  Dichtung,  p.  202),  Brockhaus'  Kon- 
versations-Lexikon, Professor  Delitzsch'  Hypothesen  [Hamburger  Nachrichten, 
Feb.  11,  1905).  Sometimes  we  find  safter  those  in  s  and  quite  often  after  those  in 
sch:  Voß's  Luise  (Karl  Erbe's  Wörterbuch  der  deutschen  Rechtschreibung,  p.  xvi), 
Busch's  Erzählung  (Minor),  beim  Anblick  Grobitzsch's  (Hartleben),  bei  der 
Beliebtheit  Ludwig  Pietsch's  {Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Jan.  4,^1904),  die  Vorträge 
Professor  Delitzsch's  {Hamb.  Nachr.,  Feb.  11,  1905),  Äußerungen  Busch's 
über  seine  eigenen  Werke  (Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Sept.  21,  1913).  Instead  of  s 
we  rarely  find  es:  Meljanzes  Vater  (Martin's  Wolframs  von  Eschenbach  Parzi- 
val,  II,  p.  xxv).  Some  use  in  case  of  all  sibilants  the  mixed  gen.  ending  ens, 
a  form  once  common,  but  apparently  much  less  used  to-day,  more  frequent, 
however,  with  Christian  names  than  surnames:  an  Ludwig  Pietschens  Seite, 
Köselitzens  (surname)  spärliche  Meldungen  (Franz  Overbeck  in  Die  neue 
Rundschau,  March  1906,  p.  329),  auf  Hansens  Bitten  (G.  Hauptmann),  Franzens 
Idee  (G.  Hirschfeld),  Götzens  Bücke  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Krafft),  Luciussens 
(surname)  Musik  (Hermann  Hesse's   Unterm  Rad,  p.  127). 

Grammarians  are,  in  general,  eager  to  find  a  way  out  of  the  tangle  of  present 
usage  here.  A  number  urge  the  form  in  -ens,  but  it  does  not  find  a  wide  support 
outside  of  a  few  short  names  like  Hans,  Max,  &c.  The  most  common  form  — 
the  one  with  the  mere  apostrophe  — is  in  reality  no  genitive  at  all,  as  it  cannot 
be  distinguished  in  the  spoken  language  from  the  nominative.  Grammatical 
justice  demands  here  a  clear  genitive  ending,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  most 
people  who  write  Voß'  in  fact  speak  Voßs,  i.e.  pronounce  an  ß  with  double  pres- 
sure, thus  making  a  slight  syllabic  division  in  the  middle,  so  that  a  real  double 
s  is  spoken.  Likewise  in  case  of  the  genitive  -sch',  as  in  die  Auflehnung  Popo- 
witsch'  (Jellinek's  Geschichte  der  neuhochdeutschen  Grammatik,  p.  263),  it  is  quite 
probable  that  an  s  is  in  fact  spoken  after  sch.  Careful  observers  even  write 
the  s  here  as  can  be  seen  by  the  examples  given  above.  It  would  be  desirable 
if  this  common  usage  of  speaking  an  s  after  a  sibilant  should  find  an  expression 
in  the  written  language.  It  was  once  the  rule  to  write  s  or  es:  Artuses  hof 
(Wolfram's  Parzival,  296,  25),  Artuss  her  (ib.  326,  5).  At  one  time  the  's  was 
in  large  measure  lost  also  in  English,  but  it  seems  to  be  the  prevailing  form  to- 
day. Some  South  German  grammarians  avoid  the  difficulty  here  by  recom- 
mending the  use  of  the  definite  article,  thus  elevating  here  a  common  S.G. 


90 GEN.  OF  NAMES  ENDING  IN  A  SIBILANT 101 

colloquialism  to  the  dignity  of  literary  form:    der  Bruder  des  Klaus  instead  of 
der  Bruder  Klaus'. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  genitive  in  -(e)ns  was  not  restricted  to  names 
ending  in  a  sibilant  but  was  widely  used,  especially  with  names  in  -e :  Karlens, 
Achillens,  Fichtens  (nom.  Fichte);  Adelheidens,  &c.  This  usage  is  still  found 
with  feminines  in  -e  (see  b  below),  sometimes  with  names  ending  in  a  sibilant, 
sometimes  with  names  in  -eke,  as  in  Meinekes  or  in  colloquial  language  some- 
times Meinekens,  sometimes  with  Vater  and  Mutter  (see  90). 

Note.  In  case  of  names  which  follow  the  governing  noun  the  gen.  s  is  sometimes  avoided  by  using  the  article: 
die  Bücher  des  Felix.  In  general,  however,  the  article  is  avoided  before  an  unmodified  name,  altho  it  is  regularly- 
used  if  modified:  die  Bücher  des  kleinen  Felix.  In  case  of  surnames  the  use  of  the  article  becomes  natural,  when 
a  title  or  some  descriptive  noun  is  inserted  between  the  article  and  the  name:  die  Reden  des  Altertumsforschers 
Curtius.     Compare  59.  II.  E.  a. 

b.  Fem.  in  -e  may  add  -s  or  -ens:   Maries  or  Mariens  Hut. 

c.  Foreign  nouns  ending  in  a  sibilant  often  prefer  the  article,  and  thus  re- 
main uninflected,  as  die  Germania  des  Tacitus  the  Germania  of  Tacitus;  or 
they  may  perhaps  more  frequently  be  treated  as  a  German  word:  Tacitus' 
Germania  (title  of  a  book  by  E.  Schwyzer,  published  in  1912),  Tacitus'  Histo- 
rien (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Krafft,  I,  p.  20G.),  Thoas'  letzte  Worte  (Hermann 
Grimm's  Fragmente,  I,  p.  98),  Sophokles'  Antigone  (ib.  II,  p.  29),  der  ästhetische 
Wert  Dickens'  (Paul  Hensel's  Thomas  Carlyle,  p.  113);  or  in  case  of  a  few, 
having  thrown  off  their  foreign  ending,  may  take  the  apostrophe  or  -ens: 
Ho'räz'  Oden  or  Ho'räzens  Oden  the  odes  of  Horace,  instead  of  die  Oden  des 
Ho'rätius;    Ä'ne^as'  or  Ä'ne^ens,  gen.  of  Ä'ne^as,  &c. 

d.  Foreign  names  of  persons  do  not  now  retain  their  original  Latin  or  Greek 
declension  except  in  a  few  biblical  names:  N.  Jesus  Christus,  G.  Jesu  Christi, 
D.  Jesu  Christo,  A.  Jesum  Christum;  das  EvangeUum  Matthäi  the  gospel  of 
Matthew,  &c.  Even  here  the  rule  for  German  nouns  is  often  preferred:  Christus' 
Geburt,  &c. 

e.  As  it  is  not  customary  for  names  of  places  to  insert  en  before  s  of  the  gen., 
such  names  of  places  as  end  in  a  sibilant  form  no  gen.,  but  express  this  relation 
by  the  prep,  von  of:  die  Straßen  von  Paris,  but  die  Straßen  Hamburgs,  or 
Hamburgs  Straßen.  In  poetry,  however,  the  apostrophe  may  be  used  after 
sibilants:  an  Kolchis'  Küste  (Grillparzer's  Argonauten,  2),  für  Hellas'  Heil 
und  Glück  (ib.),  Hellas'  Dichter  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Lieder  des  Euripides, 
p.  13).  Sometimes  also  in  plain  prose:  der  Schwerpunkt  der  Verteidigung 
'TripoUs'  (Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Dec.  8,  1911),  nicht  ein  kaum  bekannter  Fürst, 
der  von  der  Gnade  Paris'  oder  Londons  lebt  {Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Nov.  23,  1915). 

87.  Names  of  places  and  persons  take  no  sign  for  the  dat.  and  ace.  in  choice  language,  but 
earUer  and  still  in  the  classical  period  the  ending  -en  for  dat.  and  ace.  sing,  was  quite  common 
in  case  of  unmodified  names  of  persons.  This  -en  survived  in  the  colloquial  language  and  has 
again  become  quite  common  in  recent  literature  which  reflects  colloquial  speech:  Die  war'  die 
Rechte,  dachte  er  sich,  wenn  er  Adelen  nachblickte  (Wilhelm  F'ischer's  Die  Freude  am  Licht, 
p.  1-18).  Das  tranken  wir  immer  bei  Bismarcken  (Sudermann's  Es  lebe  das  Leben,  p.  60).  Als 
Frau  Imme  öffnete,  stand  Rudolf  auf  dem  kleinen  Flur  und  sagte,  daß  er  Vatem  holen  solle 
und  Hedwigen  auch  (Fontane's  StecJüin,  chap.  xiv).    For  the  origin  of  the  forms  in  -en  see  84. 

88.  In  a  number  of  instances  words  which  are  in  an  oblique  case  are  not  felt  as  such,  and  are 
inflected  as  if  they  were  simple  stems: 

1.  The  many  geographical  names  in  -en  are  in  fact  datives:  (zur)  Neuenkirchen,  Sachsen, 
from  older  ze  (=  zu)  der  niuwen  kirchen,  ze  den  Sachsen.  They  originated  in  prepositional 
phrases,  later  the  preposition  and  article  disappeared  and  the  dative  became  the  stem  of  the  new 
form:    die  Hauptstadt  Sachsens. 

2.  Thus  an  original  gen.  is  often  not  felt  as  such  and  treated  as  a  simple  stem:  Wir  werden 
uns  nächsten  Johanni  (St.  John's  day)  wieder  sprechen  (Spielhagen's  Was  will  das  werden?,  II. 
ii).  Bis  künftige  Johannis.  Here  Johanni,  or  Johannis,  is  a  masc.  gen.  treated  as  an  acc.  the  gen- 
der being  masc.  after  the  analogy  of  the  word  Tag  understood  or  fem.  after  the  analogy  of 
Weihnachtszeit  Christmas-time,  Pfingstzeit  pentecost.     Compare  255.  II.  1.  B.  g. 

89.  Formerly  and  still  in  the  classical  period  the  gen.  which  was  preceded  by  an  article  usually 
took  an  s:  Die  Leiden  des  Jungen  Werthers  The  Sufferings  of  Young  Wert  her  (title  of  one  of 
Goethe's  works). 

90.  Colloquially  masculine  and  feminine  common  nouns  (the  latter  of  which  according  to 
the  general  rule  are  not  inflected  in  the  sing.)  are  often  treated  as  proper  nouns,  the  substantive 
dropping  the  article  and  taking  an  s  in  the  gen.  and  sometimes  (e)n  (see  87)  in  the  dat.  and  ace, 
when  it  refers  to  a  definite  person:    Vater  kommt.     Wenn  sie  Kaisers  Geburtstag  feiern  (Fon- 


102 INFLECTION   OF  TITLES 90. 

tane's  Effi,  chap.  vii).  Du  bist  Vaters  Tochter  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  1).  Ja, 
deine  Tochter  und  Vaters  bin  ich  (ili.).  Nachbars  Hänschen,  Schusters  Dortchen,  Pastors 
Gustav,  Mamas  (Mutters,  Tantes)  Zimmer.  Ich  werde  das  Muttern  sagen.  Als  Frau  Imme 
öffnete,  stand  Rudolf  auf  dem  kleinen  Flur  und  sagte,  daß  er  Vätern  holen  solle  und  Hedwigen 
auch  (Fontane's  StecJiltn,  chap.  xiv).  Ich  werde  Großmutter  bitten.  Likewise  fem.  titles: 
Majestäts  Befehl  his  Majesty's  order.  Of  course  these  words,  like  proper  names,  may  take 
-(e)ns  instead  of  -s  in  the  genitive  if  they  end  in  a  sil)iLant  or  -e,  sometimes  also  in  case  of  Vater 
and  Mutter:  Exzellenz'  or  Exzellenzens  Befehl,  Tantes  or  Tautens  Kleid,  Mutterns  Geburtstag 
(X'iktor  von  Kohlenegg's  Eckerlein  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  Dec.  1019,  p.  373). 

A  title  with  a  preceding  article  is  sometimes  treated  as  a  name,  if  it  is  used  as  such:  des  Dekan 
(Marriot's  Der  geistliche  Tod,  chap,  ii),  mit  den  Sachen  des  Doktor  (Hauptmann's  Friedensfest, 
p.  15),  but  more  commonly  with  inflectional  s:  die  Stimme  des  Doktors  (ib.,  p.  4S),  des  Doktors 
Hand'(ib.,  p.  52).  ,  „       t 

91.  The  residence  of  an  individual  is  often  written  in  one  word  with  his  name:  Herr  Lammers- 
Breinen  Mr.  Lammers  from  Bremen;  Direktor  Wirth-Plötzensee  bei  Berlin  Director  Wirth  from 
Plötzensee  near  Berlin.  Formerly  von  was  placed  before  the  name  of  the  place.  The  von  is  not 
now  used,  as  it  might  be  construed  as  representing  a  title  of  nobility.  Compare  94.  3.  A.  c  and 
92.  5. 

Inflection  of  Titles. 

92.  A  full  treatment  of  the  proper  titles  which  must  be  given  to  people 
of  different  social  standing  can  be  obtained  in  any  of  the  numerous  Briefsteller 
which   usually   treat   this   delicate   subject. 

The  leading  points  as  to  the  inflection  of  these  titles  are  as  follows: 

1.  When  a  title  (or  titles)  not  preceded  by  an  article  stands  before  a  name 
of  a  person,  the  title  and  name  are  now  usually  felt  as  a  unit,  i.e.  as  a  compound 
name,  and  hence  the  second  element,  i.e.  the  name  is  alone  inflected,  except 
the  one  title  Herr  Mr.,  which  is  always  inflected:  Kaiser  Wilhelms  Schloß, 
Professor  Dr.  A.  Kuhns  Vorlesungen,  Reichskanzler  Fürst  Bismarcks  Ver- 
dienste, Das  Leben  Herzog  Bernhards.  Er  sprach  von  Präsident  Grant, 
von  Graf  Rechberg.  But  Herrn  Schmidts  Hut,  der  Hut  Herrn  Schmidts, 
der  Hut  des  Herrn  Schmidt,  der  Sohn  des  Kaufmanns  Herrn  Schmidt.  Earlier 
in  the  period  Herr  could  also  be  treated  like  other  titles  and  was  left  uninflected 
when  not  preceded  by  an  article:  Mache  Er  Herr  Justen  (see  87)  den  Kopf 
nicht  warm  (Lessing's  Minna,  1,  2). 

a.  Exceptions  occur  not  infrequently  when  a  genitive  follows  its  governing  noun.  Here  the 
title  often  assumes  the  inflection,  as  the  feeling  prevails  that  the  inflection  of  the  dependent 
element  should  take  place  at  the  point  of  immediate  contact  with  its  governing  word:  die  Me- 
daillen Papsts  Clemens  des  Siebenten  (Goethe),  bis  zum  Monumente  Königs  Max  II.  (Hans 
Hopfen),  die  Schwester  Königs  Artus  (E.  Martin's  Wolframs  von  Eschenbach  Parzival,  II,  p.  445), 
einige  Jahre  im  Hause  Meisters  Lorenz  (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Die  Freude  am  Licht,  p.  181),  neben 
der  Grabstätte  der  Gattin  Herzogs  Konrad  des  Roten  (Steinhausen's  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Kultur,  p.  111),  die  Festrede  Bürgermeisters  Dr.  Pauli  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  March  23, 
1905),  vom  Tode  Königs  Christian  tief  erschüttert  (ib.  Jan.  30,  1906),  nach  Ansprachen  Majors 
a.  D.  [außer  Dienst]  Badhauser,  des  katholischen  und  protestantischen  Anstaltsgeistlichen 
{Allgemeine  Zeit.,  April  12,  1905).  The  inflected  title  is  often  preceded  by  an  inflected  form  of 
Herr:   vom  Munde  Herrn  Majors  Bennecke  (Wildenbruch 's  Sclnoester-Seele,  chap.  x). 

b.  The  inflection  of  Herr  in  all  positions  is  the  survival  of  older  usage,  where  weak  titles  did 
not,  like  strong  ones,  enter  into  close  relations  with  a  following  name  to  form  a  unit:  frouen 
Jeschuten  muot  {Parzival,  262.  25),  mines  hern  Gawanes  niunt  (id.,  300.  21),  der  junge  sun 
froun  Uoten  {Nibelungenlied,  Aventiure  33),  under  den  vanen  hern  Saules  (quoted  from  Blatz, 
I,  p.  349),  but  künec  Artuses  hof  (Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  p.  99,  Paul's  ed.).  The  idea  of 
unity  could  arise  more  easily  with  strong  nouns  because  they  usually  had  no  ending  in  the  nom- 
inative and  accusative  and  often  in  the  dative,  which  facilitated  the  blending  of  title  and  name. 

2.  a.  When  the  title  standing  before  the  name  is  preceded  by  an  article  or 
other  modifying  word,  inflection  or  non-inflection  results  according  to  the  mean- 
ing: 

(1)  If  the  title  retains  a  degree  of  independence  not  entering  into  such  close 
relations  with  the  name  as  to  form  a  unit  wnth  it,  it  is  inflected:  der  Sohn  des 
Pastors  Reiche  or  des  Pastors  Reiche  Söhn.  In  the  latter  case  the  name 
is  sometimes  inflected  as  the  feeling  sometimes  prevails  that  inflection  ought  to 
take  place  in  the  dependent  word  when  it  stands  in  direct  contact  with  the 
governing  word:  meines  Freundes  Papphoffs  Regenschirm  (Raabe's  Frühling, 
chap.  IV).  Inflection  of  the  name  here  is  rare  when  the  governing  word  precedes: 
auf  der  staubigen  Chaussee  des  Vetters  Wassertreters  (id.  Abu  Telfan,  xxxvi). 


92.  2.  b. INFLECTION   OF  TITLES 103 

(2)  If  title  and  name  form  a  unit,  both  words  remain  uninflected  when  the 
governing  noun  precedes:  die  Stimme  des  Onkel  Heinrich  or  more  commonly 
without  the  article:  die  Stimme  Onkel  Heinrichs.  Sometimes  as  in  older 
usage  with  the  inflection  of  the  name:  der  IClang  der  Hausglocke  des  Doktor 
Dachreiters  (Raabe's  Pechlin,  chap.  xix).  If  a  common  noun  is  used  here 
instead  of  the  name,  inflection  is  quite  common :  Die  Meinung  des  Bruder 
Stadtrats  his  brother  the  alderman  (Raabe's  Aba  Telfan,  p.  32),  im  traulichen 
Forsthause  Karls  sowohl  wie  in  dem  Heim  des  Bruder  Juristen  {his  brother  the 
lawyer)  am  Rhein  (Hans  Brand  in  Westermanns  Monatshefte,  May  1905,  p.  245). 

When  the  governing  noun  follows,  the  feeling  usually  prevails  that  inflection 
should  take  place  at  the  point  of  immediate  contact  with  the  governing  noun: 
des  Onkel  Heinrichs  Stiimme  or  more  commonly  without  the  article:  Onkel 
Heinrichs  Stimme.  This  is  the  common  usage  of  the  M.H.G.  period:  des 
künec  Gahmuretes  kint  {Parzival,  301,  5).  Inflection  of  also  the  title  here  is 
quite  rare  in  case  of  strong  nouns:  in  des  küneges  Ezeln  \a.nt  {Nibelungenlied, 
Aventiure  24).  To-day  both  title  and  name  sometimes  remain  uninflected  as 
they  are  together  felt  as  a  name,  which  in  the  position  before  the  governing 
noun  is  not  only  inflected  but  sometimes  remains  uninflected:  des  Stabtrompeter 
Raßmann  Blasen  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  6.  Stück). 

(3)  Weak  titles  are  in  general  treated  as  strong  ones,  but  they  manifest  a 
reluctance,  as  in  older  usage  (see  1.  b),  to  enter  into  close  unity  with  the  fol- 
lowing name,  especially  after  the  article.  Thus  we  often  find  such  expressions 
as  die  Truppen  des  Generaloberst  von  Woyrsch  {Großes  Hauptquartier,  July 
2,  1915),  dem  Generaloberst  von  Hindenburg  {Der  Völkerkrieg,  lY,  p.  154),  but 
inflection  in  choice  language  is  more  common:  die  Offensive  der  Armee  des 
Generalobersten  von  Woyrsch  {Großes  Hauptquartier,  July  18,  1915,  also  July 
19,  &c.);  der  Sohn  des  Grafen  Rechberg,  des  Grafen  Rechbergs  Sohn,  or  des 
Grafen  Rechberg  Sohn.  Close  union,  however,  is  more  common  in  case  of 
things:  an  Bord  des  „Prinz  Waldemar"  (boat).  Likewise  in  case  of  persons 
when  the  article  drops  out :  Graf  Rechbergs  Sohn. 

Nole.  In  the  rare  case  where  a  title  in  the  gen.  is  preceded  by  a  dependent  gen.  which  is  modified  by  an  article 
or  pronominal  adjective,  the  governing  title  must  of  course  drop  its  article.  In  this  case  usage  does  not  commonly 
require  a  gen.  ending  on  the  governing  gen.,  as  the  force  of  the  article  or  pronominal  adjective  before  the  preceding 
dependent  gen.  is  felt,  but  more  conscientious  writers  use  the  gen.  ending  here:  an  Bord  Seiner  Majestät  Schiff 
(instead  of  Schiffs)  Möwe,  der  liebenswürdige  Kommandant  S.[einerl  M.fajestät]  Kreuzers  Falke  (^'»^'"Sf^«'  Zeitung). 
Others  prefer  here  to  replace  the  governing  gen.  by  a  dat.  after  von:   an  Bord  von  Seiner  Majestät  Schiff  Möwe. 

b.  If  several  titles  preceded  by  an  article  stand  before  a  name,  often  only 
the  first  title  is  inflected,  or  in  case  Herr  is  used  both  Herr  and  the  following 
title  are  inflected,  but  there  is  here  much  fluctuation  in  usage,  the  tendency, 
however,  being  towards  inflection,  especially  in  case  of  weak  nouns:  die  Vor- 
lesungen des  Professors  Hof  rat  Schmidt;  des  Herrn  Staatsministers  von  Stein; 
die  Mitteilung  unseres  verehrten  Herrn  Direktors  Doktor  Rosenberg  (Hirsch- 
feld);  des  Herrn  Professor  Niedermöller  (M.  Dreyer) ;  die  Armee  des  Generals 
Graf  Bothmer  {Großes  Hauptquartier,  Oct.  10,  1915).  The  second  and  third 
title  are  usually  felt  as  standing  in  apposition  with  the  first.  Where  non-inflec- 
tion is  employed  as  in  the  preceding  examples  this  grammatical  relation  does 
not  find  a  formal  expression,  hence  it  is  becoming  more  common  to  indicate 
this  grammatical  relation  by  appending  an  inflectional  ending  to  the  second 
title  as  the  one  that  stands  in  immediate  contact  with  the  governing  word: 
das  großherzige  Entgegenkommen  des  Geheimen  Medizinalrats  Professors 
Dr.  Külz  {Weser-Zeitung);  des  Feldmarschalls  Prinzen  Eugen  or  des  Feld- 
marschalls Prinz  Eugen  (both  forms  given  in  Nagl's  Deutsche  Sprachlehre,  p. 
167);  die  Truppen  des  Generals  Grafen  Bothmer  {Großes  Hauptquartier,  Sept. 
1,  1915);  im  Beisein  des  Oberbefehlshabers,  Feldmarschalls  Erzherzog  Frie- 
drich (ib.,  May  3,  1915). 

Often  the  last  title  and  name  are  considered  as  a  compound  noun  and  hence 
the  inflectional  ending  is  added  only  to  the  second  element:  der  Empfang  Seiner 
Majestät  Kaiser  Wilhelms  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Nov.  9,  1904);  aus  der 
Kunstkammer  des  fürstlichen  Mä'zens  Herzog  Albrechts  V.  von  Bayern  (Dr. 
Ph.  M.  Halm  in  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeit.,  June  6, 1905) ;  die  Feier  des  ersten 


104 INFLECTION   OF   TITLES 92.  2.  h. 

Geburtstages  unseres  jüngsten  Hohenzollern,  Prinz  Wilhelms  (Daheim,  1907, 
Nr.  41).  Compare  this  last  example  with  the  first  one  from  Nagl's  Deutsche 
Sprachlehre  given  above. 

If  a  second  or  later  title  is  preceded  by  the  article  it  must  of  course  be  inflected : 
die  Freude  Seiner  Majestät  des  Kaisers. 

3.  An  appended  title  is  in  case  of  persons  inflected  whether  the  preceding 
name  is  declined  or  not:  die  lange  Regierung  Friedrichs  or  König  Friedrichs 
des  Großen,  or  die  lange  Regierung  des  Königs  Friedrich  des  Großen;  Hein- 
richs des  Finklers  Name;  Max'  I.  (read  des  Ersten)  Gemahlin;  but  non-inflec- 
tion in  case  of  names  of  ships:  zu  Ehren  der  Offiziere  des  deutschen  Linien- 
schiffes „Kaiser  Karl  der  Große"  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  July  27,  1905), 
die  Entsendung  des  Kaiser  Karl  der  Große  ( Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  July  28,  1905). 
Some  prefer  to  drop  s  in  the  first  example,  as  the  inflection  of  the  appended  title 
clearly  marks  the  case  relation :  der  Bruder  Friedrich  des  Großen  ( Fontane's 
Vor  dem  Sturm,  IL  14),  bald  nach  dem  Regierungsantritt  Friedrich  Wilhelm  L 
(Hamb.  Nachr.,  Oct.  29,  1904).  This  usage,  however,  seems  in  general  to  be 
yielding  to  the  tendency  to  mark  grammatical  relations  clearly  in  both  elements. 
The  title  alone  may  be  inflected  in  case  of  junior,  senior:  auf  dem  Bette  Butze- 
mann juniors  (Raabe's  Deutscher  Adel,  chap,  xx),  Raabe  juniors  Stimme  (Halbe's 
AI  utter  Erde,  p.  157).  We  also  often  hear:  die  Stimme  Raabes  junior.  If  the 
name  is  preceded  by  an  article  the  title  here  remains  uninflected :  das  Hochzeits- 
geschenk des  Herrn  Eckhart  senior  (Baumbach's  Der  Schiviegersohn,  chap,  xi ). 

4.  Such  words  as  Freund,  Vater,  &c.,  are  often  treated  as  titles:  Das  ist 
Freund  Müllers  Frau. 

5.  The  word  following  von  in  names  originally  marked  the  residence  or 
locality  As  the  use  of  von  became  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  prerogative 
of  nobility  the  word  after  von  became  fixed  and  gradually  lost  its  force  so  that 
it  is  now  felt  as  a  part  of  the  name,  and  hence  the  s  is  appended  to  it:  Otto  von 
Bismarcks  Reden.  Some  inflect  the  name  here  according  to  the  principle 
described  in  1.  a  and  2.  b  above.  The  genitive  -s  is  appended  to  that  part  of 
the  name  that  stands  in  direct  contact  with  the  governing  noun.  Thus  if  the 
name  precedes  the  governing  noun,  the  ending  is  appended  to  the  end  of  the 
name,  as  in  the  example  just  given.  If  the  name  follows  the  governing  noun  the 
ending  is  added  to  that  part  of  the  name  that  stands  before  the  von,  as  it  is  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  governing  noun:  die  Reden  Ottos  von  Bismarck, 
das  Leben  Götzens  von  Berlichingen  (Goethe),  die  Braut  Friedrichs  von  Glim- 
mern (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap,  xii),  ein  Jugendporträt  Wilhelms  von  Oranien 
(Kölnische  Zeitung,  No.  1,  1895),  Leben  und  Bildnis  Friedrichs  von  Hagedorn 
(title  of  a  book  by  Hubert  Stierling,  published  in  1911).  Present  usage,  however, 
seems  to  prefer  here  inflection  at  the  end  of  the  entire  name  as  it  is  felt  as  a  unit, 
a  compound,  and  like  a  compound  takes  inflection  at  the  end:  der  jüngere 
Bruder  Friedrich  von  Hagedorns  (Daniel  Sanders's  Deutsche  Literaturgeschichte, 
p.  81),  im  Zeitalter  Otto  von  Bismarcks  (Fontane's  Cecile,  XIII),  zwei  Briefe 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldts  (Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  1901,  No.  84).  Das 
ist  eine  Beleidigung  des  Andenkens  unseres  Väterchens  und  Professor  von 
Rangenhof  ens  (G.  Ompteda).  Thus  in  accordance  with  this  conception  the 
name  always  has  inflection  at  the  end,  whether  it  precedes  or  follows  the  govern- 
ing noun.  The  other  type  with  the  inflection  of  the  word  before  the  von  is  now 
rarely  generalized  so  that  it  is  also  employed  when  the  name  precedes  the  gov- 
erning noun:  Alberts  von  Köstnitz  Vater  (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Die  Freude  am 
Licht,  II,  p.  52).  Of  course,  this  type  is  not  infrequent  in  learned  literature 
dealing  with  older  periods  where  historic  names  occur  in  which  the  word  after 
the  von  is  a  real  dative,  a  name  of  an  actual  place:  Wolframs  von  Eschenbach 
Parzival  und  Titurel  (name  of  a  book  by  Ernst  Martin,  Halle  1903 ).  This  type  is 
still  in  lull  force  where  the  word  after  von  is  the  name  of  an  actual  place  or  coun- 
try: Friedrich  Wilhelms  HL  (read  des  Dritten)  von  Preußen  lange  Regierung. 

In  our  own  time  it  is  again  common  to  distinguish  individuals  by  mentioning 
the  place  where  they  live,  which  is  now  placed  after  the  name  as  an  appositive 


93.  1. PLURAL   OF   NAMES 105 

to  it:  Schmidt-Berlin.  A  little  earlier  in  the  period  von  was  placed  before 
the  name  of  the  place  as  in  older  German:  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben,  &c. 
This  usage  has  been  abandoned  as  the  von  here  easily  creates  the  false  impres- 
sion that  it  indicates  a  title  of  nobility. 

6.  The  title  Frau  is  placed  before  the  name  and  rank  of  the  husband,  and 
Frau  or  Fräulein  before  a  designation  of  relationship,  and  usually  alone  has 
inflection,  if  the  article  or  a  pronominal  precedes:  (die)  Frau  Schmidt,  gen.  der 
Frau  Schmidt,  &c.,  but  Frau  Schmidts  Sohn;  (die)  Frau  Professor,  (die)  Frau 
Doktor,  (die)  Frau  Oberst,  &c.;  Ihre  Frau  Mutter,  Ihre  Frau  Tante,  Ihr  (Ihre) 
Fräulein  Tante,  &c.  Earlier  in  the  period  -in  was  often  added  to  the  title  and 
still  occasionally  occurs:  die  Frau  Professorin  (Goethe).  In  a  number  of  cases 
the  old  ending  -in  is  still  usually  employed:  (die)  Frau  Rätin  or  Rat,  (die)  Frau 
Geheime  Rätin,  (die)  Frau  Senatorin,  die  Gräfin  or  die  Frau  Gräfin,  die  Her- 
zogin or  die  Frau  Herzogin,  die  Königin  or  die  Frau  Königin,  die  Kaiserin 
Friedrich  the  wife  of  Emperor  Frederick,  &c.;  Ihre  Frau  Gemahlin,  Ihre  Frau 
Schwägerin,  Ihr  (Ihre)  Fräulein  Schwägerin,  &c.  If  the  title  is  preceded  by 
an  adjective,  or  is  itself  an  adjective,  the  adjective  must  be  inflected:  Frau 
Geheime  Rätin,  Frau  Abgeordnete  Zeitz  (name). 

Instead  of  Frau  or  Fräulein  the  fem.  article  is  often  placed  before  the  name, 
which  in  popular  language  often  adds  in  (usually  corrupted  to  en)  and  in  N.G. 
dialect  also  sehe  (see  245.  I.  6.  L  c):  die  Marlitt  Miss  Marlitt  (the  pseudonym 
of  a  well-known  authoress),  die  Schulzen  (corruption  of  Schulzin)  Mrs.  Schulz, 
die  Beckerin  or  Beckersche  Mrs.  Becker,  die  Frau  Pastorsche  (Raabe's  Odfeld, 
chap.  xxii).  Formerly  in  was  added  to  the  name  also  in  the  literary  language: 
die  Gottschedin  (authoress,  1713-G2),  die  Karschin  (poetess,  1722-91). 

In  case  of  males  Herr  is  placed  before  the  designation  of  relationship  or  rank, 
and  is  always  inflected:  Ihr  Herr  Vater,  Ihres  Herrn  Vaters;  Ihr  Herr  Bruder, 
&c.;  Ihr  Herr  Gemahl,  &c.;  Ihr  Herr  Chef  your  employer;  der  Herr  Oberst, 
&c.,  Herr  Oberst  (direct  address);  der  Herr  Professor,  &c.,  Herr  Professor 
(direct    address). 

Plural  of  Names  of  Persons  and  Places. 

93.  There  is  considerable  diversity  of  usage  in  the  formation  of  the  plural 
of  names  of  persons  and  places: 

1,  The  favorite  formation  in  familiar  language  is  either  to  add  s  ('s, 
or  ens  after  sibilants)  to  the  name  or  title  used  as  a  name,  or  less  frequently 
to  leave  the  name  undeclined  in  all  the  cases:  Müllers  haben  Besuch  The 
Müllers  have  company.  Kurz  darauf  traten  Lehweß's  ein  (Ernst  Heilborn's 
Kleefeld,  X).  Wir  gehen  zu  Schulzens,  zu  Doktors  We  are  going  to  Schulze's, 
to  the  family  of  the  doctor.  Zwei  Wolfs,  zwei  Maries  (or  very  commonly 
Marien  according  to  b.  (2)  below),  two  persons  by  the  name  of  Wolf,  Mary; 
die  beiden  Elisabeths  or  Elisabeth  (or  often  Elisabethen  and  sometimes  Elisa- 
bethe  according  to  b.  (2)),  but  usually  die  beiden  Agnes,  Ines  with  non-inflec- 
tion, to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  sibilant,  non-inflection  being  also  more  com- 
mon here  than  the  form  in  -en  according  to  b.  (2);  die  vielen  Ludwig  in  der 
französischen  Geschichte,  im  Familienhause  der  Weyland  (Raabe's  Wunnigely 
chap,  i),  die  beiden  Sarasin  (  Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Oct.  26,  1906)  the  two  Sarasins 
(well-known  scientists  and  travelers). 

Geographical  names  especially  remain  uninflected  in  the  plural:  die  beiden 
Frankfurt  the  two  cities  of  Frankfurt,  die  beiden  Mecklenburg  (or  Mecklen- 
burgs) the  two  Mecklenburgs. 

If  the  title  used  as  a  name  is  weak,  the  plural  is  formed  by  adding  ens: 
Präsidentens  treten  heute  eine  kleine  Reise  ins  Gebirge  an  The  family  of  the 
president  starts  out  on  a  little  trip  into  the  mountains  to-day.  Exzellenzens 
machen  umgehend  ihren  Gegenbesuch  (Hans  Arnold's  Nicht  Lügen).  Bei 
Kronprinzens  {Frankfurter  Zeit.,  May  1,  1914).  The  regular  plural  in  s  is  also 
used:  Ich  kann  doch  in  diesem  Aufzug  nicht  zu  Oberpräsidents  gehen  (Arnold's 


106     PLURAL   OF   NAMES 93.  1. 

Nicht  Lügen).  Titles  in  the  mixed  declension  add  s  in  the  plural:  Pro'fessors 
lassen  bitten  {ih.).  Zu  'Pastors  {ib.).  The  accent  in  the  last  two  nouns  indi- 
cates that  these  forms  are  in  fact  genitives.     See  a.     Compare  59.  IL  E. /. 

a.  In  such  examples  as  Wir  gehen  zu  Schulzes  the  es  is  now  felt  as  a  plural  ending,  altho 
the  noun  originally  was  a  gen.  sing,  dependent  upon  a  governing  noun  understood  such  as  An- 
gehörige. In  S.G.  popular  language  the  gen.  of  the  sing,  article  in  the  reduced  form  of  's  is  here 
still  placed  before  the  name,  even  tho  the  verb  plainly  shows  that  the  noun  is  felt  as  a  plural: 
's  Hartmanns  begleiteten  uns.      In  other  cases,  however,  as  in  die  beiden  Bertas  the  s  is  a  real 

plural  ending.  ,     i       •        r 

b.  INIanv  prefer  to  inflect  names  of  persons  according  to  the  regular  declension  for  common 
nouns,  as  follows:  (1)  Most  of  the  masculines  end  in  the  plural  in  e:  die  Wolfe,  Friedriche,  der 
letzte  der  Weylande  (Raabc's  Wunmgel,  chap,  ii)  the  last  of  the  Weylands,  &c.  Earlier  in  the 
period  the  plural  of  Hans  John  was  weak,  but  it  is  now  usually  Hanse,  or  when  used  as  a  common 
class  noun  Hanse  (see  70.  1.  c  (2)).  Sometimes  the  plural  of  the  proper  name  is  Hanse:  In 
„Westermiihlen"  waren  wir  beiläufig  mitunter  sechs  oder  sieben  Hanse  beisammen  und  es 
gehörte  Übung  dazu,  um  nicht  in  Konfusion  zu  geraten  (Storm  an  Alörikc,  Nov.  1S54).  (2)  INIost 
feminines  take  the  weak  plural  ending  en  except  those  in  a  and  y,  which  take  s  quite  uniformly: 
die  Marien,  Mathilden,  Adelheiden,  but  die  Bertas,  Nanny s,  cS:c.  Those  ending  in  a  consonant 
have  sometimes  a  strong  plural  according  to  the  unmutatcd  e-plural  class:  die  Elisabethe  instead 
of  the  more  common  wk.  form  Elisabethen.  Diminutives  in  -chen  and  -el  form  the  plural  ac- 
cording to  the  e-less  plural  class:  die  Hannchen,  Marthel.  (3)  Those  masculines  ending  in 
-e,  -eC  -en,  -er,  also  all  diminutives  in  -chen  and  -el,  take  no  ending  in  the  plural:  die  Luther, 
Schlegel,  Karlchen  &c.  (4)  Foreign  nouns  may  remain  uninflected,  but  may  also  add  -s  or  -e, 
and  some  in -0  may  add -nen  or -ne :  die  Noah,  Alba,  <S:c.;  die  Cagliostros  (ka-'liostRo:s),  &c.; 
die  Vir'gile,  &c.;  for  those  in  -as,  -es,  -us,  sec  79.  2.  d\  die  Scipi'onen,  weltberühmte  Cice'rone 
{Paulsen'' s  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  2nd  ed.  p.  51),  &c.  (5)  As  a  rule  names  of  persons 
are  not  inflected  according  to  the  mutated  e-plural  and  er-plural  classes  of  the  strong  declension, 
as  there  is  at  least  in  the  literary  language  an  aversion  to  mutation  here,  but  in  colloquial  speech 
mutated  plurals  can  also  be  found  after  the  analogy  of  common  nouns:  die  Wölfe  in  der  Schule, 
die  Quaste  (pi.  of  Quast)  (Fontane's  Wanderungen,  vol.  I,  chap.  Garz).  These  mutated  plurals 
are  not  infrequently  used  in  a  sarcastic  or  humorous  sense:  Es  wird  gewünscht,  daß  sämtliche 
Kortmänner  (pl.  of  Kortmaim)  in  Zukunft  ihre  unverschämten  Zudringlichkeiten  gefälligst 
unterlassen  (Stader).  Sie  ist  eine  Grünebaum,  und  die  Grünebäume  können  im  Notfall  die 
Zähne  zusammenbeißen  (Raabe's  Hunger  pastor,  chap.  i).  (6)  Only  the  names  of  nationalities 
and  a  few  famous  families  are  inflected  weak.  See  76.  I.  3  (toward  end).  Raabe  in  his  Eulen- 
pfingsten,  chap,  ix,  has  formed  the  plural  of  the  family  name  Nebelung  weak,  perhaps  facetiously 
after  the  analogy  of  the  mythical  dynasty  die  Nibelungen  (see  76.  I.  3,  toward  end).  Fontane 
in  his  Vor  dem  Sturm  forms  the  plural  of  the  family  name  Vitzewitz  according  to  the  e-plural 
class,  but  in  one  place  (I.l)  we  find  a  weak  plural  where  it  is  represented  as  a  part  of  an  inscrip- 
tion upon  a  house  of  the  year  1634:  Das  ist  der  Vitzewitzen  Haus.  Some  X.G.  authors  employ 
the  weak  plural  quite  commonly:  Leonie  des  Beaux!  Wie  klingt  dir  das  von  einer  Schneider- 
tochter hier  im  Lande  der  Fritzen  und  Karlinen?  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  71). 
Und  wenn  wir  hier  noch  drei  Dierksen  hätten  (Otto  Ernst's  Flachsmann  als  Erzieher,  3,  1). 
Das  war  die  Sippschaft  der  Uhlen  (Frcnssen's  Jörn  Uhl,  chap,  i,  and  often  elsewhere).  Die 
Ursleuen  der  alten  Zeit  waren  vielleicht  religiöse  Schwärmer  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  ii). 

c.  The  names  of  countries  and  places  usually  form  their  plural  with  s  or  remain  uninflected. 
The  plural  of  die  Schweiz,  however,  takes  e:  Die  Schweize  werden  immer  kleiner  (Fontane's 
Wandertmgen,  vol.  I,  chap.  Die  Ruppiner  Schweiz). 

2.  Some  make  a  shade  of  difference  in  meaning  between  the  uninflected 
plural  form  and  the  plural  in  s.  Li  the  sense  of  men  like,  all  proper  names 
remain  uninflected  in  the  plural,  while  they  end  in  s  to  designate  all  or  several 
members  of  a  family:  die  Scherer,  die  Grimm  men  like  Scherer,  Grimm,  but 
Brauns  sind  nicht  reich  The  Browns  (a  definite  family)  are  not  rich.  Here  again 
we  find  a  difference  of  usage.  In  the  former  meaning  we  now  more  commonly 
find  proper  names  inflected  according  to  the  regular  declension  for  common 
nouns,  as  described  in  L  ö  above:  die  Goethe  the  men  like  Goethe,  die  Luther, 
die  Bismarcke,  die  Sokratesse,  die  Scipionen,  die  Shakespeares,  <S:c.  Some- 
times, however,  we  find  uniformly  -s  here  even  with  German  names:  kleine 
Lindaus  und  Blumenthals  (A.  Bartels)  little  Lindaus  and  Blumenthals. 

Some  add  s  to  indicate  different  members  of  the  same  family  and  inflect  the 
name  according  to  the  regular  declensions,  to  distinguish  different  families  of 
the  same  name:  die  Schmidts  the  different  members  of  a  definite  family  by  the 
name  of  Schmidt.  Es  gibt  viele  Schmidte  (or  Schmidt)  There  are  many  fam- 
ilies of  the  name  of  Schmidt. 

3.  Two  or  more  names  are  often  found  in  the  singular  after  one  plural  arti^ 
cle,  which  indicates  the  case  of  each  of  the  proper  names  and  by  its  plural  form 


94.  1. PLURAL   OF    NAMES   &   TITLES 107 

shows  that  all  are  included  in  the  statement:  Goethe  war  menschlich  und 
dichterisch  den  Fielding  und  Smollet  überlegen.  Eichhorn  war  aus  der  Zeit 
der  Befreiungskriege  her  bekannt  als  ein  Freund  der  Arndt,  Schleiermacher, 
Perthes,  Reimer.  Die  Lindau  und  Genossen  Lindau  and  his  literary  following; 
die  Schmidt,  Vater  und  Sohn;  die  beiden  Stechlins,  Vater  und  Sohn  (Fontane's 
Stechlin,  chap,  ii);  and  also  without  the  article:  Stradnitz  Vater  und  Sohn 
(Marriot's  Seine  Gottheit,  chap,  vii),  von  Arnstein  Söhnen,  Wien  (H.  von  Hof- 
mannsthal's  Der  Abenteurer,  p.  161). 

Sometimes  we  find  not  only  a  plural  article  but  also  a  plural  adjective,  both 
of  which  show  by  their  plural  form  that  they  apply  to  all  the  proper  names: 
Bei  Steinau  zwang  er  die  völlig  überraschten  Thurn  und  Bubna  zu  schimpflicher 
Kapitulation. 

The  article  in  each  of  the  above  cases  has  collective  force,  and  hence  when  the 
names  are  to  be  taken  separatel}^  the  article  must  be  dropped:  Nachkommen 
von  Geschlechtern,  deren  Namen  mit  den  Tagen  Karl  Augusts,  Amalias, 
Goethes  für  immer  verknüpft  sind,  wollten  die  neuerfrischte  Goethearbeit 
fördern. 

Instead  of  the  definite  article  before  a  number  of  names  we  often  find  the 
indefinite  with  the  force  of  such  men  (ivomen)  as:  Zu  den  Dorfgeschichtener- 
zählern  stellen  wir  schUeßUch  auch  noch  einen  Dichter,  der  mit  seinen  Natur- 
und  Landschaftsschilderungen  einen  gewissen  Gegensatz  zu  den  Kultur-  und 
Sittengemälden  eines  Auerbach,  Rank  und  Rosegger  bildet,  Adalbert  Stifter 
(L.  Salomon).  Auf  der  anderen  Seite  wollen  wir  aber  auch  nicht  vergessen, 
daß  in  dem  Land  eines  Albert  Bitzius,  eines  Gottfried  Keller  und  eines  Konrad 
Ferdinand  Meyer  der  deutsche  Geist  mit  seine  herrlichsten  Blüten  getrieben 
hat  {Ilanib.  Correspondent,  July  5,  1902).     Compare  59.  I.  A.  d. 

4.  If  a  title  or  other  noun  stands  before  an  appositive  name,  the  plural  form 
depends  upon  the  relation  of  the  title  to  the  name.  If  title  and  name  are  usually 
found  together  and  are  thus  felt  as  one  name,  the  combination  is  accordingly 
treated  as  a  single  name,  and  hence  the  plural  ending  is  added  to  the  last  word 
of  the  combination:  die  Fräulein  Schmidts ///e  Miss  Schmidts;  ihr  Vogel  Strauße 
(Wildenbruch's  Uiiter  der  Geißel,  Werke,  IV,  p.  7).  Usage  here,  however, 
fluctuates  as  in  263.  I.  1.  a  and  also  in  English,  and  hence  we  also  find  die  Fräulein 
Schmidt  the  Misses  Schmidt,  especially  where  no  ambiguity  can  arise,  as  in  case 
of  a  modifying  word  or  a  plural  verb:  die  beiden  Fräulein  Schmidt.  Die 
Fräulein  Schmidt  sind  krank.  But  even  where  there  is  no  ambiguity  we  also 
find  the  pi.  in  s:  die  beiden  Fräulein  Felgentreus  (Fontane's  Frau  J.  T.,  iv). 
In  die  Frau  Mutter  the  second  word  usually  takes  the  pi.  form:  von  den  Frau 
Müttern  (Raabe's  Deutscher  Adel,  chap.  iii).  In  case  of  Herr,  however,  both 
words  are  inflected:  meine  lieben,  verehrten  Herrn  Leutnants  (Hartleben's 
Rosenynontag,  2.  3).  Also  in  case  of  Frau:  mit  den  Frauen  Müttern  (Raabe's 
Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  iv). 

If  the  title  or  other  noun  does  not  necessarily  form  a  part  of  the  appositive 
name,  but  is  felt  as  containing  a  definite  important  modification  of  it,  it  is  in- 
flected, while  the  name  itself  remains  uninflected:  die  Forschungen  der  beiden 
Vettern  Sarasin,  die  Gebrüder  Grimm,  bei  den  Schwestern  Fröhlich  (Marie  v. 
Najmajer  in  Jahrbuch  der  Grill  parzer-Gesellschaf t ,  XI Y,  p.  141).  Both  words 
are  often  inflected:  Meine  Vettern  Rambergs  (Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  3.  5). 
Grafen  Basedows  habe  es  im  Lande  gegeben,  solange  Menschen  zurück- 
denken könnten  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  209). 

Peculiarities  ix  the  Inflection  of  Nouns. 

94.  1.  Many  nouns,  especially  those  that  have  no  article  or  other  modifying 
word  before  them,  often  remain  uninflected.  Non-inflection  usually  results 
because  the  person  or  thing  is  conceived  abstractly  without  concrete  relations, 
or  the  noun  stands  for  a  definite  individual,  as  in  the  cases  in  d,  and  hence,  as 
proper  names  in  general,  resists  inflection  after  the  definite  article.     Inflection, 


108 PECULIARITIES    IN    NOUN    INFLECTION 94.  L 

however,  also  often  occurs  in  most  of  these  categories,  as  the  person  or  thing  is 
conceived  with  concrete  relations,  especially  in  the  plural,  which  is  always 
concrete,  or  the  writer  becomes  conscious  of  the  case  relation  and  in  a  mere 
mechanical  way  employs  inflection.     The  following  categories  are  common: 

a.  Unmodified  nouns  connected  by  und:  die  Grenze  zwischen  Affe  und 
Mensch,  das  Verhältnis  von  Herr  und  Sklave,  ein  Mann  von  Herz  und  Mut. 
Nun  setze  dich  dahin  zwischen  Herr  und  Frau  Dörr  (Fontane).  Sometimes  also 
with  inflection :  Dort  verabschiedete  er  sich  sofort  von  Herrn  und  Frau  Lehmann 
(Hirschfeld's  Das  grüne  Band,  viii).  Die  Kluft  zwischen  Fürsten  (here  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  IL)  und  Volk  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Sept.  3,  1910). 

Non-inflection  is  also  common  in  case  of  unmodified  nouns  connected  by 
weder  —  noch:  Du  meinst,  du  brauchst  weder  Gott  noch  Mensch  (Frenssen's 
Hilligenlei,  p.  530).  In  both  of  the  two  cases  here  discussed,  however,  a  plural 
assumes  its  proper  ending:  zwischen  Herr  und  Gesinde,  zwischen  Hausvater 
und  Familienmitgliedern  (Lamprecht's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  zweiter  Ergänzungs- 
band, p.  360). 

b.  In  a  list  of  unmodified  words:  die  Stufen  von  Lehrling,  Gesell  und 
Meister  the  different  stages  of  apprentice,  journeyman,  and  master.  Inflection 
is  also  found  here:  diese  Mischung  von  Pedanten,  Halbkünstler  und  Gesell- 
schaftsmenschen (Carl  Busse  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  July  1914, 
p.  470.)  Adjective-substantives  must  always  be  inflected:  die  Errettung  von 
Schiff,  Mannschaft  und  Reisenden. 

c.  As  an  unmodified  objective  predicate  (262.  III.  2.  A):  Der  Wirt  nannte 
mich  Graf  und  dann  Exzellenz  (Immermann).  Sometimes  inflection  occurs 
here :  Es  war  ungefähr  so,  wie  wenn  Sie  auf  der  Durchreise  nach  einem  andern 
Stern  wären  oder  von  einem  andern  kämen.  Kurz  was  man  so  Idealisten 
nennt  (Wilbrandt's  Franz,  III).  For  fluctuation  of  usage  after  reflexive  verbs 
see  218.  2.  b.  Except  in  case  of  reflexive  constructions  an  objective  predicate 
after  als  is  usually  inflected,  as  it  is  usually  necessary  to  show  the  case:  Er 
besang  den  Kaiser  als  Helden  (not  Held  as  the  form  could  be  construed  as  a 
nom.  agreeing  with  the  subject.).  Where  the  thought  is  perfectly  clear  the 
uninflected  form  may  be  used:  Besonders  die  Zentrumspresse  gibt  sich  ge- 
flissentlich Mühe,  es  als  Wille  des  Kaisers  hinzustellen,  daß  usw.  {Neue  Zürcher 
Zeit.,  Sept.  4,  1910).  The  abstract  meaning  of  Wille  here  suggested  non- 
inflection,  but  where  the  meaning  is  more  concrete  inflection  is  common  even 
where  non-inflection  would  not  impair  the  thought :  Eine  blonde  junge  Dame  hat 
ihr  Söhnchen  als  Husaren  gekleidet  (Eugen  Zabel's  Europäische  Fahrten,  p.  4). 

d.  As  an  unmodified  appositive:  das  Gebell  des  knurrischen  Hofhunds 
Gewissen  (Goethe's  Götz,  2,  1).  Dem  Ausgestoß'nen  seine  Tochter  geben, 
heißt  selbst  sich  um  den  Namen  Jude  bringen  (Gutzkow's  Uriel  Acosta, 
3,  4).  Und  doch  war  er  (the  artist  Menzel)  ja  Verkörperung  des  preußischen 
Begriffs  Soldat  (K.  Storck  in  Der  Türmer,  March  1905).  The  noun  which  the 
appositive  explains  may  in  German  be  suppressed:  Was  verstehen  Sie  unter 
Engel?  Aber  kommen  Sie  mir  nicht  mit  [dem  Wort]  Flügel  (Fontane's  Frau 
Jenny,  chap.  ix).  The  appositive  in  all  these  cases  is  seemingly  a  common  class 
noun,  but  it  has  the  force  of  a  proper  noun,  as  explained  in  255.  III.  1.  B.  A 
proper  noun  is  still  more  common  here:   der  Sohn  des  Pastors  Schmidt. 

e.  Modified  or  unmodified  nouns  that  have  become  so  closely  associated  with 
a  verb  as  to  form  one  idea  with  it,  especially  in  the  predicate  relation:  Wir  |sind 
nicht  mehr  Herr  über  das,  was  entsprungen  ist,  aber  wir  sind  Herr,  es  un- 
schädHch  zu  machen  (Goethe's  Wahlvenv.  2,  12).  Unter  Umständen  können 
wir  alle  Modell  sein  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  2,  p.  58).  Aber  wir 
wurden  Zeuge  eines  zweiten  Vorfalls  (Ompteda's  Der  Doppelgänger).  Nach 
einigen  Wochen  schon  waren  sie  gut  Freund  mit  mir  (Marriot's  Seine  Gottheit, 
chap.  ii).  Sometimes  also  in  the  accusative  relation.  For  an  example  see 
257.  2.  A,  last  two  sentences. 

/.  In  case  of  an  unmodified  noun  that  stands  before  a  preposition  and  is 
repeated  again  after  it:    Sie  ruhten  Herz  an  Herz.     Also  in  case  of  a  single 


94.  3.  A.  PECULIARITIES   IN    NOUN    INFLECTION 109 

unmodified  noun  following  a  preposition,  where  the  meaning  is  abstract:  Was 
für  *ne  Sorte  von  Graf  ist  das?  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  2,  6).  Er  war  zwar 
wunderlich,  ein  Stück  von  Eremit  (Timm  Kröger's  Ein  geistlich  Armer). 

g.  Neut.  and  masc.  nouns  used  in  a  collective  sense  after  expressions  of 
weight,  measure,  extent,  or  quantity.     See  96.  4.  (1). 

2.  An  unmodified  noun  in  the  singular  following  von  in  a  phrase  which 
stands  as  an  appositive  to  a  preceding  noun  usually  remains  uninflected  in  the 
singular:  ein  armer  Teufel  von  Philologe  (Schücking),  ein  Juwel  von  Herzens- 
mensch (F.  Lienhard),  eine  Seele  von  Mensch  (Gustav  Krüger),  als  Sohn 
eines  Prachtmenschen  von  Vater  {Frankfurter  Zeit.,  May  31,  1914).  Schau- 
dern würde  ich  vor  dem  Ungeheuer  von  Mensch,  das  solches  vermöchte 
(Engel's  Em  Tagebuch,  I.  p.  11).  Sometimes  inflection  in  the  oblique  cases: 
Er  schalt  ,,den  Lümmel  von  Jungen*',  der  von  ,, Tuten  und  Blasen  nichts  wüßte" 
(Frenssen's  Jörn  Uhl,  chap,  xviii).  Lieber  wollte  er  untergehen,  lieber  seine 
Kinder  vor  seinen  Augen  sterben  sehen,  als  seine  oder  ihre  Rettung  einem 
elenden  Kerl  von  Bauern  danken  zu  müssen  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Jokob  Szela, 
p.  104).  In  the  plural  the  dative  form  is  required:  Und  meine  Hunde  von 
Reitern!  (Goethe's  Got::,  3,  13);  wir  beiden  dummen  Jungen  von  Medizinern 
(Hartleben's  Das  Kalbscotelette).  If  an  article  precedes,  the  dative  is  also 
required  in  the  sing.:  ein  Schurke  von  einem  Soldaten  (Lessing's  Minna,  3. 11). 
See  also  104.  1.  A.  a  and  B.  c. 

3.  A.  When  a  noun  modifies  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  weight,  measure, 
extent,  quantity,  or  kind,  and  forms  together  with  it  the  idea  of  one  complete 
whole,  it  stands  in  the  gen.  only  in  choice  language,  while  in  the  ordinary  language 
of  every  day  it  more  commonly  stands  in  apposition  with  the  preceding  noun 
of  weight,  measure,  extent,  or  quantity,  except  when  that  preceding  noun  is  in 
the  gen.  sing.,  in  which  case  it  more  commonly  takes  the  form  of  the  nom- 
inative: ein  Pfund  Fleisch  (instead  of  Fleisches,  which  is  now  obsolete),  ein 
Glas  guter  Wein  (or  in  choice  language  guten  Weins,  as  the  genitive  is  here 
preserved  when  it  is  modified),  der  Preis  des  Pfundes  Fleisch  (instead  of  Flei- 
sches), mit  einem  Dutzend  guten  Äpfeln  (or  often  guter  Äpfel),  Vasen  aus 
(made  out  of)  einer  Art  schönem  Marmor,  zehn  Grad  Kälte  ten  degrees  of 
frost,  i.e.  below  the  freezing-point,  zehn  Grad  Wärme  ten  degrees  above  the 
freezing-point,  (Er  gab  mir)  ein  Wörtchen  Antwort  an  answer  of  a  word  or  so, 
a  short  answer,  ein  Stab  von  40  Zentimeter  Länge,  ein  weißer  Bau  mit  fünf 
Fenster  Front,  zerrissen  von  Tausenden  Geschossen,  vielen  Tausend  Deutschen 
bekannt,  2000  Mark  Anfangsgehalt,  200  Mark  Zulage,  zwanzig  Prozent  Er- 
sparnis, fünf  Prozent  Rabatt,  fünf  Prozent  Dividende,  drei  Prozent  Zinsen, 
dreitausend  Mark  Schulden,  300  Mark  Kassenvorrat,  drei  Jahre  Balkan  three 
years  in  the  Balkans,  drei  Jahre  Elend  or  des  Elends,  drei  Jahre  Krankheit, 
(Er  bat  um)  eine  Minute  gnädiges  Gehör,  nach  einem  AugenbHck  Nach- 
denken or  des  Nachdenkens,  nach  einer  Stunde  Rast,  nach  einer  Stunde 
Marsch,  nach  drei  Wochen  Warten  or  des  Wartens,  nach  vier  Jahren  Frist 
after  a  period  of  four  years,  6  Tage  bis  1  (read  einen)  Monat  Gefängnis  from 
six  days  to  one  month's  imprisonment,  zu  sechs  Jahren  Zuchthaus  verurteilt, 
in  einem  halben  Hundert  Häusern,  in  MilUonen  Köpfen,  seit  MiUiarden 
Jahren,  seit  einem  halben  Dutzend  Jahren,  mit  einem  schön  gebundenen 
Band  Goethe,  eine  Partie  Schach.  Er  kauft  ein  Dutzend  gute  Stahlfedern. 
Dem  Rackold  (name)  war  dann  der  Zuwuchs  der  Waise  allerdings  eine  harte 
Sache  zu  seinen  eigenen  sieben  Stück  Kindern  (Walther  Siegfried's  Um  der 
Heimat  ivillen,  III).  Kartal  ist  eine  Stunde  Eisenbahn  von  Konstanti'nopel 
entfernt  Cartal  is  an  hour's  ride  by  rail  from  Constantinople.  In  Ostafrika  hat 
man  in  acht  Jahren  128  km.  (Kilometer)  Bahn  gebaut  {Deutsche  Kolonialzeit. 
Jahrg.  21,  No.  23,  p.  224).  Wer  einmal  über  4000  Spalten  Wörterbuch  hinter  sich 
gebracht  hat  usw.  (Hermann  Fischer  in  Zeitschrift  für  deutsche  Wortforschung, 
1910,  p.  134)  whoever  has  already  published  over  4000  columns  of  a  dictionary,  &c. 

The  gen.  ending  s  of  the  noun  denoting  the  weight  or  measure  is  often  sup- 
pressed, while  the  dependent  word  has  the  regular  gen.  form:  zum  Ankauf  eines 


no PECULIARITIES    IN    NOUN    INFLECTION  94.  3.  A. 

Stück  Viehs  (Raabe's  Die  Innerste,  chap.  i).  Wir  sollen  uns  des  kleinen 
Stückchen  festen  Bodens  freuen  (Hans  Dragendorff  in  Deutsche  Monatsschrift, 
April  1906,  p.  41).  The  gen.  ending  s  of  the  noun  denoting  the  weight  or  meas- 
ure is  sometimes  suppressed,  while  the  following  noun  is  without  inflection: 
die  Hälfte  des  halben  Schoppen  Apfelwein  (Raabe's  Eulenpfingsten,  chap.  x). 

It  must  be  noticed  that  in  case  of  a  pi.  noun  of  weight,  measure,  or  quantity, 
the  following  noun  in  apposition  can  sometimes  alone  show  the  case,  as  the 
noun  denoting  weight,  &c.  has  the  same  form  for  sing,  and  pi.  and  cannot  dis- 
tinguish case  relations  in  the  pi.:  mit  zwei  Dutzend  Äpfeln,  mit  drei  Schock 
Eiern,  ein  Viehstand  von  50-60  Haupt  Rindern. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  weight,  measure,  &c.  sometimes  follows  the 
dependent  noun  and  may  even  be  separated  from  it  by  one  or  more  words,  in 
which  case  words  modified  by  a  limiting  adjective  (see  B)  can  also  take  the 
appositional  construction:  Harmonisches  Getön  war  wenig  dabei  (Raabe's 
Horn  von  Wanza,  chap.  xvi).  Sonst  bot  es  (i.e.  das  Gedicht)  angreifbare 
Punkte  die  Menge  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  I.  chap.  xvii).  Einfache  Zahl- 
adverbia  gibt  es  nur  wenige  (Braune's  Althochdeutsche  Grammatik,  p.  202). 
Solche  Fehler  können  die  Menge  im  Plinius  sein.  For  historical  explanation 
see  255.  II.  1.  H.  a,  2nd  par. 

a.  Instead  of  the  appositional  construction  the  dependent  noun  often  in  colloquial  speech 
prefers  the  nom.  form  of  each  number  thruout  that  number,  except  in  the  masc.  ace.  sing,  and 
the  dat.  pt.,  where  the  appositional  construction  is  the  rule:  der  Preis  eines  Fuders  österreichi- 
scher Wein  the  price  of  a  fuder  (a  measure)  of  Austrian  wine,  samt  einem  Fuder  österreichischer 
Wein,  ein  Fuder  (acc.)  österreichischen  Wein,  der  Preis  eines  Paars  wollene  Strümpfe,  mit 
einem  Paar  wollenen  Strümpfen.  Titles,  however,  remain  uniformly  in  the  nominative:  Dreißig 
Jahre  deutscher  Schulverein  the  activities  of  the  German  School  Association  during  a  period  of 
thirty  years.     Ich  habe  die  zwei  Bände  Grüner  Heinrich  gelesen. 

In  Austrian  authors  the  dative  is  sometimes  found  instead  of  the  appositional  construction: 
Aber  auch  ein  gut  Stück  menschlicher  Schwäche  und  echt  österreichischem  Behagen  an  guter 
Speise,  am  Wein,  am  Lachen  lächelte  aus  ihm  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Haindlkinder,  p.  148). 
For  the  Austrian  tendency  to  use  the  dative  instead  of  the  appositional  construction  see  256. 
III.  1.  A.  k). 

b.  With  names  of  streets,  months,  and  seasons  the  article  often  drops  out  and  the  gen.  then 
gives  way  to  the  appositional  construction,  or  more  commonly  retains  the  nom.  form  thruout: 
Ecke  Hoher  Steinweg  on  the  corner  of  the  High  Causeway,  mit  dem  Anfang  Juli  or  Anfang  Juli 
with  the  beginning  of  July,  Ende  Dezember,  Ausgangs  Sommer,  and  always  so  in  naming  the 
day  of  the  month:  der  erste  [Tag  understood]  Mai  the  first  of  May.  In  a  more  careful  style 
also,  inflection:  an  der  Ecke  der  Buckowerstraf5e  und  des  Luisenufers,  am  Ende  des  Dezember. 

c.  The  gen.  also  gives  way  to  the  appositional  construction  in  certain  cases  of  proper  nouns 
where  possession  is  not  to  be  emphasized,  but  where  it  is  desired  to  show  that  the  proper  name 
is  closely  identified  with  the  thing  expressed  by  the  preceding  noun:  das  Porträt  W,  Zimmermann 
the  portrait  of  (i.e.  representing)  W.  Zimmermann,  zehn  Grad  Fahrenheit,  Celsius,  Reaumur 
ten  degrees  Fahrenheit,  Celsius,  Reaumur,  der  Antrag  Rümelin  the  motion  made  by  Rümelin, 
im  Verlage  der  bekannten  Kunstanstalt  Rudolf  Schuster,  Berlin  published  in  the  well-known  art 
institution  conducted  by  Rudolph  Schuster,  Berlin,  die  Leipziger  Maschinenfabrik  Karl  Krause 
the  machine  works  of  K.  K.  in  Leipzig,  der  Prozeß  Reinsdorff  the  law  suit  carried  on  by  or  against 
Reinsdorff,  das  vor  einigen  Tagen  vorgekommene  Duell  Kotze-Schrader  the  duel  which  took 
place  a  few  days  ago  between  Messrs.  Kotze  and  Schrader,  Ferdinand  Schmidt  Nachfolger  (on  a 
sign)  Ferdinand  Schmidt,  now  followed  by  a  successor,  der  gräfliche  Zweig  Eysen  (G.  Ompteda) 
the  branch  of  the  Eysens  that  has  the  rank  of  counts,  die  Arche  Noah  Noah's  ark,  die  Villa 
Schlrmacher  the  villa  of  Mr.  S.  Sie  fuhren  in  den  Bahnhof  Kassel  (into  the  railroad  station  at 
Cassel)  ein  und,  ebenfalls  glücklicherweise,  bald  weiter  (Raabe's  Giitnianns  Reisen,  chap.  iv). 
Methode  Schliemann  zur  Erlernung  der  englischen  Sprache  Schliemann's  method  of  learning 
English, das  Ministerium  Windischgrätz  the  ministry  formed  by  prime  minister  Windischgrätz, 
die  Armeegruppe  Mackensen  {Großes  Hauptquartier,  May  8,  1915).  And  often  by  Luther  where 
we  should  expect  a  gen.:  die  Tochter  Pharao,  die  Zedern  Libanon.  This  idiom  is  also  very 
common  with  geographical  names:  Das  Elsässische  erstreckt  sich  von  einer  Linie  Zabem, 
Weißenburg,  Seltz  südwärts  bis  usw.  The  Alsatian  dialect  extends  from  a  line  passing  thru 
Zabern,  Weißenburg,  Seltz,  southward  to,  &c.  Der  Plan  einer  Bahn  Posen-Warschau,  im 
Abendschnellzug  Breslau-Gleiwitz,  beim  Überlandflug  Berlin-München,  Hansen-Dresden 
Hansen  who  lives  in  Dresden,  to  distinguish  one  man  from  another  of  the  same  name,  and  simi- 
larly Hansen-Bonbon  Hansen  the  manufacturer  of  bonbons,  coined  facetiously  to  distinguish 
this  Hansen  from  others  of  the  same  name. 

B.  The  gen.  alone  can  be  used  in  all  the  above  cases  if  the  dependent  noun 
is  modified  by  an  article  or  a  limiting  adjective:  ein  Pfund  guter  Tee  or  besserer 


94.  6. PECULIARITIES   IN   NOUN   INFLECTION 11_1 

Tee,  but  des  besten  Tees,  ein  Pfund  unseres  Tees,  &c.  The  dat.  after  von 
here  often  takes  the  place  of  the  gen.:  einer  von  diesen  Männern.  For  an 
important  exception  to  the  general  rule  see  last  part  of  A. 

4.  Titles  of  books,  &c.  are  inflected,  or  more  commonly  uninflected:  in 
Hauptmanns  , »Einsamen  Menschen,"  in  „Der  Fleck  auf  der  Ehre."  See  also 
255.  III.  1.  A.  g. 

5.  The  inflectional  ending  is  sometimes  affixed  only  to  the  second  of  two 
nouns  connected  by  und,  to  emphasize  their  oneness  of  meaning  (see  249.  II. 
2.  F.  a):  der  Besitz  eigenen  Grund  und  Bodens;  von  Gott  und  Rechts  wegen 
by  rights;  trotz  Sturm  und  Regens;  aus  der  Mitte  seines  energischen  Tun 
und  Treibens  (Raabe's  P.M.,  xviii);  Verlust  ihres  Hab  und  Gutes;  ein  un- 
bändiger Geselle  mit  einem  Tropfen  des  Marloweschen  Sturm  und  Dranges 
{Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Feb.  11,  1905),  but  also  with  the  inflection  of  both  words: 
von  Seiten  unseres  neuesten  Sturms  und  Drangs  in  der  deutschen  Literatur 
(Konrad  Falke  in  Deutsche  Monatsschrift,  Sept.  1906,  p.  862).  The  inflection 
of  the  second  of  a  pair  of  words  connected  by  und  was  employed  freely  in  early 
N.H.G.:  vmb  Korn  vnd  Mosts  willen  (Luther),  mit  geschenck  vnnd  gabenn 
(id.),  or  also  with  inflection  of  the  first  word,  mit  gesetzen  oder  werck  (id.). 
This  usage  is  still  not  infrequent  in  the  classical  period:  mit  mancherlei  Mängel 
und  Gebrechen  (Goethe);  an  Tier  und  Vögeln  fehlt  es  nicht  (id.,  Faust,  1.  238). 
Von  Sonn  und  Welten  weiß  ich  nichts  zu  sagen  (ib.,  1.  279).  With  the  exception 
of  a  few  set  expressions,  as  those  given  above,  it  is  now  rare:  Dann  hört  man 
sie  auf  Trepp  und  Gängen  stöhnen  (Storm's  Im  Nachbarhause  links). 

6.  When  compound  nouns  have  been  formed  by  writing  as  one  word  a  noun 
and  a  preceding  modifying  adjective  which  enters  the  compound  with  its  in- 
flected form,  the  adjective  is  declined  thruout  as  if  it  stood  apart  from  the  noun: 
der  Hohepriester  the  high  priest,  des  Hohenpriesters,  ein  Hoherpriester.  If 
such  a  compound  enter  again  into  a  new  compound  of  which  it  is  itself  the  first 
component  element  and  another  noun  the  second,  the  inflected  adjective  of  the 
first  component  element  usually  agrees  illogically  with  the  second  component 
element:  der  arme  Sünder  the  condemned  criminal,  but  ein  bleiches  Armes- 
sündergesicht a  pale  face  of  a  condem?ied  criminal,  das  bleiche  Armesünder- 
gesicht, zu  den  Ärmensünderf rühstücken ;  das  Schwärze  Meer  the  Black 
Sea,  but  die  übrigen  Schiffe  der  Schwärzen-Meer-Flotte  ( Neue  Zürcher 
Zeit.  July  1,  1905);  Tausend  und  eine  Nacht  The  Arabian  Nights,  but  wie 
ein  Abend  aus  dem  Täusendundeinennächtbüch  (Raabe's  Zum  Wilden 
Mann,  chap.  vii).  Such  compounds  are  mere  syntactical  fragments  struggling 
toward  the  estate  of  a  true  compound.  The  adjective  is  inflected,  since  it  is 
customary  for  adjectives  to  be  inflected,  and  usage  here  as  elsewhere  requires 
adjective  inflectional  forms  to  follow  the  last  component.  A  more  logical 
system  of  inner  inflection  is  to  construe  as  often  as  possible  the  first  noun  of  the 
compound  as  nominative  singular  or  plural  and  allow  the  adjective  of  the  com- 
pound to  agree  with  it:  in  der  Max  H.-Kaserne  (read  Max  der  Zweite  Ka- 
serne), Meuterei  auf  der  Schwärze-Meer-Flotte  {Allgemeine  Zeit.,  June  30, 
1905;  the  first  dement  of  the  compound  Schwarze-Meer  in  the  nom.  with  the 
weak  inflection  of  the  adjective,  as  the  adjective  in  this  combination  is  outside 
of  compounds  usually  preceded  by  the  definite  article),  ein  Armesündergesicht 
a  face  such  as  poor  condemned  criminals  have.  Von  Armeleutemalerei  als 
kunsthistorischem  Begriffe  ist  in  einem  eben  erschienenen  Hefte  die  Rede. 
Instead  of  the  nominative  sing,  or  pi.  we  often  in  the  South  find  in  a  few  words 
like  Armesündergesicht,  &c.  the  gen.  pi.  of  the  first  noun  preceded  by  the  weak 
gen.  pi.  of  its  modifying  adjective:  das  Armensünderglöckchen  (Gottfried 
Keller's  Dietegen  in  L.  v.  S.  II,  p.  192).  A  still  more  logical  way  of  declining 
such  compounds,  bound  to  triumph  tho  in  many  cases  not  as  yet  employed  or 
not  so  common  as  the  above,  is  to  form  them  into  genuine  compounds  and  dis- 
pense with  the  inflection  of  the  adjective  of  the  first  element:  das  bleiche 
Ärmsündergesicht,  die  Schwärzmeerflotte  the  Black  Sea  fleet,  &c.  still 
with  their  original  group-stress,  while  others  have  the  principal  stress  upon  the 


112 PECULIARITIES   IN   NOUN   INFLECTION 94.6. 

first  component  after  the  manner  of  old  com-pounds:   Kürzwären  hard-ware, 
&c.     Compare  249.  II.  2  and  also  A  thereunder. 

In  many  cases  such  compounds  are  not  written  together  as  forming  one  word, 
altho  they  are  entitled  to  such  recognition  as  well  as  the  preceding:  der  silberne 
Kreuzbund  Society  of  the  Silver  Cross,  &c.  A  number  of  similar  formations,  as 
ein  geräucherter  Fischhändler,  reitende  Artilleriekaserne  (inscription  formerly 
upon  the  barracks  near  the  'Oranienburger  Tor'  in  Berlin),  ein  ausgestopfter 
Tierhändler,  ein  wohlriechender  Wasserfabrikant,  ein  dreistöckiger  Haus- 
besitzer, &c.,  are  capable  of  a  comical  construction,  a  smoked  fiskdealer,  instead 
of  a  smoked-fish  dealer,  &c.  The  comical  feature  of  this  clumsy  construction 
has  helped  to  bring  it  into  disrepute  and  facilitate  the  movement  toward  the 
form  of  a  genuine  compound,  mentioned  above. 

7.  In  a  few  modern  compounds  (249.  II.  2),  which  in  reality  are  each  only  a 
fragment  of  a  sentence  written  together  as  one  word,  that  element  of  the  com- 
pound may  be  inflected  which  in  the  syntactical  structure  of  the  sentence  would 
be  inflected,  or  the  compounds  may  remain  wholly  uninflected:  die  Handvoll 
handful,  pi.  zwei  Hände  voll  or  Handvoll.  Some  of  these  compounds  are  now 
felt  more  or  less  as  old  compounds  and  hence  are  treated  as  such,  the  final  ele- 
ment alone  being  inflected:  der  Springinsfeld  romp,  des  Springinsfeld  (es),  pi. 
Springinsfelde.     See  80.  2  and  249.  IL  2. 

8.  A  fossil  noun  in  an  oblique  case  may  not  be  felt  as  such  and  hence  con- 
strued as  a  simple  stem:  M.H.G.  ze  den  wihen  nahten  (dat.  pi.)  on  the  holy 
nights,  now  Weihnachten  construed  as  a  fem.,  neut.,  or  masc.  sing.  See  96.  1. 
Compare  88. 

9.  Feminine  nouns  are  not  now  in  general  inflected  in  the  sing.,  but  the 
following  exceptions  occur: 

1.  The  following  groups  of  feminines  take  an  s  in  the  gen.  sing,  after  the  manner  of  strong 
masculines  and  neuters: 

a.  Feminine  names.     See  86.  1  and  2.  b. 

b.  Names  of  relationships  and  feminine  titles  when  used  as  names.     See  90. 

c.  Some  articleless  feminines  depending  upon  a  preposition,  prep,  phrase,  or  an  adjective 
which  governs  the  genitive:  an  Zahlungs  Statt  instead  of  payment,  after  the  model  of  an  Kindes 
Statt;  von  Obrigkeits  wegen  by  order  of  tJie  aiitliorities,  after  the  model  of  von  Amts  wegen  officially; 
krankheitshalber  after  the  model  of  Feiertags  halber.  Antworts  (now  Antwort)  genug  (Lessing) 
after  the  analogy  of  Brots  genug  (Luther).  The  s  of  Antworts  may  also  be  explained  according 
to  102.  c. 

2.  Feminines  show  weak  inflection  in  the  singular  only  rarely  in  simple  forms,  but  quite 
frequently  in  compounds.     See  76.  IL  1  and  249.  IL  1.  B.  a. 

10.  If  it  is  desired  to  call  attention  to  the  word  itself,  not  to  the  thing  repre- 
sented by  the  word  the  case  form  is  not  the  case  required  by  the  grammatical 
construction  but  the  nominative,  the  form  usually  employed  in  naming  a  sub- 
stantive when  it  is  simply  cited,  lit.  the  naming  case,  a  usage  which  has  given 
the  name  to  this  case,  altho  it  has  other  more  common  functions:  Ungewöhnlich 
ist  der  Plural  von  Haß  (nom.,  not  vom  Hasse).  Stuhl  ist  der  Singular  zu  (or 
von)  Stühle  (not  Stühlen). 

Declension  of  the  Adjective -Substantive. 

95.  Nouns  made  from  adjectives  are  only  rarely  declined  according  to  any 
of  the  regular  declensions  for  nouns.  See  111.  10.  A  few  substantives  made 
from  adjectives  have  no  inflection.  See  111.  7.  h.  They  are  usually  inflected 
just  as  the  adjective  would  be  in  the  same  position,  but  like  nouns  are  written 
with  a  capital  letter:  der  Alte  the  old  man;  die  Alte  the  old  woman;  das  Schöne 
the  beautiful.  For  declension  in  full  see  109.  For  survivals  of  older  usage 
see  111.  10.  Note. 

Peculiarities  of  Number  in  Nouns. 

96.  1.  While  in  general  the  sing,  denotes  one  and  the  plural  more  than  one, 
in  certain  cases  the  opposite,  namely,  that  one  denotes  many  and  many  one, 


96.  2.  a.  PECULIARITIES   OF   NUMBER   IN   NOUNS 113 

may  be  true.  A  number  of  objects  may  be  divided  into  groups,  each  one  of 
which  may  be  looked  at  as  a  unit,  a  whole:  ein  Tausend  Zigarren  a  thousand 
cigars;  ein  Dutzend  a  dozen;  ein  Schock  a  numerical  whole  consisting  of  60 
units;  eine  Mandel  a  numerical  whole  consisting  of  15  units.  Thus  also  col- 
lective nouns,  as  die  Herde  herd,  die  Armee  army,  &c.,  are  nouns  in  the  sing, 
denoting  many.  These  words  can  usually  form  a  plural  as  naturally  as  any 
common  noun,  but  some,  as  das  Vieh  cattle,  das  Gesinde  servants  taken  collec- 
tively, cannot  form  a  plural,  since  they  are  conceived  of  in  a  general  way  and  not 
as  divisible  into  distinct  groups.  Thus  as  the  mind  can  conceive  of  individual 
units  as  a  whole  and  give  expression  to  this  conception  in  language,  the  form 
of  the  word  does  not  always  distinguish  between  sing,  and  pi.,  and  colloquially 
and  in  popular  language  we  can  even  find  pi.  words  with  a  sing,  article:  ein  zehn 
Mark  the  sum  of  ten  marks,  ein  (also  eine)  8  Tage  a  period  of  a  week,  eine  zehn 
Jahre  nach  den  andern  (Fedor  Sommer's  Er^ist  Reiland,  p.  129),  am  Ende  der 
zweiten  acht  Tage  (Wildenbruch)  at  the  end  of  the  second  week.  Thus  also 
Ostern  Easter,  Pfingsten  Pentecost,  Weihnachten  Christmas,  tho  originally 
dative  plurals,  dative  after  the  preposition  zu  and  plural  on  account  of  these 
festivals  each  lasting  several  days,  may  also  be  regarded  as  singulars,  fern, 
(under  the  influence  of  the  pi.  die),  masc.  (under  the  influence  of  der  Tag), 
or  perhaps  more  commonly  neut.  (under  the  influence  of  das  Fest):  So  waren 
wieder  Pfingsten  gekommen,  aber  wie  waren  es  diesmal  andere  Pfingsten! 
(Stifter's  Stiid.,  1.  154).  Die  ewigen  Ostern  des  Herzens  (Keller's  Seldwyla), 
vorige  Weihnachten  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap,  xi ) ;  jede  Weihnachten  (Lewald). 
Gedenkst  du  noch  an  einen  Weihnachten?  (Storm's  Unter  dem  Tannenbaum, 
vol.  I,  p.  180).  Auf  ein  frohes  Weihnachten  (Fontane's  Umviederbrin glich , 
chap.  vii).  Ostern  fällt  (or  die  Ostern  fallen)  dieses  Jahr  spät.  Pfingsten  ist 
(or  die  Pfingsten  sind)  vorüber.  Was  ist  Weihnachten  (or  Was  sind  die 
Weihnachten)  ohne  Kinder?  In  case  of  the  conception  of  the  form  as  plural 
notice  the  peculiar  use  of  the  plural  of  the  ordinal :  Kein  fröhliches  Fest  im  Sinne 
harmloser  Freude  sind  diese  zweiten  Kriegsweihnachten  (Frankfurter  Zeit., 
Dec.  25,  1915).  The  singular  of  these  three  festivals  is  usually  only  preserved 
in  compounds:  Osterferien,  Pfingstmontag,  Weihnachtsabend.  The  simple 
singular  feminine  form  Weihnacht  is  sometimes  found  instead  of  Weihnachten. 

Sometimes  the  name  of  a  foreign  newspaper  is  treated  as  a  singular,  as  in 
English,  altho  the  form  is  distinctly  plural:  Der  ,, Times"  meldet  man  aus 
Petersburg,  daß  usw.  (Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  June  8,  1905),  Wenigstens  wird 
der  „Times"  gemeldet  usw.  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Jan.  2,  1907).  See  also 
253.  I.  2.  g. 

Thus  also  Buch  bock,  literally  letters,  now  always  sing.,  for  one  object,  was 
in  Gothic  and  O.H.G.  in  the  pi.  to  designate  one  book. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  pi.  is  so  associated  with  the  original  sing,  form  Ge- 
schwister (in  Lessing's  Nathan,  1,  2,  still  used  in  sing.),  a  collective  noun  meaning 
brothers  and  sisters,  that  the  pi.  article  is  now  used  (die  Geschwister),  while  we 
in  other  cases  use  the  sing,  article  before  collective  nouns  of  the  same  form:  das 
Gedränge  throng,  das  Gebirge  mountain-system,  &c. 

2.  Names  of  materials  do  not  from  their  very  nature  admit  of  a  plural  in 
the  usual  sense,  but  may  take  a  plural  to  designate  different  species,  varieties, 
or  grades  of  the  same  thing:  der  Wein  wine,  pi.  Weine  different  kinds  of  wine, 
Rheinweine  Rhine  wines,  Rotweine;  das  Holz  wood,  pi.  Hölzer  different  kinds 
of  wood;  die  Baumwolle  cotton,  pi.  die  amerikanischen  Baumwollen  American 
varieties  of  cotton;  feine  Bleie  fine  grades  of  lead  (for  pencils,  &c.). 

a.  This  simple  pi.  is  often  replaced  by  compound  plurals,  formed  by  adding  to  the  name  of 
the  material  the  substantive  Art  for  the  species  of  life  or  growth,  or  kinds  of  manufactured  articles, 
and  Sorte  for  different  varieties  of  the  same  species  of  life  or  growth,  or  for  different  brands  or 
sorts  of  manufactured  articles,  or  by  adding  Stoffe  (or  Zeuge  or  Gewebe)  to  the  name  of  textile 
goods:  Getreidearten  different  kinds  of  grain,  Holzarten  different  kinds  of  wood,  Stahlarten 
different  kinds  of  steel;  Kaffeesorten  different  sorts  of  coffee,  Kohlarten  or  Kohlrassen,  Brannt- 
weinsorten different  sorts  of  brandy;  Seidenstoffe  or  Seidenzeuge  silks,  Atlasgewebe  satin 
fabrics. 


114 PECULIARITIES   OF   NUMBER   IN    NOUNS  96.  2.  b. 

b.  Of  course  when  the  names  of  materials  denote  a  definite  portion  of  the  material  a  plural 
:an  be  formed,  which  in  a  number  of  cases  (see  83)  has  developed  a  different  pi.  from  the  form 
indicating  different  kinds  of  the  material:  das  Brot  bread,  loaf,  pi.  die  Brote  loaves;  das  Horn 
horn,  pi.  Hörner  pieces  of  horn,  horns  (of  an  animal),  pi.  Home  kinds  of  horn;  das  Tuch  cloth, 
pi.  Tücher  pieces  of  cloth,  shawls,  pi.  Tuche  kinds  of  cloth. 

3.  Names  of  persons  do  not  take  a  pi.  except  when  they  indicate  that  a 
number  of  persons  enjoy  a  common  name,  or  when  they  assume  the  force  of 
common  nouns:  Goethes  the  Goethes  (family),  die  Goethe  great  poets  like 
Goethe. 

4.  (1).  An  important  group  of  words  have  an  uninflected  pi.,  in  form 
exactly  like  the  nom.  sing.,  when  they  are  used  in  a  collective  sense  to  express 
weight,  measure,  extent,  and  quantity  — namely,  all  neut.  and  masc.  nouns,  and 
the  feminines  Faust  or  Hand  hand,  Handvoll  handful,  Last  two  tons,  Mandel 
(pi.  also  Mandeln)  a  numerical  whole  consisting  of  15  units,  Mark  mark  (coin): 
zwei  Fässer  two  separate  casks,  but  zwei  Faß  Wein  two  casks  (as  a  measure)  of 
wine;  zwei  Biere  tiuo  kinds  of  beer,  but  zwei  Bier  two  glasses  of  beer,  mit  zwei 
Glas  Bier;  zwei  Säcke  fn'o  (empty)  sacks,  but  zwei  Sack  Mehl  two  sacks  of 
flour;  in  einer  Hitze  von  80  Grad  Reaumur;  ein  Gewicht  von  140  Kilogramm. 
(or  Kilo)  a  weight  of  140  kilograms;  ein  weißer  Bau  mit  fünf  Fenster  Front; 
400  Mann  Infanterie  400  men  of  infantry  (who  move  as  one  man  under  the  com- 
mand of  one  man),  but 4  Männer  four  men  (taken  individually);  zehn  Pfennig 
ten  pfennigs  in  owe  piece,  but  zehn  Pfennige  ten  one-pfennig  pieces;  einige 
Dutzend  Kadetten  several  dozen  cadets  in  one  group,  but  Dutzende  solcher 
Fälle  dozens  of  such  cases;  mit  zwei  Drittel  von  ihnen  (Marie  von  Bunsen's  Das 
alltägliche  Paar  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  May  1898,  p.  282)  or  mit  zwei  Dritteln 
von  ihnen;  zwei  Mark,  ein  Pferd  15  Faust  hoch,  die  drei  Handvoll  Erde,  ein 
Schiff  von  200  Last.  Vier  Mandel  geben  ein  Schock.  The  same  construction 
occurs  in  English  in  certain  expressions,  as  forty  head  of  cattle,  ten  yoke  of  oxen, 
three  score  and  ten,  &c.,  but  the  construction  as  far  as  lifeless  objects  are  con- 
cerned is  waning  and  often  sounds  provincial.     See  a  below. 

In  case  of  other  feminines  be  sure  to  place  the  noun  in  the  pi.:  zwei  Flaschen 
Wein,  zwei  Tassen  Kaffee. 

If  it  is  not  a  question  of  weight  or  measurement,  but  of  a  mode  of  weighing 
or  measuring,  the  regular  pi.  form  is  used:  Ein  Kilo  hat  zwei  Pfund  und  das 
Pfund  500  Gramm  A  kilogram  contains  two  pounds  and  a  pound  500  grams,  but 
Bei  uns  wiegt  man  nach  Pfunden  In  our  country  we  weigh  by  pounds. 

a.  This  usage  of  leaving  nouns  in  the  sing,  form  in  the  pi.  when  used  collectively  started 
with  the  neuters,  which  in  an  earlier  period  had  their  regular  pi.  like  the  sing.,  as  in  English 
one  sheep,  tivo  sheep.  Later  this  plural,  which  in  form  was  like  the  sing.,  did  not  seem  to  suffice, 
and  hence  alongside  of  the  old  form  a  new  plural  was  formed  in  one  of  two  ways,  either  by  adding 
ir,  which  still  later  changed  to  the  present  form  er,  or  the  word  took  on  the  common  masc.  pi. 
ending  e,. and  thus  for  each  word  there  arose  two  pi.  forms,  as  Glas  and  Gläser  glasses;  Pfund 
and  Pfunde  pounds.  Later  both  of  these  forms  were  put  to  a  good  use  in  that  a  different  shade 
of  meaning  was  given  to  each.  The  form  in  er  or  e  was  applied  to  objects  taken  separately, 
the  one  that  took  no  pi.  ending,  in  accordance  with  its  apparently  sing,  form,  was  invested  with 
collective  force  to  express  weight,  measure,  extent.  This  usage  was  found  so  convenient  that 
it  spread  to  masculines  and  to  the  few  feminines  above  mentioned.  We  follow  this  usage  in  case 
of  certain  living  beings:  two  lütte  fishes,  two  large  herrings,  but  a  boatload  of  fish,  herring.  In  case 
of  a  number  of  gregarious  animals  the  idea  of  mass  is  now  so  firm  in  English  that 
the  singular  is  used  for  both  singular  and  plural,  as  in  carp,  perch,  pike,  salmon,  trout,  &c., 
sheep,  deer,  moose,  &c.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  English  development  that  this  construction 
is  almost  entirely  limited  to  living  beings.  In  German,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  largely  confined 
to  lifeless  objects,  so  that  for  all  the  English  examples  given  above  German  usually  has  a  plural 
form:  zwei  Hechte  two  pike,  &c.  Only  in  case  of  das  Wild  game,  deer  and  das  Vieh  cattle  has  the 
singular  collective  force:   ein  Rudel  Wild  a  herd  of  deer,  zwanzig  Stück  Vieh  twenty  head  of  cattle. 

(2)     There  are  exceptions  to  the  rule  stated  above: 

a.  Foreign  and  native  nouns  take  sometimes  their  regular  pi.  ending  to 
express  weight,  measure,  and  extent,  or  may  remain  uninflected,  apparently 
without  any  difference  in  meaning  between  the  different  forms:  zehn  Talente 
10  talents,  eine  Summe  von  30  Taler  or  Talern,  10  Pfennige  or  Pfennig,  zehn 
Schritte  or  Schritt,  bei  drei  Metern.  Entfernung  f Walther  Siegfried's  Um  der 
Heimat  willen,  IV).     The  plural  form  is  used  especially  to  give  individualizing. 


96.  5.  B. 


PECULIARITIES   OF   NUMBER    IN    NOUNS 


115 


force  and  thus  often  to  add  emphasis,  even  in  case  of  native  words  of  all  genders: 
ganze  Händevoll  entire  handfuls.  Fritz  stürzt  zwei  Gläser  Wasser  hinunter 
(Sudermann's  Fritzchen).  Er  hatte  mehr  als  einmal  viele  Tausende  Beitrag 
gezahlt,  wenn  es  galt,  das  Fortbestehen  irgend  einer  Wohltätigkeitseinrichtung 
zu  sichern  (G.  Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  ix). 

h.  Nouns  expressing  measure  of  time  may  be  inflected,  or  remain  undeclined 
after  numerals  except  in  the  gen.  and  dat.  pi.,  where  they  are  always  inflected: 
zwei  Monat  or  Monate  tivo  months,  but  in  zwei  Monaten  in  two  months. 

5.  A.  Abstract  nouns,  especially  neut.  adjective-substantives  and  neut. 
infinitive-substantives,  do  not  admit  of  a  plural  as  a  rule:  das  Schöne  that  which 
is  beautiful,  das  Stehen  standing,  die  Weisheit  wisdom,  die  Schönheit  beauty, 
die  Freiheit  freedom,  die  Größe  greatness,  &c. 

a.  Abstract  nouns,  however,  take  a  plural  when  they  take  on  concrete 
meaning  by  representing  concrete  objects  or  indicating  a  number  of  kinds  and 
distinct  actions:  das  Schreiben  ivriting,  in  the  abstract,  without  a  pi.,  but  das 
Schreiben  letter,  pi.  die  Schreiben;  das  Andenken  memory,  without  a  pi.,  but 
das  Andenken  present,  a  token  of  remembrance,  pi.  die  Andenken;  thus  also 
Schönheiten  beauties,  Freiheiten  liberties,  Größen  sizes;  to  express  kinds:  die 
Krankheit  sickness,  pi.  die  Krankheiten  difterent  kinds  of  sickness;  to  express 
different  acts:   der  Sprung  jump,  pi.  die  Sprünge  jumps,  &c. 

Note.  Fossilized  remnants  point  to  a  more  liberal  use  of  the  plural  here  in  an  earlier  period  to  give  emphasis  to 
the  meaning  of  the  abstract  idea  or  to  indicate  a  number  of  concrete  manifestations  of  it  at  one  time  or  at  different 
times:  in  Gnaden  bei  jemand  stehen  to  be  in  favor  with  some  one,  to  be  recipients  of  repeated  favors,  zu  Ihren  Diensten 
at  your  service,  Offizier  in  preußischen  Diensten  an  officer  in  Prussian  service.  Die  Salbe  hat  mir  gute  Dienste  ge- 
leistet The  salve  has  rendered  me  good  service.  In  some  such  expressions  the  pi.  force  can  scarcely  be  felt,  and  is 
in  fact  a  fossil:  mit  Ehren  with  honor,  zugtinsten  in  favor  of,  zu  meinen  Ungunsten  oder  Gunsten,  zuschanden 
machen  to  destroy,  zuschulden  kommen  lassen  to  make  oneself  guilty  of.  Sec.  This  old  plural  is  especially  a  favorite 
with  the  poet  and  hence  is  sometimes  called  the  poetical  plural.  So  fond  is  the  poet  of  this  old  construction  that 
he  sometimes  coins  a  plural  form  in  case  of  words  which  have  never  had  a  plural  form:  die  Jubel,  die  Schlummer,  &c. 
Sometimes  this  plural  is  retained  in  English  where  the  sing,  is  found  in  German:  Man  hegt  Hoffnvmg,  Verdacht  Hopes, 
suspicions,  are  entertained. 

h.  The  plural  of  abstract  nouns  sometimes  expresses  a  part  of  a  whole, 
hence  has  less  extensive  meaning  than  the  sing. :  Der  Fürst  verlieh  dem  Volke 
statt  des  Rechts  Rechte  The  prince  gave  the  people  instead  of  justice  certain 
rights.  Thus  also  die  Wahrheit  truth  is  broader  in  meaning  than  the  pi.  Wahr- 
heiten truths.  In  similar  contrasts  even  concrete  nouns  take  on  real  abstract 
sense  in  the  sing,  wnth  broad  generalizing  force,  while  the  pi.  is  more  concrete 
and  of  narrower  application:  Wüstlinge  rühmen  sich  stolz  und  mit  Recht,  sie 
kennten  die  Weiber,  zarte  Gemüter  allein  kennen  und  ehren  das  Weib.  ,,Da 
gibt's  ja  Wissen  und  Wissenschaften  die  Fülle!"  ,,Ja  wohl!"  lachte  Schmidt 
auf.     ,,Nur  keine  Wissenschaft!"  (Fedor  Sommer's  Ernst  Reiland,  p.  149). 

B.  A  few  abstract  and  collective  nouns  can  form  no  pi.  in  the  usual  way, 
but  borrow  a  form  from  some  kindred  derivative,  or  enter  into  a  compound  to 
form  a  pi.,  which  of  course  in  the  case  of  abstract  nouns  must  have  a  more  dis- 
tinctly concrete  meaning  than  the  sing.,  as  no  strictly  abstract  noun  admits  of 
a  pi.,  or  in  case  of  collective  nouns  must  have  individualizing  force: 


Singular. 
der  Atem  breath, 
das  Bestreben  effort, 
der  Betrug  deceit,  fraud, 
der  Bund  league, 
der  Dank  thanks,  gratitude; 

vielen  Dank!  many  thanks! 
das  Erbe  inheritance, 
das  Feuer  fire,  conflagration, 
der  Friede  peace, 

die  Furcht  fear, 
die  Gewalt  force,  violence, 
das  Glück  luck,  fortune, 
die  Gunst  favor, 


Plural 

Atemzüge. 

Bestrebungen. 

Betrüge 'reien. 

Bündnisse. 

Danksagungen,    expressions   of   grati- 
tude. 

Erbschaften. 

Feuersbrünste. 

Friedensschlüsse,   Friedensverträge 
treaties  of  peace. 

Befürchtungen. 

Ge  waltt  ätigkeiten. 

Glücksfälle  pieces  of  good  fortune. 

Gunstbezeigungen. 


116 


PECULIARITIES  OF   NUMBER   IN   NOUNS 


96.  5.  B. 


der  Kohl  (N.G.),  das  Kraut  (S.G.) 
cabbage,     der   Kohlkopf,     das 
Krauthaupt  head  of  cabbage, 

der  Kummer  sorrow, 

das  Land  land, 

das  Leben  life, 

das  Leid  grief, 

die  Liebe  love, 

das  Lob  praise, 

der  Lohn  reward, 

Lug  und  Trug  lying, 

der  Mord  (see  63.  1.  b)  murder, 

die  Not  necessity,  distress, 

Obst  fruit  (collectively),  Frucht 
fruit  (collect,  or  a  single  speci- 
men), 

der  Rasen  turf,  grass-plot, 
der  Rat  advice, 
der  Raub  robbery, 
der  Regen  rain, 
der  Same  seed. 


der  Schmuck  ornament, 
der  Schnee  snow, 

der  Segen  blessing, 

der  Streit  dispute, 

der  Tod  death, 

der  Trost  consolation, 

die  (sometimes  der,  das)  Unbill,  less 
commonly  die  (das)  Unbild,  die 
Unbilde  wrong,  injury,  inclem- 
ency, 

das  Unglück  misfortune, 

der  Verdruß  vexation, 

der  Verrat  treason, 

die  Verteidigung  defense, 

der  Verzug  delay, 

die  Vorsicht  caution, 


Kohle,  Kräuter,   or  Kohl-  or  Kraut- 
arten kinds    of   cabbage,  Kohlköpfe, 
Krauthäupter  cabbages. 

Kümmernisse. 

Lände'reien  estates,  broad  acres. 

Menschenleben  lives. 

Leiden  (pi.  of  das  Leiden). 

Liebschaften  amours. 

Lobeserhebungen,  Lobsprüche. 

Belohnungen. 

Lüge'reien  und  Betrüge'reien. 

Mordtaten. 

Notwendigkeiten  necessities,  necessary 
things,  Nöte  distress. 

Obstsorten  fruits  (i.e.  kinds  of),  Früch- 
te fruit  (single  specimens  of,  as  in 
Früchte  zum  Nachtisch,  eingemachte 
Früchte  preserves). 

Rasenplätze. 

Ratschläge  counsels. 

Räube'reien. 

Niederschläge,  Regenfälle. 

Samen  seeds  (of  the  same  kind),  Sa- 
men or  more  commonly  Säme'reien 
seeds  (of  different  kinds  as  found  in 
different  packets). 

Schmucksachen. 

Schneemassen  heaps  of  snow,  Schnee- 
fälle falls  of  snow. 

Segnungen. 

Streitigkeiten. 

Todesfälle  cases  of  death. 

Tröstungen. 

Unbilden. 


Unglücksfälle  unhappy  accidents. 
Verdrießlichkeiten. 
Verräte'reien  treacherous  acts. 
Verteidigungswerke  fortifications. 
Verzögerungen. 

Vorsichtsmaßregeln   precautionary 
measures. 


der  Wahn  illusion, 

der  Zank  quarrel, 

das  (der,  die)  Zubehör  all  that  be- 
longs to  a  thing:  Tee  mit  Zube- 
hör. Er  kaufte  die  Wirtschaft 
mit  allem  Zubehör.  Kompli- 
mente sind  das  Zubehör  der 
Bewillkommnung. 

It  should  be  carefully  noted,  however,  that  most  of  the  above  plural  deriva- 
tives or  compounds  can  also  be  used  in  the  singular,  usually  of  course  with  more 
concrete  force  than  the  corresponding  form  that  can  only  be  used  in  the  sing.: 
der  Verrat  treason,  die  Verräterei  treacherous  act. 


Wahnvorstellungen. 

Zänke'reien. 

Zubehöre  (neut.  and  masc.  pi.),  Zube- 
hören (fem.  pi.):  Er  führte  mich  in 
allen  Zubehören  seiner  Wirtschaft 
herum.  In  most  cases  the  sing,  form 
of  expression  is  more  common. 


Note.     Der  Bau  building,  tho  not  an  abstract  noun,  forms  also  its  plural  with  a  borrowed  form,  die  Bauten, 
also  63.  1.  b. 


See 


96.  7.  b.  PECULIARITIES  OF   NUMBER   IN   NOUNS 117 

6.  A  few  nouns  have  no  plurals  at  all:  der  Adel  nobility,  die  Asche  ashes, 
die  glühende  Asche  glowing  embers,  die  Beute  or  der  Raub  JDOoty,  der  Boden- 
satz sediment,  dregs,  das  Einkommen  income,  das  Elend  (pi.  rare)  misery, 
der  Ersatz  indemnification,  substitute,  das  Geschlinge  or  often  Gekröse  heart  and 
lungs  of  an  animal,  der  Hafer  oats,  der  Hopfen  hops,  die  Infante'rie  or  das  Fuß- 
volk infantry,  der  Inhalt  contents,  die  Kavalle'rie  or  die  Reite'rei  cavalry,  der 
Klerus  clergy,  die  Poli'zei  police,  das  Publikum  the  public,  a  course  of  free 
university  lectures  (in  this  meaning  with  the  pi.  Publika),  der  Putz  (see  Staat 
below,  sometimes  with  pi.,  see  63.  1.  b)  ornament,  der  Staat  finery,  attire  (Sie 
sind  in  ihrem  besten  Staate  or  Putze  They  are  in  their  best  attires  or  clothes), 
das  Vieh  (sometimes  with  pi.,  see  74.  1)  cattle,  das  Wild  deer,  and  the  names 
of  sciences  ending  in  ik :  die  Germa'nistik  Germanics,  die  Mathema'tik  mathe- 
matics, die  Meta'physik  metaphysics,  die  Poli'tik  politics,  die  Taktik  tactics, 
die  Sta'tistik  statistics,  &c. 

7.  ,  Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural: 

a.  Certain  words  which  were  originally  conceived  of  as  plural:  Ferien 
vacation,  holidays.  Fasten  lent;  sometimes  Ostern,  Pfingsten,  Weihnachten, 
for  which  see  1  of  this  article.  Also  a  number  of  Roman  festivals  usually  occur 
in  the  pi. :  die  Baccha'nalien  bacchanalia,  Flo'ralien  festival  of  Flora,  Satur'nalien 
festival  of  Saturn,  &c. 

b.  A  number  of  words  which  contain  the  idea  of  a  group  of  distinctly  different 
but  related  individuals  or  of  connected  parts  have  usually  only  the  pi.  form, 
tho  occasionally  a  sing,  occurs:  Aktien  (sing,  eine  Aktie  one  share  of  stock) 
stock,  Ali'mente  financial  support  required  by  law  to  be  given  to  certain  persons 
under  certain  circumstances,  alimony,  &c.,  A'nnalen  annals,  die  Auslagen  out- 
lay (Welches  sind  Ihre  Auslagen  für  mich?),  Au'spizien  auspices,  Beinkleider 
or  Hosen,  or  sing,  das  Beinkleid  or  die  Hose  trousers,  Briefschaften  letters, 
papers,  Chemi'kalien  chemicals,  in  Chiffern  in  cipher,  E'ffekten  movable  goods, 
"traps,"  Eingeweide  intestines,  Einkünfte  income,  Eltern,  Großeltern  parents, 
grand-parents,  E'xequien  obsequies,  Fisima'tenten  (colloq.  Das  sind  Fisima- 
'tenten)  pretense,  subterfuge,  humbug,  Frieseln  purples,  Gebrüder  brothers 
(as  partners  in  some  business:  zu  haben  bei  Gebrüder  Müller,  but  Ich 
habe  zwei  Brüder),  in  Gedanken  versunken  lost  in  thought,  Gefälle  duties, 
revenue,  income,  Gerätschaften  implements,  tools,  Geschwister  brother  and 
sister,  or  the  children  of  a  family,  Gliedmaßen  (replaced  in  the  sing,  by  das 
Glied,  or  the  name  of  the  particular  limb)  limbs,  Hämorrho'iden  piles,  Händel 
(Er  sucht  Händel  bei  mir)  quarrel.  Haue  (see  also  Note  2  below)  flogging,  lit. 
blows,  Honorati'oren  people  of  rank  or  high  station,  notabilities,  "the  big  guns," 
Hosenträger  (pi.,  or  sometimes  sing,  der  Hosenträger)  suspenders,  Iden  the 
ides,  In'signien  insignia,  Inte'ressen  interests,  Kal'daunen  tripe,  KoUek'taneen 
collectanea,  Kosten  costs,  expenses,  expense  (auf  Kosten  seiner  Gesundheit  at 
the  expense  of,  &c.),  meine  Kräfte  my  strength  (Meine  Kräfte  verlassen  mich), 
Kriegsläufte  warlike  times,  Kurzwaren  hard-ware,  Kutteln  (S.G.)  =  Kaidau- 
nen, Laren  Lares,  Lebensmittel  victuals,  provisions,  Leute  (see  9  below)  people, 
Machenschaften  machinations,  Manen  manes,  Masern  measles,  Molken  whey, 
Musi'kalien  (pieces  of)  music,  Natu'ralien  productions  of  nature,  Noten  music 
(Haben  Sie  Ihre  Noten  mit?),  Perso'nalien  short  description  of  a  person,  Pe'na- 
ten  Penates,  Pocken  or  Blattern  small-pox,  Prälimi'narien  preliminaries,  Pre- 
ti'osen  valuable  articles,  such  as  precious  stones,  jewelry,  Ränke  intrigues, 
gute  Ratschläge  good  advice,  Röteln  German  measles,  Schlacken  dross,  Schmer- 
zen often  pain  (Ich  hatte  solche  Schmerzen,  daß  usw.  I  was  in  such  pain  that 
&c.,  but  He  took  great  pains  Er  gab  sich  redliche  Mühe),  Skrofeln  scrofula 
(Er  leidet  an  Skrofeln),  Spesen  or  Unkosten  transportation  charges  and  all 
expenses  connected  with  a  shipment  of  goods,  Spitzen  lace,  Sporteln  fees, 
perquisites,  Stoppeln  stubble,  Treber  or  Trester  draff,  Trümmer  (see  this  word, 
74.  1)  ruins,  Überhosen  overalls,  keine  Umstände  machen  not  to  stand  on  cere- 
mony, Umtriebe  machinations,  Unterhosen  drawers,  Uten'silien  utensils,  Zeit- 
läufte times,  Zinsen  interest  (money,  but  sing,  der  Zins  in  the  meaning  rent); 


118 PECULIARITIES   OF   NUMBER    IN    NOUNS  96.7.6. 

also  geographical  names  just  as  in  English:  die  Alpen  the  Alps,  die  Zy'kladen 
the  Cyclacles,  die  Darda'nellen  the  Dardanelles,  die  He'briden  the  Hebrides, 
die  Niederlande  the  Netherlands,  die  Pyre'näen  the  Pyrenees,  die  Vo'gesen 
the  Vosges,  &c.,  but  these  plurals  do  not  correspond  in  every  case  in  the  two 
languages,  as  das  Felsengebirge  the  Rockies;  die  Vereinigten  Staaten  als  ein 
ganz  anderes  Land  als  das  heutige  an  entirely  different  U.  S.  from  that  of 
to-day;  &c. 

Note  1.  Besides  the  more  common  words  in  the  above  list,  there  are  many  others,  especially  those  scientific  terms 
which  designate  classes  of  animal  or  plant  life:    die  Herbi'voren  herbivorous  animals,  Orchi'deen  orchids,  &c. 

Note  2.  The  sing,  is  often  used,  in  order  to  indicate  an  individual  of  a  class  or  group,  or  a  fragment  or  portion 
of  a  whole,  or  to  express  a  collective  idea:  die  Alpe  a  single  range  of  the  Alps.  Diese  Haue  (pi.  used  as  a  sing,  in 
a  collective  sense)  erfolgte  (Langcnscheidt  Berl.  .55).  Unter  diesen  Worten  waren  sie  bis  in  den  Garten  gekom- 
men, an  eine  Stelle,  wo  viel  Buchsbaum  ^sing.  used  in  a  collectivt.-  sense)  stand  (Fontane's  Sicchlin,  chap.  vi).  ,,Wenn 
also  das  Schiff  —  apropos,  was  kann  es  geladen  haben?"  ,, Jedenfalls  Hering,  Herr  Doktor,  salzen  und  frischen" 
(Spielhagen's  Fauslulus,  p.  60).  The  singular  is  often  used  in  English  of  fish  in  a  collective  sense  where  the  plural 
is  used  in  German:  perch  Barsche,  pike  Hechte,  trout  Fo'rellen,  smoked  fish  geräucherte  Fische,  &c.  Do  you  like 
fish?  Essen  Sie  gerne  Fische? 

8.  A  number  of  very  common  words  are  singular  in  German  (and  hence 
often  also  capable  of  a  plural)  which  are  only  plural  in  English:  das  Almosen 
alms,  pi.  die  Almosen  different  items  of  alms,  die  A'postelgeschichte  Acts  (in  the 
Bible),  Aufwartung  respects,  (einem  seine  Aufwartung  machen),  ein  Bitterer 
bitters  (Er  trinkt  einen  Bitteren),  der  Bodensatz  settlings,  lees,  dregs,  grounds, 
sediment,  die  Brille  spectacles,  pi.  die  Brillen  the  pairs  of  spectacles,  in  Bunt- 
stift in  crayons  (ein  Bild  in  Buntstift),  das  Dam(en)spiel  or  Dambrett  (spiel) 
draughts,  checkers  (Spielen  Sie  Dambrett  or  Damen?),  das  Domino  dominoes, 
die  Drehkrankheit  staggers  (disease),  die  Druse  the  strangles  (disease),  der 
Erlös  the  proceeds,  Erspartes  savings,  das  Feuerwerk  the  fireworks,  die  Fleisch- 
bank the  shambles  (meat-market),  die  Flügeltür  the  folding  doors,  die  Gas- 
anstalt or  das  Gaswerk  the  gas-works,  der  Gewinn  winnings,  die  Golfbahn 
or  das  Golffeld  the  links,  das  'Hauptquartier  the  headquarters,  das  Hirsch- 
geweih the  antlers,  im  schottischen  Hochland  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
die  Hochzeit  the  nuptials,  die  Ka'serne  the  barracks,  das  (or  der)  Kehricht  the 
sweepings,  die  Kneifzange  nippers,  die  Lichtputze  snuffers,  der  Lohn  (pi.  die 
Löhne)  wages  (Der  Arbeitgeber  bestimmt  den  Lohn  für  den  Arbeiter,  but 
Er  zahlt  seinen  Leuten  die  Löhne  aus),  die  Lunge  the  lungs,  lights,  die  Mauke 
the  scratches  (disease),  das  einzige  Mittel  the  only  means,  remedy,  vielerlei 
Mittel  many  different  kinds  of  means,  remedies,  im  Mittelalter  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  die  Nachricht  (piece  of)  news,  die  neuesten  Nachrichten  the  latest  items 
of  news,  das  Proto'koll  the  minutes,  der  Reichtum  riches  (Reichtum  entflieht 
riches  fly  aiuay,  but  also  in  the  plural:  Er  besitzt  Reichtümer),  mit  der  Miete  im 
Rückstande  sein  to  be  in  arrears  with  the  rent,  Schadenersatz  damages,  die 
Schere  scissors,  das  Seifenwasser  the  soapsuds,  die  Sittlichkeit  the  morals, 
die  Traube  the  bunch  of  grapes,  Treff  clubs  (Treff  ist  Trumpf  clubs  are  trumps), 
sein  Treiben  his  doings,  die  Treppe  stairs,  pi.  die  Treppen  the  flights  of  stairs, 
Trumpf  trumps  (see  Treff),  das  Uhrwerk  the  works  of  a  clock  or  watch,  das 
Unkraut  weeds  (Unkraut  vergeht  nicht),  pi.  Unkräuter  weeds  of  different  va- 
rieties, einen  zur  Vernunft  bringen  to  bring  one  to  his  senses,  die  Vesper  (zur 
Vesper  gehen)  vespers,  der  Wald  the  woods,  forest,  die  Wasserleitung  water- 
works, water-pipes,  water-supply,  West'indien  the  West  Indies,  eine  oftmalige 
Wiederkehr  des  Tages  many  happy  returns  of  the  day,  im  rechten  Winkel  at 
right  angles  (Diese  Linien  schneiden  sich  im  rechten  Winkel),  diese  Wirt- 
schaft these  goings-on,  das  Zahnfleisch  the  gums,  die  Zange  the  tongs,  pi.  die 
Zangen  the  pairs  of  tongs,  der  Ziegenpeter  the  mumps,  der  Zirkel  pair  of  com- 
passes. 

A  number  of  words  are  in  German  used  in  both  numbers  where  in  English 
the  singular  is  employed:  die  Auskunft  information,  pi.  die  Auskünfte,  der 
Fortschritt  progress,  pi.  die  Fortschritte,  das  Geschäft  business,  pi.  die  Ge- 
schäfte, das  Haar  hair,  pi.  die  Haare,  die  Kenntnis  knowledge,  pi.  die  Kennt- 
nisse :  Er  ist  bereit,  Auskunft  or  Auskünfte  zu  erteilen,  the  plural  when  dift'erent 
matters  are  involved,  so  that  the  plural  idea  becomes  prominent.  Die  Partei 
des  Fortschritts  the  party  of  progress,  but  Meine  Schüler  machen  große  Fort- 


96.  11. PECULIARITIES   OF   NUMBER   IN    NOUNS  119 

schritte  My  pupils  are  making  great  progress.  Er  hat  ein  sehr  ausgedehntes 
Geschäft  He  has  a  very  extensive  business,  but  Die  Geschäfte  gehen  langsam 
Business  (i.e.  sales,  &c.)  is  slow.  Sie  hat  schwarze  Augen  und  dunkles  Haar 
or  dunkle  Haare.  Etwas  kommt  mir  zur  Kenntnis  Something  comes  to  my 
knowledge,  but  ein  Mann  von  vielen  Kenntnissen  a  man  of  great  knowledge. 

9.  The  pi.  of  -mann  in  compounds  is  usually  -leute,  which,  however,  does 
not  mark  sex  as  -mann  does  in  the  sing.,  but  may  include  both  sexes,  and  thus 
represent  people  not  as  individuals,  but  as  belonging  to  a  distinct  class,  or 
profession,  or  trade:  der  Edelmann  nobleman,  pi.  Edelleute  people  of  noble 
birth;  der  Hauptmann  captain,  pi.  Hauptleute;  der  Kaufmann  merchant,  pi. 
Kaufleute.  Thus  many  such  plurals:  Bergleute  miners,  Fuhrleute  drivers,  &c. 
The  regular  pi.  is,  however,  used  when  the  sex  becomes  prominent:  der  Ehe- 
mann married  man,  pi.  die  Ehemänner  married  men,  but  Eheleute  married 
people.  Thus  also  when  the  persons  designated  are  not  so  much  thought  of 
as  belonging  to  a  class,  but  rather  are  conceived  of  as  individuals  who  embody 
the  idea  of  inner,  personal,  manly  worth:  der  Ehrenmann  man  of  honor,  pi.  die 
Ehrenmänner;  der  Kraftmann  man  of  power,  genius,  pi.  Kraftmänner;  der 
Ersatzmann  substitute,  pi.  Ersatzmänner.  Thus  also  Biedermänner  honest 
men,  Staatsmänner  statesmen,  Hauptmänner  leading  men,  but  Hauptleute 
captains.  Thus  sometimes,  as  in  the  last  example,  the  same  word  forms  a  plural 
either  in  -manner  or  -leute,  according  to  the  meaning.  The  plural  in  -manner 
is  also  used  with  reference  to  the  exterior  form  of  men,  as  in  Hampelmänner 
jumping-jacks,  Schneemänner  snow-men,  Strohmänner  men  of  straw  (lit.  or 
fig.),   &c. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  Leute  is  the  collective  noun  das  Volk  people  and  die  Menschen  people.  Volk,  as  its  use 
in  the  sing,  would  indicate,  expresses  strongly  the  collective  idea  with  many  shades,  as  das  deutsche  Volk  the  Ger- 
man people,  das  literarische  Volk  literary  people,  verliebtes  Volk  peuple  in  love,  das  gemeine  Volk  the  common  people, 
das  Landvolk  the  rural  population.  Es  ist  schlechtes  Volk  Tliey  are  a  bad  set,  &c.  In  dialect  Leut  can  also  be  thus 
used  as  a  neuter  noun  in  accordance  with  older  usage  in  the  literary  language:  Unter  lauter  altes  Leut  soll  ich  mich 
vergraben?  'Marriot's  Menschlichkeit,  p.  184).  In  present  literary  usage  the  plural  Leute  may  also  refer  to  a  crowd 
or  class  of  people,  but  rather  as  individuals,  and  thus  the  collective  idea  in  it  is  much  weaker  than  in  Volk:  die  Leute 
in  diesem  Hause  the  people  in  this  house,  arme,  reiche,  alte  Leute  poor,  rich,  old  people,  fremde  Leute  strangers, 
meine  Leute  my  servants,  factory  men.  Es  waren  nur  zwei  Leute  im  Zimmer,  als  ich  kam.  Die  Leute  sagen's 
People  say  so.  Kleider  machen  Leute  Clothes  make  the  man.  Unsere  Väter  waren  Leute!  (Goethe's  Egmont,  2) 
Our  fathers  were  men  of  sterling  qualities.  -As  can  be  seen  in  the  last  example  under  Volk  and  the  last  two  under 
Leute,  the  former  often  expresses  contempt  and  the  latter  honor  and  importance.  Menschen  differs  from  Leute 
in  that  it  lacks  entirely  collective  force  and  thus  refers  to  individuals  only.  Alle  Menschen  i every  individual)  müssen 
sterben,  but  Alte  Leute  fas  a  class)  müssen  sterben,  junge  Leute  können  sterben.  Menschen  differs  from  Männer 
only  in  that  it  includes  males  and  females,  while  Männer  refers  only  to  the  former. 

Note  that  Volk  in  the  sense  of  nation  has  a  pi.  Völker.  The  colloquial  pi.  of  the  corresponding  English  word  has 
quite  a  different  meaning:    my  folks  =  meine  Angehörigen,  meine  Leute. 

10.  If  a  noun  is  modified  by  two  numeral  adjectives,  the  first  indeclinable 
with  pi.  force,  the  second  declinable  with  sing,  force,  added  to  the  first  to  com- 
plete and  make  more  exact  the  statement,  the  noun  may  be  either  sing,  or  pi. 
If  the  sing,  form  of  the  noun  be  chosen,  then  the  second  adjective  must  agree 
with  it,  but  if  the  pi.  form  be  preferred,  which  is  more  common,  then  the  second 
adjective  like  the  first  remains  uninfiected:  Tausend  und  eine  Nacht  The  Thou- 
sand and  One  Nights  ('The  Arabian  Nights'),  hundert  und  ein  Kamel  one 
hundred  and  one  camels,  in  zwei  und  einem  halben  Jahr  in  tW'O  and  a  half  years, 
drei  und  eine  achtel  Meile  three  and  one-eighth  miles,  or  more  commonly 
(except  in  the  first  example  in  this  one  meaning)  in  zweiundeinhalb  Jahren, 
dreiundeinachtel  Meilen.  For  a  case  where  the  noun  must  be  in  the  pi.  see 
121.  2.  d.  Note. 

11.  In  German  the  singular  is  used  where  in  English  the  plural  is  employed, 
in  that  case  where  a  plural  noun  refers  to  as  many  different  things  as  it  has 
modifying  adjectives,  as  die  englische  und  die  deutsche  Sprache  the  English 
and  German  languages,  but  die  französischen  und  die  deutschen  Universitäten 
the  French  and  German  universities,  i.e.  the  French  universities  and  the  German 
universities.  Die  schwarze  und  die  weiße  Kuh  the  black  cow  and  the  white  one, 
die  schwarzen  und  die  weißen  Kühe  the  black  cows  and  the  white  ones;  die 
schwarz  und  weiße  Kuh  the  black  and  white  cow,  i.e.  the  cow  which  is  part 
black,  part  white,  die  schwarz  und  weißen  Kühe  the  cows  which  are  part  black, 
part  white.  The  article  can  be  used  only  once  where  there  is  only  one  person 
or  thing  or  one  group  of  persons  or  things,  as  in  the  last  two  examples.     The 


120 GENDER   OF   NOUNS 96.  11. 

article  is  also  used  only  once  Avhere  there  are  two  objects  which  are  parts  of  a 
whole:  der  erste  und  zweite  Band  the  first  and  second  volumes  (of  a  set), 
die  ersten  und  zweiten  Bände  der  beiden  Reihen  the  first  and  second  volumes 
of  the  two  series.  Similarly  where  two  distinct  units  are  merged  into  one  for 
a  common  purpose,  or  where  two  distinct  parties  are  struggling  against  one 
another  in  a  common  contest  for  the  mastery:  die  englische  und  französische 
Flotte  or  die  englisch-französische  Flotte  the  English  and  French  fleet  or  the 
Anglo-French  fleet;   der  deutsch-französische  Krieg,  &c. 

12.  The  Germans  often  use  the  sing,  in  a  distributive  sense  (where  we  use 
the  pi.)  when  the  reference  is  to  a  siuole  thing  or  respect  which  applies  alike  to 
a  number  of  persons:  Viele  haben  das  Leben  verloren  Many  lost  their  lives. 
Alle  hoben  die  rechte  Hand  auf  All  raised  their  right  hands.  Der  Henker  hieb 
den  Verurteilten  den  Kopf  ab.  Ihr  müßt  den  Kopf  gerade  halten.  See  also 
263.  II.  3. 

13.  The  sing,  is  much  used  with  generalizing  force  both  in  German  and 
English,  but  in  the  former  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  the  latter:  Der  Mensch 
wird  zum  Unglück  geboren  Man  is  born  unto  trouble.  Often  this  generalizing 
sing,  takes  on  real  abstract  force,  as  is  described  in  5.  A.  b  above. 

14.  For  the  words  which  have  different  plurals  wath  diff"erentiated  meanings, 
see  83. 

Gender  of  Nouns. 

97.  Gender  in  German  is  not,  as  in  English,  determined  by  sex  or  non-sex, 
but  is  either  natural  or  grammatical. 

The  gender  of  nouns  is  natural  when  it  is  based  upon  sex.  Natural  gender 
is  confined  to  names  of  animate  beings.  Such  nouns  are  masculine  if  they 
denote  males,  and  are  feminine  if  they  denote  females. 

Grammatical  gender  is  determined,  not  by  sex,  but  by  the  meaning  and 
form  of  the  word.  It  is  of  three  kinds  — masculine,  feminine,  neuter.  By 
grammatical  gender  even  nouns  denoting  things  and  abstract  ideas  are  often 
masculine  or  feminine  by  virtue  of  their  meaning  or  form:  der  Herbst  autumn, 
der  Fluß  river,  die  Fahrt  drive,  die  Reife  ripeness.  The  origin  of  grammatical 
gender  and  its  original  relation  to  natural  gender  is  not  clearly  understood. 
Some  think  that  the  basis  of  all  gender  is  the  natural  sex  of  man  and  beast, 
which  originally  in  the  lively  play  of  the  imagination  was  also  ascribed  to  lifeless 
objects.  Others  with  greater  probability  think  the  question  more  a  matter  of 
form  and  meaning.  The  idea  of  masculine  or  feminine  sex  could  attach  itself 
to  certain  sufifixes  which  occurred  in  certain  nouns  and  pronouns  denoting  males 
or  females.  Many  nouns  which  denoted  lifeless  objects  or  abstract  ideas  had 
the  same  ending  as  the  nouns  denoting  animate  beings,  and  thus  became  intimate- 
ly associated  with  them  and  were  treated  grammatically  in  exactly  the  same  way, 
their  modifiers  being  required  to  assume  a  masc.  or  a  fem.  form.  Also  many 
words  which  did  not  have  an  ending  that  suggested  the  masc.  or  the  fern,  gender 
had  a  meaning  similar  to  certain  masc.  or  fern,  nouns  and  hence  W'ere  similarly 
treated,  their  modifiers  being  required  to  assume  a  masc.  or  a  fern.  form.  All  the 
pronouns  referring  to  these  nouns  that  had  become  masc.  or  fern,  upon  the  basis 
of  mere  form  or  meaning  were  masc.  or  fem.,  so  that  a  large  number  of  lifeless 
objects  had  become  thoroly  associated  with  the  idea  of  sex  and  had  thus  been 
brought  into  relation  to  life,  but  it  does  not  seem  probable  that  a  vivid  idea  of 
sex  and  animate  life  was  ever  associated  with  these  things  in  ordinary  language. 
From  the  very  beginning  the  ideas  of  form  and  general  meaning  were  the  prin- 
cipal factors.  In  a  limited  number  of  words,  however,  masc.  and  fem.  forms  have 
led  to  the  vivid  idea  of  sex.  Thus  popular  fancy  pictured  to  itself  the  moon  as 
a  shepherd  among  his  sheep  (stars),  starting  from  the  grammatical  gender  of 
(der)  Mond.  The  imagination  may  also  in  a  limited  number  of  words  have 
directly  personified  things,  assigning  gender  to  them  on  the  basis  of  some  fanciful 
resemblance  to  animate  beings. 


98.  2.  B.  (P.a.         GENDER   ACCORDING   TO   MEANING 121 

The  neuter  (i.e.  neither)  gender  denoted  originally,  as  its  name  signifies, 
absence  of  gender,  and  has  arisen  to  the  dignity  of  a  third  gender  only  by  its 
difference  in  grammatical  form  from  that  of  the  other  two  genders.  In  Indo- 
European,  from  which  Germanic  has  come,  the  masculine  and  feminine  had  a 
different  form  for  the  nominative  and  the  accusative  as  the  nouns  were  felt  as 
representing  living  beings  who  act  and  are  acted  upon,,  while  neuter  nouns  did 
not  have  a  different  form  for  the  two  cases  as  they  were  felt  as  representing  an 
inert  mass  that  could  neither  act  nor  suffer  when  acted  upon.  Even  in  oldest 
German  this  old  order  of  things  had  in  a  large  measure  disappeared.  To-day  the 
feminine  as  well  as  the  neuter  has  under  all  circumstances  the  same  form  for 
the  nominative  and  the  accusative.  Thus  language  has  grown  less  picturesque, 
more  matter-of-fact. 

It  is  now  only  possible  by  the  aid  of  philology  to  determine  the  different  forces 
at  work  in  gender,  and  that  only  imperfectly.  The  following  detailed  treat- 
ment is  intended  only  as  a  practical  guide  to  the  use  of  gender  as  it  is  to-day. 

Gender  according  to  Meaning. 

98.  1.  The  gender  of  nouns  indicating  animate  beings  is,  as  in  English, 
masc.  or  fem.  according  to  sex:  der  Vater  father,  die  Mutter  mother;  der 
Mann  man,  die  Frau  woman;  der  Bruder  brother,  die  Schwester  sister;  der 
Knecht  servant,  die  Magd  maid-servant;  der  Bock  male  goat,  die  Ziege  female 
goat;   der  Ochse  ox,  die  Kuh  cow. 

There  are  a  few  exceptions: 

a.  A  few  isolated  words:  das  Weib  and  Frauenzimmer  woman,  das  Mensch 
wench,  in  the  language  of  the  common  people  das  Mannsen  man,  das  Weibsen 
woman. 

b.  Nouns  representing  not  an  individual  but  a  species  or  class  are  not  of 
uniform  gender,  some  being  masc,  some  fem.,  some  neuter:  der  Mensch  man, 
der  Adler  eagle,  die  Person  person,  die  Waise  orphan,  die  Schwalbe  swallow, 
das  Pferd  horse,  &c. 

c.  In  nouns  denoting  tne  young  of  animals  and  also  of  human  offspring  the 
idea  of  sex  is  not  prominent,  and  hence  the  gender  is  usually  neuter:  das  Kalb 
calf,  das  Füllen  colt,  das  Junge  eines  Schafes,  ein  ganz  Kleines  baby,  &c. 

d.  All  nouns  representing  living  beings  become  neut.  when  they  take  a  neut. 
suffix:   Fräulein  Miss,  young  lady,  liebes  süßes  Tantchen  dear  good  Auntie. 

2.  The  gender  of  nouns  indicating  lifeless  objects  is  difficult  for  the  foreigner 
to  detect,  but  may  be  learned  in  part  by  the  following  rules: 

A.  Masculines  are: 

The  names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  months,  seasons,  winds,  points  of  the  com- 
pass, mountains,  stones,  and  foreign  rivers  (see  B.  a):  der  Montag  Monday, 
der  Januar  January,  der  Winter  winter,  der  Pa'ssat  the  'trade-wind,'  der 
Norden  the  north,  der  Brocken  the  Brocken,  der  Dia'mant  diamond,  der  Don 
the  Don  (river).  Of  course  if  such  names  are  compounds  they  are  not  neces- 
sarily masc,  but  are  go\erned  by  their  last  component:  das  Frühjahr  Spring, 
das  Matterhorn  (peak  of  the  Alps),  &c. 

B.  Feminines  are: 

(1)  The  names  of  most  German  rivers,  most  trees,  plants,  flowers,  fruits 
(except  der  Apfel  and  der  Pfirsich,  the  latter  of  which  also  has  a  fem.  form,  die 
Pfirsiche),  cigars  (see  b  below),  postage  stamps  (see  b  below),  and  cardinal 
numerals  used  as  substantives:  die  Weser  the  Weser  river,  die  Elbe  the  Elbe 
river,  die  Eiche  oak,  die  Rose  rose,  die  Kar'toffel  potato,  die  Traube  grape,  die 
Henry  Clay  (name  of  a  cigar),  die  Porto 'riko  the  Porto  Rico  postage  stamp, 
die  Eins  the  figure  1.  For  more  concerning  the  gender  of  numerals  see  121. 
3.  Note. 

a.  The  prevailing;  gender  for  German  rivers  is  fern.,  as  a  number  were  originally  compounded 
with  a  fern,  sutfix  -aha  related  to  the  Latin  aqua  water:  Werra  from  W'erraha.  A  few  Cierman 
rivers,  as  der  Bober,  Eisack,  Elbing,  Inn,  Kocher,  Lech,  Main,  Neckar,  Pregel,  Regen,  and 


122 GENDER   ACCORDING   TO   MEANING         98.  2.  B.  (1).  a. 

Rhein,  are  masc,  as  are  also  American  rivers  and  foreign  streams  in  general  excepting  those  end- 
ing in  a  fern,  suffix,  as  e,  a,  and  often  these  are  masc:  der  Mississippi,  Don,  Columbia,  &c., 
but  die  Themse  Thames,  Wolga,  eS:c.  Some  foreign  rivers  have  double  gender,  sometimes 
according  to  the  languages  from  which  they  were  taken,  as  der  Rhone,  der  Tiber,  sometimes 
fem.  after  German  fashion,  as  die  Rhone,  die  Tiber. 

b.  The  names  of  cigars  and  postage  stamps  are  fem.,  as  the  mind  supplies  the  words  Zigarre, 
Marke.  In  the  same  manner  other  words  may  take  the  gender  of  some  word  supplied  by  the 
mind:  ein  (neut.)  Stahl,  for  Stahlpulver;  das  (see  also  83)  Scharlach  (with  gender  of  Fieber) 
scarlet-fever;  feiner  Kom  (with  the  gender  of  Branntwein)  Dutch  gin;  beim  Blindekuh  (with 
the  gender  of  Spiel)  (Fontane's  L'  Adidtera,  chap,  viii)  in  the  play  of  blindman's-buff;  die  Blickens- 
derfer  (name  of  eine  Schreibmascliine). 

(2)  The  gender  of  the  names  of  ships  is  usually  that  of  the  original  word, 
but  there  is  a  tendency  to  employ  the  feminine  gender  in  case  of  ships  named 
after  persons  or  places:  der  Kaiser  Wilhelm,  die  Luise,  die  Möwe,  but  die 
Deutschland,  an  Bord  der  ,,Moltke"  {Hambiirgischer  Correspondent,  June  24, 
1903),  auf  der  „Hohenzollern"  (ib.),  die  Hamburg  (ib.,  June  29,  1903),  die 
Navahoe  (ib.),  die  Emden  (official  German  report  of  Sept.  25,  1914),  die  Rück- 
kehr der  Bodensee  (Das  Berliner  Tageblatt,  Nov.  5,  1919)  the  return  of  the 
Bodensee  (passenger  airship).  In  case  of  ships  named  after  persons  or  places 
many  avoid  the  feminine  as  an  anglicism  and  employ  the  masculine  after  the 
analogy  of  der  Dampfer:  an  dem  Untergang  des  ,, Maine"  (Neue  Zürcher 
Zeitung,  March  23,  1898),  der  Caracas  {Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  Dec.  24, 
1902),  unser  tapferer  Emden  (Engel's  Ein  Tagebuch,  II,  p.  387).  In  case  of 
ships  named  after  persons  and  places  some  writers  employ  the  gender  of  the 
original  word,  dropping  the  article  when  the  word  is  unmodified,  but  using  it 
when  modified:  Scharnhorst,  but  der  stolze  Scharnhorst;  Emden  but  das 
tapfere  Emden,  Bodensee  benötigte  (auf  der  Fahrt  von  Friedrichshafen  nach 
Berlin)  nur  3^/4  Stunden  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Nov.  22,  1919). 

C.     Neuters  are: 

a.  The  names  of  minerals  except:  der  Stahl  steel,  der  Tombak  (sometimes 
neut.)  tombac,  der  Kobalt  (sometimes  neut.)  cobalt;  and  Nickel  (masc.  in  the 
meaning  Zehnpfennigstück)  nickel,  Wismut  bismuth,  Zink  zinc,  which  are 
either  neut.  or  masc,   but  more  commonly  the  former. 

b.  The  names  of  countries,  islands,  provinces,  cities,  and  places  except  those 
that  always  take  the  article  (59.  II.  F.  2.  a  and  b). 

Note.  In  poetic  style  cities  are  often  personified  and  treated  as  fern.,  as  a  survival  of  a  once  more  general  usage: 
die  rege  Zürich  (Schiller),  die  goldene  Augsburg  (Frenssen's  Bismarck  p.  52). 

c.  Certain  abstract  nouns,  especially  abstract  adjective-substantives,  as 
das  Schöne  the  beautiful,  and  infinitive-substantives,  as  das  Singen  singing. 

d.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  as  das  A  the  a,  das  Abe  the  A-B-C. 

e.  Modern  compounds  and  nouns  formed  from  other  parts  of  speech  (see 
80.  2),  except  those  that  denote  persons,  or  other  living  beings,  which  also 
sometimes  take  the  neut.  but  usually  the  natural  gender:  ein  Vergißmeinnicht 
forget-me-not,  ein  Mehr  a  majority,  ein  Plus  that  which  is  above  and  beyond, 
ein  unbekanntes  Etwas  an  unknown  something,  das  bessere  Ich  in  uns  (Goethe's 
Wilhelm  Meisters  Lehrjahre,  II.  chap.  xi).  Oswald:  Du  heiraten?  Wen? 
Simpson:  Eben  dieses  Wen  wollte  ich  dir  unterbreiten.  (Wilbrandt's  Die 
Maler,  3,  3).  You  marry?  Whom?  —  It  is  just  this  question  of  the  whom  that 
I  was  about  to  lay  before  you.  Ich  hasse  dieses  pedantische  allerdevoteste 
deutsche  Sie  (id.,  Franz,  III).  ,, Entweder  Sie  erklären  augenblicklich,  daß 
Sie  meinen  würdigen  Vater  mit  Ihrem  Gelächter  nicht  kränken  wollten,  oder 
wir  verzichten  auf  die  Ehre  Ihrer  Gegenv/art".  „Wer  ist  das  Wir?"  schrie  sie 
kirschbraun  vor  Zorn  dem  Doktor  zu  (Baumbach's  Der  Schwiegersohn,  \TII). 
Hier  gibt's  kein  Rückwärts,  sondern  nur  ein  Vorwärts.  Bei  Tische  hatte  ich 
ein  reizendes  Gegenüber  At  the  table  a  charming  young  lady  sat  opposite  me. 
Wenn  sie  mich  wollte  —  Sie!  Welche  Sie?  (Wilbrandt's  Maler,  3,  4)  If  she 
would  have  me  — She!  What  She?  Es  ist  kein  Er;  es  ist  eine  Sie  (Raabe's 
Frau  Salome,  chap,  xi)  It  (here  the  thief)  is  no  male  person;  it  is  a  girl.  Ein 
(masc.)  Springinsfeld  romping  boy  or  girl,  ein  (masc.)  Saufaus  toper,  &c.; 
das  Kikeri'ki  crowing  of  the  cock,  but  der  Kikeri'ki  cock,  and  hence  also  der 


99.  2.  b. GENDER   ACCORDING   TO    FORM 123 

Kikeri'ki,  name  of  a  comic  paper.  Some  formations  of  this  kind  used  as  names 
of  newspapers  and  periodicals,  as  der  Vorwärts  and  der  Uber'all,  are  masc.  as 
they  are  conceived  as  having  the  quaHties  of  men,  i.e.  are  the  representatives  of 
certain  principles  or  the  embodiments  of  certain  ideas,  but  others,  as  Über 
Land  und  Meer  and  Vom  Feis  zum  Meer,  are  neuter  in  accordance  with  the 
general  rule.  Substantives  derived  from  interjections  denoting  noises  are  not 
neut.  but  usually  masc.  after  the  analogy  of  other  names  of  noises,  which  are 
largely  monosyllabic  deri\atives  from  \-erbal  stems  and  hence  are  naturally 
masc. :  der  Knack,  der  Klatsch,  der  Paff,  der  Kladdera'datsch  great  noise,  row, 
and  hence  der  Kladdera'datsch,  name  of  a  satirical  paper  in  Berlin.  Luginsland 
watch-tower  is  masc.  after  the  analog}^  of  Turm. 

A  sentence  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  often  used  as  a  neut.  noun:  Wie  schmerz- 
lich, nach  und  nach  hinter  der  eigenen  Leistung  zurückzubleiben  .  .  .  ,  ein  un- 
gestümes ,,Mach'  Platz!"  zu  hören  (Erich  Schmidt's  Cliarakte'risliken,  II,  p. 
233).  Er  war  dann  später  mit  einem  kurzen  ,,gute  Nacht"  in  seine  Kammer 
gegangen  fStorm's  In  St.  Jürgen). 

The  gender  of  modern  compounds  is  sometimes  regulated  by  the  first  word. 
See  102.  h  (toward  end). 

Gender  according  to  Form. 

99.  To  some  of  the  rules  of  formal  gender  there  are  many  exceptions.  In 
the  following  articles  only  the  general  outline  of  present  usage  can  be  given: 

1.  Masculines  are: 

a.  Most  monosyllables  by  gradation  (197.  A.  a),  showing  in  many  cases 
the  same  vowel  as  the  past  tense  of  the  strong  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived : 
der  Band  volume,  from  binden  to  bind;  der  Biß  bite,  from  beißen  to  bite;  der 
Sproß  sprout,  from  sprießen  to  sprout;  der  Schluß  close,  from  schließen  to  close. 
A  few  monosyllables  show  another  vowel  than  that  of  the  past:  der  Tritt  step, 
from  treten  to  step;  der  Befehl  order,  from  befehlen  to  order,  &c.  A  few  are 
neuter:  das  (sometimes  der)  Floß  raft,  das  Schloß  lock,  castle.  A  few  are  fem- 
inine.    See  2.  a  below. 

Examples  of  this  class  of  words  with  the  peculiarities  of  their  formation  are 
mentioned  in  articles  198-205  under  each  class  of  strong  verbs,  where  they 
should  be  studied  carefully. 

b.  Most  monosyllables  formed  from  the  stem  of  wk.  verbs  or  the  stem  of 
the  present  tense  of  strong  verbs:  der  Tanz  dance,  from  tanzen  to  dance;  der 
Fall,  from  fallen  to  fall,  Szc. 

c.  Nouns  having  the  following  suffixes:  -er,  -ler,  -ner,  denoting  agents,  as 
der  Schreiber  clerk,  der  Künstler  artist,  der  Pförtner  door-keeper,  der  Wecker 
alarm  clock,  literally  awakener;  those  in  -el  denoting  an  instrument,  as  der 
Hebel  crow-bar;  those  in  -em,  -ich,  -ig,  -ing,  -ling,  -rich,  as  der  Atem  breath, 
der  Fittich  wing,  der  König  king,  der  Hering  herring,  der  Frühling  Spring,  der 
Gänserich  gander,  &c. 

2.  Feminines  are: 

a.  Dissyllables  by  gradation  ending  in  -e,  showing  in  many  cases  the  same 
vowel  as  the  past  tense  of  the  strong  verbs  from  which  they  are  derived:  die 
Sprache  language,  from  sprechen  to  speak,  &c.;  (with  another  vowel  than  that 
of  the  past  tense)  die  Fliege  fly,  from  fliegen  to  fly,  &c. 

Most  monosyllables  by  gradation  are  masculine,  but  a  few  are  feminine: 
Schur  shearing,  Fuhr  (usually  in  compounds,  as  Ausfuhr  exportation).  See 
close  of  1.  a. 

b.  Nouns  having  the  following  sufüxes:  -e  (in  abstract  nouns  and  names  of 
lifeless  objects);  many  in  -t;  all  in  -ei  (accented),  -in,  -ung,  -heit,  -keit,  -schaft; 
a  few  in  -ut  and  -at;  a  number  in  -nis  and  -sal:  die  Größe  greatness,  size,  die 
Stube  room,  die  Macht  might,  die  Necke'rei  teasing,  die  Gräfin  countess,  die 
Heizung  heating,  die  Vermessenheit  audacity,  die  Frömmigkeit  piety,  die  Land- 
schaft landscape,  die  Armut  poverty,  die  Heimat  native  place,  die  Bangnis  state 


124 FLUCTUATION    IN    GENDER 99.  2.  h. 

of  fear,  die  Bedrängnis  distress,  die  Besorgnis  apprehension,  die  Betrübnis  sad- 
ness, die  Düsternis  darkness,  die  Fährnis  (Koser's  König  Friedrich  der  Große, 
II,  p.  333)  danger,  die  Kenntnis  knowledge,  die  Unkenntnis  ignorance,  die 
Kümmernis  sorrow,  die  Trocknis  (Raabe,  Frenssen)  dryness,  die  Wildnis  wilder- 
ness, die  Wirrnis  chaotic  condition,  die  Trübsal  (see  3.  c  below). 

3.     Neuters  are: 

a.  Nouns  having  diminutive  suffixes  (see  245.  I.  8.  1.  /),  and  those  in  -icht 
denoting  a  collective  idea:  das  Kindchen  little  child,  Dickicht  thicket,  but  der 
or  das  Kehricht  sweepings. 

h.  All  in  -tum  (except  der  Reichtum  wealth,  and  der  Irrtum  error)  and  those 
in  -tel  (from  Teil  part) :    das  Fürstentum  principality,  das  Viertel  fourth. 

c.  The  majority  of  those  in  -nis,  -sal,  -sei:  das  Gefängnis  prison,  das 
Schicksal  fate,  das  Rätsel  riddle,  «Sec.  A  goodly  number  in  -nis  are  fern.  See 
2.  h  above.  A  few  fluctuate  between  fem.  and  neut.  with  a  preference  in  most 
cases  for  the  former:  die  (formerly  also  das)  Befugnis  authorization,  die  (or 
das)  Beschwernis  trouble,  burden,  die  (also  das)  Bitternis  bitterness,  die  (das) 
Ersparnis  economy,  saving,  Erkenntnis  (see  83),  die  (das)  Säumnis  delay,  die 
(das)  Verderbnis  corruption,  die  (das)  Versäumnis  delay,  das  (die)  Wagnis 
hold  venture,  &c.  Four  in  -sal  are  usually  fern.,  sometimes  neut.:  Drangsal 
distress,  Mühsal  drudgery,  Saumsal  slothfulness,  Trübsal  affliction.  A  few  in 
-sal  are  generally  neut.,  sometimes,  especially  earlier  in  the  period,  masc: 
Rinnsal  channel,  Scheusal  monster,  &c. 

d.  All  of  the  form  Ge —  e,  or  Ge-  (without  e),  except  the  strong  masculines 
Gebrauch  use,  Gedanke  thought.  Gedeih  (now  obsolete)  prosperity,  Gefalle(n) 
favor,  Gehalt  (see  83),  Gehorsam  obedience,  Genuß  enjoyment,  Geruch  odor, 
Gesang  song,  Geschmack  taste,  Gestank  stench,  Gewahrsam  (earlier  in  the 
period  fem.,  sometimes  neut.)  custody,  Gewinn  or  Gewinst  gain;  the  mascu- 
lines Gesell(e)  companion  and  all  other  masculines  of  this  form  (Ge e  or  Ge-) 

which  represent  persons;  the  feminines  Gebärde  gesture,  Gebühr  due,  fee, 
Geburt  birth,  Geduld  patience,  Gefahr  danger,  Gefährde  fraud,  danger,  Ge- 
meinde community,  Genüge  satisfaction,  Gerechtsame  privilege,  Geschichte 
history,  Geschwulst  swelling,  Gestalt  form,  Gewähr  guarantee,  Gewalt  power. 

Fluctuation  in  Gender. 

100.  The  gender  of  nouns  is  now  much  better  established  in  the  language  than  earlier 
in  the  period,  but  it  is  still  unsettled  in  many  words.     The  following  points  may  be  of  ser\^ice: 

1.  The  following  substantives  have  double  gender  with  a  preference,  perhaps,  for  the  first 
mentioned  form:  das  and  der  Abteil  compartment  (in  a  railway  car),  der  and  das  Al'tar  altar, 
die  and  in  early  N.H.G.  and  classical  period  der  Angel  fishing-hook,  das  and  der  Ar  are,  das  and 
der  Ar'senik  arsenic,  das  and  der  A'tom  atom,  der  and  das  Bauer  bird-cage,  der  and  das  Begehr 
wish,  demand,  der  and  das  Bereich  domain,  der  and  das  Breisgau  (section  in  Baden),  der  and 
das  Bruch  swampy  land,  das  and  der  Bündel  bundle,  der  and  das  Büschel  bunch,  tuft,  das  and 
der  (rare)  Datum  date,  die  and  das  Drangsal  trouljle,  perplexity,  das  and  der  Elsaß  Alsace, 
der  and  das  Episko'pat,  Pri'mat,  &c.  (see  245.  I.  19),  das  and  der  Euter  udder,  der  and  das 
Ex'trakt  extract,  das  and  der  Fi'asko  failure,  das  and  der  Filter  filter,  das  and  der  Flöß  raft, 
die  and  der  Geisel  hostage,  das  (with  Goethe  and  Schiller  also  der  and  still  occasionally  so; 
in  early  N.H.G.  die)  Gift  poison,  das  and  der  Gran  grain  (weight),  der  and  das  Grat  ridge,  das 
and  der  Gummi  rubber,  der  and  die  Haspel  reel,  das  and  der  Hehl  secrecy,  die  and  der  Hirse 
millet,  das  and  der  Ju'wel  jewel,  der  and  das  Ka'min  fire-place,  der  and  das  Karzer  school  prison, 
der  and  das  Ka'theder  teacher's  desk,  chair  in  a  university,  der  and  das  Kies  gravel,  das  and  der 
Kino  moving  picture  theater,  der  and  formerly  also  die  Kleinmut  faintheartedness,  der  and 
perhaps  as  frequently  die  Klimax  climax,  das  and  often  der  Knäuel  (ball  of  yarn,  &c.),  das  and 
often  der  Kompro'miß  compromise,  der  and  das  Kris'tall  crystal,  das  and  perhaps  as  frequently 
der  Leek  leak,  das  and  der  (rare)  Lexi'kon  lexicon,  das  and  der  Liter  liter,  das  and  der  Lob 
praise,  der  and  das  Lohn  wages,  das  and  der  Mete'or  meteor,  das  and  der  Meter  meter,  always 
masc.  however  in  Trimeter,  He'xameter,  and  Gaso'meter,  das  or  der  (for  a  boy  or  a  girl),  also 
die  (for  a  girl)  Mündel  ward,  das  and  der  (after  the  analogy  of  der  Dom)  Münster  cathedral, 
der  and  die  Muskel  muscle,  das  and  die  Neunauge  lamprey,  das  and  der  Nickel  nickel,  der  and 
formerly  also  das  Ort  place,  der  and  das  Ort  (83)  awl,  der  and  often  die  Otter  otter,  die  and  der 
Pacht  lease,  das  and  der  Pathos  pathos,  solemn  or  often  high-sounding,  bombastic  language, 
das  and  often  der  Pendel  pendulum,  das  and  der  Perpen'dikel  plumb-line,  pendulum,  der  and 
das  Pfühl  pillow,  die  and  formerly  also  der  Phalanx  phalanx,  der  and  das  Plaid  (ple:t)  shawl, 
das  and  der  Polster  cushion,  pillow,  das  and  der  Pult  desk,  die  and  der  Quader  square  dressed 


102.  a. GENDER   OF   COMPOUNDS 125 

!ilock;  of  stone,  die  and  der  Reling  breast-rail,  die  and  formerly  also  der  Reve'renz  bow,  curtsj-, 
das  and  der  Rückgrat  back-bone,  der  and  formerly  also  die  Scheitel  crown  (of  the  head),  der 
and  die  Schneid  snap,  courage,  das  and  der  (rare)  Se'mester  semester,  das  and  der  Siel  sewer, 
der  and  das  Spek'takel  noise,  racket,  das  and  often  der  Spittel  old  people's  home,  das  and  der 
Tesching  gun  of  a  small  bore,  der  and  das  Ungestüm  vehemence,  das  and  der  Versteck  hiding- 
place,  die  and  formerly  also  der  Waise  orphan,  die  and  das  Wiek  little  bay,  der  and  das  Ze'ment 
cement,  das  and  often  especially  earlier  in  the  period  der  Zepter  scepter,  der  and  die  Zierat 
ornament,  das  and  der  Zink  zinc,  das,  die,  der  Zubehör  belongings,  die  and  formerly  also  der 
Zwiebel  onion,  and  others. 

a.  In  dialect  many  deviations  from  the  literary  language  occur  in  the  gender  of  words:  die 
(for  der)  Bach,  der  (for  die)  Butter,  das  (for  der)  Monat,  &c. 

2.  The  following  have  not  only  double  gender,  but  also  double  forms,  with  perhaps  a  pref- 
erence for  the  first  mentioned  at  least  in  ordinary  language,  and  in  some  cases  a  leaning  to  the 
second  in  elevated  diction:  die  Backe  and  der  (as  a  rule  earlier  in  the  period)  Backen  cheek, 
der  Karren  and  (especially  in  N.G.)  die  Karre  cart,  der  Muff  (83)  and  die  Muffe  muff,  der 
Nerv  and  die  Nerve  nerve,  das  (or  der)  Niet  or  die  Niete  rivet,  die  Peri'ode  or  formerly  also 
der  Peri'od(e),  der  Pfirsich  and  die  Pfirsiche  peach,  der  Pfosten  and  die  Pfoste  post,  der  Pfriem 
or  Pfriemen  and  die  Pfrieme  awl,  die  Quaste  and  der  Quast  tassel,  die  Quelle  and  in  poetic 
language  der  Quell  spring  (of  water),  die  Ritze  and  der  Ritz  chink,  die  Schläfe  and  der  Schlaf 
temple  (on  the  forehead),  die  Scherbe  and  der  (S.G.)  Scherben  shard,  der  Sparren  and  die 
Sparre  rafter,  die  (and  das)  Werft  and  die  Werfte  dock-yard,  die  Zehe  and  der  Zeh  toe,  and 
others.     The  different  dialects  and  sections  often  diverge  here  widely. 

3.  For  nouns  which  have  different  genders  and  forms  with  differentiation  of  meaning  see  83. 

Gender  of  Foreign  Nouns. 

101.  Foreign  nouns  retain  the  gender  which  they  had  in  the  language  from 
which  they  were  borrowed :  der  Kerker  from  the  Latin  career,  m. ;  das  Kloster 
from  the  Latin  elaustriim,  n, 

a.  A  number  of  foreign  words,  however,  have  changed  their  gender  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  for  German  words,  influenced  in  some  cases  by  their  meaning  and  in  other  cases  by  their 
ending:  das  Karzer  (Schiller's  Lager,  7)  school  prison  (L.  career,  m.)  on  account  of  das  Gefängnis 
prison,  now  more  commonly  der  Karzer;  der  Marmor  marble  (L.  marmor,  n.)  on  account  of 
der  Stein  stone;  das  Banner  and  Panier  baniier,  standard  (from  the  French  banniere,  f.)  under 
the  influence  of  das  Feldzeichen  banner;  names  of  foreign  countries  usually  neuter  after  the 
analogy  of  German  geographical  names,  as  das  alte  Europa  (in  Latin  fem.)  old  Europe;  der 
Keller  cellar  (L.  cellarium,  n.)  after  the  analogy  of  German  words  in  -er;  die  Etage  (masc.  in 
French)  story  (of  a  house)  after  the  analogy  of  German  words  in  -e;  die  Kanzel  and  die  Bibel, 
as  they  are  in  fact  plurals  (the  Latin  pi.  cancelli  altaris  the  railing  of  the  altar  and  the  Greek  and 
Latin  pi.  biblia),  which  here,  as  often  elsewhere,  are  used  as  feminine  singulars.  Words  from 
the  English,  which  no  longer  has  grammatical  gender,  take  their  gender  from  some  resemblance 
in  meaning  or  form  to  German  words:  das  Beefsteak  after  the  analogy  of  das  Rindfleisch,  der 
Streik  after  the  analogy  of  der  Streich.  As  the  French  has  no  neut.,  names  of  things  which  in 
it  are  masc.  often  become  neut.  in  German:  das  Porträt  from  le  portrait,  das  Resultat  from 
le  resultat,  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  words  which  originally  in  the  Latin  are  neut.  have  become 
masc.  influenced  by  the  French,  which  has  converted  the  neut.  into  the  masc:  der  Palast  from 
Latin  palatium,  n.  thru  French  palais,  m. 

b.  In  quoting  from  a  foreign  language,  if  it  is  not  possible  to  avoid  placing  an  article  before 
a  foreign  word  or  the  first  word  of  a  quoted  phrase,  the  gender  is  commonly  conformed  to  the 
gender  of  the  corresponding  word  in  German:  Sweet  in  seiner  History  (die  Geschichte)  of 
English  Sounds,  der  Korrespon'dent  der  „Daily  Mail"  (die  Post). 

Gender  of  Compound  Nouns. 

102.  Compound  nouns  have  the  gender  of  the  last  component:  die  Haustür 
door  of  the  house,  der  Hausflur  entrance-hall  of  a  house,  das  Haustier  domestic 
animal. 

The  exceptions  are: 

a.  A  number  of  words  having  for  their  final  component  Mut,  namely,  Demut,  Langmut, 
Sanftmut,  Anmut,  Großmut  (sometimes  masc),  Schwermut,  Wehmut,  are  fem.,  while  others, 
as  Freimut,  Gleichmut,  Hochmut,  Jagdmut,  Kleinmut  (sometimes  fem.),  Mißmut,  Übermut, 
Unmut,  &c,  are  masc.  Here  the  fem.  words  have  a  different  origin  from  the  masc.  words,  being 
originally  abstract  nouns  derived  from  adjectives  formerly  in  use  and  having  in  M.H.p.  the 
fem.  ending  e  and  mutating  the  stem  vowel,  while  the  masculines  are  compounded  with  the 
masc.  substantive  Mut  and  are  according  to  rule  masc.  At  length  the  final  e  of  the  fern,  nouns 
entirely  disajjpeared,  and  dropping  mutation  under  the  influence  of  the  masculines  they  became 
identical  in  form  with  them,  but  retained  the  fem.  article.  However,  the  meaning  of  the  word 
has  also  exercised  some  influence  over  the  gender  of  these  words,  for,  after  the  masc.  and  fem. 


126 INFLECTION   OF   ADJECTIVES 102.  a. 

forms  had  become  identical,  some  masc.  became  fem.,  and  some  fern,  became  masc,  and  of  words 
of  modern  coinage  some  took  on  the  masc,  some  the  fern,  article.  At  present  the  feminines,  as 
can  be  seen  from  the  above  complete  list,  express  the  milder  virtues  and  qualities,  while  the 
masculines  denote  the  more  vigorous  or  violent  traits  or  feelings,  or  their  opposites. 

b.  Abscheu  disgust,  Vogelscheu  (Goethe's  Egmont,  act  4,  Straße;  now  die  Vogelscheuche) 
scarecrow,  are  masc,  but  other  compounds  of  Scheu  are  fem.,  as  die  Wasserscheu,  &c. 

c.  Die  Antwort  ausiver,  but  Wort  and  its  compounds  are  neut.  Antwort  is  in  fact  not  a 
compound  of  Wort,  but  a  derivative  from  it,  and  had  in  M.H.G.  a  different  form:  antwiirte 
(later  changed  to  Antwort,  as  its  form  was  influenced  by  that  of  Wort),  neut.  or  fem.  In  early 
N.H.G.  Antwort  is  still  neut.,  and  a  few  survivals  of  this  usage  still  occur  in  the  classical  period: 
ein  richtiges  antwort  (Prov.  xxiv.  26).  Ich  glaubte,  das  sei  Antworts  genug  (Lessing's  Emilia, 
4,  3).  The  s  of  Antwort  may  in  the  sentence  from  Lessing  be  also  explained  according  to  94. 
9.  1.  c. 

d.  Teil  is  now  usually  masc,  but  it  is  still  neut.  in  accordance  with  older  usage  in  certain 
set  expressions:  der  letzte  Teil  des  Buches,  der  vierte  Teil  des  Landes  (but  in  early  N.H.G. 
das  zehende  teil  der  Stad  fiel — Rev.  xi.  13).  It  is  still  neut.  in  the  meanings  allotted  portion, 
portion  (in  certain  set  expressions),  and  sometimes  a  good  deal:  Sie  haben  ihr  Teil  dahin  They 
have  their  portion  (i.e.  reward).  Du  hast  das  beßre  Teil  erwählt  (Schiller's  Maria,  5,  6;  compare 
Luke  X.  42).  Ein  gut  Teil  Leichtsinn,  um  ein  gut  Teil  reicher  a  good  deal  richer.  Also  its  com- 
pounds are  usually  masc,  except:  the  contracted  and  uncontracted  form  in  fractions,  as  das 
Drittel  or  Dritteil  third,  &c.;  das  (also  der)  Abteil  coiiipartmeut  (in  a  railroad  car),  das  Gegen- 
teil opposite,  Hinterteil  (perhaps  more  commonly  masc.)  back  part,  Vorderteil  (perhaps  more 
commonly  masc.)  forepart,  Pflichtteil  (more  commonly  masc.)  that  which  necessarily  falls  to  a 
legal  heir,  whether  the  testator  will  or  no,  Erbteil  inheritance,  Mutterteil  inheritance  from  the  another, 
Vatertejl  patrimony,  Altenteil  (perhaps  less  commonly  masc.)  reservation  made  by  an  old  person 
in  making  over  his  estate  to  an  heir.  'Urteil  (n.)  is  not  a  compound  of  Teil,  but  is  derived  from 
the  corresponding  verb  er'teilen  (ur-  reduced  to  er-  by  reason  of  loss  of  accent),  which  formerly 
also  had  the  meaning  to  pass  sentence  or  judgment  besides  its  present  significations.  This  old 
meaning  is  now  expressed  by  'urteilen,  which  is  a  derivative  of  Urteil. 

e.  Mittwoch  Wednesday  is  masc.  after  the  analogy  of  the  other  days  of  the  week. 

/.  Heirat  marriage  is  fem.  altho  Rat  is  masc,  since  the  origin  of  the  word  was  forgotten  and 
the  force  of  Rat  was  no  longer  felt.  The  abstract  nature  of  the  present  meaning  led  to  its  use 
as  a  fem. 

g.  Compounds  which  are  the  names  of  places  are  neut.  even  tho  the  last  component  is  of  some 
other  gender,  since  they  follow  the  general  rule  for  the  gender  of  places:  das  schöne  Hamburg 
beautiful  Hamburg,  but  die  Wartburg  (a  single  castle). 

h.  A  number  of  compounds,  which  are  in  fact  each  a  syntactical  fragment  of  a  sentence  or 
a  whole  sentence  written  as  one  word,  are  neut.,  or  if  they  represent  persons  have  natural  gender 
without  reference  to  the  gender  of  the  last  component:  das  Vergißmeinnicht  forget-me-not,  der 
Springinsfeld  romping  boy,  der  Taugenichts  a  good-for-nothing  fellow,  &c.     See  98.  2.  C.  e. 

In  other  cases  where  the  natural  gender  is  not  pronounced,  the  gender  of  such  a  syntactical 
fragment  is  sometimes  regulated  by  that  of  the  first  word:  die  Handvoll  handful,  der  Löffelvoll 
spoonful,  der  Fußbreit  the  width  of  a  foot. 


INFLECTION  OF  THE  ADJECTIVES. 

103.  Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes — descriptive  and 
limiting  (see  118)  adjectives. 

Descriptive  Adjectives  and  Participles. 

104.  1.  Inflection.  A  descriptive  adjective  is  one  that  expresses  some  qual- 
ity or  attribute  of  the  object  designated  by  the  noun.  Also  the  two  participles 
usually  have  descriptive  force  when  used  adjectively.  Contrary  to  English 
usage  these  adjectives  and  participles  are,  except  in  the  predicate,  inflected, 
forming  two  distinct  declensions  — the  strong  and  the  tveak.  The  leading  points 
as  to  their  inflection  are  as  follows:  — 

A.  The  strong  declension,  which  has  by  far  the  fuller  inflection  (see  106),  is 
employed  when  the  descriptive  adjective  or  participle  is  not  preceded  by  a 
limiting  adjective,  or  when  there  stands  before  the  descriptive  adjective  or 
participle  a  limiting  adjective  which  has  no  ending  to  show  gender  and  case: 
N.  guter  Wein;  mein  kleiner  Bruder;  ein  schlafendes  Kind;  zwei  kleine 
Brüder.  Hence  the  strong  adjective  not  only  modifies  the  meaning  of  its  noun, 
but  it  also  marks  its  case  and  gender  in  the  absence  of  the  article  or  some  other 
limiting  adjective  that  has  full  endings  to  show  case  and  gender. 


104.  l.h.c. ADJECTIVE   UNINFLECTED 127 

a.  A  descriptive  adjective  which  is  not  preceded  by  an  article  and  follows  von  in  a  phrase 
that  stands  as  an  appositive  to  a  preceding  noun  often  agrees  in  case  with  the  article  of  the 
preceding  noun  and  is  also  regulated  in  its  inflection  by  it,  and  hence  is  strong  if  the  article 
has  no  form  to  show  gender  and  case:  so  ein  Esel  von  alter  (or  better  altem)  ireund!  Com- 
pare B.  c  below  and  also  109.  c. 

B.  The  weak  declension,  which  has  only  two  endings,  e  for  the  nom.  sing, 
of  all  genders  and  for  the  ace.  sing,  of  the  fern,  and  neut.,  and  en  for  all  other 
cases  of  the  different  genders,  sing,  and  pi.,  is  employed  when  there  stands 
before  the  descriptive  adjective  or  participle  some  limiting  adjective  such  as 
the  def.  article  or  other  limiting  adjective  with  strong  inflection  which  can 
show  the  case  and  gender:  N.  der  gute  Knabe,  G.  des  guten  Knaben;  N.  der 
erquickende  Schlummer. 

a.  Sometimes  the  limiting  adjective  is  understood,  having  already  been  previously  used  in 
the  same  sentence,  in  which  case  the  descriptive  adjective  or  participle  is  weak:  der  Erbfeind 
unseres  Reiches  und  heiligen  Glaubens. 

Sometimes  in  colloquial  language  the  article  is  omitted  even  where  there  has  been  no  previous 
use  of  one:  Lotte:  Ich  denk'  mir  das  gar  nicht  so  schön,  aus  dem  großen  Leben  wieder  zurück 
in  die  Einsamkeit.  Döring:    Im  Gegenteil!  Einzig  Richtige  (Halbe's  Die  Heimatlosen,  p.  37). 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  strong  forms  are  often  found  after  str.  limiting  adjectives  in 
accordance  with  an  older  usage:   unsre  eigne  Weiber  (Lessing),  diese  einzelne  Stücke  (id.). 

c.  A  descriptive  adjective  which  is  not  preceded  by  an  article  and  follows  von  in  a  phrase 
that  stands  as  an  appositive  to  a  preceding  noun  often  agrees  in  cases  with  the  article  of  the 
preceding  noun  and  is  also  regulated  in  its  inflection  by  it,  and  hence  is  weak  if  the  article  has  a 
form  which  shows  the  gender  and  case:  durch  eine  Versäumnis  von  zwei  Monaten,  die  ich 
einem  Esel  von  alten  (or  better  altem)  Frexmd  danke  (Schwind  an  IMörike). 

C.  If  the  descriptive  adjective  is  preceded  by  two  limiting  adjectives  with 
different  inflection,  its  declension  is  controlled  by  that  of  the  second  limiting 
adjective:    Dieser  mein  guter  Freund. 

D.  Two  or  more  descriptive  adjectives  which  modify  the  same  noun  take 
the  same  inflection:  guter  alter  Wein;  ein  guter  alter  Mann;  dieser  gute 
alte  Mann. 

2.  Non-inf lection.  Descriptive  adjectives  and  participles  were  in  older  Ger- 
man much  more  widely  used  without  distinctive  case  endings  than  to-day,  as 
explained  in  E.  a  below.  At  present  they  are  not  declined  in  the  following 
cases : 

A.  In  the  predicate  in  the  positive  and  comparative,  but  they  are  inflected 
here  in  the  superlative  (see  112.  1).  In  the  predicate  relation  the  adjective  or 
participle  is  used: 

a.  As  the  predicate  complement  of  intransitives  of  incomplete  predication  (as 
sein  to  be,  bleiben  to  remain,  scheinen  to  seem,  werden  to  become,  &c.;  see 
252.  2.  B.  a)  or  of  passive  verbs:  Er  ist  alt.  Das  Wetter  scheint  besser.  Er  ist 
der  älteste.  Er  wird  glücklich  genannt.  Here  also  belongs  the  past  participle 
in  the  compound  tenses  of  such  intrans.  verbs  as  are  conjugated  with  sein:  Er 
ist  gekommen. 

h.  As  predicate  appositive  (see  252.  1.  c):  Sie  kamen  glücklich  an.  Sie 
saß  weinend  am  Bette  ihrer  Mutter.     Der  Wind  bläst  kalt. 

c.  As  objective  predicate,  i.e.  when  the  adjective  or  participle  predicates  a 
quality  or  state  of  the  object.  This  predication  is  not  represented  as  absolute, 
but  as  limited  and  modified  by  the  idea  contained  in  the  verb:  Er  glaubt  sich 
krank  (=  Er  ist,  nach  seiner  Meinung,  krank).  Sie  weinte  sich  krank  (=  Sie 
wurde  durch  Weinen  krank).  Wir  fanden  ihn  sehr  leidend  (=  Er  litt  sehr, 
gemäß  unsrer  Wahrnehmung).  Ich  betrachte  dies  als  überflüssig  (=  Meiner 
Meinung  nach  ist  dies  überflüssig).  Ich  halte  die  Sache  für  abgemacht.  Ich 
sehe  dich  gegürtet  und  gerüstet  (=  Du  bist,  wie  ich  sehe,  gegürtet  und  gerüstet). 
But  in  the  superlative:  Man  preist  diesen  Mann  den  glücküchsten.  Ich  fühle 
mich  heute  am  schwächsten. 

Here  also  belongs  the  past  participle  in  the  compound  tenses  of  transitive 
verbs:   Er  hat  den  Brief  geschrieben. 

The  copula  sein,  which  in  case  of  predicate  adjectives  and  participles  usually 
formally  announces  the  predication,  is  here  in  accordance  with  older  usage  still 
not  expressed,  as  explained  in  252.  1.  b.  Note  and  262.  III.  2.  B. 


128 ADJECTIVE   UNINFLECTED 104.  2.  A.  c. 

Note.  The  objective  predicate  often  indicates  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  verb  upon  its  object,  and  hence  is 
in  this  use  by  some  called  the  factitive  predicate:   Er  schlug  ihn  tot. 

B.  After  the  noun  which  it  modifies,  but  only  in  the  positive  and  compara- 
tive, never  in  the  superlative: 

a.  Instead  of  standing  attributively  before  a  noun,  an  adjective  or  parti- 
ciple often  follows  it  in  the  relation  of  an  appositive.  A  single  adjective  or 
participle  rarely  stands  after  the  noun,  as  Röslein  rot,  except  in  poetr>%  but  it 
usually  takes  this  position  when  it  is  itself  modified  by  an  elliptical  clause  or  by 
a  phrase  which  is  limited  by  a  clause,  also  sometimes  if  it  is  merely  modified  by 
another  word  or  words,  or  if  there  are  several  adjectives  or  participles  separated 
from  each  other  by  commas  or  by  und:  eine  Rose  rot  wie  Blut  [ist],  ein  Mann 
älter  als  ich  [bin].  Ein  panischer  Schreck,  vermehrt  durch  das  falsche  Gerücht, 
daß  vor  den  Toren  sich  Cäsars  Reiter  gezeigt  hätten,  kam  über  die  vornehme 
Welt.  Und  küßte  sie  an  (now  usually  auf)  den  Mund  so  bleich  (Uhland). 
Eine  Stange  drei  Meter  hoch.  Endlich  erscheint  ein  weibliches  Ding,  flüchtig, 
unbedachtsam,  wild,  witzig  bis  zur  Unverschämtheit,  lustig  bis  zum  Tollen. 
Der  Himmel  nah  und  fern,  er  ist  so  klar  und  feierlich.  Ein  Edelknecht  sanft 
und  keck. 

But  in  the  superlative:    Dieser  Mann,  der  älteste  unter  allen. 

The  adjectives  in  111.  7.  c  can  only  in  this  position  be  used  attributively. 

Note  1.  With  the  exception  of  the  cases  mentioned  above  which  usually  require  the  adjective  or  participle  to  stand 
after  the  noun,  this  position  of  an  adjective  and  participle  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  poetic  style,  and  in  prose  is  often 
replaced  by  the  usual  attributive  position  before  the  noun,  an  arrangement  of  words  which  often  is  markedly  different 
from  the  English,  as  is  nicely  illustrated  by  the  following  sentence:  [In  her  re  very  which  carried  her  back  to  her  youth- 
ful d  ays]  Sie  sah  sich  heranwachsen  im  Hause  ihres  Vaters,  des  alten,  reichen  Kaufherrn,  ein  von  Luxus  umgebenes, 
durch  Schmeicheleien  verwöhntes  und  doch  inmitten  alles  Reichtums  ein  armes,  weil  von  keiner  Mutter  behütetes 
Mädchen  (Helene  Stökl's  Am  hctliKcn  Abend). 

Note  2.  The  non-inflection  of  these  adjective  or  participial  appositives  is  readily  explained  by  the  fact  that  they 
are  not  real  attributive  adjectives,  but  stand  in  elliptical  clauses  of  which  they  are  felt  as  predicate:  Sie  hat  einen 
Nacken  [,der]  weißer  [ist,]  als  Schnee. 

Note  3.     For  exceptions  to  the  rule  that  the  adjective  is  here  uninflected  see  111.  9. 

Note  4.  If  the  adjective  or  participial  appositive  have  an  article,  which  is  especially  the  case  in  poetic  style,  where 
for  emphasis  an  epithet  instead  of  preceding  follows  the  noun,  it  is  always  inflected:  Auf  dem  Teich,  dem  regungslosen, 
weilt  des  Mondes  holder  Glanz.     Also  in  prose  in  case  of  titles:   Friedrich  der  Große,  Karl  der  Fünfte. 

Note  .5.  In  M.H.G.  the  postpositive  adjective  could  be  inflected,  and  this  older  usage  survives  in  rare  instances 
in  poetry:  Ich  habe  einen  solchen  Baum  jüngst  gesehen,  gebogenen  über  eines  Baches  Saum  und  schwankenden 
in  Frühlingslüfte  Wehen  (Rückert).  A  little  more  common  is  the  inflection  here  of  seUg  deceased:  Mein  Mann  seUger 
war  bei  Jahren  und  nicht  leicht  zu  rühren  f Goethe).  The  nom.  masc.  form  seUger  has  become  a  mere  fossil,  as  it  is 
also  used  in  the  oblique  cases:  Ich  habe  die  Sache  von  meinem  Vater  sehger  ererbt  (Immermann).  Xon-inflection 
here,  however,  is  the  rule:    mein  Vater  seUg  for  still  more  commonly  mein  seliger  Vater). 

b.  In  case  of  those  nouns  (see  96.  4.  (1))  which  remain  uninflected  when  used 
in  a  collective  sense  to  express  weight,  measure,  extent,  the  modifying  qualifying 
adjective  follows  the  noun,  and  hence  is  not  inflected:  fünf  Pfund  flämisch,  zehn 
Fuß  rheinisch. 

C.  Uninflected  adjectives  or  participles  often  stand  in  the  relation  of  a 
predicate  appositive  to  a  following  or  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  when  the 
adjective  or  participle  represents  a  subordinate  adverbial  clause  of  which  it 
would  be  the  predicate  complement  or  verbal  predicate:  [weil  sie]  Froh  [war], 
ganz  allein  und  jeder  lästigen  Beobachtung  entrückt  zu  sein,  hatte  sie  sich 
in  die  Ecke  zurückgelehnt  und  die  Augen  geschlossen.  Dies  hörend  ( =  als  er 
dies  hörte),  brach  er  in  Tränen  aus.  Er  grüßte,  sich  tief  verbeugend  (=  indem 
er  sich  tief  verbeugte).  Allzustraff  gespannt  (=  wenn  er  allzustraff  gespannt 
wird),  zerspringt  der  Bogen.  Often  introduced  by  als:  Mein  Freund  hat  als 
enterJt)t  (=  da  er  enterbt  worden  ist)  keine  Mittel  mehr.  The  appositional 
construction  here  is  much  older  than  the  fuller  clause  forms  which  are  given  in 
parentheses.     See  268.  4. 

Note.  The  adjective  or  participle  usually  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  above  examples,  but  it 
is  also  used  as  objective  predicate:  Der  Arzt  hat  den  Kranken  als  geheilt  (  =  da  er  geheilt  war)  entlassen.  Dieses 
Gericht  ißt  man  warm  (  =  während  es  warm  ist).  This  construction  may  become  ambiguous:  Ich  verließ  ihn,  sein 
Unglück  beklagend.  Here  beklagend  may  refer  to  ich  or  ihn.  The  participial  construction  should  be  avoided  here,  but 
of  course  is  unobjectionable  where  no  ambiguity  is  liable  to  arise:   Ich  fand  ihn  seine  Bücher  ordnend. 

D.  In  the  absolute  construction,  where  the  participle  or  adjective  is  not  in 
apposition  with  any  word  in  the  main  clause,  non-inflection  is  the  uniform  rule. 
This  absolute  construction  is  treated  at  length  in  265.  B.  By  comparing  265. 
B.  a,  b.  (1)  it  will  become  evident  that  the  participle  here  was  originally  a  predi- 
cate appositive  and  hence  this  construction  once  belonged  to  C. 

E.  Sometimes  non-inflection  of  adjectives  and  participles  occurs  in  the 
attributive  relation,   in   poetry,   dialect,   familiar   language,   and   in   many  set 


106. STRONG   ADJECTIX  E    INFLECTION 129 

expressions  that  have  come  down  to  us  from  an  earlier  period  when  non-inflection 
here  was  more  common.  In  all  of  these  cases,  however,  non-inflection  is  now 
usually  limited  to  the  nom.  and  ace.  neut.  sing,  in  the  strong  declension:  Ein 
unnütz  Leben  ist  ein  früher  Tod  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  I.  115).  Kein  größer  Glück 
als  ein  vertrauend  Herz  (Dahn's  Jiigendgedichte,  190).  Lieb  Weib,  lieb  Kind, 
auf  gut  Glück  at  random,  auf  baldig  Wiedersehen  I  hope  to  see  you  again 
soon.  Especially  frequent  in  old  maxims:  Bar  Geld  kauft  wohlfeil.  The  unin- 
flected  attributive  form  occurs  only  rarely  elsewhere:  Das  Alter  ist  ein  höflich 
Mann  (Goethe).  Lieb  Knabe  (Schiller's  Tell,  1,  1),  der  gleißend  Wolf  (Uhland). 
Sinnend  sprach  zu  ihm  jung  Werner  (Scheffel 's  Trompeter,  Sechstes  Stück). 
Lieder  jung  Werners  (ib.,  p.  212).  Und  ich  weiß  ein  ander  Lied  von  |  einem 
jung  jung  Zimmergesellen  (ib.,  Zweites  Stück). 

a.  History  of  the  Uninflected  Form.  Luther  was  much  freer  in  the  use  of  uninflected  forms 
than  even  elevated  discourse  allows  to-day.  He  often  dropped  the  strong  masc.  nom.  sing, 
ending  and  also  final  e  both  in  the  strong  and  weak  declensions  in  any  gender,  case,  or  number: 
manch  frum  (=  fronuner)  priester,  ein  zornig  man,  weltlich  gewalt,  die  weltlich  gewalt,  etlich 
gütlich  vnd  Christlich  artickel.  This  older  usage  survives  in  compounds:  Edelmann,  Groß- 
stadt, &.C. 

A  historical  view  of  the  case  is  at  this  point  helpful.  The  so-called  uninflected  form  is  here 
in  a  number  of  cases  the  natural  historic  form.  The  adjective  followed  in  earlier  periods  the 
inflection  of  nouns,  as  can  also  be  seen  in  Latin.  In  course  of  time  the  endings  of  the  nouns 
became  much  weather-beaten,  so  that  they  seem  to-day  endingless  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  sing,  of 
masculines  and  neuters,  and  in  case  of  neuters  (see  69.  5.  Historical  Note)  also  in  the  plural: 
der,  den  Tag,  das  Wort,  zehn  Pfund.  The  adjective  should  here  also  be  endingless,  and  the 
uninflected  forms  we  find  in  Luther's  writings  are  in  part  the  correct  historic  forms.  Even  in 
Gothic,  however,  the  oldest  Germanic  language,  we  often  find  in  descriptive  adjectives  instead 
of  their  old  endingless  case  forms  the  distinctive  case  endings  of  the  demonstrative  adjective  der, 
an  evident  indication  of  the  desire  to  mark  gender  and  case  more  clearly,  and  these  new  endings 
and  those  borrowed  still  later  from  the  same  source  have  in  large  measure  displaced  the  correct 
historic  endingless  forms.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  predicate  relation,  where  adjective  and 
noun  have  exactly  the  same  grammatical  function,  namely  that  of  predication,  the  old  endingless 
form  has  supplanted  the  inflected  forms  in  the  positive  and  comparative,  so  that  here  noun  and 
adjective  have,  as  originally,  the  same  form,  now  however  only  in  the  singular,  as  in  the  plural 
nouns  still  have  a  plural  form  as  it  is  essential  to  the  thought,  while  adjectives  have  here  the 
same  form  as  in  the  singular,  since  the  idea  of  number  is  not  now  felt  as  essential  in  the  predica- 
tion of  a  quality.  In  certain  pronominal  adjectives  we  still  find  both  old  and  new  forms,  but 
with  difi'erentiated  function:  mein  Buch,  but  sein  Buch  und  meines. 

105.  General  Rules.  The  fem.  and  neut.  have  each  their  respective  ace. 
sing,  like  the  nom.,  the  nom.  and  ace.  of  all  genders  are  alike  in  the  pi.,  also  the 
gen.  and  dat.  sing,  of  the  fem.  are  always  identical. 

106.  Strong  declension  of  gut  good. 

Singular  Plural. 

Masc.  Fem.  Neut.      Common  form  for  all  genders. 

N.     guter  gute  gutes  gute 

G.     guten  (es  )i  guter  guten  (es  )^  guter 

D.     gutem  guter  gutem  guten 

A.     guten  gute  gutes  gute 

Note  1.  The  strong  descriptive  adjective  is  now  really  weak  in  the  gen.  of  the  masc.  and  neut.  sing.,  as  the  old 
strong  form  -es  is  usually  replaced  here  by  the  weak  -en  except  in  a  few  set  expressions,  as  reines  Herzens  of  a  pure 
heart,  &c.,  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  earlier  periods  unchanged.  The  weak  form  began  to  appear  in  the 
fifteenth  century  and  became  common  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  J.  Grimm  and  other  grammarians 
have  sought  to  bring  the  strong  gen.  into  favor  again,  and  a  few  recent  authors  as  von  Sybel  have  followed  their  example, 
but  in  general  the  weak  form  is  very  firm  in  present  usage.  Limiting  adjectives  (the  numeral  ein,  the  articles,  and 
pronominal  adjectives),  however,  still  retain  as  a  rule  strong  inflection  in  the  gen.:  dieses  Buches,  welches  Buches. 
But  the  now  weak  gen.  is  now  also  often  found  in  limiting  adjectives,  especially  in  adverbial  expressions:  allenfalls 
and  jedenfalls  in  any  event,  keinesfalls  or  keinenfalls,  jedenorts  everywhere,  &c.  Also  occasionally  and  perhaps  with 
growing  frequency  elsewhere:  Wimmelte  es  doch  .  .  .  von  Kindern  .  .  .  jeden  Alters!  (Spielhagen's  Was  will  das  werden?, 
I,  chap.  iv).  Die  vier  Werke,  die  er  so  selbst  als  einen  Geistes  empfand  (Otto  Brahm  in  Die  neue  Rundschau,  Dec. 
1906,  p.  1433). 

Note  2.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  strong  ending  es  (masc.  and  neut.  gen.,  and  neut.  nom.  and  acc.)  was  often  in  both 
descriptive  and  limiting  adjectives  contracted  to  s:  Vnd  er  thet  Abram  guts  vmb  jren  willen  (Gen.  xii.  16).  This 
contraction  is  still  found  in  Goethe's  time,  and  even  up  to  the  present  day  in  poetry  and  dialect:  Um  Guts  zu  tun, 
braucht's  keiner  Überlegung  (Goethe's  Iphigenie.  1.  19S0).  Hast  du  kein  freundhchs  Wort,  du  Gute  (Gnllparzer  s 
Die  .Argonauten.  Act  2).  Schöns  Schätzle,  vergiß  du  nit  mein  (Auerbach).  In  general  this  contraction  is  now  rare 
in  descriptive  adjectives  except  in  a  few  set  expressions,  such  as  was  Rechts  (also  'R.echres)  something  fine, \mA  so  was 
Guts  [Hauptmanns  Michael  Kramer.  .\ct\)  and  such  good  things.  However,  in  the  neut.  nom.  and  acc.  sing,  sub- 
stantive forms  eins  (see  121.  l.D)  and  keins  (as  in  keinsvon  beiden  neither  one)  this  contraction  is  still  quite  common 
even  in  literary  German.  In  colloquial  language  it  is  also  common  in  the  neut.  nom.  and  acc.  sing,  substantive  pos- 
sessive forms  meins,  deins,  &c.,  and  also  in  the  substantive  demonstrative  jens:   Ein  fremdes  Kind  ist  sehr  nett  so 

*  For  full  explanation  of  this  form,  see  Note  1. 


107. 

,     Weak  declension  of  gut : 

Singular 

Masc. 

Fem. 

N. 

der  gute 

die  gute 

G. 

des  guten 

der  guten 

D. 

dem  guten 

der  guten 

A. 

den  guten 

die  gute 

guten 


130 WEAK  &  MIXED  ADJECTIVE  INFLECTION 106. 

von  weitem,  aber  wenn  man  es  als  seins  betrachten  soll  .  .  .  (Ompteda's  Cäcilie  von  Sarryn.  chap.  xx).  Man  lernt 
ia  von  manchem  so  das  und  jen's  (Hauptmann's  MicÄorf  ivmme»-,  Act  1).  ,       j-  ,„  „ 

^  Nole  3  The  strong  ending  -em,  masc.  and  neut.  dat.  sing.,  is  in  different  periods  sometimes  rep  aced  m  care  ess 
language  by  the  more  convenient  -en,  wliicli  gives  the  word  the  appearance  of  a  weak  form.  Wemho  d  in  his  Mtltel- 
hMulsche  Grammalik.  p.  .560.  gives  examples  for  M.H.G.  In  early  N.H.G.  this  seemingly  weak  forni  is  quite 
frequent  von  den  Romischen  reuber  (Luther),  von  einen  Bischoff  (Luther),  vor  anbrechenden  Morgen  (Fauslbuch 
de^CkrisUick-Meyncn.lrn.M25).      U  occurs  occasionaUy  in  the  classical  pe^^^^^^^ 


where)       it  is  most  common  \n  jeiiiaiiucii,  iiiciiia.iiiicn,  .^ui.  <_v^.i  1.^..^  .^  .^  ..w..  ..^^  v,„ .«..  -^  ...|-  „..„..„  .......    . 

where  it  now  rarclv  occurs  in  the  literarv  language,  but  is  often  found  in  popular  speech:  Sie  elender,  undankbarer 
Mensch,  ist  das  der  Lohn,  daß  wir  Ihnen  in  unsern  Haus  ein  Jahr  und  sechs  Monat' Geld  hab'n  verdienen  lassen.' 
(.•\nzengruber's   Das  vierte  Gebot,   I,  S).  .,..,.,  ,.  c^ 

Nole  i  In  Low  German,  where  the  nom.  and  ace.  neut.  sing,  was  in  earlier  periods  without  an  ending  we  now  otten 
find  under  tlie  influence  of  the  literarv  lannuase  tlie  ending  -et,  the  Low  German  form  corresponding  to  High  German 
-es:   Een  janzet,  schönet,  richtiget  Tannenbäumken!  (  =  Bäumchen)  (Friebe  in  G.  Hauptmann  s  Fnedensjesl,  1). 

Plural  for  all  genders. 
Neut. 
das  gute  die 

des  guten  der 

dem  guten  den 

das  gute  die 

For  the  origin  of  this  declension  see  111.  10.  Note. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  ace.  fern.  sing,  sometimes  ended  in  en  instead  of  e,  thus  occasionally  preserving  here 
the  M.H.G.  form":  vber  die  gantzen  (instead  of  gantze)  Erde  (Gen.  I.  26). 

108.  Mixed  Declension.  It  must  be  especially  noted  that  after  ein  and  the 
other  limiting  adjectives  inflected  like  it,  i.e.  kein  and  the  possessives  (see  58. 
A  and  B),  the  descriptive  adjective  is  strong  in  the  sing.,  in  the  nom.  of  the 
masc.  and  the  nom.  and  ace.  of  the  neut.  because  the  preceding  limiting  adjective 
is  here  deficient  in  endings  to  show  gender  and  case.  Elsewhere  in  the  singular 
and  thruout  the  plural  the  descriptive  adjective  is  weak  because  the  preceding 
limiting  adjective  has  here  distinctive  endings. 

mein  guter  Freund,              meine  gute  Schwester,  mein  gutes  Buch, 

7ny  good  friend                        my  good  sister  my  good  hook 

Singular. 

N.  mein  guter  Freund             meine  gute  Schwester  mein  gutes  Buch 

G.  meines  guten  Freundes      meiner  guten  Schwester  meines  guten  Buch(e)s 

D.  meinem  guten  Freund(e)  meiner  guten  Schwester  meinem  guten  Buch(e) 

A.  meinen  guten  Freund         meine  gute  Schwester  mein  gutes  Buch 

Plural. 

N.  meine  guten  Freunde         meine  guten  Schwestern  meine  guten  Bücher 

G.  meiner  guten  Freunde        meiner  guten  Schwestern  meiner  guten  Bücher 

D.  meinen  guten  Freunden     meinen  guten  Schwestern  meinen  guten  Büchern 

A.   meine  guten  Freunde         meine  guten  Schwestern  meine  guten  Bücher 

a.  In  earlier  periods  the  weak  form  of  the  adjective  was  also  used  here  in  the  nom.  sing.  As 
a  last  survival  of  this  older  usage  the  weak  form  was  earlier  in  the  present  period  occasionally 
employed  after  the  nom.  unser:  unser  nicht  genug  zu  preisende  Kapellmeister  (Goethe);  unser 
alte  Vater   (Novalis,  4,  119). 

109.     Adjective-substantives.     Nouns  made  from  adjectives  or  participles  (see 
b-)  are  declined  as  adjectives,  but  are  written  with  a  capital:  — 

rich  that  which 


the  rich  man                a  rich  man  the  rich  people           is  good 

N.     der  Reiche  ein  Reicher  die  Reichen  Reiche  das  Gute 

G.     des  Reichen  eines  Reichen  der  Reichen  Reicher  des  Guten 

D.     dem  Reichen  einem  Reichen  den  Reichen  Reichen  dem  Guten 

A.     den  Reichen  einen  Reichen  die  Reichen  Reiche  das  Gute 

a.  (1)  The  gender  of  adjective-substantives  which  do  not  represent  living  beings  can  often 
be  explained  by  supplying  some  word  understood:  die  Linke,  siiort  for  die  linke  Hand  the  left 
hand;  der  Bittere  for  der  bittere  Schnaps  bitters;  Gegenwärtiges  (referring  to  das  Schreiben 
letter)  bezweckt  Herrn  E.,  Sohn  eines  unserer  hiesigen  Freunde,  Ihnen  bestens  zu  empfehlen. 


110.  A.  c. ADJECTIVES   WITH   A   SUFFIX        131 

Zieh  Dir  rasch  Dein  Meergrünes  (referring  to  das  Kleid)  an.  The  neut.  form  is  used  for  the 
young  of  animals  and  for  children  (see  98.  1.  c):  ihr  Junges  her  (i.e.  the  cow's)  calf,  ein  ganz 
Kleines  a  baby. 

(2)  The  neut.  adjective-substantive  preceded  by  the  definite  article  has  a  comprehensive, 
generalizing  force:  das  Schöne  the  beautiful,  all  that  is  beautiful.  The  form  without  the  article 
contains  a  collective  idea:  Schönes  beautiful  things.  Kleinstes  wird  an  dem  getadelt,  der  in 
Menge  Größtes  adelt  (Rückert)  People  censure  very  little  things  in  him  who  puts  nobility  into 
many  very  great  things.  Für  Fräulein  Dora  war  natürlich  mehreres  dabei  Among  them  were 
of  course  several  things  for  Miss  Dora. 

The  neuter  adjective-substantive  often  has  a  meaning  that  cannot  be  embodied  in  one  English 
word:  sein  Äußeres  his  exterior  appearance;  ihr  Innerstes  her  inmost  feelings.  Lange,  lange 
tönte  es  nach  in  dem  metallenen  Reifen,  als  habe  die  Glocke  nun  aus  Eigenem  noch  zu  sprechen 
For  a  long  time,  after  the  ringing  of  the  bell  ceased,  it  kept  on  resounding  as  if  it  had  now  some- 
thing to  say  of  its  own  initiative.  Morgen  ein  mehreres  I  will  write  something  additional  to- 
morrow. Er  hat  von  einer  Base  ein  weniges  geerbt  He  inherited  a  little  property  from  a  female 
relative.     Er  tut  nie  ein  übriges  He  never  does  more  than  he  must  do. 

b.  Participles  when  used  as  substantives  still  retain  their  former  verbal  nature,  and  hence 
retain  their  adverbial  modifiers  and  take  direct  objects:  etwas  längst  Bekanntes  something  that 
has  been  known  for  a  long  while,  ein  Medizin  Studierender  a  student  of  medicine  (lit.  one  study- 
ing medicine).     See  111.  7.  d. 

.  c.  The  unmodified  adjective-substantive  following  von  in  a  phrase  that  stands  as  an  apposi- 
tive  to  a  preceding  noun  is  regulated  in  its  inflection  by  the  article  of  the  preceding  noun,  and 
also  agrees  with  it  in  case:  Der  Schlingel  von  Bediente  the  rogue  of  a  servant,  ein  alter  Schelm 
von  Lohnbedienter.  If  the  adjective-substantive  is  modified  by  an  article,  it  is  uniformly  in 
the  dat.  instead. of  agreeing  in  case  with  the  preceding  noun:  der  Hund  von  einem  alten  Be- 
dienten.    Compare  104.  1.  A.  a  and  B.  c,  also  94.  2. 

d.  The  inflection  of  adjective-substantives  was  originally  weak.  See  111.  10.  Note.  There 
is  one  group  of  neuters,  however,  which  were  originally  strong  and  are  still  inflected  strong  or 
are  uninflected.     See  111.  7.  h. 

e.  An  adjective-substantive  is  inflected  weak  if  it  is  preceded  by  a  title  or  a  noun  denoting 
quantity  which  is  modified  by  a  strong  limiting  adjective:  Meine  Herren  Geschworenen!  (Pon- 
ten's  Jungfräidichkeit,  p.  396),  das  Volk  der  70  Millionen  Deutschen  (Engel's  Ein  Tagebuch, 
I,  p.  xi). 

110.  Adjectives  having  a  suffix  sometimes  vary  from  the  regular  inflection: 
A.  In  colloquial  speech  the  e  of  the  unaccented  suffixes  -el,  -en,  -er  often 
drops  out  before  an  e  of  the  following  case  ending,  or  still  often  in  accordance 
with  older  usage  the  e  of  the  case  ending  -en  and  -em  drops  out  after  -el  or  -er, 
but  in  the  literary'  language  there  is  a  tendency  to  prefer  — except  immediately 
after  a  diphthong—  the  full  form,  almost  always  so  in  case  of  adjectives  in  -en 
and  -er:  der  edle  Mann,  des  edlen  or  edeln  Manns,  aus  edlem  or  edelm 
Hause;  die  offne  Tür,  ein  heitres  Gesicht,  eines  heitren  or  heitern  Gesichtes, 
mit  heitrem  or  heiterm  Sinne;  (in  the  literary  language)  teurer  (sometimes 
teuerer)  Freund,  but  often  der  edele  Mann,  aus  edelem  Hause,  mit  hei- 
terem Sinn  and  usually  die  offene  Tür,  ein  heiteres  Gesicht.  As  the  inflected 
forms  of  the  comparative  of  such  adjectives  are  so  clumsy  there  is  a  natural 
tendency  to  replace  these  words  by  more  euphonious  ones  wherever  possible:  mit 
herberem  (rather  than  bittererem,  bittrerem,  or  bittererm)  Schmerze. 

a.  Nouns  made  from  adjectives  (see  111.  10)  with  these  suffixes  do  not  follow  this  rule  of 
contraction,  but  that. in  vogue  for  nouns/see  62.  C),  and  until  recently  also  for  adjectives  (see  b): 
Das  Übel  evil,  des  Übels,  dat.  pi.  den  Übeln.     See  c. 

b.  Goethe  and  also  earlier  writers  usually  contract  the  adjectives  in  -el  and  -er  in  harmony 
with  verbs  (178. 1.  B.  a  and  c)  having  the  same  suffix,  as  edle,  edler,  edles,  edebn,  des  (dem, 
den,  &c.)  edeln,  &c.,  thus  dropping  the  e  of  the  suffix  before  the  case  endings  -e,  -er,  -es,  but 
before  other  case  endings  the  e  of  the  case  ending  itself.  This  usage  is  still  not  infrequently 
found,  but  in  general  the  new  and  natural  trend  of  colloquial  usage  is  to  make  the  declension 
uniform  and  after  the  analogy  of  the  nom.  to  inflect:  der  edle,  des,  dem,  den  edlen,  Sic.  The 
noun  and  the  adverb,  however,  are  true  to  the  older  rule  (see  62.  C),  which  requires  the  dropping 
of  e  after  -el,  -en,  -er,  and  thus  the  new  tendency  of  the  adjective  to  retain  the  e  of  the  case 
ending  after  these  suffixes  has  isolated  a  few  nouns  and  adverbs  which  are  derived  from  such 
adjectives,  so  that  their  origin  is  not  always  felt:   der  Jünger  (des  Jüngers,  dat.  pl.  den  Jüngern) 

.  disciple,  lit.  the  younger  in  contradistinction  to  the  master  (Herr),  but  der  jüngere  (dat.  pl.  den 
jüngeren)  Bruder  (dat.  pl.  Brüdern)  the  younger  brother;  thus  also  die  Eltern  parents,  lit.  older 
ones,  but  die  älteren  Brüder  the  older  brothers,  das  Dunkel  (des  Dunkels)  darkness,  but  das 
dunk(e)le  Zimmer  the  dark  room,  gen.  des  dunk(e)len  Zimmers;  also  anders  (adv.)  otherwise, 
but  the  adj.  nom.  neut.  form  anderes;  besonders  (adv.)  especially,  but  the  adj.  nom.  neut.  form 
besonderes.     See  c. 

c.  Originally  there  was  in  most  cases  no  vowel  before  the  1,  n,  r  in  adjective  and  substantive 
suffixes.     A  vowel  developed  here  in  a  later  period  which  has  ever  since  remained  firm  in  nouns. 


132 PECULIARITIES    IN   ADJECTIVE    INFLECTION       110.  A.  c. 

However,  in  adjectives  containing  a  diphthongal  stem  the  vowel  did  not  fully  develop  when  a 
vowel  followed  in  the  next  syllable,  and  we  still  say:  der  teure  (or  sometimes  teuere).  In  other 
adjectives  the  e  developed  in  the  suffix  and  has  remained  up  to  our  time,  as  described  in  A  and  b. 
In  M.H.G.  the  e  of  the  inflectional  endings  was  suppressed  after  the  suffixes  -el,  -en,  er.  This 
older  usage  is  still  observed  in  nouns  (see  62.  C),  and  survives  also  in  verbs  before  n  (see  178. 
1  .  B.  a)  and  often  in  adjectives  before  n  and  m  (see  A  above).  Present  usage  is  not  favorable 
to  the  mutilation  of  adjective  inflectional  endings.  Thus  the  fluctuation  described  in  the  above 
articles  represents  the  struggle  of  modern  usage  with  older  laws. 

B.  Adjectives  ending  in  -ig  often  in  N.G.  colloquial  speech  lose  in  pronun- 
ciation and  sometimes  in  print  the  i  of  the  suffix  before  the  case  ending  es, 
while  in  S.G.  the  e  of  the  case  ending  -es  is  still  sometimes  suppressed :  mut(i)ges 
(mu:ti9s)  Roß  (N.G.);  mutigs  Roß  (S.G.).  South  German  here  preserves  older 
usage.     See  106.  Note  2. 

Peculiarities  in  the  Declension  of  Descriptive  Adjectives. 

111.  1.  Adjectives  in  the  vocative  (case  of  direct  address)  do  not  suffer  an  article  before 
them,  and  hence  are  usually  strong:  lieber  Freund,  liebe  Freunde.  Not  infrequently  weak 
forms  still  occur  in  the  plural,  the  survivals  of  a  once  common  construction  (see  10.  Note  below): 
Guten  Tag,  jungen  Leute!  (M.  Dreyer's  Der  Probekandidat,  p.  25).  Geht,  lieben  Leute  (Keyser- 
ling in  Der  dumme  Hans,  Aufzug  2). 

a.  In  beginning  letters  an  exclamation  point  is  placed  after  the  vocative:  Liebe  Schwester  I 
Liebster  Bruder! 

2.  Descriptive  adjectives  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  pi.  following  the  indefinite  pronominal  adjec- 
tives and  indefinite  numerals  ähnliche  similar,  andere  other,  beide  both,  einige  some,  einzelne 
single,  etliche  some,  gewisse  certain,  manche  many,  mehrere  several,  sämtliche  all,  whole, 
complete,  solche  such,  sonstige  other,  the  remaining,  verschiedene  different,  viele  many,  irgend- 
welche any  at  all,  wenige  few,  &.c.,  are  strong  or  weak  but  are,  except  after  beide,  sämtliche, 
solche,  more  commonly  declined  strong,  altho  the  preceding  limiting  adjective  is  strong  and 
shows  the  case:  beide  gleiche  Hälften  (Fontane),  einige  gute  Bücher,  manche  unbetonte  Wört- 
chen (Wilmanns's  Deutsche  Grammatik,  I,  p.  3S,S),  sämtliche  preußische  Bataillone  (Koser's 
König  Friedrich  der  Große,  p.  145),  solche  eindeutige  Assoziationen  (W'undt's  Völkerpsychologie, 
II,  p.  81),  solche  jüngere  Bauten  (R.  Zahn  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  Nov.  1905, 
p.  296),  irgendwelche  kulturkämpferische  Allüren  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Jan.  20,  1907). 
Also  in  the  gen.  pl.  the  adjective  is,  perhaps,  more  commonly  inflected  strong  but  differing  from 
the  usage  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  the  weak  form  is  also  quite  common:  einiger  guter  (or  often  also 
guten)  Bücher,  der  Optimismus  gewisser  deutscher  Politiker  {Hanib.  Nachr.,  Nov.  11,  1905), 
mit  Ausnahme  weniger  unbedeutender  Schiffe  (ib.,  May  31,  1905);  die  berufsmäßigen  Aus- 
über dieser  und  ähnlicher  mimischen  Künste  (Vogt  and  Koch's  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Literatur, 
1st  ed.,  p.  247),  sich  einzelner  vorgeschobenen  Posten  zu  bemächtigen  {Hamb.  Nach.,  Nov.  28, 
1904),  trotz  mancher  unvermeidlichen  (strong  nom.  form  employed  above  by  the  same  author) 
Mängel  (Wilmanns's  D.  G.,  I,  p.  viii),  die  Deutung  solcher  kretischen  (strong  nom.  employed 
above  by  the  same  author)  Funde  (R.  Zahn  in  V.  &  K.  M.,  Nov.  1905,  p.  309).  Weak  forms 
occur  sometimes  also  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  pl.  after  some  of  these  indefinites,  rarely  however  after 
einige,  viele,  wenige,  andere:  gewisse  in  der  Sprache  eine  wichtige  Rolle  spielenden  semantischen 
Gegensätze  (Brugmann's  Kurze  vergleichende  Grammatik,  p.  315),  über  so  manche  seltsamen 
Begebenheiten  (G.  von  der  Gabelentz's  Der  Mönch,  IV),  auf  irgendwelche  englischen  Zu- 
sicherungen hin  {Hamb.  Nachr.,  Oct.  24,  1905).  In  the  singular,  adjectives  after  most  of  these 
words  are  almost  uniformly  weak:  einiges  frische  Obst,  but  occasionally  strong,  as  in  solcher 
adnominaler  Gebrauch  (Brugmann's  A',  v.  G.,  p.  434).  Darin  ist  einiges  Wahres  enthalten 
(G.  Hauptmann).  Some  of  these  words  as  ähnlich,  gewiß,  sonstig,  verschieden,  have  not  be- 
come so  firmly  established  here  as  the  others,  and  hence  the  strong  inflection  of  the  following 
descriptive  adjective  is  often  found  after  them,  perhaps  more  commonly  so:  längst  widerlegte 
Legenden,  Entstellungen  und  sonstiges  krauses  Zeug  {Hamb.  Nachr.,  Jan.  19,  1907).  Earlier 
in  the  period  the  strong  form  of  the  adjective  is  not  infrequent  after  all-  or  kein-  either  in  the 
sing,  or  the  pl.,  and  survivals  of  this  older  usage  still  occur  occasionally:  alles  Gutes  (Lessing), 
alle  rechtschaffene  Christen  (id.),  trotz  aller  angewandter  Mühe  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus  dem 
Walde,  II,  chap,  x),  &c.  Solche,  sämtliche  and  beide  seem  to  be  about  to  follow  the  example 
of  alle  and  keine,  as  they  often  require  the  weak  inflection  of  the  following  adjective:  solche 
stillen  Abende  (Fontane's  Schach  von  Wuthenow,  chap,  iv),  solche  lautlichen  Elemente  (Brug- 
mann's K.  V.  G.,  p.  289),  Vertreter  der  Studentenschaft  sämtlicher  deutschen  Hochschulen 
Österreichs  {H.  N.,  Nov.  5, 1904),  sämtliche  englischen  Schiffe  (ib.,  Nov.  15,  1904),  beide  deut- 
schen Mächte  (Lamprecht's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  7.  2.,  p.  731). 

The  weak  form  has  become  established  after  alle  and  keine  because  they  possess  more  pro- 
nouncedly the  character  of  a  limiting  adjective  than  the  other  words.  The  other  words,  like 
descriptive  adjectives,  often  have  a  limiting  adjective  before  them  and  hence  are  often  felt  as 
descriptive  adjectives.  As  descriptive  adjectives  they  do  not  influence  the  inflection  of  the 
adjective  that  follows  them.  In  meaniyig,  however,  they  resemble  limiting  adjectives.  This 
doubleness  of  nature  is  confusing  German  feeling.  While  in  most  cases  they  are  usually  felt  as 
descriptive  adjectives,  solche,  sämtliche,  and    beide   are   gradually   becoming    established    as 


111.  4.  b.         PECULIARITIES   IN   ADJECTIVE    INFLECTION  133 

limiting  adjectives,  as  sämtliche  and  beide  are  closely  related  in  thought  to  alle  and  solche  to 
the  demonstrative  diese. 

a.  In  the  gen.  pi.  after  zweier  and  dreier  there  is  fluctuation:  das  Zusammentreffen  zweier 
gleicher  (or  less  frequently  gleichen)  Konsonanten. 

3.  If  several  adjectives  limiting  the  same  noun  are  co-ordinate  they  have  the  same  declen- 
sion: frisches,  klares  Wasser.  But  if  the  second  or  second  and  third  adjective  stand  closer 
in  meaning  to  the  noun,  forming  with  it  one  idea,  the  first  adjective  is  inflected  strong  and  the 
following  adjectives  may  be  inflected  weak,  to  show  that  they  do  not  stand  in  the  same  relation 
to  the  noun:  folgendes  eigene  Erlebnis.  The  rule  of  showing  subordination  in  the  adjective 
by  placing  it  in  the  wk.  declension  is  new  and  not  yet  firmly  established,  and  is  as  yet  restricted 
to  the  following  cases: 

a.  The  following  adjectives,  which  resemble  in  their  nature  limiting  adjectives,  may  after 
the  manner  of  limiting  adjectives  require  a  wk.  adjective  after  them,  but  usually  only  in  the 
sing,  and  much  less  commonly  in  the  pi.,  tho  the  trend  is  in  that  direction;  beifolgend  or  bei- 
liegend enclosed,  accompanying,  benannt  aforenamed,  besagt,  erwähnt,  vorerwähnt  afore- 
mentioned, bewußt  the  (point,  matter,  &c.)  in  question,  derartig  of  this  kind,  erster-  the  former, 
folgend  following,  gedacht,  mehr  gedacht  mentioned,  several  times  mentioned,  letzter-  the  latter, 
nachstehend  following,  vorstehend  or  vorausgehend  preceding,  obig  abovementioned,  &c.,  all 
of  which,  contrary  to  English  idiom,  may  have  no  article  before  them:  folgender  kleine 
Roman,  bei  der  Besprechung  von  Hamacks  erwähntem  großen  Werk,  folgende  wichtige  (or 
perhaps  less  commonly  wichtigen)  Gründe,  folgende  eingehenderen  Mitteilungen  Hambiirger 
Nachrichten,  Oct.  13,  1904),  folgende  beiden  Zahlen  (Otto  Hötzsch  in  Deutsche  Monatsschrift, 
Feb.  1906,  p.  640).  Wir  wissen  bereits  durch  das  Töchterlein,  daß  der  Rat  Nebelung  nicht 
rauchte,  sondern  nur  schnupfte,  und  letzteres  harmlose  Vergnügen  hatten  die  Götter  gleich 
benutzt,  &c.  (Raabe's  Eide)t Pfingsten,  chap.  iii).  Aus  vorstehender  kurzen  Skizze  (A.  Schröer 
in  Englische  Studien,  1907,  vol.  38,  p.  69),  bei  vorausgehendem  langen  Vokal  (P.  Lessiak  in 
Zeitschrift  für  deutsche  Mundarten,  1909,  p.  4).  The  sing,  form  is  sometimes  strong:  bewußtes 
einziges  Erbtöchterlein  (\'oss's  Psyche,  IV),  folgender  origineller  Bericht  (Hamb.  Nachr.,  Dec. 
14,  1904),  folgender  treuer  Auszug  (Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Jan.  7,  1914). 

b.  Also  in  the  dat.  sing,  and  less  often  in  the  fem.  gen.  sing,  and  the  gen.  pl.  after  any  strong 
descriptive  adjective  a  second  descriptive  adjective  in  the  same  way,  to  show  subordination, 
may  be  weak:  in  langem  grauen  Mantel;  ein  Mann  von  großem  juristischen  Wissen;  mit 
vollendetem  fünfzehnten  Lebensjahre;  zu  nächster  großen  Messe;  wegen  eingetretener 
schlechten  Beschaffenheit  der  Straße  (Deutsche  Rundschau);  reiner  französischen  Weine;  in 
Ermangelung  neuer  tatsächlichen  Nachrichten  (Hamb.  Nachr.,  June  6,  1904):  das  Zuströmen 
von  neuem  sprachlichen  Material  (Dr.  Sigmund  Feist  in  Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unterricht, 
Jahrg.  28,  p.  162)  Sic.  The  second  adjective  is  often  wk.  simply  from  an  aversion  to  the  re- 
currence of  the  heavy  endings  em  and  er:  mit  bleichem,  verzerrten  Gesicht  (Spielhagen).  This 
usage  is  also  found  in  older  periods:  mit  reiner  suchen  hohen  art  (Parzival,  164.  15).  It  is 
probable  that  the  aversion  to  the  repetition  of  such  endings  as  em  and  er  first  gave  rise  to  the 
wk.  forms  here,  and  later  the  mind  perceived  that  there  also  often  existed  here  a  difference  in 
the  relation  of  the  different  afljectives  to  the  noun,  and  then  for  logical  reasons  began  to  dis- 
tinguish regularly  between  them  by  their  endings.  There  is  at  present  considerable  fluctuation 
of  usage  here,  some  authors  preferring  the  weak  form,  others  the  strong,  but  there  is  in  choice 
language  a  tendency  to  prefer  here  the  strong  form. 

4.  Adjective-substantives  differ  only  rarely  from  the  regular  inflection  of  adjectives: 

a.  When  an  adjective-substantive  follows  one  or  more  strong  descriptive  adjectives  it  is 
usually  strong,  as  in  ein  dreigliedriges  Ganzes  (Wundt's  Völkerpsychologie,  II,  p.  230)  a  whole 
consisting  of  three  members,  but  earlier  in  the  period  it  is  often  weak:  Betrogene  Sterblichen! 
(Hagedorn).  Ein  ehrwürdiger  Alte  (Lessing).  Welch  ein  glücklicher  Sterbliche!  (Heine). 
Das  Eigentum  weniger  Sterblichen  (Schiller).  Ein  hübsches  Ganze  (Goethe).  Ein  herbes 
Äußere  (Heine).  The  weak  forms  occur  still  instead  of  the  more  common  strong  ones  in  the 
neut.  nom.  and  ace.  and  in  the  gen.  pl.,as  in  sein  innerstes  Innere  (Bilbroth  in  Edward  Hanslick's 
Aus  meinem  Leben,  XXVIII),  ein  häßliches  Ganze  (Konrad  Falke  in  Deutsche  Monatsschrift, 
Aug.  1905,  p.  621),  wertvolles,  schwer  gewonnenes  Gute  (Prof.  Theodor  Siebs  in  Literaturzeit., 
July  12,  1913,  p.  1734),  die  Töchter  bärbeißiger  Alten  (Wildenbruch's  Das  Riechbüchschen,  p_._  10), 
das  Verhältnis  vieler  Deutschen  zu  Schiller  (Kühnemann's  Schiller,  Vorwort),  kleine  Über- 
reste mohammedaiüscher  Gläubigen  (Deutsche  Monatsschrift,  March  1904,  p.  877).  Sometimes 
also  in  the  nom.  and  acc.  pl.:  Ihr  seid  schöne  Getreuen  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  I).  The 
weak  forms  here  are  the  survivals  of  a  once  common  construction  which  required  the  inflection 
of  adjective-substantives  to  be  weak.     See  10.  Note  below. 

b.  Adjective-substantives  not  preceded  by  an  article  or  inflected  pronominal  adjective  are 
now  quite  uniformly  strong,  altho  the  older  weak  forms  occasionally  occur,  especially  in  the 
words  Beamter  official  and  Bedienter  servant:  Bedienten  eilten  ihm  dienstfertig  entgegen 
(Temme).  Fünf  neue  Liebsten  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap.  iv).  In  early 
N.H.G.  weak  forms  were  much  more  common  here:  Und  es  giengen  zu  jm  (ihm)  Blinden  vnd 
Lahmen  (=  Blinde  und  Lahme) — Alatth.  xxi.  14.     See  10.  Note  below. 

In  the  masc.  dat.  sing.,  however,  the  weak  form  is  not  thus  restricted,  but  is  in  general 
still  quite  common:  dem  Herrn  N.  N.,  Gesandten  or  Gesandtem  der  Niederlande  in  Berlin. 
So  blieb  ihm  als  Mann,  Held  und  Verliebten  nichts  übrig  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap.  xxix).  The 
old  wk.  dat.  of  the  neut.  and  fem.  is  also  occasionally  found:  nach  genossenem  Guten  (Raabe's 
Höxter  und  Corvey,  chap.  xv).     Aber  ein  sauberer  Brei  .  .  .  roch  nach  Pech,  Schwefel  und  noch 


134 PECULIARITIES  IN  ADJECTIVE  INFLECTION       111.  4.  h. 

viel  Schlimmem  (id.,  Stopfkuchen,  p.  138).  Im  ganzen  war  übrigens  diese  Art,  unversehens  zu 
einer  Art  Vertrauten  (used  here  with  reference  to  a  lady)  von  wildfremden  Menschen  gepreßt 
zu  werden,  nicht  behaglich  (S.  Junghans  in  Zwei  Brüder,  p.  62).  Sometimes  in  other  cases 
when  the  form  follows  a  dependent  gen.:  aus  Treue  gegen  den  Bruder  und  dessen  Angehörigen 
(Ludwig's  Zwischen  Himmel  und  Erde,   X).     See  10   Note  below. 

5.  A  descriptive  adjective  which  modifies  a  noun  that  stands  in  apposition  with  a  preceding 
word  is  usually  inflected  regularly,  but  the  following  irregularities  occur  when  the  adjective  is 
not  preceded  by  an  article: 

a.  The  proper  inflection  of  a  descriptive  adjective  that  is  not  preceded  by  an  article  and 
follows  immediately  in  close  connection  a  personal  pronoun  is  not  entirely  clear  to  the  German. 
As  personal  pronouns  have  neither  an  article  nor  the  strong  endings  of  the  other  pronouns  to 
mark  gender,  it  should  seem  natural  for  the  descriptive  adjective  in  a  following  appositional 
phrase  to  be  inflected  strong,  which  is  also  usually  the  case,  except  in  the  dat.  sing,  and  nom. 
pi.  and  sometimes  in  the  ace.  pi.,  where  according  to  present  usage  either  str.  or  wk.  forms  may 
stand,  in  the  case  of  the  nom.  pi.  perhaps  more  commonly  the  wk.,  in  the  ace.  pi.  the  str.:  ich 
armer  Mann,  but  mir  armem  or  armen  Mann,  mir  armem  Wurm  (Fontane),  von  Dir  jungem 
Schnaufer  (Raabe),  mit  mir  altem  Hunde  (Hauptmann's  Fuhrmann  Henschel,  4),  mir  kranken 
Sohn  der  Musen  (Heine),  mir  armen  Büblein  (\\'alther  Siegfried's  Ein  Wohltäter),  mir  jungen, 
ihr  fast  unbekannten  Menschen  (Karl  Hans  Strobl  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  Oct. 
1905,  p.  238);  mir  armer  or  perhaps  more  commonly  armen  Frau,  mit  mir  armen  Fürstin  (Frey- 
tag), mir  alten  erfahrenen  Frau  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  2);  wir  alten  Juristen 
(Raabe),  wir  Deutsche  (Fontane),  wir  Deutschen  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Aug.  27,  1913), 
wir  deutsche  Schreiber  (Eduard  Engel's  Deutsche  Stilkunst,  p.  6),  wir  zwei  Einsamen  (Lienhard's 
König  Arthur,  5);  O  ihr  närrischen  Leute  (Raabe),  less  commonly  strong  after  ihr:  Ihr  hoch- 
würdige Herren  (Anzengruber's  Der  Schandfleck,  chap,  ii),  ihr  plumpe,  rohe  Menschen!  (Schef- 
fel's  Trompeter,  Zehntes  Stück),  ihr  Auserwählte  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjährige  Reich,  p.  71); 
für  uns  arme  Frauen  (Fontane)  rather  than  uns  armen  Frauen,  to  distinguish  it  from  uns  (dat.) 
armen  Frauen.  Fluctuation  often  occurs  even  in  the  same  author:  Der  junge  Bursch  mit  dem 
Milchgesicht,  er  stellt  uns  Alte  in  Schatten  (Meinhardt).  Er  schickt  uns  anderen  in  die  Berge 
zur  Erholung  (Meinhardt).  The  weak  forms  here  are  survivals  of  a  construction  common  in 
earlier  periods.     See  10.  Note  below. 

b.  When  a  descriptive  adjective  that  modifies  an  appositive  noun  or  is  itself  an  appositive 
is  not  preceded  by  an  article  and  follows  a  noun  or  pronoun,  it  is  usually  str.  except  in  the  gen. 
and  dat.  sing,  of  the  fem.,  where  the  wk.  form  is  also  found,  and  perhaps  more  frequently  so: 
von  dem  Herrn  Erich  Schmidt,  ordentlichem  Professor,  but  mit  der  schönen  Baronesse  Christine 
Arne,  jüngsten  Schwester  seines  Gutsnachbam  Arne  (Fontane's  Unwiederbringlich,  chap.  i). 
Man  spricht  jetzt  von  Frau  Krescentia  Rössel,  geborenen  Schopp  (P.  Heyse).  Mit  einer  Art 
wilden  Ironie  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus  dem  Walde,  III,  chap.  vii).  Aber  wir  huldigen  dir,  schön- 
sten der  Himmlischen,  |  reinsten,  jungfräulichsten,  Artemis,  dir  (Wilamowitz-Aloellendorff's 
Griechische  Tragödie,  I.  p.  131).  But  also  the  strong  form:  von  .  .  .  dessen  .  .  .  Weibe  Anna,  ge- 
borener Weibikin  (Raabe's  Meister  Autor,  III).  Occasionally  wk.  forms  occur  in  the  masc. 
and  neut.  dat.:  einem  Stück  gebacknen  Fisch  (Goethe),  mit  einem  Stück  brüchigen  Eisen 
(Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap,  xx),  an  einem  Schöppchen  recht  sauren  Mosel  (H.  v.  Sp.  in  Velhagen  und 
Klasings  Monatshefte,  Jan.  1907,  p.  642),  kleine  Vorteile,  die  ihm  als  ältesten  Hauptmann 
eigentlich  zukamen  {Tägliche  Rundschau).  The  wk.  forms  in  all  these  instances  are  survivals 
of  a  construction  common  in  earlier  periods.     See  10.  Note  below. 

6.  The  descriptive  adjective  following  a  gen.,  especially  dessen  or  deren,  gen.  of  the  demon- 
strative or  relative,  is  sometimes  wk.,  tho  the  preceding  word  can  in  no  way  show  their  gender 
and  case:  in  der  Natur  balsam' sehen  Wohltat  (Goethe).  Es  klang  wie  Erlösung  aus  Theas 
rasch  hervorgestoßenen  Frage  (from  a  recent  novel).  Was  in  Preußen  nur  wenige,  außerhalb 
Preußens  niemand,  auch  nicht  dessen  besten  Freunde,  zu  verlangen  wagten,  forderte  nach 
kurzem  Schwanken  Treitschke  (name)  mit  rückhaltloser  Entschiedenheit:  die  Vereinigung 
Schleswig-Holsteins  mit  Preußen  (Bailleu  in  Deutsche  Rundschati,  1896,  Heft  1,  p.  61).  Mit 
dessen  adjektivischen  Attribute  (Eugen  P2inenkel  in  Anglia,  1903,  vol.  xxvi,  p.  483),  mit  dem 
Kronprinzen  Georg  an  dessen  zehnten  Geburtstage  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Feb.  11,  1905). 
Ihre  .  .  .  Augen  .  .  .  ,  von  deren  ihm  gehörenden  Wunderreichtum  er  nichts  wußte  (Raalae's  Die 
Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  114).  Die  Entwickelung  des  Zeitungszweikampfes,  deren  wesentlich- 
sten Punkte  Ihren  Lesern  bekannt  sind  {Hamb.  Nachr.,  Jan.  7,  1908).  Compare:  von  ir  vii 
grimmen  zorne  {Nibelungenlied,  Aventiure  VI).  This  is  the  survival  of  a  once  common  con- 
struction.    See  10.  Note  below. 

7.  The  adjective  is  not  declined: 

a.  When  it  is  derived  from  the  name  of  a  city  and  is  formed  by  adding  er  to  the  proper  name: 
der  alte  Berliner  Lehrer  the  old  Berlin  teacher,  des  alten  Berliner  Lehrers;  der  Verband  Berliner 
Industrieller  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Nov.  6,  1904).  When  the  substantive  is  understood, 
such  adjectives  are  manifesting  a  tendency  toward  inflection,  to  the  vexation  of  strict  gram- 
marians, who  are  mindful  of  the  origin  of  the  form  (see  Note):  Erzähle  mir  davon,  aber  nichts 
von  den  grönländischen  Gespenstern;  ich  habe  an  unseren  Hohen-Vietzem  (name  of  place 
Hohen-Vietz)  über  und  über  genug  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  II.  chap.  xvi).  Such  adjectives 
are  not  usuaMy  employed  in  the  predicative  or  substantive  relation.     See  245.  II.  10.  1.  b. 

Note.  Here  Berliner  is  felt  as  an  indeclinable  adjective,  and  hence  written  sometimes  with  a  small  letter,  but  it 
is  in  fact  a  noun  in  the  gen.  pL,  and  means  of  the  people  of  Berlin.  That  it  is  now  felt  as  an  adjective  can  be  seen 
from  the  adverb  which  is  often  placed  before  it  instead  of  the  originally  more  correct  adjective:  echt  Münchner 
Löwenbräu,  or  echtes  Münchner  Löwenbräu  genuine  Munich  beer  of  the  lion  brand. 


111.  7.  c.  (2).      PECULIARITIES  IN  ADJECTIVE  INFLECTION  135 

b.  If  it  is  the  first  of  two  or  more  adjectives  which  together  unite  in  forming  one  idea:  rot 
und  weiße  Kühe  cows  spotted  red  and  white,  die  weiß  und  roten  Dolden  des  Wasserliesch 
(F^ontane's  Stechlin,  chap,  i),  der  Eingang  zum  schwarz  und  weißen  Zelte  des  Hohenzollern 
(Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzotus,  3,  Verwandlung),  in  gäng  und  gäber  Münze  in  current  coin. 
Deutsche  schmücken  ihre  Häuser  mit  schwarz,  rot  und  goldenen  Fahnen  Germans  adorn  their 
houses  with  the  national  flag  consisting  of  black,  red  and  gold  stripes.  In  case  of  a  number  of 
uninflected  adjectives  in  -er  (see  a  above),  the  -er  is  only  added  to  the  last  word:  der  Berlin- 
Frankfurt-Charleviller  Schlafwagen  {Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Feb.  23,  1915).  The  inflection  of  the 
first  adjective  in  a  number  of  cases  would  entirely  change  the  sense:  rote  und  weiße  Kühe  red 
cows  and  white  cows.  Instead  of  the  uninflected  forms  we  also  find  now  quite  commonly  com- 
pound adjectives:  ein  schwarzrotgoldenes  Banner  (Treitschke's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  II.  422), 
die  schwarzrotgoldenen  Farben  (ib.,  III.  756).  In  some  cases  two  adjectives  form  a  real  com- 
pound, the  second  element  alcuie  assuming  the  inflection,  but  are  written  as  separate  words: 
die  großherzoglich  badische  Regierung  the  government  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  die  königlich 
preußische  Flagge  the  flag  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia. 

Note.  In  the  early  N.H.G.  literary  language  it  was  quite  common  to  leave  uninflected  the  first  of  two  adjectives 
connected  by  und:  ein  gros  und  mechtiges  Volck  (Gen.  xviii,  18).  This  usage  continued  thruout  the  classical  period 
and  even  later  in  poetic  language:  in  klar  und  trüben  Tagen  (Goethe).  Also  where  und  is  omitted:  Das  Wicht'ge 
wiegt  nicht  gleich  in  dein',  in  ihrem  Munde  (^Grillparzer's  Libussa,  1).  This  usage  survives  only  where  the  two  ad- 
jectives form  a  real  compound  as  in  rot  und  weiße  Kühe.  In  such  compounds  the  language  of  our  time  prefers  the 
outward  form  of  a  compound  and  drops  the  und:  schwarzweiße  Fahnen.  This  fondness  for  the  compound  form  goes 
so  far  that  the  first  of  two  adjectives  is  oftr-n  left  uninflected  where  they  do  not  in  a  strict  sense  form  a  compound: 
in  schlicht  (instead  of  schlichtem,)  treuherzigem  Tone.  This  is  also  a  survival  of  older  usage:  vorhtlich  süe?er  man 
(Wolfram's  Parzival,  748.  26)   =  schrecklicher  und  lieblicher  Mann. 

c.  In  the  case  of  the  following  adjectives,  since  they  are  only  used  as  predicate  complement 
or  objective  predicate,  or  in  some  cases  in  the  appositive  relation  following  the  noun  (see  104. 
2.  B): 

(1)  Adjectives  which  for  the  most  part  were  formerly  nouns  and  still  resist  adjective  declen- 
sion: angst  uneasy,  brach  fallow,  feind  hostile,  freund  friendly  disposed  to,  not  necessary,  pleite 
(colloq.  from  Jewish  German)  bankrupt,  schade  too  bad,  a  pity,  schuld  at  fault,  to  blame  for, 
Sturm  (.Southwest  G.)  out  of  one's  senses,  beside  one's  self,  lit.  a  storm,  wett  even,  quits:  Mir 
ist  noch  angst.  Er  ist  den  Lügen  feind.  Er  wird  mir  feind,  spinnefeind,  but  in  the  attributive 
relation  der  mir  feindliche  or  feindhch  gesinnte  Mann,  with  the  form  in  -lieh  also  in  the  predicate 
when  the  word  is  a  compound,  as  in  Die  Steuerreform  ist  weder  mittelstandsfeindlich  noch 
bauernfeindlich  (Dr.  Wirth  in  the  "Nationalversammlung,"  April  26,  1920).  Er  ist  mir  nicht 
freund,  but  in  the  attributive  relation  der  mir  freundliche  or  freundlich  gesiimte  Mann,  with 
the  form  in  -lieh  also  in  compounds,  as  in  Das  Blatt  ist  regierungsfreundlich.  Er  ist  mir  gut 
Freund.  Der  Sache  Feind,  der  Person  Freund  adverse  to  the  cause  but  friendly  to  the  person 
who  represents  it.  Das  ist  nicht  not.  Ich  habe  das  nicht  not  (objective  predicate).  Es  ist 
ewig  schade!  It's  a  thousand  pities.  Es  ist  schade  um  die  schöne  Zeit!  It's  a  pity  that  so  much 
valuable  time  should  be  wasted.  Es  ist  schade  um  üin!  He's  to  be  greatly  pitied.  Aber  fiir 
einen  Nichtstuer  ist  meine  Schwester  mir  zu  schade!  (Wildenbruch's  Opfer,  17)  My  sister  is 
too  good  for,  &c.  Es  ist  recht  schade,  daß  du  nicht  gehen  kannst!  Aber  Sie  reden  ein  Zeug, 
daß  man  ganz  stürm  im  Kopf  könnt'  werden  (Hermann  Hesse's  Diesseits,  p.  221).  The  older 
substantive  nature  of  these  forms  often  leads  to  the  use  of  capitals  with  some  of  them,  but  the 
absolute  proof  that  these  substantive  forms  are  now  felt  as  adjectives  is  the  occasional  com- 
parative forms  that  occur:  Mir  tat'  ein  Löffele[in]  Warmes  noch  nöter  (H.  Kurz's  Sonnenwirt, 
318). 

Note.  A  number  of  substantives  have  thus  first  become  predicate  adjectives,  and  later  were  felt  as  genuine  ad- 
jectives, and  are  now  used  attributively  with  full  adj.  inflection:  fromm  (from  M.H.G.  vrume  use)  good,  pious,  lit. 
useful.  A  number  of  nouns  liave  not  gone  so  far  as  the  nouns  in  the  above  list,  but  have  dropped  their  article  in  the 
predicate  and  now  stand  on  the  boundary  line  between  adjective  and  noun:  Ich  bin  Braut  (  =  verlobt).  Er  ist  mehr 
Diplomat  als  Feldherr. 

(2)  Also  the  following,  which  are  usually  confined  to  the  predicate  or  appositional  relation: 
abhold  averse  to,  unfavorably  inclined  toward,  abspenstig  alienated  from,  abwendig  alienated 
from,  allein  (from  which  comes  the  attributive  form  alleinig  single,  sole)  alone,  anheischig  obli- 
gated, ansichtig  with  werden  to  get  a  sight  of,  ausfindig  with  machen  to  find  out,  bai^uß  (in  at- 
tributive use  usually  barfüßig)  bare-footed,  barhaupt  (attributively  barhäuptig)  bare-headed, 
eingedenk  mindful  of,  einig  or  eins  in  the  meaning  agreed,  futsch  (colloq.)  gone,  disappeared 
(Mein  Stock  ist  futsch),  gäng  und  gäbe  (sometimes  inflected;  see  b  above,  similar  formations, 
as  klipp  und  klar,  null  und  nichtig,  recht  und  billig,  also  uninflected)  current,  gar  done  (of  things 
cooking;  but  in  other  meanings  inflected:  gares  Leder  dressed  leather,  &c.),  gesonnen  willing, 
inclined,  getrost  of  good  cheer,  cheerful  (in  this  meaning  sornetimes  inflected :  Seien  Sie  getrosten 
Mutes!),  gewahr  aware  of,  with  werden  to  perceive,  gewärtig  on  the  lookout  for,  expecting, 
gewillt  willing,  inclined,  gram  (old  predicate  adjective  from  which  the  substantive  der  Gram 
has  come)  filled  with  dislike  toward,  habhaft  with  werden  to  get  possession  of,  handgemein  en- 
gaged in  close  fight,  irre  astray,  wrong,  ka'pores  (from  Jewish  German)  and  ka'putt  (both  colloq., 
the  latter  widely  used)  broken,  done  for,  done  up,  kund  known,  leid  sorry  for,  disagreeable  (in 
this  meaning  inflected  in  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  S.G.  dialect),  links  left-handed,  WTong,  mistaken, 
lös  free,  rid  of,  off,  rechts  right-handed,  mausig  in  sich  mausig  machen  to  show  off,  give  one's 
self  airs,  me'schugge  (colloq.  from  Jewish  German)  crazy,  mies  (colloq.)  bad,  intolerable  (Die 
Sache  steht,  wird  mies,  Mir  ist  mies  darum  I  don't  want  to  hear  anything  about  it,  I  am  not 
interested  in  it),  nütze  or  nutz  (more  common  earlier  in  the  period;  in  early  N.H.G.  both  forms 
are  inflected,  now  replaced  attributively  and  in  large  measure  predicatively  by  nützlich,  altho 


136  PECULIARITIES  IN  ADJECTIVE  INFLECTION      111.  7.  c.  (2). 

the  negative  form  unnütz  is  still  quite  common  in  both  relations)  of  use,  quitt  rid  of,  even  (with 
somebody),  schlüssig  resolved,  with  werden  to  make  up  one's  mind,  teilhaftig  sharing  in,  unpaß 
unwell,  Untertan  subject  to,  verlustig  deprived  of,  (with  verbs)  to  lose,  forfeit,  zugetan  devoted: 
Er  ist  mir  abhold.  Ich  mache  mich  dazu  anheischig  I  pledge  myself  to  do  it.  Der  Knabe, 
eingedenk  der  früher  erlittenen  Strafe,  gehorchte.  These  words  are  usually  only  used  in  the 
predicate  because  they  have  entered  into  such  close  relation  with  a  verb  like  sein,  werden,  or 
gehen  that  the  expression  has  become  fi.xed.  Where,  however,  there  is  need  of  an  inflected 
attributive  form  there  is  a  tendency  in  some  cases,  as  mentioned  above,  to  employ  as  in  245.  II. 
9.  2.  B  a  special  attributive  form  rather  than  to  use  the  form  that  has  become  associated  with 
the  verb  and  is  felt  as  an  adverb.  In  other  cases  the  predicate  form  is  occasionally  used  attribu- 
tively and  inflected:  der  barfuße  (altho  there  is  a  special  attributive  form,  namely  barfüßig) 
Knirps  (Heer's  Joggeli,  p.  16).  Leider  blieb  ich  infolge  der  kaputten  Füße  liegen  (Feldpostbrief, 
Oct.  23,  1914).  Miese  Sache!  (Feldpostbrief,  Aug.  19,  1914).  Also  used  sometimes  substan- 
tively:  Bist  du  ein  Linkser?  (left-handed)  (Hesse's   Unterm  Rad,  p.  264). 

d.  When  adjectives  or  participles  which  are  modified  by  an  adverb  are  converted  into  ad- 
jective-substantives, the  limiting  adverb  does  not  make  the  corresponding  change  into  the  state 
of  an  adjective,  but  still  like  an  adverb  remains  uninflected,  tho  it  modifies  a  substantive:  die 
geistig  Armen  those  weak  intellectually,  from  the  adjective  expression  geistig  arm;  etwas  längst 
Bekanntes.  The  words  geistig  and  längst,  tho  they  apparently  limit  their  respective  substan- 
tives, do  not  take  on  adjective  force  and  inflection,  because  the  former  still  as  an  adv'erb  limits 
the  quality  in  the  word  Armen,  and  the  latter  modifies  the  verbal  force  in  Bekanntes  (perf.  part.), 
and  neither  refer  to  the  living  being  or  the  thing  implied  in  the  noun.  However,  if  the  word 
before  the  adjective-substantive  limits  the  substantive  as  a  whole,  including  both  the  quality 
(or  action)  and  the  individuals  or  things  represented  by  the  noun,  it  is  inflected:  geizige  Reiche 
stingy  rich  people,  ein  fleißiger  Studierender  (pres.  part.)  a  diligent  student. 

e.  In  the  case  of  a  very  few  foreign  adjectives,  especially  those  denoting  colors:  prima  Ma- 
terial first-class  material,  das  rosa  Kleid  the  rose-colored  dress,  lila  Schleifen  lilac-colored  bows. 
Thus  also  karmesin  crimson,  pensee  (pa-'se:)  pansy-colored,  and  a  few  others  less  common. 
In  collocjuial  language  we  sometimes  find  inflection:  Mutter:  Sieh  mal!  So  ein  Pech,  Lotten 
ihre  Tasse  [habe  ich  zerbrochen].  Hanni:  Ach?!  die  rosae?  (Beyerlcin's  Dämon  Othello,  1,  4). 
They  are  of  course  inflected  when  compounded  with  the  German  words  farbig  or  färben  colored: 
in  lilafarbigen  Kleidern,  in  orangefarbenem  Hut. 

/.  Ina  few  geographical  terms  where  adjective  and  noun  together  form  one  name:  in  Russisch 
Polen,  or  written  together  Russisch-Polen  in  Russian  Poland,  and  many  other  similar  expres- 
sions. 

g.  An  apparent  exception  is  the  non-inflection  of  eigen  oivn:  Das  ist  mein  eigen.  Here, 
however,  eigen  is  a  neut.  substantive,  which,  tho  once  in  common  use,  is  now  so  little  used  that 
it  is  quite  usually  felt  as  the  common  adjective  eigen,  and  hence  is  written  with  a  small  letter. 

h.  •Adjective-substantives.  When  an  adjective  now  becomes  a  substantive  it  retains  its 
adjective  form:  der  Gute,  ein  Gutes,  &c.  In  the  prehistoric  period  adjectives  had  the  same 
inflection  as  nouns.  A  few  adjective-substantives  still  have  the  inflection  of  strong  neuter 
nouns,  often  however  dropping  the  s  of  the  genitive  and  usually  the  e  of  the  dative.  As  they 
usually  have  no  plural  they  seem  to  be  uninflected.  These  words  have  an  abstract  general 
meaning  and  hence  have  not  followed  the  tendency  of  other  adjective-substantives,  which  refer 
to  definite  persons  and  things  and  hence  like  adjectives  have  assumed  distinctive  endings.  The 
neuter  of  the  inflected  adjective  often  conveys  the  same  meaning  as  the  endingless  form  of  these 
old  abstract  nouns,  as  in  Unverhofft  (or  also  das  Unverhoffte)  kommt  oft,  but  older  usage  per- 
sists tenaciously  here  in  a  very  large  number  of  pithy  old  sayings,  preserved  as  it  were  by  the 
charm  of  the  terse  apt  expression  and  sometimes  in  part  by  the  rime,  as  in  this  example.  Some 
of  these  old  words  have  acquired  more  concrete  meaning  and  hence  also  plural  forms:  Gut, 
pl.  Güter;   Recht,  pi.  Rechte;    &c.     Compare  104.  2.  E.  a. 

The  following  groups  occur: 

(1)  When  no  article  precedes  and  they  are  mentioned  in  pairs,  or  occur  in  set  prepositional 
expressions:  Der  Abstand  von  reich  und  arm  (see  54.  3),  von  vornehm  und  gering  the  contrast 
between  rich  and  poor,  genteel  and  humble,  gleich  und  gleich  'birds  of  a  feather,'  jung  und  alt 
young  and  old,  schwarz  auf  weiß  in  writing,  von  klein  auf  from  early  childhood,  der  Unterschied 
zwischen  Wahr  und  Freierfunden,  Jenseits  von  Gut  und  Böse  (title  of  a  book  by  Fr.  Nietzsche). 
Also  with  the  article:  von  da  an  bis  zu  Shakespeare,  Byron  und  dem  übrigen  Groß  und  Klein 
(Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  38).  Einer  Entscheidung  über  das  Falsch  oder  das 
Richtig,  an  der  dem  Rat  Suchenden  gerade  gelegen  ist,  gehn  sie  (i.e.  die  Grammatiken)  aus 
dem  Wege  ((irunow's  Grammatisches  Nachsclilagcbnch,  Vorwort).  These  comliinations  both 
with  or  without  the  article  are,  as  explained  in  249.  II.  2.  ¥.  a,  modern  compounds  and  naturally 
resist  inflection  within  the  compound  and  usually  also  at  the  end,  as  so  often  elsewhere  in  such 
compounds. 

(2)  When  the  adjective-substantive  is  used  to  indicate  in  a  general  way  without  definite 
reference  a  thing  or  a  person  briefly  characterized  by  an  articleless   adjective   or   participle: 

(a)  As  subject:  Gut  ist  gut  und  besser  ist  besser  A  good  thing  is  good,  but  a  better  thing  is 
better  yet.  Allzu  scharf  macht  schartig  What  is  too  sharp  like  a  knife  with  too  fine  an  edge 
\v\\\  break  oft".  Ehrlich  währt  am  längsten  Honesty  is  the  best  policy.  Vorschnell  ist  nicht 
Bauernart  To  act  overhastily  is  not  the  nature  of  the  peasant.  Unversucht  schmeckt  nicht 
That  which  has  not  been  tried  has  no  taste,  i.e.  you  can't  tell  how  it  tastes  until  you  try.  Ge- 
schehen  (adjective-substantive)  ist  ein'mal  geschehen   (verb).     Altklug  nie  Frucht  trug,  or 


111.9.  PEdLlARITIES  IX  ADJECTIVE  INFLECTION 137 

Altklug  lebt  nicht  lang  =  Was  altklug  ist,  lebt  nicht  lang.     Jung  geheiratet  (183.  l.  B.  b)  lebt 

lang,  but  Jung  gefreit  hat  niemand  gereut  is  another  construction  as  explained  in  185.  B.  II.  b. 

(b)     As  an  object:   Wir  haben  frei  We  have  vacation.     Sie  haben  recht  You  are  right.     Er 

hält  gut  für  böse  He  considers  good  bad.     Er  macht  aus  arg  ärger  He  makes  a  bad  matter  worse. 

(3)  Of  colors  when  used  in  the  abstract;  but  when  a  concrete  meaning  enters  into  the  sub- 
stantive, inflection  according  to  the  adjective  declension  takes  place:  das  Braun  brown,  Schwarz 
black,  Grün  green,  das  Blau  des  Himmels;  verschiedene  Purpur,  Grau,  Olivengrün  (Gustav 
Krüger's  Schwierigkeiten  des  Englischen,  II.  p.  153).  Instead  of  the  indeclinable  form  often 
with  an  -s  in  the  gen.,  except  after  sibilants,  and  sometimes  with  an  -e  in  the  plural:  des  Blau(s), 
Braun(s),  Schwarz,  Grün(s).  Dieses  Grün  entsteht  aus  der  Mischung  hellen  Gelbs  und 
dunklen  Blaus.  Bei  chemischer  Untersuchung  vieler  im  Handel  vorkommender  Mineralblaue 
(Karmarsch's  Tech.,  2,  661).  But  with  concrete  meaning:  das  Schwarze  the  bull's-eye  of  a 
target,  der  Braune  brown  horse,  das  Grüne  the  green  fields,  Grünes  greens,  ein  Grüner  a  green- 
horn, a  hunter  (from  color  of  his  uniform),  das  Weiße  im  Auge. 

(4)  Of  languages  when  used  in  the  abstract  with  regard  to  their  quality,  their  varying  forms, 
their  employment  as  a  mode  of  personal  expression,  but  when  they  take  on  more  concrete  mean- 
ing and  become  names  of  definite  things,  as  the  languages  of  nations  or  the  definite  distinct  form 
that  any  one  language  assumes  in  a  particular  clearly  marked  period  of  its  development  or  in 
a  particular  part  of  the  territory  they  are  declined  according  to  the  adj .  declension ;  ein  schlechtes 
Deutsch  a  bad  German, das  Deutsch  der  heutigen  Zeit,  die  Aneignung  eines  dialektfreien  Deutsch, 
das  Juristendeutsch,  das  Kaufmannsdeutsch,  das  Englisch  der  niederen  Klassen,  das  Deutsch 
im  Munde  der  Deutschen  im  Auslande,  das  Hochdeutsch  im  norddeutschen  Munde,  in  markigem 
Deutsch  in  pithy  German.  Er  übersetzte  das  Gedicht  in  sein  geliebtes  Deutsch  He  translated 
the  poem  into  German,  his  favored  mode  of  expressing  himself,  but  Er  übersetzte  das  Gedicht  ins 
Deutsche  He  translated  the  poem  into  the  German  language.  Er  beschäftigt  sich  mit  dem  Deutschen 
He  is  studying  the  German  language.  Das  Althochdeutsche,  das  Mittelhochdeutsche,  das 
Neuhochdeutsche,  das  Bayrische,  das  Niederrheinische.  Of  course,  the  same  word  may  be 
uninflected  or  inflected  according  as  it  represents  the  language  as  varying  from  a  standard  or 
represents  it  as  an  organic  whole  with  distinct  laws  of  its  own  altho  it  may  have  relations  to 
another  kindred  language:  das  Deutsch  der  Schweiz,  or  Schweizerdeutsch  when  we  think  of  it 
as  a  variant  form  of  German,  but  die  vollständige  Sammlung  aller  im  Schweizerdeutschen 
eingebürgerten  Fremdwörter  when  we  think  of  it  as  a  distinct  dialect. 

Sometimes  as  in  (3)  we  find  -(e)s  in  the  genitive  instead  of  the  indeclinable  form:  Gegen 
Auswüchse  des  Papierdeutschs  (E.  Friedegg's  Deutsche  Sprachsünder,  p.  5).  Statt  des  kraft- 
voll schönen  Deutsches  von  Federer  (name)  springt  einem  ein  eiliger,  ohne  Feingefühl  und 
Liebe  behandelter  Stil  entgegen  (Carl  Busse  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  Sept.  1913, 
p.  152). 

8.  The  adjective  in  the  predicate  is  now  uninflected,  but  in  M.H.G.  was  here  inflected  as 
elsewhere,  as  one  or  two  fossilized  remnants  still  show:  Er  ist  voller  Tücke.  This  strong  masc. 
nom.  sing,  voller  is  still  much  used  in  the  predicate  before  nouns  not  preceded  by  a  modifier, 
but  all  feeling  that  it  is  a  masc.  nom.  sing,  is  lost,  as  it  is  used  of  all  genders  and  numbers  as 
predicate  complement,  as  objective  predicate,  or  in  the  appositive  relation:  Das  Stück  war 
voller  Handlung.  Die  Finger  sind  voller  Ringe,  but  before  an  adjective  modifier  voll  von  schönen 
Ringen.  Wir  werden  das  Haus  voller  Gäste  haben.  In  letzter  Zeit  war  die  unglückliche  Frau 
in  Schulden  und  Not  geraten,  aus  der  sie,  voller  Verzweiflung,  wohl  keinen  andern  Ausweg  sah 
als  den  Tod.  Sometimes  also  before  modified  nouns,  where  the  adjective  is  usually  strong,  but 
sometimes  also  weak:  voller  boshafter  Schnurren  (Lessing),  voller  tiefen  Sorgen  (id.),  die 
Zukunft  voller  dunkler  Wolken  {Deutsche  Kolonialzeil.,  April  29,  1905).  Man  war  voller  pein- 
lichen Erwartung  {Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  Jahrg.  1901,  9.  Nov.,  p.  5).  In  the  language 
of  the  common  people  halber  and  aller  are  also  used  like  voller:  Die  Nacht  ist  halber  hin.  Ich 
dächte,  Sie  (i.e.  Mamsell  Sophie)  wäre  so  halber  mit  dem  Herrn  Sekretarius  Knippscheer 
versprochen  (Laufs  Frau  Aleit,  p.  7S).  Der  Kaffee  steht  au  aller  noch  da  (Anzengruber's 
Fleck  auf  der  Ehr,  2,  14).  In  the  last  example  aller  may  be  a  case  of  real  predicate  inflection, 
which  still  survived  in  early  N.H.G.  and  may  live  on  more  or  less  intactin  the  dialects.  In  the 
neut.  sing,  and  in  the  pi.,  predicate  inflection  of  all  is  still  common  even  in  the  literary  language: 
Das  ganze  Bild  ist  alles  Licht  (Goethe).  Diese  waren  alle  anwesend.  Elsewhere  non-inflection 
in  the  predicate  is  now  the  rule:  Die  Welt  ist  all  ein  flüchtig  Scheinen  (Freiligrath).  This  unin- 
flected all,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  alle,  is  also  used  sometimes  for  the  neut.  sing,  alles:  Wie 
das  Landvolk  all  herbeiUef  (Goethe).     Wie  das  Zeug  alle  hieß  (id.). 

The  inflected  pl.  form  alle  has  become  a  fixed  form  for  all  genders  and  numbers  in  the  mean- 
ing a// gons:  Der  Wein  ist  alle.  Meine  Hyazinthen  sind  alle.  Also  the  uninflected  form  is  used 
here:   Ihr  kleines  bißchen  Brot  ward  nicht  all  (Gebrüder  Grimm). 

In  some  Alemannic  dialects  the  predicate  adjective  is  inflected  still  as  in  earlier  periods:  Herr 
Vetter,  Ihr  seid  grobe  (=  grober,  here  in  rhyme  with  lobe)!  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Lieder  jung 
Werners,  VII).  D'  Nacht  ist  fisteri  (=  finstere)  (Frei's  Schidgrammatik,  art.  67),  S'  Wätter  ist 
ugstüems(=  ungestümes)  (ib.)  The  weather  is  stormy. 

9.  As  explained  in  104.  2.  B.  a.  Note  2,  the  adjective  is  not  inflected  when  it  follows  its  noun, 
because  it  is  felt  as  the  predicate  adjective  of  an  elliptical  clause;  but  if  such  is  not  the  case  and 
it  is  felt  as  an  attributive  adjective  it  must  be  inflected  here  as  elsewhere:  Zum  dritten  Male 
durchfurchten  wir  das  tyrrhenische  Meer,  das  wir  nun  in  all  seinen  Launen,  freundlichen  und 
schlimmen,  keimen  gelernt  hatten.  The  inflected  attributive  adjective  follows  the  noun  es- 
pecially in  the  vocative  relation,  in  scolding  or  swearing,  or  on  the  other  hand  in  expressions  of 


138 ORIGIN   OF   THE   WEAK  ADJ.    INFLECTION  111.9. 

tenderness,  in  all  of  which  cases  the  governing  noun  has  a  strong  accent  and  the  adjective  an 
almost  equally  strong  one,  the  emphatic  descriptive  stress  described  in  50.  6.  b:  Das  ist  nicht 
mein  Fräulein,  Schaf,  dummes!  (  Hartlebcn's  Rosenmontao,  p.  118).  Spion  infamer!  (Lienhard's 
Mihichliausen,  1).  Kannst  du  nicht  ein  bißchen  nachhelfen,  Mutterchen  einzigstes?  (Ma- 
rianne Mewis's  Mettes  Kinder).  An  inllected  adjecti\'e  often  follows  the  governing  noun  in 
the  market  reports:    Tee,  indischer,  ruhig  {Hamburgischer   Correspondent,  June  22,   1903). 

10.  Some  adjective-substantives  cannot  be  either  strong  or  weak  like  adjectives,  but  are 
inflected  according  to  one  of  the  regular  declensions  for  common  or  proper  nouns:  der  Herr 
(compar.  of  the  adj.  hehr  august,  honored)  master,  gentleman,  des  Herrn,  pi.  die  Herren;  die 
Eltern  (compar.  of  alt  old)  parents;  der  Junge  lad,  des  Jungen,  pl.  die  Jungen  (collociuially  in 
N.(i.  die  Jungens),  ein  Junge  a  lad,  but  the  word  applied  to  the  young  of  animals  has  the  regular 
adj.  inflection,  as  ein  Junges,  pl.  die  Jungen,  zwei  Junge;  der  Fürst  (.M.H.Ci.  \äirstc  the  first, 
wk.  superlative)  ruling  prince,  des  Fürsten,  tvc:  der  Oberst  (superlative)  colonel,  des  Obersten, 
&c.;  der  Greis  old  man,  des  Greises,  pl.  die  Greise,  earlier  in  the  period  wk.  thruout  and  still 
so  in  compounds,  as  in  Greisenalter  old  age;  der  Jünger  disciple,  lit.  the  younger  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  master  or  teacher,  des  Jüngers,  pl.  die  Jünger;,  das  Gut  estate,  des  Guts,  pl. 
die  Güter,  but  das  Gute  that  which  is  good,  des  Guten;  das  Übel  evil,  des  Übels,  &c.;  das 
Recht  right,  des  Rechts,  pl.  die  Rechte,  and  thus  also  Unrecht  injustice;  the  fossil  gen.  Rechtens 
(in  such  common  expressions  as  das  ist  Rechtens  That  is  the  law,  in  accordance  with  the  law,  &c.), 
the  wk.  gen.  of  the  adj.  recht  to  which  a  strong  gen.  has  been  added;  das  Dunkel  darkness, 
des  Dunkels,  but  still  with  adj.  declension  in  certain  set  expressions:  ins  Dunkle  gehen  to  go  out 
into  the  dark,  im  Dunkeln  tappen  to  grope  in  the  dark;  many  names  of  persons,  now  inflected 
like  other  names  of  persons:  Herr  Weiße,  Rothe,  Schwarze,  Braune,  which  still  have  their  old 
weak  nom.  ending  e  altho  no  longer  inflected  weak.  An  old  group  of  neuter  adjective-substantives, 
which  are  declined  like  e-plurals  or  are  uninflected,  have  been  treated  in  7.  h  above. 

Note.  Origin  of  the  Weak  Inflection  of  Adjectives.  Altho  the  adjective  may  now  be  inflected  weak,  the  weak  type 
of  inflection  originally  belonged  strictly  to  nouns.  In  the  prehistoric  period  it  was  extended  to  adjectives,  at  first, 
however,  only  when  used  as  nouns.  The  surviving  representatives  of  this  oldest  type  of  adjective-substantives  dift'er 
considerably  from  the  common  type  of  to-day  in  that  the  adjective  has  often  suffered  a  change  of  meariing.  The 
adjective  in  this  oldest  type  was  the  habitual  characterization  of  an  individual,  so  that  it  often  lost  much  of  its  original 
meaning  and  became  a  mere  formal  sign  of  individualization,  a  mere  formal  device  to  distinguish  permanently  one 
individual  from  others:  Braune  Brown,  family  name,  lit.  brown  one,  still  with  its  old  weak  nominative  ending,  but 
now  inflected  strong;  Bruno  Bruno,  Christian  name  which  has  come  down  from  the  O.H.G.  period  unchanged  = 
modern  Braune,  hence  also  lit.  bronni  one,  still  with  its  O.H.G.  weak  nom.  ending  o,  but  now  inflected  strong;  Eltern 
parents,  lit.  older  ones,  still  always  weak  as  in  older  German;  &c.  At  the  beginning  of  the  historical  period  a  further 
development  is  already  well  established.  We  often  find  the  adjective-substantive  used  with  the  full  literal  meaning 
of  the  adjective  to  distinguish  for  the  moment  one  individual  from  others,  i.e.  used  as  a  temporary  individualization 
and  hence  weak  after  the  analogy  of  the  old  habitual  individualizations:  Tho  wihte  siu  ther  alto,  thar  forna  ju  ginanto 
(Otfrid,  I.  1.5.  2.5,  ninth  century)  Da  weihte  sie  (i.e.  Maria  und  Jesum)  der  alte,  eben  genannte,  where  alto  and  ginanto 
are  temporary  individualizations  here  made  for  the  purposes  of  the  moment  to  make  clear  to  the  reader  the  person  in 
question.  These  weak  forms  were  felt  by  Otfrid  with  the  full  mean  ng  and  grammatical  force  of  adjectives  so  that 
he  often  uses  them  elsewhere  attributively  before  a  noun  wherever  he  desires  to  distinguish  for  the  moment  one  indi- 
vidual from  others,  or  very  frequently  thruout  his  book  wherever  he  wishes  to  characterize  a  person  by  a  term  which 
expresses  his  feeling  of  the  moment,  as  in  line  9  of  the  same  passage  where  he  calls  the  same  old  man  ther  saligo  man 
der  heilige  Mann  and  in  line  12  where  he  calls  him  without  the  noun  ther  guato  der  Gute.  Thus  arose  the  weak  type 
of  adjective  inflection,  a  type  unknown  in  Latin  and  Greek.  Weak  inflection  became  associated  in  this  new  con- 
struction with  the  idea  of  definite  individualization,  but  it  was  not  necessarily  associated  with  the  definite  article, 
as  in  these  examples.  Otfrid  often  uses  weak  forms  without  the  definite  article:  fater  unser  guato!  (ib.,  II.  21.  27), 
now  strong,  Vater  unser,  du  guter!,  as  the  weak  form  is  no  longer  used  in  direct  address  in  the  singular,  altho  it  is 
sometimes  still  used  here  in  the  plura'  as  in  Guten  Morgen,  jungen  Leute!  (Max  Dreycr's  Der  Probekandidat,  p.  25). 
Weak  inflection  without  the  definite  article  is  sometimes  still  used  in  other  forms  of  definite  individualization  described 
in  4.  b  (last  example),  5.  a  and  b,  and  6  above,  and  in  the  ordinal  compounds  selbdritt  (M.H.G.  selbe  dritte),  &c. 
(see  126.  2.  c  and  Note),  where  the  distinguishing  weak  ending  has  disappeared.  The  weak  form  in  these  newer  for- 
mations rests  entirely  upon  the  definiteness  of  the  idea.  The  older  habitual  individualizations  differ  from  the  newer 
type  in  that  they  are  uniformly  weak  whether  the  reference  is  definite  or  indefinite.  The  first  five  weak  nouns  in  10 
above  still  faithfully  preserve  the  characteristics  of  this  old  type.  It  is  also  well  preserved  in  compounds,  where  in 
spite  of  the  general  or  indefinite  reference  the  adjective-substantive  is  still  always  weak  as  in  the  prehistoric  period. 
Armenarzt  parish  doctor,  lit.  doctor  of  poor  people,  Gelehrtenversammlung  convention  of  learned  men,  &c.  In 
M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.  weak  inflection  was  thus  often  used  in  simple  adjective-substantives,  even  where  the  reference 
was  indefinite.  Examples  are  given  in  4.  a  above  and  also  in  the  first  paragraph  of  4.  b.  This  usage  is  still  found 
in  certain  dialects,  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bern,  Switzerland:  e  Stumm  (M.H.G.  ein  stumme,  now  ein  Stummer), 
&c.  In  the  literary  language  both  of  the  older  types  of  individualization  are  now  confined  to  the  groups  of  survivals 
given  above.  The  inflection  of  adjectives  and  adjective-substantives  is  now  elsewhere  regulated  by  a  mere  formal 
principle:  Weak  inflection  is  used  if  the  form  is  preceded  by  the  definite  article  or  other  strong  limiting  word,  other- 
wise the  form  is  strong 

COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES. 
Ascending  Comparison. 

112.  Adjectives  are  compared  by  adding  -er  to  form  the  comparative  and 
-st  to  form  the  superlative: 

Relative  Adverbial 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative.  Superlative. 

schlank  slender        schlanker         der,  die,  das  schlankste         am  schlanksten 
klein  small  kleiner  der,  die,  das  kleinste  am  kleinsten 

A  few  monosyllabics  modify  the  stem  vowel  in  the  comparative  and  super- 
lative.    See  113.  4. 


112.  3.  B.g.aa.  COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES 139 

1.  Inflection.  The  above  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  superlative,  the 
simple  uninflected  forms  as  found  when  the  adjective  stands  in  the  predicate: 
Wilhelm  ist  klein,  Karl  ist  kleiner. 

In  the  attributive  relation  the  positive  and  comparative  are  declined  by- 
adding  the  regular  strong  or  weak  endings  to  the  simple  positive  and  compar. : 
ein  kleiner  Knabe,  ein  kleinerer  Knabe,  der  kleine  Knabe,  der  kleinere  Knabe, 
&c. 

The  relative  superlative  adds  st  to  the  simple  positive  and  is  inflected  strong 
or  weak,  both  attributively  and  predicatively:  Mein  kleinstes  Buch.  Hans  ist 
der  kleinste  Knabe.  Unter  allen  Bäumen  ist  dieser  der  kleinste.  For  the  real 
grammatical  force  of  the  last  superlative  form,  however,  see  3.  A  below. 

The  adverbial  superlative  always  remains  unchanged  (see  231.  II,  an,  1.  A.  {b) ). 
For  the  use  of  this  form  see  3.  B  below. 

2.  a.  Relative  Comparative.  Differing  from  English,  German  usually  em- 
ploys only  one  form  here,  the  comparative  in  -er:  Marie  ist  schöner  als  Anna 
Marie  is  more  beautiful  (i.e.  relatively  more  beautiful)  than  Anna.  The  excep- 
tions are  given  in  115. 

Note.  Earlier  in  tlie  period,  even  in  the  classical  authors,  the  superlative  was  sometimes  loosely  used  of  two  objects, 
from  the  desire  of  making  the  superior  degree  more  prominent:  Wir  wollen  sehen,  welcher  Genius  der  stärkste 
(instead  of  der  stärkere)  ist,  dein  schwarzer  oder  mein  weißer  (Goethe). 

h.  Absolute  Comparative.  The  regular  relative  comparative  form  is  often 
used  absolutely,  i.e.  to  indicate  that  the  degree  of  the  quality  is  not  conceived 
with  reference  to  any  particular  object  or  objects,  but  only  in  a  general  com- 
parative sense:  Die  ältere  Dame  the  comparatively  old  lady,  the  elderly  lady, 
neuere  Sprachen  modern  languages,  seit  längerer  Zeit  for  some  time,  in  neuerer 
Zeit  in  modern  times,  ein  Lehrling  besserer  Herkunft  an  apprentice  belonging 
to  a  good  family.  Er  gehört  zu  den  bessern,  wenngleich  noch  nicht  zu  den 
guten  Schülern  He  is  a  pretty  good  or  comparatively  good  student,  but  not 
among  the  really  good  students.  Wir  sind  in  diesen  Zimmern  gewöhnlich  nur  an 
kühleren  Sommer-  oder  wärmeren  Herbsttagen.  Wenn  die  Brücke  geschlossen 
ist,  so  kann  kein  größeres  Schiff  hindurch.  Ich  wünsche  keine  nähere  Ver- 
bindung mit  ihm.  Wir  machten  einen  längeren  (a  tolerably  long)  Spaziergang. 
This  comparative  is  used  much  more  widely  in  poetry  than  in  prose,  and  often 
where  in  the  latter  we  would  use  a  positive,  especially  in  hexameter  verse,  where 
the  compar.  so  readily  forms  a  dactyl:  Ein  fremder  |  Geist  verbreitet  sich  schnell 
über  die  fremdere  Flur  (Schiller's  Spaziergang). 

3.  The  different  forms  of  the  superlative  and  their  use: 

A.  The  relative  superlative  expresses  only  relatively  the  highest  degree,  and 
thus  represents  the  highest  degree  attained  by  some  person  or  thing  as  compared 
with  other  persons  or  things  of  the  same  class:  Hans  ist  der  fleißigste  or  a  little 
more  forcibly  der  allerfleißigste  Schüler  in  der  Klasse  John  is  the  most  (un- 
stressed) diligent  pupil  in  the  class.  The  aller-  of  the  superlative  form  some- 
times takes  the  stress  instead  of  the  superlative  itself  just  as  all  in  English 
sometimes  for  emphasis  assumes  the  accent:  der  allerfleißigste  Schüler  the  most 
diligent  of  all  the  pupils. 

This  superlative,  even  tho  it  stands  alone  in  the  predicate,  is  felt  as  an  attribu- 
tive form:   Hans  ist  der  fleißigste  (Knabe  or  Schüler). 

B.  The  adverbial  superlative,  like  many  other  adverbs  (see  222.  2.  A),  is  often 
used  as  a  predicative  adjective,  as  in  a  below.  With  certain  adverbs  denoting 
quantity,  amount  (see  b)  it  is  also  used  substantively  just  as  adverbs  denoting 
quantity,  amount  are  in  general  used  substantively  as  well  as  adverbially. 

a.     Predicate  relation: 

aä.  It  often  represents  the  highest  degree  attained  by  some  body  or  thing  as 
compared  with  itself  at  different  times,  places,  and  under  different  circumstances, 
which  are  usually  indicated  by  some  accompanying  adverbial  element:  Der 
Sturm  war  am  heftigsten  gegen  Morgen.  Hier  ist  der  See  am  tiefsten.  Ich 
fühle  mich  am  glücklichsten,  wenn  ich  allein  bin. 

In  English  this  superlative  differs  in  form  from  the  relative  superlative  in  that 
it  drops  the  definite  article:    The  storm  was  most  violent  (without  stress,  but 


140 COMPARISON   OF  ADJFXTIVES  112.  3.  B.  a.  aa. 

according  to  C  with  quite  a  different  meaning  we  say  "most  violent")  towards 
morning.     The  lake  is  deepest  here. 

hb.  It  is  often  used  in  the  predicate  in  a  relative  sense  in  accordance  with  its 
literal  meaning  (see  231.  II,  an,  I.A.  (6)),  whenever  the  attribute  is  felt  distinctly 
as  a  real  predicate  form,  no  one  particular  noun  being  understood,  and  hence 
must  always  be  employed  when  the  objects  or  acts  compared  are  not  of  one  kind: 
Karl  ist  der  fleißigste  (understand  Schüler ),  but  Wer  ist  im  Schreiben  am  besten? 
(lit.  at  that  which  is  best,  i.e.  in  the  first  place).  Am  verlegensten  war  der 
Justizrat;  aber  er  sammelte  sich  rasch  (Fontane's  Unterm  Birnbaum,  XI  >. 
Am  ärmsten  unter  seinen  Leidensgefährten  sah  wohl  mein  Vater  aus  (Ebner- 
Eschenbach's  Meine  Kinder  jähre).  Waren  die  Erdbeeren  nicht  besser  als  die 
Stachelbeeren?  Ja,  aber  die  Trauben  waren  am  besten.  Die  Künstler  waren 
so  eitel  und  aufdringlich  wie  die  Politiker,  die  Literaten  noch  eitler  und  auf- 
dringlicher, und  am  eitelsten  und  aufdringlichsten  waren  die  Weiber  (Hermann 
Hesse's  Peter  Camenzind,  p.  127).  Am  interessantesten  ist  in  Härings  (author) 
Erinnerungen  vielleicht  sein  Beitrag  zur  Entstehungsgeschichte  des  „Münch- 
hausen"  (book)  (Prof.  Dr.  Werner  Deetjen  in  Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unter- 
richt, Jahrg.  28,  p.  24).  Solche  Leute  sind  immer  am  anspruchsvollsten  (Victor 
Fleischer's  Im  Krug  zum  grünen  Kranze). 

b.  Substantive  relation.  The  forms  am  meisten  and  am  wenigsten  are  often 
used  substantively,  and  hence  can  stand  in  any  position  where  a  substantive 
would  be  found:  Nichts  bedürfen  ist  göttlich;  und  am  wenigsten  (object)  be- 
dürfen bringt  der  Gottheit  am  nächsten.  Sie  wissen,  ich  verUere  selbst  am 
meisten  (object)  dabei.  They  are  also,  as  any  substantive  indicating  quantity, 
followed  by  a  partitive  gen.,  which  now  usually  (see  94.  3.  A  and  B)  goes  over  into 
the  appositional  construction:  Die  Stedte  ...  |  in  welchen  am  meisten  (subject) 
seiner  Thaten  geschehen  waren  (Matth.  xi.  20).  Sie  warteten  die  Zeit  ab,  in 
welcher  am  meisten  (subject)  Menschen  (in  apposition  with  am  meisten)  die 
Habsburgerstraße  passierten.  Am  meisten  Freude  machten  mir  aber  die  Vor- 
lesungen vor  studentischem  Publikum  {Deutsche  Rundschau,  1911,  p.  58). 

C.  There  is  also  an  absolute  superlative  (with  the  same  form  and  inflection 
as  the  relative  superb),  which  expresses  in  and  of  itself  a  very  high,  not  neces- 
sarily the  highest,  degree:  Dies  Land  war  eine  treueste  Bürg  des  Jesuiten- 
ordens This  land  was  a  most  faithful  stronghold  of  Jesuitism.  Ein  höchstes 
Gut  a  very  great  possession,  eine  dankbarste  Rolle  a  very  effective  role,  ein 
gewandtester  und  klarster  Redner.  There  is  here  a  strong  accent  upon  the 
superlative,  but  not  quite  so  strong  as  the  accent  upon  the  following  noun  — the 
emphatic  stress  described  in  50.  A.  6.  6. 

In  English  this  superlative  is  usually  marked  by  employing  the  periphrastic 
form  and  accenting  the  adjective  more  strongly  than  the  preceding  unstressed 
most:  It  is  a  most  lovely  flower  or  a  very  lovely  flower.  Sometimes  the  simple 
superlative  is  employed  here,  but  it  is  usually  distinguished  from  the  relative 
superlative  by  a  heavy  and  prolonged  pronunciation:  O,  he  made  the  ru  — dest 
remark!  As  can  be  seen  by  the  examples  emphatic  stress  prevails  in  English 
as  in  German. 

a.  This  superlative  is  in  English  in  general  used  quite  freely  attributively  or 
predicatively,  but  it  is  not  used  in  German  at  all  in  the  predicate  relation  except 
in  the  one  word  aller'liebst,  which  is  used,  not  only  attributively  but  also  as  a 
real  predicate  with  uninflected  form:  eine  allerliebste  Blume  a  most  lovely 
flower.  Die  Blume  ist  allerliebst.  In  the  attributive  or  substantive  relation 
the  absolute  superlative  is  not  infrequently  used,  but  is  usually  confined  to  par- 
ticular categories.     It  is  employed  especially: 

aa.  In  direct  address  or  at  the  close  of  a  letter:  liebster  Sohn  dear  son,  teuerste  Schwester 
dear  sister,  Ihr  ergebenster  Freund  N.  N.  Your  most  devoted  friend  N.  N. 

bb.  In  many  prepositional  phrases,  used  adverbially:  in  tiefster  Trauer  in  the  deepest  sorrow, 
in  bester  Stimmung  in  the  best  humor,  mit  größter  Hochachtung  with  very  great  respect. 

cc.  Before  names  of  materials  and  other  articleless  nouns,  to  indicate  in  a  general  way  a 
high  degree:  feinstes  Weizenmehl  zu  billigstem  Preis  very  fine  flour  at  a  very  reasonable  price, 
erste  Schriftsteller  authors  of  the  first  rank,  beste  Sorten  brands  or  sorts  that  are  among  the 


113.  2. COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES 141 

best.  Es  war  lieblichster  Frühling.  Einfachste,  tiefste  Harmonie  ist  im  Sturm,  wie  in  der 
Windstille  (Raabe's  Leute  aus  dem  Walde,  III.  5).  Auf  fadeste  Dummköpfe  machte  er  Ein- 
druck, auf  Arnold  nicht  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  1).  Die  Vorgänge,  die  hier  nur  an 
einzelnen  wichtigsten  Beispielen  verfolgt  werden  konnten  (Lamprecht's  Deutsche  Geschichte), 
dd.  Often  after  ein,  kein,  jeder,  alle  (pl.),  and  other  pronominal  adjectives:  eine  leiseste 
Spur  a  very  faint  trace.  Nun  wird  sich  gleich  ein  Gräulichstes  eräugnen  (=  ereignen;  Goethe's 
Faust,  II,  1.  5917).  Es  ist  ein  tiefster  Zug  (one  of  the  most  vital  traits)  der  Untemehmungs- 
wirtschaft,  einen  endlos  anwachsenden  Markt  für  ihre  Industrieerzeugnisse  zu  ersehen  (Lam- 
precht's Deutsche  Geschichte).  Kein  leisester  Hauch  regte  sich  Not  the  faintest  breath  of  wind 
•stirred.  Jede  leiseste  Berührung  every  touch,  even  the  faintest,  alle  bedeutendsten  Züge  aus 
der  Heldensage  all  of  the  most  important  features  of  heroic  legends.  Der  Artikel  ist  von  vielen 
ersten  Autoritäten  warm  empfohlen  This  article  is  warmly  recommended  by  many  of  the  very 
best  authorities. 

h.  This  idea  is  also  expressed  by  placing  sehr,  höchst,  äußerst,  über'aus,  or 
some  such  word  having  the  general  meaning  of  very,  before  the  positive:  ein 
sehr  or  höchst  fruchtbares  Land  a  most  fertile  land.  Das  Land  ist  sehr 
or  höchst  früchtbar.  In  the  literary  language  this  positive  form  of  statement  is 
more  common  than  the  superlative  in  the  attributive  relation  and  in  the  predicate 
it  is  exclusively  employed  except  in  case  of  the  one  word  allerliebst  (see  a  above) 
In  colloquial  speech,  however,  it  is  frequently  replaced  by  other  forms  of  state- 
ment in  both  attributive  and  predicative  relations: 

aa.  In  colloquial  language  in  German  as  also  in  English  a  high  degree  is  often 
expressed,  not  by  an  adverb  and  the  positive  of  an  adjective,  but  by  certain 
simple  adjectives  which  have  become  very  emphatic,  such  as  fa 'mos  splendid, 
capital,  riesig  gigantic,  very  great,  pyrami'dal  very  great,  large,  lit.  pyramidal, 
kolo'ssal  very  great,  &c. :  famoser  Kerl,  famoses  Wetter,  ein  riesiges  Vergnü- 
gen. Alles  bricht  in  pyramidalen  Jubel,  in  Fanatismus  aus  (Gutzkow).  Die 
Rede  war  famos,  kolossal.  Such  words  can  also  be  used  adverbially,  like  sehr, 
&c.,  to  strengthen  an  adjective:  ein  kolossal  netter  Mensch  a  'mighty'  nice 
fellow,  riesig  kalt,  &c. 

hh.  Instead  of  a  simple  adjective  we  often  find,  especially  in  colloquial  speech, 
a  compound  in  which  the  high  degree  is  indicated  by  the  first  component:  'stock- 
'blind  blind  as  a  bat,  'blut'jung  quite,  very  young,  'mords'dmnm  or  'kreuz'dumm 
awfully  stupid,  'hunds'elend  or  'hunde'elend  very  miserable,  sick  as  a  dog, 
'hunds'kalt  beastly  cold.  Das  steht  bomben'fest  That  is  dead  sure.  Das  ist 
jammer'schade !  That  is  a  great  pity.  Es  war  eine  stockfinstere  Nacht.  For 
the  fluctuating  accent  here  see  47.  3.  A.  b. 

4.  The  force  of  the  comparative  is  often  heightened  by  prefixing  weit  or 
bei  weitem  hy  far,  and  that  of  the  superl.  by  aller  (gen.  pl.)  of  all:  Karl  ist  weit 
fleißiger  als  Emil.     Gustav  ist  der  allerfleißigste.     See  A. 

5.  The  proper  conjunctions  to  be  used  with  the  different  degrees  are  dis- 
cussed in  articles  239.  1.  a,b  and  2.  a. 

113.     The  following  variations  from  the  regular  comparison  as  given  above  occur: 

1.  a.  Adjectives  ending  in  el,  en,  er  sometimes  form  their  comparative  by  suppressing  the 
e  of  the  sufifix  as  in  the  positive,  and  sometimes  in  addition  also  the  e  of  the  case  ending  before  n 
and  m:  der  ed(e)lere,  des,  dem,  den,  die,  der  ed(e)leren  or  ed(e)lem;  ed(e)lerem  or  ed(e)- 
lerm.     See  110.  A. 

b.  The  superlatives  of  adjectives  ending  in  el,  en,  er  retain  the  e  of  the  sufifix:  der  heiterste 
Morgen. 

2.  Monosyllabic  adjectives  ending  in  a  sibilant,  s,  ß,  sch,  st,  or  in  d  and  t,  add  est  to  form 
the  superlative-  der  älteste,  &c.  Often,  however,  contraction  takes  place  in  familiar  language: 
der  härtste,  ältste,  süßte,  &c.,  instead  of  der  härteste,  älteste,  süßeste,  &c.,the  hardest,  oldest, 
sweetest,  &c.  The  contraction  of  größt  from  größest  is  now  the  usual  form  even  for  the  literary 
language.  Grammarians  generally  give  it  as  the  only  form,  but  größest  is  not  infrequent :  mit 
dem  größesten  Vergnügen  (Raabe's  Alte  Nester,  I.  chap,  xiv),  mit  dem  allergrößesten  Eifer 
(Wildenbruch's  Nefd,  p.  90),  &.c.  Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  ending  in  d  and  t  uni- 
formly add  St  to  form  the  superlative  provided  the  syllable  preceding  the  st  is  unaccented:  der 
blindeste,  but  blendendste.  Even  after  an  unaccented  syllable  we  find  est  here  if  otherwise  a 
combination  of  consonants  would  arise  which  would  be  difificult  to  pronounce:  in  der  boshaftesten 
Gemütsverfassung  (Raabe). 

Adjectives  ending  in  isch  may  add  st:  die  kindischste  Torheit.  Some  recommend  here  t  as 
a  superlative  ending,  as  the  s  is  often  absorbed  in  the  preceding  sch:  der  bäu(e)rischte.  Our 
time,  however,  seems  averse  to  the  mutilation  of  grammatical  forms,  and  hence  we  even  find 
here  the  ending  est  as  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty:    das  Praktischeste. 


142 COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  &  ADVERBS         113.  2.  a. 

a.  Sometimes  to  avoid  such  and  other  clumsy  forms  writers  and  speakers  prefix  am  meisten 
or  im  höchsten  Grade  to  the  positive  to  form  the  superlative:  als  die  am  meisten  praktische  der 
drei  Damen  (Rociuette);   am  meisten,  or  im  höchsten  Grade  barbarisch. 

3.  W'e  often  find  the  comparative  repeated,  the  two  forms  being  separated  by  und:  weiter 
und  weiter  farther  and  farther,  or  ever  farther.  Instead  of  this  form  we  also  find  the  positive 
instead  of  the  first  comparative:  rot  und  röter  ((ioethe),  nah  und  näher  (Johannes  Scherr's 
Schiller,  II.  chap.  iii).  Die  Blicke  der  Mütter  wurden  kühl  und  kühler,  die  Händedrücke  der 
Väter  flüchtig  und  flüchtiger  (O.  v.  Lei.xner).  In  the  language  of  the  early  part  of  the  period 
the  first  member  of  such  expressions  is  often  a  positive  in  form,  but  in  fact  a  comparative,  the 
suffix  -er  being  understood  in  accordance  with  older  usage,  which  often  in  case  of  two  words 
separated  by  und  expressed  the  suffix  or  case  ending  but  once  (see  111.  7.  b.  Note):  Viel  weiß 
und  bleicher  als  der  Mon  (Spec's  Trulznacht-igal,  38.  11).  Thus  also  in  case  of  the  superlative: 
in  den  allerschön  und  lustigsten  Landschaften  (Zesen's  Adr-iat.  Rosemund,  154.  13). 

4.  Mutation  in  Comparative  and  Superlative.  The  following  monosyllables  are  mutated  in 
the  comparative  and  superlative:  alt  old,  arg  bad,  arm  poor,  grob  coarse,  groß  large,  hart  hard, 
hoch  (see  5  below)  high,  jung  young,  kalt  cold,  klug  wise,  krank  sick,  kurz  short,  lang  long, 
nah(e)  (see  5  below)  near,  oft  (117.  1.  a),  scharf  sharp,  schwach  weak,  schwarz  black,  stark 
strong,  Sturm  (S.W.  German)  out  of  one's  senses,  beside  one's  self,  warm  warm.  Example: 
arm,  compar.  ärmer,  super,  der,  die,  das  ärmste  or  am  ärmsten.  The  following  are  sometimes 
mutated  and  sometimes  unmutated:  bang  anxious,  blank  bright,  polished,  blaß  pale,  dumm 
stupid,  fromm  pious,  gesund  healthy,  glatt  smooth,  karg  stingy,  knapp  close,  tight,  krumm 
crooked,  mager  (mutated  in  com.  and  superl.  in  S.G.)  lean,  naß  wet,  rot  red,  sauber  clean,  schmal 
narrow,  zart  tender,  and  a  number  of  others,  all  of  which  mutate  more  or  less  frequently  in  the 
individual  cases  in  familiar  speech,  tho  not  so  commonly  in  the  written  language.  Of  these 
doubtful  words  bang,  blaß,  dumm,  fromm,  gesund,  glatt,  karg,  naß,  and  rot  are,  perhaps,  more 
commonly  mutated,  but  the  unmutated  forms  are  not  infrequent.  Rot  is  usually  unmutated  in 
figurative  meaning  and  in  compounds,  as  in  die  rotesten  Gesiimungen  the  most  extreme  socialistic 
vieivs,  die  dunkelroteste  Rose  the  rose  of  the  darkest  red;  but  sometimes  with  mutation:  der 
röteste  Sozialdemokrat  (Telmann's  Was  ist  Wahrheit?,  V.).  Also  a  number  of  other  adjectives 
which  usually  mutate  in  simple  forms  usually  remain  unmutated  in  compounds,  as  in  case  of 
rot:  der  klügste  the  wisest  one,  but  auf  die  altklugste  Weise  in  the  most  precocious  manner; 
der  jüngste,  but  der  blutjungste,  unerfahrenste  Kiekindiewelt  (Sanders's  Hauptschwieri gkeiten, 
p.  288),  &c.     Also,  however,  with  mutation:    Der  lebensklügste  (Frenssen's  Hilligenlei,   XI). 

Note.  In  a  former  period  of  the  language  the  comparative  and  superlative  had  each  two  methods  of  formation: 
the  comparative  ended  in  -ir  or  -or,  the  superlative  in  -ist  or  -ösl.  Those  that  had  -ir  and  ist  were  of  course  mutated 
(see  26.  A),  and  the  others  did  not  suffer  mutation.  Later  -ir  and  -or  became  -er,  and  -ist  and  -05/  became  -est,  mu- 
tation alone  distinguishing  still  the  former  groups.  Many  words  which  were  not  entitled  to  mutation  assumed  it 
later  after  the  analogy  of  the  mutating  group.     Since  the  classical  period,  however,  mutation  has  been  slowly  declining. 

5.  The  two  adjectives  hoch  high  and  nah(e)  near  are  irregular:  in  hoch  the  ch  becomes  h 
when  a  vowel  follows  in  the  degree  or  case  ending,  as  der  hohe,  der  höhere,  but  der  höchste; 
nah  becomes  nächst  in  the  superlative.  We  sometimes  find  an  unmutated  absolute  superl.  of 
nah  with  h  instead  of  ch:  das  Noch-näher-bringen  von  zwei  so  allemahesten  Herzen  (Suttner's 
Die  Waffen  nieder!.  Ill,  p.  270). 

6.  Sometimes  words  for  especial  emphasis  or  to  convey  a  little  different  idea  than  is  usually 
implied  in  them  are  compared  when  in  their  ordinary  meaning  they  do  not  admit  of  comparison: 
Du  bist  mein  und  nun  ist  das  Meine  meiner  als  jemals  (Goethe's  H.  ii.  D.,  IX.  311).  At  the 
close  of  letters  we  sometimes  find:  Der  Deinigste,  der  Ihrigste.  We  say  die  eisernste  Herr- 
schaft ausüben  to  exercise  the  most  oppressive  (lit.  most  iron)  authority,  altho  in  a  literal  sense 
eisern  cannot  be  compared. 

114.     Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

Adverbs  have  in  the  positive  usually  the  uninflected  form  of  adjectives,  and 
also  elsewhere  have  no  inflection  whatever.  They  are  compared  just  as  adjec- 
tives except  in  the  superlative:  — 

Relative  Absolute 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative.  Superlative. 

hart  hard  härter  am  härtesten  aufs  härteste 

schön  beautifully  schöner  am  schönsten  aufs  schönste 

1.  a.  Relative  Comparative.  Differing  from  English  usage  German  employs 
usually  only  one  form  here,  the  comparative  in  -er:  Hans  schreibt  schöner  als 
Wilhelm  John  writes  more  beautifully  than  William.  The  few  exceptions  are 
given  in  115. 

b.  Absolute  Comparative.  The  regular  relative  comparative  form  is  some- 
times used  absolutely:  des  Herrn  Seminardirektors  Dr.  Michael  Geistbeck 
schon  länger  vergriffene,  aber  anhaltend  begehrte  „Elemente  der  wissen- 
schaftUchen  Grammatik  der  deutschen  Sprache"  (Karl  Credner  in  the  Preface 
of  his  Deutsche  Grammatik) ;   die  für  f,  ]?,  s  häufiger  erscheinenden  Schreibungen 


114.  4. COMPARISON   OF  ADVERBS 143 

b,  d,  z  (Streitberg's  Gotisches  Elementarbiich,  p.  91).  Wir  entbehrten  schon 
länger  der  Verpflegung  (aus  dem  P'eldpostbrief  eines  Tiroler  Arbeiters  in  the 
Innsbriicker  Volkszeitung,  1914).  Nun  besitzt  für  Deutschland  nur  ein  länger 
dauerndes  Wirtschaftsbündnis  durchschlagenden  Wert  (  Vossische  Zeitimg, 
March  5,  1916). 

2.  The  relative  superlative  (see  231.  II,  auf,  2.  G.  Note)  of  the  adverb  ex- 
presses the  relatively  highest  degree  attained  by  somebody  or  something  as 
compared  with  somebody  or  something  else,  or  with  itself  at  different  times 
and  under  different  circumstances :  Er  schreibt  am  schönsten  von  all  den  Knaben. 
Die  Sonne  steht  um  Mittag  am  höchsten. 

a.  For  a  few  adverbs  which  form  the  relative  superl.  differentl}'  see  3.  a  and  c  below  and 
also  117.  2.  b. 

3.  The  absolute  superlative  (see  231.  II,  auf,  2.  G.  Note)  expresses  in  a  gen- 
eral way  a  very  high  degree  in  and  of  itself  without  reference  to  that  attained 
by  anybody  or  anything  else:  Er  schreibt  aufs  (or  auf  das)  schönste  He  icrites 
most  beautifully,  lit.  in  the  direction  of  that  ichich  is  most  beautiful.  In  English 
the  absolute  superlative  usually  has  the  accent  upon  the  adverb  proper,  while 
in  the  relative  form  the  preceding  most  is  stressed:  John  writes  most  beautifully, 
but  Of  the  boys  John  writes  7nöst  beautifully  or  quite  regularly  in  American 
English  the  most  beautifully,  with  an  insertion  of  the  before  most  after  the  analogy 
of  the  adjective  form  the  most  beautiful. 

a.  A  few  adverbs  form  the  absolute  superl.  without  the  aid  of  prepositions  by  simply  suffixing 
St,  especially  those  in  -ig  and  -Uch:  baldigst  very  soon,  innigst  very  deeply,  höflichst  very  po- 
litely, gefälligst  be  so  kind,  if  you  please,  &c.,  and  a  few  monosyilabics  as  höchst,  äußerst  very, 
längst  for  a  long  while,  allerliebst  ver>'  nicely,  meist  usually,  almost,  &c.  The  highest  degree 
possible  is  expressed  by  placing  this  superlative  of  möglich  or  tunlich  before  a  participle,  adjective 
or  adverb  and  after  a  verb:  möglichst  genaue  Auskunft  information  as  accurate  as  possible, 
tunlichst  bald  as  soon  as  possible,  ich  gehe  ihm  möglichst  aus  dem  Wege  I  go  out  of  his  way, 
avoid  him,  as  much  as  possible. 

The  superlative  in  -st  often  has  relative  force  before  an  attributive  participle  or  adjective, 
never,  however,  with  verbs:  die  nächstfolgende  Zeile,  eines  der  höchsten,  der  schwierigst  zu 
erreichenden  Ziele,  der  Höchstbesteuerte  the  highest  taxpayer,  die  dichtest  bevölkerten 
Landstriche,  die  schwerst  bewaffneten  Truppen.  In  all  these  cases  the  regular  relative  super- 
lative form  with  am  is  also  used:   die  am  schwersten  bewaffneten  Truppen,  &c. 

Some  of  these  words  also  have  lengthened  forms  in  ens,  some  of  which  are  used  relatively 
and  some  absolutely:  (absolutely)  bestens  as  best  I  can,  meistens  for  the  most  part,  nächstens 
presently,  schönstens  as  nicely  as  possible,  very  much,  as  in  Ich  danke  schönstens;  (relatively) 
erstens  in  the  first  place,  firstly,  höchstens  at  the  most,  längstens  or  spätestens  at  the  very 
latest,  frühestens  at  the  very  earliest,  mindestens  or  wenigstens  at  the  very*  least,  &c.:  Er  ist 
mindestens  zehn  Jahre  alt. 

b.  A  few  absolute  superlatives  are  formed  with  im  (with  dat.  of  the  adj.)  instead  of  aufs, 
usually  in  negative  sentences:  nicht  im  geringsten  or  im  mindesten  not  in  the  least,  nicht  im 
entferntesten  not  even  the  most  remotely,  nicht  im  leisesten  not  in  the  slightest. 

c.  The  absolute  superl.  is  sometimes  formed  with  zum  (with  dat.  form  of  the  adj.)  instead 
of  aufs,  and  sometimes  this  form  with  zum  is  used  instead  of  the  relative  superl.  with  am:  Ich 
habe  sie  zum  schönsten  gebeten  I  asked  them  as  nicely  as  I  could.  Nicht  der,  welcher  zuerst, 
sondern  zum  (=  am)  sichersten  auf  den  Feind  trifft,  hat  sich  dem  Siege  genähert. 

d.  The  absolute  superlative  is  often  replaced  by  the  positive  modified  by  another  adverb 
denoting  a  high  degree,  such  as  sehr,  recht,  höchst,  äußerst,  außerordentlich,  ungemein:  Sie 
tanzt  sehr  schön.  Seine  Gesundheit  stellte  sich  wieder  her,  aber  äußerst  langsam.  In  colloquial 
language,  in  German  as  also  in  English,  a  high  degree  is  often  expressed,  not  by  sehr,  &c.  and  the 
positive  of  another  adverb,  but  by  certain  simple  adverbs  which  have  become  ver>'  emphatic, 
such  as  fa'mos  splendidly,  kolo'ssal  hugely,  very  greatly,  riesig  very  greatly,  very  much,  &c.: 
Ich  habe  mich  famos  amüsiert.  Ich  habe  mich  kolossal  gefreut.  Ich  langweile  mich  riesig: 
See  also  112.  3.  C.  b.  aa. 

4.  When  an  adverb  modifies  an  adjective  or  participle,  and  it  is  a  question  of  the  higher 
or  highest  degree  of  the  adverb  and  not  the  adjective  or  participle,  the  adverb  should  logically 
take  the  degree  ending,  but  often  the  adjective  or  participle  takes  it  instead,  as  the  two  are  felt 
rather  as  one  word  than  two,  and  the  adjective  or  participle  usually  standing  last  naturally 
assumes  the  ending  of  the  compound:  schlechtest  ausgerüstet,  &c.,  and  also  in  good  authors 
schlechtausgeriistetest,  Sec.  The  compound  form  is  most  natural  in  set  expressions  which  have 
developed  a  peculiar  meaning:  schwerwiegendst,  tiefgreif endst,  tiefgefühltester  Dank,  wohl- 
gemeinteste Ermahnungen,  feinfühlendere  Leute,  die  gutgeartetsten  Kinder,  die  hochgestelltesten 
Männer,  hochfliegendste  Pläne,  weitreichendste  Verbindungen.  A  natural  tendency  to  exag- 
gerate leads  some  to  give  both  words  degree  endings:   größtmöglichst  for  möglichst  groß,  &c. 


144 PERIPHRASTIC    COMPARISON m. 

Periphrastic  Comparison. 

115.  Besides  the  case  mentioned  in  113.  2.  a,  where  the  periphrastic  form  of  comparison 
occurs,  are  the  following: 

1.  When  two  qualities  of  one  thing,  or  two  adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases  modifying  one  verb, 
are  compared  with  each  other,  the  comparative  is  usually  formed  by  placing  mehr,  also  eher, 
before  the  simple  positive  instead  of  adding  -er:  Das  Zimmer  ist  mehr  lang  als  breit.  Er  ist 
eher  klein  als  groß  He  is  rather  to  be  called  small  than  large.  Er  sprach  mehr  aufrichtig  als 
klug.  Sie  drückte  mich  an  den  Busen  mehr  mit  schmerzlicher  als  zärtlicher  Bewegimg.  Er 
las  eher  laut  als  deutlich. 

The  regular  comparative  suffix  -er  is  also  used  here  in  the  classical  period,  and  not  infrequently 
still:  Vielleicht  hat  er  wahrer  als  klug  und  fromm  gesprochen  (Goethe's  Egmont,  1,  Palast  der 
Regentin).  Das  zweifenstrige  Gemach  war  bedeutend  länger  als  breit  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus 
dem  Walde,  chap.  vü). 

2.  In  comparing  two  objects  as  to  the  one  quality  which  each  possesses  in  an  eminent  degree, 
mehr  may  be  placed  before  the  positive  of  each  adjectiv^e,  or  the  comparative  may  also  be  formed 
regularly  with  -er,  the  former  method,  however,  emphasizing  the  comparison  of  the  predicates, 
the  latter  emphasizing  the  subjects:  Karl  ist  mehr  klug,  Wilhelm  ist  mehr  schlau;  or  Karl  ist 
klüger,  Wilhelm  ist  schlauer.  Mehr  is  also  used  in  the  same  manner  in  the  attributive  relation 
to  call  attention  to  the  characteristic  feature  of  some  object:  WüUersdorf  war  wieder  darauf  aus, 
das  Gespräch  auf  mehr  gleichgültige  Dinge  zu  lenken  (Fontane's  £//■/,  chap,  xxviii).  Mehr 
praktische  Ziele  verfolgt  die  Broschüre,  welche  Prof.  Dr.  Hunziker  in  Aarau  im  Auftrage  des 
Alldeutschen  Vereins  herausgab  (A.  Büchi  in  Anzeiger  für  hido-Germaiiische  Sprach-  und  Alter- 
tumskunde, xiii.  Band,  p.  62).  Eine  mehr  nebensächliche  Rolle  spielen  bei  der  Ablautfrage  fol- 
gende zwei  uridg.  Lauterscheinungen  (Brugmann's  Lautlehre,  p.  14.5).  Er  war  sehr  ruhig  und 
benahm  sich  verständig  und  war  in  seinen  Urteilen  so  befestigt,  daß  er  die  mehr  theoretischen 
Ausführungen  von  Pastor  Frisius  und  die  mehr  praktischen  Anschauungen,  die  Lehrer  Haller 
entwickelte,  bei  allem  guten  Willen,  den  er  als  höflicher  Mann  hatte,  nicht  verwenden  konnte 
(Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  chap.  iü). 

Mehr  is  also  used  in  the  predicate  with  reference  to  one  person  or  object  when  the  question 
is  raised  as  to  which  of  two  qualities  is  more  characteristic  of  the  subject:  Ich  Euch  um  den  Hals 
fa  —  [Hen] — seid  Ihr  mehr  närrisch  oder  mehr  frech?!  (Lienhard's  Till  Eidenspiegel,  Der 
Fremde). 

3.  If  an  attribute  of  one  object,  or  an  activity,  is  compared  with  itself  under  different  circum- 
stances or  at  different  times,  the  comparative  is  formed  with  mehr,  or  also  regularly:  Ich  war 
früher  mehr  bekannt  und  vertraut  (or  bekaimter  und  vertrauter)  mit  ihm.  Die  Sache  wird 
immer  bedenklicher,  or  wird  mehr  (und  mehr)  bedenklich.  Im  Antlitzausdruck  eigentümlich 
halb  der  Psyche  und  halb  dem  Amor  gleichend,  nur  wollte  es  den  Fortgehenden  bedünken,  als 
sei  sie  während  seiner  Abwesenheit  dem  letzteren  etwas  mehr  ähnlich  geworden  (Jensen's 
Das  Bild  im  Wasser,  p.  335). 

a.  Mehr  is  often  used  in  connection  with  the  word  immer  ever,  or  in  the  form  mehr  und  mehr 
more  and  more,  to  indicate  a  gradual  increase  of  intensity:  Er  wurde  dadurch  immer  mehr,  or 
mehr  und  mehr  verlegen,  or  immer  verlegener. 

4.  Adjectives  and  participles  which  require  after  them  an  object  in  an  oblique  case  or  a  prepo- 
sitional object,  and  thus  approach  the  nature  of  verbs,  are  compared  either  as  regular  adjectives, 
or  by  placing  mehr  before  the  positive  and  am  meisten  before  the  superlative:  Ludwig  ist  mir 
ähnlich;  ich  habe  kein  mir  ähnlicheres  or  mehr  ähnliches  Blind  (Daniel  Sanders);  keins  meiner 
Kinder  ist  mir  ähnlicher,  or  mehr  ähnlich;  er  ist  mir  am  meisten  ähnlich,  or  am  ähnlichsten. 
Dieser  Beweis  ist  der  älteste,  kläreste  (now  klarste)  und  der  gemeinen  Menschenvemunft  am 
meisten  angemessene  (Kant).  Das  mich  am  meisten  Verdrießende.  Where  the  verbal  nature 
of  the  participle,  as  in  the  last  example,  is  distinctly  felt,  the  compar.  and  superl.  are  more  com- 
monly formed  by  prefixing  mehr  and  am  meisten  to  the  positive. 

5.  Adjectives  (111.  7.  c.  (1))  or  adverbs  which  are  derived  from  substantives  or  other  parts 
of  speech  and  are  not  yet  felt  fully  as  adjectives  or  adverbs  are  usually  compared  with  mehr 
in  the  compar.  and  am  meisten  in  the  superl.:  Ich  bin  ihm  mehr  gram  als  dir.  Das  tut  mir 
mehr  leid,  als  ich  sagen  kann.  Dem  jugendlich  rastlosen  Greise  Blücher  (proper  name)  wurde 
die  Unentschiedenheit  der  Dinge  zuerst  und  am  meisten  zuwider  (also  preposition  and  adverb). 
The  regular  forms  in  -er  and  -st  are  sometimes  found,  tho  rarely. 

o.  Thus  also  nouns  and  the  pronoun  es  which  stand  in  the  predicate  with  the  force  of  ad- 
jectives are  compared :  Er  ist  mehr  Diplomat  als  Feldherr.  Es  war  mehr  Spaß  als  Ernst.  Schön 
bist  du;  wüßtest  du's  minder,  du  wärest  es  mehr. 

6.  Some  adverbs  which  denote  a  relative  position  with  regard  to  the  speaker  or  some  other 
point  form  a  comparative  with  mehr  or  weiter  and  a  superlative  with  am  meisten  or  am  weitesten: 
Er  stand  mehr  links  He  stood  more  to  the  left.     See  also  117.  2.  b,  second  paragraph. 

A  few  adjectives  which  denote  a  relative  position,  such  as  äußer,  inner,  äußerlich,  form  a 
comparative  with  mehr,  but  their  superlative  with  the  regular  -st  ending:  Sonst  ging  die  Ent- 
wicklung unserer  Sprache  dahin,  die  beiden  Flexionsformen  ganz  unabhängig  von  Bedeutungs- 
gruppen bei  allen  Adjektivis  nach  mehr  äußeren  Bedingungen  zu  regeln  (Wunderlich's  Der 
deutsche  Satzhau,  1st  edition,  p.  170).  Leute,  die  wenig  oder  gar  kein  Gewissen  haben,  würden 
auch  allzu  glücklich  sein,  wenn  die  ewige  Gerechtigkeit  es  nicht  so  prächtig  verstände,  ihnen 
auch  an  mehr  äußerlicher  Stelle  den  Sachverhalt  klar  zu  machen!  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus  dem 
Walde,  II.  chap.  viii).     See  also  117.  2.  a. 


117.  1.  c.  IRREGULAR  &  DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON 145 

7.  Es  ist  möglicher,  daß,  &c.,  is  not  so  common  as  Es  ist  eher  möglich,  &c. 

8.  Occasionally  we  find  periphrastic  comparison  elsewhere,  where  we  should  expect  the 
suffix  -er:    Und  dir  ist  Vaterland  mehr  als  die  Fremde  fremd  (Goethe). 

9.  Double  comparison  is  rare:  eine  mehr  schicklichere  Ursache  (Lessing).  In  den  Donau- 
Fürstentümern  ward  die  Lage  des  russischen  Heeres  mehr  und  mehr  unhaltbarer  (  Volka- 
Zeitung,  24.  267).     See  also  117.  1.  b. 

Descending  Comparison. 

116.  Descending  comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs  is  formed  by  placing 
weniger  or  minder  less  before  the  positive  to  form  the  comparative,  and  am 
wenigsten  or  am  mindesten  to  form  the  superlative:  hart  hard,  weniger  (or 
minder)  hart  less  hard,  ein  weniger  (or  minder)  hartes  Ei,  eine  weniger  stark 
gewürzte  Suppe,  am  wenigsten  (or  am  mindesten)  hart  least  hard,  der  am  we- 
nigsten (or  am  mindesten)  fleißige  Schüler,  die  am  wenigsten  stark  gewürzte 
Suppe.  In  case  of  adjectives  or  participles,  especially  in  the  attributive  or  sub- 
stantive relation,  it  is  also  quite  common  to  employ  the  uninflected  superlative 
form  wenigst  or  mindest  instead  of  am  wenigsten  or  am  mindesten,  now  often 
writing  the  two  words  as  one:  In  diesen  Dingen  sind  die  klügsten  Frauen 
die  wenigst  klugen  (Adele  Gerhard's  Pilgerfahrt,  p.  51).  Das  erleichtert  den 
Skandinaviern,  die  mindestromantischen  Germanen  zu  sein  (Prof.  Ed.  Heyck 
in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  May  1905,  p.  283). 

Irregular  and  Defective  Comparison. 

117.  1.     Irregular  adjectives  and  adverbs  (the  simple  stem  only  is  here  given): 
Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

/bald  (adv.)  soon                              eher  rather,  sooner  baldigst  as  soon  as  possible. 

\  f ruh    (adj.    &   adv.)    early,         früher    (now    less   commonly  frühest    (baldest,    baldest) 

soon                                                    bälder   or   balder)    earlier,  earliest,    soonest,    first. 

sooner 

gem  (adv.)  willingly                     lieber  (see  e  below)  liebst, 
ungern  unwillingly,  often  regular,     more  commonly,  however,  as    gem. 

gut    (adj.     &    adv.)    good,         besser  best. 

well                                                 (baß,  adv.;  see  d  below)  (gutest;  see/). 
wohl  (adv.),  sometimes  used  in  the  positive  instead  of  gut  (see  c  below). 

oft  (adv.)  often  or                            öfter  (adj.  &  adv.;  see  a)  f  öftest  (adv.) 

öfterer  (rare)  I  öfterst  (rare) 

oftmalig  (adj.)  1 

häufig  (adj.  &  adv.)                       häufiger  (adj.  &  adv.)  [  häufigst  (adj.  &  adv.). 

viel  (adj.  &  adv.)  much             /mehr  (uninfl.)  (meist 

\  mehrer-  (see  b)  \  mehrst  (see  b). 

wenig    (adj.    &   adv.)    little      f  weniger  (adj.  &  adv.)  {wenigst  (adj.  &  adv.) 

(m    amount    or    degree).       j      j^/^^.  ^^^.[  ^  ^^^ -^^  \  ^^^^^^  (^j-    ^  ^^^y 

a.  Öfters,  comparative  of  oft,  is  often  used  adverbially  in  an  absolute  sense,  and  is  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  relative  comparative  öfter:  Das  begegnet  mir  öfters  That  happens  to  me 
comparatively  or  quite  often.  Versuchungen  treten  uns  öfter  nahe,  als  wir  glauben  Temptations 
come  near  to  us  more  often  than  we  think.  The  comparative  öfter-  is  also  used  in  adjective 
function  in  an  absolute  sense  rather  frequent:    öftere  Besuche,  seine  öftere  Gegenwart. 

b.  Mehrer-  (due  to  double  comparison)  greater  (before  a  sing.noun),  more  and  mehrst  (superl. 
formed  from  the  compar.  mehr)  most  are  not  infrequent  earlier  in  the  period:  Vnd  da  die  Anfurt 
vngelegen  war  zu  wintern  |  bestunden  jr  das  mehrer  teil  auff  dem  Rat  |  von  dannen  zu  faren 
(Acts  xxvii.  12).  Daß  ein  Aufenthalt  in  diesem  Antikensaal  dem  studierenden  Künstler  mehrere 
Vorteile  gewährte,  als  eine  Wallfahrt  .  .  .  nach  Rom  (Schiller,  3.  577).  Die  mehresten  dieser 
Unglücklichen  (id.,  Kab.  2,  2).  This  older  usage  is  still  occasionally  found:  Zur  Seite  summte 
der  heimhche  Teekessel,  und  von  Zeit  zu  Zeit  füllte  er  die  kleine  chinesische  Tasse  mit  der 
goldklaren  Flüssigkeit,  der  er  zu  mehrerer  Vergeistigung  aus  blanker  Kristallflasche  etwelchen 
Arrak  zuzusetzen  pflegte  (H.  Seidel's  Der  Luftballon).  Solche  Widersprüche  in  den  Entschlie- 
ßungen desKönigs  zeigten  sich  nun  bald  immer  mehrere  und  immer  grellere  (Karl  Bicdermann's 
Dreißig  JaJire  deutscher  GescJiichte,  I.  p.  93).  This  older  usage  is  most  common  in  a  few  set 
expressions:  Davon  künftig  ein  mehreres  more  about  that  some  other  time,  des  mehreren  vi  ore  in 
detail,  ?nore  fully.  Mehrere  (pi.  of  mehrer-),  however,  is  still  quite  common  as  an  indefinite 
numeral  adjective  in  the  sense  of  several.     See  139.    1.  h. 

c.  Wohl  is  a,  predicative  adjective  which  is  only  used  in  the  meaning  well  with  reference  to 
the  health  or  bodily  comfort,  and  is  entirely  regular  in  comparison.     It  must  not  be  confounded 


146 


IRREGULAR  &  DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON 


117.  1.  c. 


with  gut,  which  besides  its  usual  adjective  meaninj^  good  is  used  as  an  adverb  of  manner  with 
the  meanings  well,  nicely,  and  also  used  as  an  adjective  in  the  comparative  and  superlative  with 
the  force  of  wohl:  Er  schreibt  gut,  besser,  am  besten,  but  Ihm  ist  heute  wohl,  wohler  or  besser. 
Er  befindet  sich  wohl,  wohler  or  besser,  am  wohlsten  or  am  besten.  Historically  considered, 
wohl  was  originally  not  an  adjective  as  at  present,  but  the  adverbial  form  of  the  adjectiv^e  gut. 
This  original  usage  occurs  frequently  as  late  as  the  classical  period,  and  is  still  retained  in  ad- 
jective, participial,  and  substantive  compounds  and  in  a  number  of  set  expressions:  wohlgemut, 
wohlschmeckend,  wohlerhalten,  wohlbekannt,  Wohlklang,  Wohlgeruch,  &c.  Wohl  is  found 
before  adjectix'e  particii:)les  also  where  tiiey  are  not  written  as  a  part  of  a  compound:  Sein  Hinter- 
stiibchen  war  wohl  geziert  (Raabe.).  In  set  expressions:  Er  will  mir  wohl.  Er  tut  wohl  daran. 
Ich  wünsche  Ihnen  wohl  zu  schlafen  I  wish  you  a  good  night's  rest.  Möge  es  Ihnen  wohl 
bekommen!  May  it  agree  with  you  well!  Mir  gefällt  der  Kerl  ausnehmend  wohl  (also  gut) 
(Raabe's  Zum  ivilden  Mann,  chap.  x). 

d.  .\n  old  adverbial  comparative  of  gut  is  baß.  It  is  sometimes  in  antique  style  or  dialect 
still  used  with  the  meanings  better,  more,  rather,  more  frequently  very  much,  again,  further:  Eines 
Dieners  mit  Weisheitszähnen  bin  ich  baß  entraten  (Storm's  Pole  Poppenspäler)  I  am  better 
rid  of,  &c.  Ich  habe  mich  manchmal  baß  (v^ery  much)  gewundert  über  dich  (Hauptmann's  Vor 
Sonnenaufgang,  1).  The  adverb  was  not  mutated  in  the  compar.  in  older  periods  of  the  language 
as  was  the  adj.,  as  can  be  still  seen  in  this  fossilized  form  baß  (adverb)  in  contradistinction  to 
besser  (adj.). 

e.  In  earlier  periods  the  comparison  of  gem  was  regular.  It  is  also  frequently  regular  in 
early  N.H.G.  and  occasionally  even  later,  and  is  still  often  so  in  popular  language,  which  thus 
preserves  here  older  usage. 

/.  The  regular  superlative  of  gut  is  not  infrequent  in  colloquial  speech,  especially  in  comic 
or  sarcastic  language,  only,  however,  in  direct  address:  Seh'n  Sie,  mein  Gutester,  das  nennt 
man  so  Menschenliebe  in  den  Tropen  (Schulze-Smidt's  O  Tannebaum,  1).  Nee,  mein  Gutester! 
(Fulda's  JugendfreiDide,  1,  7). 

g.  A  regular  superlative  of  viel  occurs  sometimes,  always,  however,  an  absolute  superlative: 
Vielste  Grüße  von  Ihrem  G.  Keller  (G.  Keller  an  T.  Storm,  May  19,  1883). 

2.     Defective  adjectives  with  positive  wanting,  only  used  attributively  or  substantively: 


Comparative. 
Der,  die  das  äußere  outer 
erstere  former 
innere  inner 
hintere  hinder 
letztere  latter 
mittlere  middle 
obere  upper 
untere  under 
vordere  in  front 
vordere  (earlier  in  the 
period) 


Superlative. 
der,  die,  das  äußerste  outmost 
erste  first 
innerste  inmost 
hinterste  hindmost 
letzte  last 

mittelste  middlemost 
oberste  uppermost 
unterste  undermost 
vorderste  foremost 
vorderste  (still  surviving  as  an 
adverb;  see  b  below) 


a.  Of  these  erst  and  letzt  are  superlatives  treated  as  positives,  from  which  compar.  forms 
erster-  and  letzter-  have  been  made.  The  compar.  forms  of  the  others  have  been  made  from 
adverbs  and  are  in  force  really  positives,  and  of  the  one  word  mittel  all  three  degrees  can  some- 
times be  found  without  difference  of  meaning:  der  mittele  (or  mittlere,  or  mittelste)  Finger. 
When  it  is  desired  to  impart  real  comparative  force  to  these  comparatives,  which  does  not  often 
occur,  it  is  necessary  to  prefix  mehr.     See  115.  6. 

Contrary  to  English  usage  the  article  is  often,  perhaps  even  more  commonly,  omitted  before 
the  comparative  forms  erster-,  letzter-:  Er  reichte  mit  freundlichem  Morgengruß  Heiding  und 
danach  Erwin  Buchhoff  die  Hand  und  sagte  zu  letzterem,  daß  usw.  (Adolf  Stern's  Der  Pate  des 
Todes,  II).  In  the  masc.  and  neut.  gen.  sing.,  however,  the  form  with  the  article  des  ersteren, 
des  letzteren,  is  always  used,  as  the  form  without  the  article,  ersteres,  letzteres,  might  be  con- 
strued as  a  nom.  or  ace.  neut.     For  the  misuse  of  the  form  letzter-  see  c  below. 

b.  Only  the  superl.  of  adverbs  is  formed  from  these  adjectives:  zu  äußerst  the  farthest  away, 
zu  hinterst  the  farthest  behind,  zu  innerst  the  farthest  within,  zu  mittelst  the  farthest  towards 
the  middle,  &c.,  and  three  in  which  zu  and  the  adverb  are  written  together,  zu'erst  first,  zu'letzt 
last,  zu'vörderst  or  zu'vorderst  foremost,  in  the  first  rank,  in  front,  before  all  (things),  in  the 
first  place,  first  and  foremost.  In  the  case  of  zuvörderst  and  zuvorderst  there  is  a  tendency  to 
differentiate,  so  that  the  former  is  used  with  regard  to  time  and  the  latter  with  regard  to  place. 

However,  corresponding  to  these  defective  adjectives  denoting  a  position  are  other  adverbial 
forms  of  kindred  origin,  which  with  the  aid  of  paraphrasing  can  form  all  three  degrees:  außen 
without,  out  of  doors,  innen  within,  hinten  behind,  oben  above,  unten  below,  vome  in  front. 
Their  comparatives  are  formed  Ijy  placing  before  the  adverb  the  comparatives  weiter  farther 
or  mehr  more,  and  their  superlatives  by  the  superlatives  of  the  same  adverbs:  oben,  weiter 
oben,  am  weitesten  oben;  unten,  mehr  unten,  &c.  Likewise  in  case  of  other  adverbs  denoting 
position:  links  to  the  left,  weiter  links,  am  weitesten  links.  In  case  of  some  of  these  adverbs 
we  sometimes  find  here  in  facetious  language  the  regular  comparative  ending  -er:  Wenn  wir  sie 
erst  links  haben,  dann  ist's  nicht  mehr  schwer:  dann  graulen  wir  sie  ihm  auch  wohl  immer 
linkser  (Wilbrandt's  Hermann  Ifinger,  chap.  iii). 


120. 


LIMITING   ADJECTIVES— CARDINALS 


147 


c.  The  comparative  form  letzter-  (see  a)  is  a  favorite  in  present  usage  and  is  even  often  em- 
ployed to  refer  to  the  last  of  a  number  of  persons  or  things,  where  it  is  grammatically  incorrect, 
as  it  is  a  comparative  and  should  indicate  the  latter  of  two  persons' or  things:  Er  konnte  sich 
demnach  mit  seinem  schwarzen  Gesellschaftsrock,  den  neuen  sandfarbenen  Beinkleidern  und 
einer  glänzenden  rotschottischen  Atlaskrawatte  schmücken,  welch  letztere  er  mit  einer  unechten 
Brillantnadel  feststeckte  (M.  Kossack's  Erste  Liehe,  Wcstermanns  Monatshefte,  1S92,  vol.  71, 
p.  7S'2).  It  is  also  often  used  where  a  personal  pronoun,  a  possessive,  a  demonstrative,  or  an 
adverb  might  be  more  tersely  and  appropriately  employed:  Dessenungeachtet  vergaß  Herr 
Volker  keinen  Augenblick  die  dem  Gaste  schuldige  Rücksicht.  Er  behandelte  letzteren  (instead 
of  ihn)  nur  etwas  von  oben  herab  (ib.).  Das  Blumeng ärtchen  stieß  durch  eine  Lücke  des 
Schloßgartens  an  den  schattigsten  Teil  des  letzteren  (instead  of  an  dessen  schattigsten  Teil). 
Der  Statthalter  und  Herr  v.  H.  haben  neulich  das  vom  Kaiser  jüngst  erworbene  Gut  Urville 
besichtigt,  wie  verlautet,  weil  der  Kaiser  auf  letzterem  (instead  of  dort)  nächstes  Frühjahr 
einige  Tage  zubringen  will.  It  is  often  entirely  superfluous:  Daß  die  deutsche  Ausgabe  .  .  .  auch 
durch  verschiedene  Zusätze  des  Herrn  Übersetzers  bereichert  ist,  welch  letzterer  (instead  of. 
welcher)  zugleich  einige  Irrtümer  berichtigt  hat  (James  Bryce,  Das  heilige  römische  Reich, 
Deutsche  Ausgabe  von  Dr.  A.  Winckler,  p.  vi). 


Limiting  Adjectives. 

118.  A  limiting  adjective  is  one  that  merely  defines  or  restricts  the  meaning 
of  a  noun. 

Limiting  adjectives  differ  in  form  or  meaning  from  descriptive  adjectives  in 
that: 

a.  They  do  not  stand  uninflected  in  the  predicate,  and  hence  the  masc.  form 
for  the  nom.  is  usually,  except  in  the  case  of  uninflected  words,  given  in  the 
dictionary  to  represent  the  word  instead  of  giving  the  simple  stem,  which  only 
occurs  in  a  few  cases,  as  will  be  found  recorded  in  the  proper  places.  The  simple 
stem  of  these  latter  words  is  often  given  to  represent  the  word,  as  indeed  these 
forms  do  sometimes  occur. 

b.  They  cannot  all  be  inflected  strong  or  weak.  Some  are  always  declined 
strong,  even  in  the  masc.  and  neut.  gen.  sing.;  some  are  inflected  str.  or  wk. 
according  to  circumstances.  Thus  the  different  groups  of  this  class  must  be 
treated  separately. 

Note.  The  weak  forms  in  this  class  of  adjectives  are  in  general  of  comparatively  recent  origin  and  have  been  grad- 
ually increasing,  as  they  have  been  influenced  by  the  declension  of  descriptive  adjectives. 

c.  They  cannot  be  compared,  except  a  few  which  are  treated  under  the  head 
of  comparison  of  descriptive  adjectives.     See  117,  and  113.  6. 

119.  Limiting  adjectives  are  divided  into  two  c\a.sses  —  mimeral  and  pro- 
nominal adjectives. 

Numerals. 

120.  Cardinals: 


0,  null 

1,  ein,  eine,  ein,  but  eins  in  count- 

ing when  no  noun  follows 

2,  zwei;     early     N.  H.  G.     zween 

(masc),  zwo   (fem.);  see  121. 
2.  a.  Note 

3,  drei 

4,  vier 

5,  fünf  or  fünf  (early  N.H.G.) 

6,  sechs 

7,  sieben 

8,  acht 

9,  neun 

10,  zehn 

11,  elf,  eilf  (now  obsolete) 

12,  zwölf 

13,  dreizehn 

14,  vierzehn 

15,  fünfzehn  (fünfzehn,  pop.  fufzehn) 

16,  sechzehn 


17,  siebzehn,  (siebenzehn) 

18,  achtzehn 

19,  neunzehn 

20,  zwanzig 

21,  einundzwanzig 

22,  zweiundzwanzig 

23,  dreiundzwanzig 

30,  dreißig 

31,  einunddreißig 
40,  vierzig 

50,  fünfzig  (fünfzig,  pop.  fufzig) 

60,  sechzig 

70,  siebzig  (siebenzig) 

80,  achtzig 

90,  neunzig 

100,  hundert 

101,  (ein)hundertundems 

102,  (ein)hundertundzwei 
200,  zweihundert 

300,  dreihundert 


148 CARDINALS 120. 

400,  vierhundert  10,000,  zehntausend 

1.000,  tausend  100,000,  hunderttausend 

1.001,  (ein)tausendundeins 

eine  Milli'on  a  million,  zwei  Milli'onen  two  millions,  eine  MilH'arde  a  thousand 
millions,  eine  Billi'on  a  million  millions. 

121.     Inflection: 

1.  Ein  is  inflected  strong  or  weak  as  any  descriptive  adj.  with  several  varia- 
tions: 

A.  If  it  is  used  attributively  and  is  not  preceded  by  a  limiting  adjective, 
it  is  inflected  exactly  as  the  indefinite  article,  differing  from  it  only  in  being  more 
strongly  accented:  ein  (see  58.  B.  a)  Mann  nicht  zwei,  ein  Buch  nicht 
zwei,  ein  guter  Mann. 

a.  Before  numerals  used  as  collective  nouns,  before  fractions  and  the  substantive  Uhr  o'clock, 
and  also  before  certain  pronominal  adjectives  and  nouns  denoting  an  indefinite  quantity,  ein 
is  found  uninllected:  mit  ein  (i.e.  about  a  dozen,  but  for  an  exact  dozen  we  say  einem)  Dutzend 
guten  Äpfeln.  Ein  Sechstel  von  ein  halb,  bleibt  ein  Drittel  One-sixth  from  one-half  leaves  one- 
third.  20  multipliziert  mit  ein  Viertel  gibt  5.  Nach  ein  Uhr  after  one  o'clock,  mit  ein  bißchen 
Mut  with  a  little  courage,  in  ein  paar  Tagen,  mit  ein  wenig  Geduld. 

b.  The  uninflected  ein  is  found  in  a  few  set  expressions  connected  by  und  and  oder  ("see  2.  d 
below):  Ich  sah  es  ein  und  anderem  Augenpaar  an,  daß  hier  geweint  worden  war.  Franzerl 
(proper  name)  war  sein  ein  (or  eins;  see  B  below)  und  alles.  An  einunddemselben  (also  einem 
und  demselben)  Tage;  zu  (at)  dreiundeinhalb  Prozent;  ein  oder  zwei  Wochen;  in  ein  oder 
zwei  Stunden,  or  often  inflected  here  and  in  similar  expressions,  as  in  mit  einem  oder  zwei  Blu- 
mentöpfen (Adele  Gerhard's  Die  Geschichte  der  Antonie  vayi  Ileese,  I  );  in  collocjuial  language 
in  ein  Tager  (contracted  from  Tag  oder)  sechs  in  about  six  days,  &c. 

c.  The  singular  form  ein  or  eine  is  used  in  colloquial  language  to  give  a  collective  idea  to 
nouns  in  the  pi.:  Er  bleibt  noch  wohl  ein  (or  eine)  8  Tage  He  will  probably  remain  yet  about  a 
week.  Vor  ein  7,  8  Jahren  about  7  or  8  years  ago.  So  ein  2  bis  3  Jahre  Zuchthaus  wird  er 
wohl  bekommen.  Wenn  ich  nur  eine  2  oder  300  Taler  hätte!  If  I  only  had  the  sum  of  two  or 
three  hundred  thalers!     See  also  96.  1. 

d.  In  colloquial  language  ein  is  often  used  in  the  plural  in  the  expression  so  ein.  See  131. 
1.  o.  Note  2. 

B.  If  ein  is  preceded  by  some  limiting  word  which  cannot  mark  the  gender 
and  case  of  the  noun,  as  the  possessive  gen.  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  or  the  nom. 
masc.  and  nom.  and  ace.  neut.  of  a  possessive  adjective,  it  is  inflected  strong: 
Des  Königs  eines  Schloß  lag  in  Stuttgart,  das  andere  in  Ludwigsburg.  Mein 
Freund  und  dessen  einer  Sohn  (or  eine  Tochter  or  eines  Kind)  sind  schon 
angekommen.  Wir  feiern  heute  einen  tragisch  doppeltfestlichen  Tag.  .  .  . 
Indem  sich  mein  eines  Auge  für  die  Grabrede  feuchtet,  fängt  das  andere  für 
die  fröhliche  Geburtsrede  zu  lachen  an  (Wilbrandt's  Die  Maler,  2,  7). 

C.  Preceded  by  the  definite  article  or  some  other  limiting  adjective  which 
marks  gender  and  case,  ein  is  inflected  weak:  der  eine  Knabe;  der  eine,  der 
andere  the  one,  the  other.  In  S.W.G.  we  find  sometimes  the  form  der  einte 
instead  of  der  eine  when  used  in  contrast  to  der  andere. 

a.  The  definite  article  may  stand  before  the  pi.  of  ein,  referring  collectively  to  one  of  two 
groups:   die  einen  .  .  .  die  andern  the  persons  in  the  one  group  .  .  .  those  in  the  other. 

D.  Used  substantively,  standing  alone,  ein  is  declined  as  a  strong  adj., 
the  neut.  nom.  and  ace.  usually,  however,  in  the  contracted  form  eins:  einer 
von  diesen  Herren,  ein(e)s  von  diesen  Büchern,  so  einer  such  a  one. 

a.  The  uninflected  neut.  form  eins  occurs  in  some  ver>'  common  idioms:  zwölf  Minuten  nach 
eins  twelve  minutes  after  one  o'clock,  mit  eins  suddenly,  von  eins  bis  hundert  zählen  to  count 
from  one  to  one  hundred. 

b.  In  popular  language  ein-  is  often  used  in  the  plural:  Diese  Knöpfe  sind  eine  der  besten 
=  gehören  zu  den  besten.     See  also  134.  2  (3rd  par.). 

2.  The  cardinals  except  ein  are  not  now  usually  inflected:  zehn  Finger, 
einige  zwanzig  Jahre  some  twenty  years,  einige  hundert  Jahre  several  hundred 
years. 

In  case  of  the  absence  of  some  preceding  article  or  pronominal  adj.  to  show 
case,  the  prep,  von  marks  the  gen.  relation  of  these  indeclinable  numerals: 
der  dritte  Teil  von  sechs  ist  zwei.  In  the  other  cases  the  context  as  in  English 
shows  the  case. 


121.  2.  d.  Note CARDINALS 149 

a.  Sometimes  zwei  and  drei  are  in  the  attributive  relation  declined  strong  in  the  gen.  and 
riat.  pi.,  if  there  is  no  preceding  word  to  show  case:  Zweier  Zeugen  Mund  tut  alle  Wahrheit 
kund  The  testimony  of  two  witnesses  establishes  the  truth.  The  gen.  zweier,  dreier,  occur 
more  frequently  than  the  dat.  zweien,  dreien,  as  some  preceding  preposition  in  the  latter  case 
usually  makes  the  dative  relation  sufficiently  clear  without  the  aid  of  the  case  ending.  If  an 
adjective  follow  zwei  or  drei  the  numeral  may  remain  uninflected  leaving  to  the  adjective  the 
office  of  indicating  the  case,  or  it  may  itself  assume  this  function:  Durch  zwei  unverdächtiger 
Zeugen  Aussage  or  durch  zweier  unverdächtiger  Zeugen  Aussage.  Sometimes  we  find  the 
strong  gen.  pi.  form  of  other  numerals,  but  non-inflection  is  much  more  common:  während 
zwölfer  Tage  (Niendorf's  Gudrun,  1  ,  10). 

The  neuter  of  drei,  and  much  more  rarely  of  vier,  has  when  uB'ed  substantively  developed 
strong  sing,  forms  with  collective  force  after  the  analogy  of  beides  (see  139.  1.  d):  Ich  will  alles 
dreies  merken  I  will  note  all  three  points.  Alles  dreies  wirkte  mächtig  zusammen  All  three 
things  worked  powerfully  together.  Und  ich  bin  eigentlich  alles  drei's  (i.e.  Kind,  Narr,  Poet) 
(F'ontane's  LAdultcra,  XXI)  And  I  am  really  all  three  (of  the  things  you  have  mentioned). 
In  popular  language  the  neut.  of  zwei  is  often  used  instead  of  beides:   dieses  zweies  nehme  ich. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  forms  zween  fmasc. ),  zwo  (fem.),  zwei  (neut.),  were  much  used  for  the  nom.  and  ace. 
and  still  occur  in  poetry  and  S.G.  dialects.  In  the  eighteenth  century  and  later  they  were  not  clearly  understood  and 
hence  often  confounded.     The  neuter  form  has  at  last  crowded  out  the  masc.  and  fem.  forms. 

In  a  few  compounds  the  older  form  zwie  is  found  instead  of  zwei,  as  Zwielicht  twilight,  Zwietracht  dissension,  &c. 

h.  The  numerals  in  -zig  lengthen  this  form  to  -ziger  to  show  the  decades  of  the  century  or 
of  human  life,  and  remain  uninflected:  in  den  achtziger  Jahren  des  vorigen  Jahrhunderts  in  the 
eighth  decade  of  the  last  century,  die  nachsiebziger  Zeit  the  period  in  Germany  after  the  great 
political  changes  of  1871,  in  der  Mitte  der  vierziger  Lebensjahre  in  the  middle  of  the  forties. 
See  also  5  below. 

c.  When  these  numerals  stand  alone,  either  substantively  or  with  some  noun  understood, 
they  are  sometimes,  especially  in  the  dat.  and  least  frequently  in  the  gen.,  declined,  usually  with 
the  inflection  of  nouns  of  the  unmutated  e-plural  type;  but  in  general  this  inflection  is  limited 
to  certain  set  expressions,  and  should  rather  be  considered  as  quaint,  and  hence  avoided: 
diese  viere  these  four  (boys),  sechs  (more  common  than  sechse)  kamen  six  (people)  came,  wir 
sind  unser  sechs  (or  sechse)  there  are  six  of  us,  der  Rat  der  Vier  (  Vossische  Zeitung,  June  7, 
1919)  Council  of  Four,  "The  Big  Four"  (in  the  peace  treaty  at  Paris),  das  Vorhaben  der  Drei 
the  intention  of  the  three,  die  obem  Zehntausend  the  upper  ten  thousand  (as  opposed  to  the 
masses).  Zu  seinen  Raupten  der  wolkenlose  Himmel,  zu  seinen  Füßen  dieses  Leben,  dachte 
er  der  Tausend  und  Abertausend,  die  der  Strudel  der  Weltstadt  unbarmherzig  in  seine  Tiefen 
reißen  würde  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Krafft,  II,  p.  446).  Die  Dreie  hocken  wahrhaftig  wieder  da 
und  spielen  ihren  Skat  weiter  (Hans  Weber  in  Kriegschronik  des  Daheim,  vol.  II,  p.  2S9).  Mit 
einer  kongenialen  Begabung  zum  Geiz  durchschaute  sie  rasch  jeden  Kniff  der  Dreie  (Walter 
Siegfried's  Ein  Wohltäter).  Ein  Mann  in  den  Sechzigen  (or  Sechzig);  wenn  einer,  wie  ich, 
über  die  Achtzig(e)  hinaus  ist;  zu  dreien  (or  drei)  sitzen  to  sit  three  together,  auf  allen  vieren 
kriechen,  mit  sechsen  fahren  to  go  in  a  coach  and  six.  Er  hat  alle  neune  geworfen  He  has 
knocked  down  all  the  nine  (nine-pins).  Er  kam  mit  fünfzig  (more  common  than  fünfzigen). 
Weniger  Worte  sind  zwischen  Zweien,  die  einander  lieben,  wohl  nie  gemacht  worden  und  nie 
haben  Zwei  sich  besser  verstanden  (Fbner-Eschenbach's  Meine  Kinderjahre).  Allen  vieren 
{to  all  four  persons)  sagte  Onkel  Gottfried  zugleich  guten  Tag  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von 
Geyer,  XI). 

Note.  We  sometimes  find  the  substantive  forms  of  numerals  inflected  strong  or  weak  like  adjectives  instead  of 
non-inflection  or  inflection  according  to  the  unmutated  e-plural  type:  Ich  wil  jnen  nichts  thun  |  vmb  vierziger  willen 
(Gen.  xviii,  29).  Las  meine  seele  vnd  die  seele  deiner  Knechte  dieser  funffzigen  fur  dir  etwas  gelten  (2  Kings  i.  13). 
Zehn  Schüler  haben  gearbeitet;  dieses  sind  die  Arbeiten  vierer,  achter  —  ebenso  hunderter,  tausender  (Wetzel's 
Die  deutsche  Sprache,  p.  199.  12th  ed.).  Das  Schicksal  aller  vieren  (Blatz's  Neiihuchdeulsclu-  Grammatik,  I.  p.  390, 
3rd  ed. ),  das  Leben  tausender  (Grillparzer's  König  Ollokar,  4),  vor  den  Augen  hunderttausender  von  Lesern  (Jensen's 
Heimkunft,  V\l),  die  Augen  tausender  (Heer's  Der  König  der  Bernina,  chap.  xv).  Der  deutsche  Gelehrte  bedient 
sich  hunderter,  tausender  von  Fremdwörtern  (Eduard  Engel's  Deutsche  Stilkunst,  p.  2üü).  Dieses  Elend  vieler 
tausender  deutscher  Staatsangehöriger  (Deutsche  Zeit.,  Nov.  10,  1914).  Die  Unkosten  der  Ansiedelungen  vieler 
lausenden  (von  Zeppelin  in  Deutsche  Monatsschrift.  .April  1904,  p.  68),  das  Endresultat  aller  der  tausenden  von  Be- 
obachtungen 'Prof.  E.  Weichen  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Sept.  1907,  p.  380).  Where  there  is  no  article  or  other  in- 
flected limiting  adjectiv^e  to  denote  the  case  relation  the  strong  form  of  the  numeral  is  indispensable,  unless  recourse 
is  had  to  pr-pojitions.  Hence  strong  inflection  here  is  very  common.  Strong  adjective  inflection  is  also  established 
in  case  of  drei  in  the  neut.  sing.  See  a  above.  When  the  article  is  used  substantive  inflection  can  be  employed  in 
case  of  Hundert,  Tausend,  &c.     See  4  below. 

d.  Also  numerals  which  are  capable  of  inflection  remain  usually  uninflected  when  brought 
into  connection  with  uninflected  numerals  by  some  conjunction  or  preposition,  or  sometimes 
the  inflected  numeral  agrees  with  the  noun  in'the  sing.  (96.  10):  in  einer  Höhe  von  ein  bis  zwei 
Meter(n),  aus  hundertundein  triftigen  Gründen,  or  aus  hundert  und  einem  triftigen  Grunde 
for  a  hundred  and  one  good  reasons,  dreihundert[und]ein  Eier  or  300  und  ein  Ei,  dreiundeinhalb 
(or  drei  und  ein  halbes)  Prozent,  in  sechsundeinhalb  Jahren,  or  in  sechs  und  einem  halben 
Jahr,  ein  für  allemal  once  for  all,  in  ein  (also  einem;  see  1.  A.  b  above)  oder  zwei  Tagen. 

Note.  If  an  article  or  inflected  limiting  adj.  in  the  pi.  precede  such  mixed  numerals,  the  noun  must  be  in  the  pi. 
and  the  numeral  may  remain  entirely  uninflected,  or  the  declinable  numeral,  namely  ein,  may  show  the  gender,  not 
case  or  number,  as  it  has  no  pi.  forms,  and  hence  no  attempt  ought  to  be  made  to  make  it  agree  with  the  governing 
noun  in  case  and  number:  aus  diesen  hundertundein  triftigen  Gründen,  unter  den  fünfeinhalb  or  den  fünf  und  eine 
halbe  'agreeing  with  the  noun  in  gender  nnlv  i  Millionen  Sezessionisten  among  the  five  and  a  half  million  Secessionists. 
Ich  habe  mehr  zu  tun  als  eure  tausend  und  eine  Häkeleien  zu  schlichten.  Den  ein  oder  zwei  sicheren  Fällen  semer 
(i.e.  Fritz  Reuters)  Abhängigkeit  von  Hoff  mann  können  wir  nämlich  ein,  vielleicht  zwei  Beispiele  aus  dem  „Parla- 
ment zu  Schnappel"  gegenüberstellen,  wo  Hoffmann  höchst  wahrscheinUch  von  Reuter  beeinflußt  worden  ist.  Some, 
however,  make  ein  agree  also  in  case,  which  sounds  very  harsh,  as  this  attempt  to  make  adj.  and  noun  agree  brings 


150 CARDINALS  — ORDINALS 121.  2.  d. 

a  sing.  adj.  before  a  pi.  noun  in  the  same  case  and  brings  about  a  clash  instead  of  an  agreement:  von  den  tausend  und 
einem  Mißgeschicken  (Sealsfield's  Transatlantische  Reiseskizzen,  I.  64). 

e.  The  numerals  are  especially  uninflected  in  giving  dates,  numbers  of  houses  (in  the  street), 
time  of  day,  and  often  with  suppression  of  the  case  form  of  the  noun,  the  omission  of  articles, 
and  even  of  nouns  and  prepositions:  Leipzig  hatte  350,000  Einwohner  in  1890  (in  imitation  of 
the  French,  or  more  commonly  according  to  the  (icrman  idiom  im  Jahre  1890,  or  simply  1890) 
gegen  170,000  in  1885.  Er  wohnte  (im)  Dezember  (des  Jahres)  76  Lindenstraße  74  (short  for 
im  Hause  74  der  Lindenstraße j.  Die  Strecke  Berlin-Potsdam,  1838  eröffnet,  war  die  erste 
preußische  Bahn  The  line  between  Berlin  and  Potsdam  was  the  first  Prussian  railroad,  opened 
in  1S3S.  Ein  Viertel  (auf)  eins  or  ein  Viertel  nach  zwölf  a  quarter  after  twelve,  halb  (auf  under- 
stood) zwei  half-past  one,  drei  Viertel  auf  drei,  or  ein  Viertel  vor  or  bis  drei  a  quarter  to  three, 
or  in  railroad  language  as  in  English:   zehn  (Uhr)  zwanzig  (written  10.20). 

3.  When  used  substantively  as  names  of  figures,  all  numerals  are  declined 
weak,  as  they  are  all  fem. :  Die  Eins  ist  nicht  deutlich  the  figure  1  is  not  plain. 
Du  hast  die  Fünf  zu  groß  geschrieben  You  have  written  the  5  too  large.  Eine 
römische  Zehn  a  Roman  X.  The  form  in  -e  is  less  common:  So?  und  warum 
nennt  Ihr  |  die  Fünfe  eine  heilige  Zahl  (Schiller's  Piccolomini,  2,  1).  The  plural 
always  has  -en:    die  Zahl  1881  enthält  zwei  Einsen  und  zwei  Achten. 

Noie.  These  numbers  are  also  used  as  feminine  substantives  in  various  other  applied  relations:  eine  schöne  Drei 
von  Freunden,  eine  böse  Sieben  a  vixen,  zwei  Dreien  a  pair-royal  of  treys.  So  stellt  sich  endlich  |  die  große  Drei 
(Jupiter,  Venus,  Mars)  verhängnisvoll  zusammen  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  1,  1).  Der  einzig  Eine  bist  du,  doch 
du  lenkst  1  als  eine  mystisch  große  Drei  die  Welt  (Platen). 

Zwei  and  Drei  are  sometimes  used  as  neuter  substantives  in  a  collective  sense:  Liebe,  menschlicli  zu  beglücken, 
I  nähert  sie  ein  edles  Zwei;  1  doch  zu  göttUchem  Entzücken,  |  bildet  sie  ein  köstlich  Drei  (Goethe).  Das  schwester- 
liche Drei  the  three  Graces  (or  the  three  Parcae  or  Fates). 

4.  Hundert,  Tausend,  Million,  Milliarde,  Billion,  can  be  used  substantively, 
and  are  then  inflected  as  nouns,  the  first  two  according  to  the  unmutated  e-plural 
type  and  the  others  weak:  Das  erste  Hundert,  ganze  Hunderte  von  Menschen. 
Es  geht  in  die  Tausende  It  reaches  up  into  the  thousands.  Man  schätzt  die 
Zahl  sämtlicher  Rumänen  (Roumanians)  auf  10  Millionen. 

5.  Masc.  substantives  are  formed  from  the  numerals  by  adding  er,  all  inflected 
according  to  the  e-less  plural  type:  die  Einer,  Zehner,  Hunderter  units,  tens, 
hundreds,  ein  Vierziger  a  man  of  forty,  ein  Achtundvierziger  one  who  took  part 
in  the  stirring  events  of  1848,  die  Achtundzwanziger  the  troops  of  the  28th  regi- 
ment, ein  Gläschen  Dreiundachtziger  a  nice  glass  of  wine  of  the  year  '83,  ein 
Greis  nahe  den  Achtzigern  (or  den  achtziger  Jahren,  or  den  Achtzigen,  or  den 
Achtzig)  an  old  man  near  the  eighties,  ein  mittlerer  Vierziger  (Fontane)  a  man 
in  the  middle  of  the  forties,  ein  Vierer  a  boat  with  four  rowers,  ein  Siebener 
a  member  of  a  body  or  committee  of  seven.  Some  of  these  formations  are  also 
common  in  compounds:  ein  Viererzug  a  team  of  four  horses,  der  Siebeneraus- 
schuß the  committee  of  seven  men,  der  Viererrat  the  Council  of  Four  (in  the 
peace  treaty  at  Paris  in  1919). 

122.     Ordinals: 

1.     The  ordinals  except  those  for  'first,'  'third,'  and  'eighth,'  which  are  ir- 
regular, are  formed  by  adding  t  to  the  numbers  2-19,  and  st  from  20  on.     They 
are  declined  strong  and  weak  as  adjectives.     Only  the  last  number  is  inflected 
if  compound. 
1st  der  (die,  das)  erste  21st  der  einundzwanzigste 

2nd  der  zweite ;  earlier  in  the  period  22nd  der  zweiundzwanzigste 

also  der  zweete,  die   (fem.)  lOlst  der  hundertunderste,  some- 

zwote;    also,    der,    die,    das  times    der   hunderteinte    or 

ander  (still  found  in  ändert-  hunderteinste 

halb  — see  126.  2.h—  and  in  102nd  der  hundertundzweite 

am  anderen  Tage  the  next  day  103rd  der  hundertunddritte,  some- 

3rd  der  dritte  times  der  hundertdreite 

4th  der  vierte  107th  der  hundertundsieb(en)te 

7th  der  siebente,  or  siebte  (S.G.),  108th  der  hundertundachte 

early  N.H.G.  siebende  200th  der  zweihundertste 

8th  der  achte  (adds  no  t)  300th  der  dreihundertste 

20th  der  zwanzigste  lOOOth  der  tausendste 

a.  Ordinals  are  sometimes  uninflected  in  the  idiom  zu  zweit,  dritt,  &c.,  with 
the  force  of  zu  zweien,  dreien,  or  zu  zwei,  drei  tiüo  or  three  together:  Ich  bin  jetzt 


126.  2.  a. ORDINALS  — COMPOUND    NUMERALS 151 

wahrlich  nicht  in  der  Stimmung,  zu  dritt  zu  sein  Indeed  I  am  not  in  a  mood  to 
have  a  third  party  with  us.  Wir  Göppinger  sind  zu  zwölft  There  are  twelve  of 
us  from  Göppingen. 

h.  Ordinal  adverbs  are  formed  by  adding  ens  to  the  simple  stem:  erstens 
in  the  first  place,  zweitens  in  the  second  place,  zwanzigstens,  &c. 

c.  After  the  analogy  of  der  vierte  (&c.)  and  der  zwanzigste  are  formed 
der  wievielte  and  der  wievielste  luhat  date,  what  number,  how  many:  Der  wie- 
vielte ist  heute?  or  Den  wievielten  haben  wir  heute?  luhat  is  the  day  of  the  month? 
Der  wievielte  waren  Sie  im  Examen?  What  was  your  place  in  the  examination? 
Die  wievielste  Liebschaft  ist  dies  wohl?  About  how  many  love-affairs  does  this 
make  that  he  has  already  had?  Also  other  similar  formations  occur:  in  der 
elfdreiviertelten  Stunde  in  the  last  quarter-hour,  literally,  in  the  last  quarter-hour 
before  twelve.     See  also  126.  2.  b. 

2.  The  ordinals  are  often  in  certain  set  expressions  replaced  by  cardinals, 
which  in  this  case  stand  after  the  noun:  Kapitel  sechs  chapter  6,  Band  fünf 
vol.  5,  &c.  Das  Stück  ging  bis  Schluß  Aktes  III  steigend  empor  — Akt  III 
schlug  am  mächtigsten  ein  (Wildenbruch  to  B.  Litzmann,  Nov.  25,  1881). 

123.  The  ordinals  all  require  an  article  or  pronominal  adj.  before  them,  but  erst  often  drops 
it  and  is  then  used  in  the  sense  of  an  absolute  super!.:  erste  Schriftsteller  authors  who  are  among 
tlie  best,  but  die  ersten  Schriftsteller  tlie  best  authors. 

124.  The  days  of  the  month.  As  in  English,  the  ordinal  is  used  for  the  days 
of  the  month.  Letters  are  usually  dated  after  the  following  model:  Berlin,  den 
5.  (read  fünften)  März  1894.  Ihr  Schreiben  vom  19.  (read  neunzehnten)  ds. 
(dieses  Monats),  am  Abend  des  20.  (read  zwanzigsten),  vom  3.  (read  dritten) 
bis  14.  (read  den  vierzehnten)  from  the  3rd  to  the  14th,  bis  mit  den  1.  (read 
ersten)  Oktober,  or  bis  und  mit  den  1.  Oktober  up  to  and  including  October  the 
first. 

125.  Distributive  numerals  are  formed  by  prefixing  je  to  cardinals  or  or- 
dinals: Er  gab  den  Knaben  je  zehn  Pfennig  He  gave  to  each  of  the  boys  ten 
pfennigs.  Die  Gefangenen  wurden  zu  je  zwei  und  zwei  (by  twos)  zusammen- 
gebunden.    Je  der  zehnte  Bürger  every  tenth  citizen. 

126.  Compound  numerals: 

1.  Numerals  formed  from  cardinals  are: 

a.  Variative  numerals,  which  add  -erlei  to  the  simple  cardinal,  forming  an 
uninfiected  compound:  einerlei  of  one  kind,  zweierlei  of  two  kinds,  dreierlei 
of  three  kinds;  hunderterlei,  allerlei  of  all  kinds,  &c.  The  lei  in  these  com- 
pounds is  in  reality  a  fem.  noun  in  the  gen.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  ending  of 
the  cardinal  (einer  fem.  gen.),  but  it  is  felt  and  treated  as  an  uninfiected  adjective: 
allerlei  gute  Bücher  all  kinds  of  good  books,  dat.  von  allerlei  guten  Büchern, 
allerlei  guter  Wein  every  kind  of  good  wine,  Kinder  beiderlei  Geschlechts,  die 
mancherlei  Folterschrauben,  &c.  Substantively:  mit  hunderterlei  solcher 
Vorsätze  (Hauptmann's  Friedensfest,  3). 

b.  Multiplicatives,  which  add  -fach  and  -fältig  to  the  cardinal:  einfach 
single,  simple;  einfältig  simple  (silly) ;  zweifach  and  zweifältig  twofold ;  dreifach 
and  dreifältig  threefold,  &c.     The  inflection  is  strong  and  weak. 

c.  Iterative  adverbs,  which  add  -mal  to  the  simple  cardinal:  einmal  once, 
zweimal  twice,  dreimal  three  times,  &c.  Also  with  inflection:  das  eine  Mal, 
mit  einem  Male  all  at  once,  zu  vier  verschiedenen  Malen,  &c.  Also  the  ordinal 
is  thus  used :  das  erste  Mal  the  first  time,  &c.     See  2.  d  below. 

Noie  1.  Adjectives  are  formed  from  iterative  adverbs  by  adding  the  adj.  ending  -ig  to  -mal:  ein  dreimaliger 
Angriff  a  thrice-repeated  attack. 

Note  2.  Observe  the  difference  of  accent  between  'einmal  once  and  ein'mal  once  upon  a  time.  In  the  former  case 
ein  is  a  numeral  and  hence  is  accented,  while  in  the  latter  case  it  is  an  article,  and  hence  is  unaccented.  The  article 
in  einmal  is,  however,  accented  when  the  word  indicates  future  time  and  is  used  in  the  meaning  irgend  'einmal  some 
time:  Er  wird  doch  'einmal  kommen  He  will  surely  come  some  lime. 

2.  Numerals  formed  from  ordinals  are  found  in: 

a.  The  neut.  substantives  expressing  fractions,  formed  by  adding  -tel  (re- 
duced form  of  Teil  part)  to  the  stem  of  the  ordinals,  suppressing,  however,  the 
final  t  of  the  ordinal  before  the  t  of  the  sufifix:  ein  Drittel  a  third,  ein  Viertel 
(pro.  fiRtal)  a  fourth,  ein  Siebentel  or  Siebtel  (S.G.),  sieben  Achtel  =  J^,  &c., 


152 COMPOUND   ORDINALS 126.  2.  a. 

but  instead  of  ein  Zweitel  is  used  ein  halb  (121.  1.  A.  a  and  139.  2.  d,  Notes  1 
and  2)  or  die  Hälfte  (except  in  the  technical  language  of  business  and  music, 
where  ein  Zweitel  is  also  employed,  as  in  Zigarren  in  Zweitelkisten,  eine  Zweitel- 
note); vier  Hundertfünftel  =  jj^;  hundert  und  hundertvier  Hundertfünftel  = 
lOO-fjJli;  ein  Hunderteintel  =  -foi;  ^^^  Hundertzweitel  =  yj-.y;  ein  Zwan- 
zigstel =  .j\, ;  ein  Hundertstel  =  j^q.  Sometimes  teil  is  still  used  in  full  instead 
of  the  reduced  form  tel,  especially  after  hundert  (formerly  also  used  as  ordinal 
instead  of  hundertst)  in  the  meaning  per  cent. :  ein  Dritteil  one-third,  92  Hundert- 
teile 92  per  cent. 

Nole.  Those  substantives  are  often  considered  as  indeclinable  adjectives:  ein  fünftel  Kilometer,  eine  fünftel 
Meile,  drei  viertel  Pfund,  drei  viertel  Stunden.  The  numeral  may  also  be  regarded  as  the  first  element  of  a  modern 
compound,  and  hence  both  parts  are  then  written  as  one  word:  eine  Viertel'stunde,  ein  Viertel'jahr.  The  accent  in 
such  compounds  still  shows  that  they  are  not  felt  as  old  compounds.     See  47.  3.  A.  e.  (4). 

b.  The  compounds  which  add  halb  to  the  ordinal,  which  tho  formerly  de- 
clined are  now  usually  uninflected :  dritthalb  or  drittehalb  two  and  a  half,  lit. 
(two  and)  half  of  the  third,  vierthalb  or  viertehalb  three  and  a  half,  &c.,  but 
always  anderthalb  (for  anderehalb  half- of  the  second;  see  122.  1;  the  t  in  place 
of  e  after  the  analogy  of  vierthalb,  &c.)  instead  of  zweit(e)halb.  Exs.:  andert- 
halb Ellen.  Das  sind  schon  dritthalb  Jahre  (Hebbel's  Agnes  Bernauer,  4,  3), 
Um  dritthalb  Jahre  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap,  ii),  durch  dritthalb  Jahr- 
hunderte {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Dec.  16,  1904),  drittehalb  Meter  hoch 
(Westermanns  Monatshefte,  Aug.  1905).  This  construction  is  still  in  use  but  is 
not  so  common  as  zwei  (und)  einhalb  two  and  a  half,  drei  (und)  einhalb  three  and 
a  half,  in  sechs(und)einhalb  Jahren,  or  in  sechs  und  einem  halben  Jahre,  &c. 
Anderthalb,  however,  is  much  more  common  than  the  other  words  of  the  same 
formation. 

When  these  words  in  -halb  stand  alone  substantively  they  may  be  inflected 
strong:  Mein  Vatter  hett  nur  einen  Arm,  so  hab'  ich  anderthalben  (Fischart, 
Garg.,  94  b).  The  original  nature  of  this  construction  requires  the  sing,  form, 
and  this  still  occurs,  but  the  plural  is  now  more  common:  auf  einen  Schelmen 
anderthalbe  (Goethe).  Für  zwei  essen  oder  wenigstens  für  anderthalbe  (Kurz, 
W.,  89).  Inflection  still  occurs  occasionally  also  in  the  attributive  relation,  but 
only  in  the  old  sing.:  Mehrere  und  zwar  die  erfolgreichsten  dieser  Dramen 
dauern  nicht  länger  als  einen  vollen  Tag,  andere  nur  anderthalben  Tag  (Eugen 
Zabel  in    Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  Aug.  1906,  p.  612). 

Corresponding  inflected  forms  with  a  stem  in  -t  and  the  force  of  ordinals 
occur  occasionally:  noch  in  der  zwölftehalbten  Stunde  {Mont.-Ztg.,  17.  17)  in 
the  last  half-hour  (before  twelve).  Sometimes  the  form  without  t  is  used  here: 
in  der  zwölftehalben  Stunde. 

c.  In  the  following  idiomatic  compounds: 

(1)  Inflected:  der,  die,  das  zweitbeste  the  next  to  the  best,  der  drittbeste 
the  third  from  the  best,  der  vorletzte  the  next  to  the  last,  der  drittletzte  the 
third  from  the  last. 

(2)  Uninflected  (see  Note):  selbander  or  selbzweit  myself  the  second,  i.e. 
myself  along  with  another,  selbdritt  myself  the  third,  selbviert,  &c.:  Ich  pflege 
selbander  zu  reiten.  Dann  schritten  sie  selbzweit  dahin  (Anna  Schieber's  Alle 
guten  Geister,  p.  185).  Inflection  here  also  occurs:  selbzwanzigster  gefangen 
(Lessing's  Nathan,  1,  5)  taken  prisoner  along  with  nineteen  others.  The  use 
of  the  cardinal  here  is  less  common,  and  from  the  strict  standpoint  of  grammar 
is  incorrect.  It  occurs,  however,  in  the  best  authors:  selbfünfe  (Goethe's 
Wanderjahre,  2,  12),  selbst  (instead  of  selb)  fünfziger  (Lessing's  Emilia  Galotti 
3,1). 

Note.  The  apparently  uninflected  forms  selbdritt,  &c.  are  mutilated  remnants  of  older  weak  forms,  selbe  dritte, 
&c.     The  force  of  the  weak  inflection  is  the  same  as  described  in  111.  10.  Nole. 

d.  The  ordinals  can  be  compounded  with  mals  to  form  adverbs  and  with 
malig  to  form  adjectives:  erstmals  for  the  first  time,  die  erstmalige  Zusammen- 
kunft der  deutschen  Architekten  in  Leipzig  the  first  meeting  of  the  German 
architects  in  Leipsic.     Compare  1.  c  above. 


128.  B.  a. DEMOXSTRATHES 153 

PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 

Demonstratives. 

127.  The  demonstratives,  which  can  be  used  either  adjectively  or  substan- 
tively, are:  dieses:,  diese,  dieses  this;  jener,  jene,  jenes  that;  der,  die,  das  this, 
that;  derjenige,  diejenige,  dasjenige  that;  welcher,  welche,  welches  (130.  3) 
thät,  that  one;  solcher,  solche,  solches  such,  such  a,  or  solch  ein  (eine,  ein), 
or  ein  solcher,  eine  solche,  ein  solches,  or  so  ein  (eine,  ein),  or  simple  ein,  eine, 
ein  (see  131.  2.  a);  der'selbe,  die'selbe,  das'selbe  the  same;  selbiger,  selbige, 
selbiges  the  same;  der  nämliche,  die  nämliche,  das  nämliche  the  same;  der- 
artiger, derartige,  derartiges  of  such  a  nature.  The  inflection  of  these  pro- 
nominals  is  treated  in  the  following  articles.  For  the  demonstratives  or  deter- 
minatives which  are  always  uninflected  see  161.  2  and  3;    141.  5.  A.  b;    143. 

128.  A.  Dieser,  diese,  dieses  this,  and  jener,  jene,  jenes  that,  are  inflected 
like  the  strong  descriptive  adjective  except  in  the  genitive  of  the  masculine  and 
neuter  sing.,  where  the  regular  strong  ending  -es  is  used  instead  of  the  weak  -en 
(see  106.  Note  1).  In  the  nom.  and  ace.  neut.  sing,  dieses  is  often  contracted 
to  dies.  In  the  masc.  and  neut.  dative  sing,  we  sometimes  find  instead  of  the 
correct  strong  form  the  weak  ending  -en  after  a  strong  limiting  adjective  after 
the  analogy  of  descriptive  adjectives:  in  allem  diesen  Trubel  (Bismarck  to  his 
wife,  Nov.  17,  1848),  allem  diesen  Jammer  fern  (Alarriot's  Der  geistliche  Tod, 
p.  266,  5th  edition),  von  allem  diesen  aber  nun  abgesehen  (Adolf  Bartels  in 
Deutsche  Monatsschrift,  Dec.  1905,  p.  409). 

a.  The  forms  dieses  (or  more  commonly  dies)  and  jenes  remain  uninflected 
when  they  are  used  in  connection  with  the  verb  sein  and  a  predicate  noun,  to 
indicate  that  the  subject  is  identical  with  the  predicate:  Erlauben  Sie  mir, 
Ihnen  die  Herren  vorzustellen.  Dies  ist  Herr  Schmidt  und  jenes  ist  Herr 
Meyer.  Dies  ist  eine  schöne  Blume.  Dies  sind  schöne  Blumen.  Ist  dies 
Ihre  Feder?  Note  in  these  sentences  that  the  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate. 
The  regular  inflected  form  showing  the  proper  gender  and  number  can  also  be 
used:   Dieser  (or  der)  ist  der  Schuldige. 

b.  Dies  is  also  uninflected  when  it  is  used  as  a  subject  or  object  referring  to 
something  that  is  introduced  to  one's  attention  by  a  gesture  or  explained  by  the 
context  immediately  preceding:  Wofür  halten  Sie  dies?  What  do  you  take  this 
for?     Dieses  alles  geschah  auf  der  Mittagsseite  des  Schlachtfeldes. 

B.  Dieser,  often  strengthened  by  the  adverb  hier,  refers  to  something  near 
the  speaker,  while  jener,  often  strengthened  by  some  adverb  as  da,  dort  there, 
yonder,  points  to  something  more  remote:  dieses  Haus  hier  und  jenes  dort; 
in  dieser  und  jener  Welt  in  this  world  and  the  one  to  come.  Hence  dieser  is 
often  translated  by  the  latter  and  jener  by  the  former:  Der  Frühling  und  der 
Herbst  hat  seine  Freuden:    dieser  gibt  Früchte,  jener  Blumen. 

Both  are  used  much  more  in  the  attributive  than  the  substantive  relation. 
The  neut.  sing.,  however,  is  often  used  substantively  (see  A.  a  and  b).  Also  the 
other  genders  are  frequently  employed  in  the  substantive  relation  in  the  mean- 
ings the  former,  the  latter. 

a.  Jener  is  also  much  used  to  indicate  something  well  known,  either  by 
referring  backward  to  some  definite  person  or  thing  already  mentioned  or  by 
making  reference  to  some  well-known  person  or  thing  that  is  at  once  recognized 
by  the  accompanying  description:  jene  eben  zitierten  Stellen.  Jene  Blätter, 
nach  denen  Sie  fragten,  habe  ich  noch  nicht  gefunden.  Es  war  jene  Nacht, 
in  der  die  dickbauchige,  schwarzgeteerte  Holländer  Kuff  gegen  den  Büsener 
Deich  jagte  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  III,  1).  Ada  war  nicht  von  jenen 
Puppen,  die  mit  sich  machen  ließen,  was  man  wollte.  Flechten  von  jenem 
schönen  Kastanienbraun,  wie  man  es  in  Deutschland  so  selten  findet.  Ihm 
kam  der  Gedanke,  sein  Oheim  müsse  auch  zu  jenen  Menschen  gehören,  die 
ein  Verständnis  für  die  Sprache  der  Naturdinge  besäßen  (Jensen's  Das  Bild  im 


154 


INFLECTION    OF    DEMONSTRATI\'E    DER 


128.  B.  a. 


Wasser,  p.  87).  Er  meint  jene  Sorge,  die  uns  zu  furchtsamen  Sklaven  des 
Tages  und  der  Dinge  macht,  jene  Sorge,  durch  welche  wir  stückweise  an  die 
Welt  verfallen  (Harnack's  Das  Wesen  des   Christentums,  Fünfte  Vorlesung). 

h.  Often,  especially  in  popular  ballads,  jener  is  used  in  a  quite  indefinite 
sense,  indicating  a  place  \\e\\  known  to  the  speaker,  but  not  in  any  way  described 
so  as  to  be  clearly  recognized  by  those  addressed :  Da  droben  auf  jenem  Berge,  | 
da  steht  ein  feines  Schloß  (Heine) .  Die  Sonne  hebt  sich  noch  einmal  |  leuchtend 
vom  Boden  empor,  |  und  zeigt  mir  jene  Stelle,  |  wo  ich  das  Liebste  verlor  (id.). 

c.     For  determinative  use  of  jener  see  130.  2.  a. 

129.  1.  Der,  die,  das  that  are  used  either  adjectively  or  substantively,  but 
with  somewhat  different  inflection  for  each  use.  Adjectively  used,  der  is  in- 
flected exactly  like  the  def.  article,  differing  from  it  only  in  that  it  has  a  much 
stronger  stress  and  has  the  stem  vowel  long  before  m,  n,  and  r.  To  distinguish 
it  from  the  article  in  print  it  is  sometimes  written  with  a  capital,  spaced  letters, 
or  furnished  with  an  accent:  Der,  der,  or  der.  Used  substantively  it  is  de- 
clined as  follows: 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.  Fem.  Neut.  Common  form. 


N. 


D. 
A. 


der 

/  dessen 
\  des 

dem 
den 


das 

dessen 
des 

dem 
das 


die 
f  deren 

der 
[  derer 

denen  or  den  (2.  B) 

die 


2.  From  the  beginning  of  the  N.H.G.  period  there  has  been  considerable 
fluctuation  in  the  use  of  the  demonstrative  forms,  and  usage  is  not  yet  entirely 
settled.     The  prevailing  usage  of  our  time  seems  to  be  as  follows: 

A.  Genitive  Forms.  The  form  here  depends  upon  the  grammatical  func- 
tion: 

If  the  demonstratives  are  used  attributively  before  the  noun  the  short  forms 
are  uniformly  used:  der  Name  des  (that J  Knaben,  der,  &c.;  die  Namen 
der  Knaben,  die,   &c. 

If  the  demonstratives  are  used  substantively,  the  forms  vary  according  to 
their  grammatical  function  and  fall  into  four  groups: 

First  group.  If  they  are  used  as  pure  demonstratives,  or  instead  of  personal 
pronouns  (see  141.  2)  or  possessives  (see  138.  2.  d),  the  forms  are  quite  uniformly: 
(sing. )  dessen  (masc. ) ,  deren  (fem. ) ,  dessen  (neut. ) ;  (pi. )  deren  (for  all  genders). 
Exs. :  Ich  erinnere  mich  dessen  nicht  mehr  I  do  not  remember  that  any  more. 
Sie  empfing  ihre  Freundin  und  deren  (her)  Tochter.  Es  lagen  Spanier  hier; 
deren  erinnere  ich  mich  sehr  wohl.  Nimm  die  Trauben,  ich  habe  deren  (of 
them)  genug. 

.  Second  group.  If  they  are  used  determinatively  followed  by  a  relative  clause, 
the  forms  are:  (sing.)  dessen  (masc),  derer,  deren,  or  still  more  commonly  der 
(fem.),  dessen  (neut.);  (pi.)  derer  for  persons,  unless  it  stands  before  the 
governing  noun,  where  the  form  is  usually  deren  (sometimes  derer);  pi.  for 
things  deren,  or  derjenigen,  sometimes  derer.  Exs.:  Es  ist  der  Sohn  dessen, 
den  wir  gestern  gesehen  haben.  Das  Glück  derer,  die  fern  von  ihm  war 
(Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  LXXVIII).  Der  Himmel  hat  durch  die  Hand 
derer,  die  du  Hebst,  mich  davor  geschützt  (Jensen)  (also  deren  and  more  fre- 
quently der,  but  better  der  Dame.  It  is  often  better  in  the  gen.  of  the  fem. 
to  use  a  noun  here,  as  the  thought  will  otherwise  be  impaired,  for  the  forms 
derer  and  deren  are  felt  as  plural,  and  der  has  not  yet  become  fixed  here  as  a 
sing,  in  contrast  to  the  plurals  derer  and  deren).  Das  Schicksal  deren,  die  ihn 
trug  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  1,  61).  Sich  lächerHch  zu  machen  in  den 
Augen  der,  die  ihn  zu  einem  Gott  erheben  kann  (Spielhagen's  Selbstgerecht,  II, 
p.  45).  Der  Herr  vernichtet  die  Macht  derer,  die  sich  wider  ihn  auflehnen. 
Habe  ich  aber  auch  jemand  übervorteilet  durch  deren  (in  original  ed.  der) 


129.  2.  A.  Q.        INFLECTION   OF   DEMONSTRATIVE   PER 155 

etliche,  die  ich  zu  euch  gesandt  habe  (2  Cor.  XII.  17,  revised  ed.).  Trockne 
die  Tränen  von  deren  Gesicht,  die  dann  um  mich  weinen  (Kleist),  Bei  dem 
Studieren  der  Wissenschaften,  besonders  deren,  welche  die  Natur  behandeln 
(Goethe).  Die  Waffen,  einschließlich  deren,  die  die  Personen  bei  sich  tragen, 
sollen  an  ihrem  augenbUcklichen  Platze  gelassen  werden  {Hamburger  Nach- 
richten, Jan.  4,  1905),  Das  Jahrhundert  |  ist  meinem  Ideal  nicht  reif.  Ich  lebe 
I  ein  Bürger  derer  (now  more  commonly  deren  or  derjenigen),  welche  kommen 
werden  (Schiller).  Reißt  alle,  alle  [Blumen]  ab,  |  sogar  die  Knospen  derer 
(now  more  commonly  deren  or  derjenigen),  die  erst  kommen  (Hebbel's  Nibe- 
lungen, II,  V,  7). 

Third  group.  If  they  are  used  determinatively  followed  by  a  gen.  or  a  prepo- 
sitional phrase,  the  forms  are:  (sing.)  dessen  or  des  (masc),  der  (fem.),  dessen 
or  des  (neut.);  (pi.)  derer  for  persons,  deren  (also  der  and  sometimes  derer)  for 
things.  Exs.:  Die  Besprechungen  meines  Anwalts  und  dessen  (or  des)  meines 
Gegners  haben  zu  einem  Vergleich  geführt.  Ich  bin  in  Sorge  nicht  sowohl  wegen 
deiner  Angelegenheit,  wie  wegen  der  deines  Bruders.  Sie  erinnert  sich  gern 
ihrer  Freundinnen,  besonders  derer  aus  ihrer  Schulzeit.  Er  fand  neue  Bundes- 
genossen statt  derer  aus  frühern  Zeiten.  Sie  erinnert  sich  gern  ihrer  frühern 
Erlebnisse,  besonders  deren  (or  der)  aus  den  Schuljahren.  Ihre  Augen  hatten 
nicht  ganz  das  leuchtende  Blau,  auch  nicht  den  tiefen  Ernst  derer  Sophiens 
(Perfall's  Der  schöne  Wahn,  p.  60).  To  this  group  also  belongs  derer  before  von 
in  names  of  people  of  noble  birth:  das  Geschlecht  derer  von  Logau. 

Fourth  group.  The  following  corrupted  gen.  forms,  dessent  (masc,  and  neut.), 
derent  (deret)  fem.  gen.  sing,  and  gen,  pi.  for  all  genders,  are  not  infrequently 
found  in  composition  with  wegen  07t  accou?it  of,  um  —  willen  for  the  sake  of, 
halb  (en)  on  account  of:  derentwegen  on  account  of  these  things,  &c.  There  is, 
however,  a  slight  tendency  in  choice  language  to  restore  the  correct  form,  es- 
pecially in  case  of  um  —  willen:  Wenigstens  hoffe  ich,  daß  sich  Ihre  Verrich- 
tungen in  Braunschweig  .  .  .  werden  so  gehäuft  haben,  daß  Sie  wenigstens 
derenwegen  bleiben  müssen  (Lessing).  Ich  will  kein  Geld  von  Euch;  um 
dessen  willen  bin  ich  nicht  gekommen  (Storm's  Im  Brauer- Hattse,  p,  102). 
Ein  mutmaßlich  aus  einem  alten  märkischen  Herrenhause  herstammender 
.  .  .  Pfeilerspiegel  .  .  .  lieh  der  ärmlichen  Einrichtung  trotz  ihres  Zusammen- 
gesuchtseins oder  vielleicht  auch  um  dessen  willen  etwas  von  einer  erlöschen- 
den, aber  doch  immerhin  'mal  dagewesenen  Feudalität  (Fontane 's  Poggenpuhls, 
chap.  i). 

a.  The  short  gen.  form  des  is  now  quite  rare  aside  from  the  use  in  the  second  and  third  groups 
given  above  and  its  employment  in  adverbial  and  conjunctional  compounds,  as  um  'deswillen 
011  account  of  that  (with  reference,  not  to  a  particular  object,  but  to  a  thought:  „Wie  kann  ich 
jetzt  auch  an  mein  wirbehides  Dasein  ein  andres  zu  ketten  wagen?"  ,, Begreifst  du  nicht," 
flüsterte  sie,  „daß  ich  gerade  um  deswillen  zu  dir  stehen  wiU?" — Telmann's  Wahrheit,  XXIV), 
on  this  account  (introducing  a  clause  of  cause:  um  'deswillen,  weU  on  this  account,  because,  for  the 
reason  that),  'deswegen  on  that  account,  'deshalb  (earlier  in  the  period  deshalben)  for  that  reason, 
in'des  and  unter'des  (or  more  commonly  in'dessen  and  unter'dessen;  for  meaning  see  240), 
also  in  the  combinations  des  und  des,  or  des  und  jenes  of  this  one  and  that  07te,  and  in  poetic 
language  and  old  sayings,  as  Wes  Brot  ich  esse,  des  Lied  ich  singe  I  sing  the  praises  of  him  whose 
bread  I  eat.  Notice  especially  the  frequent  use  of  tun  'deswillen  weil  (2T2.  D):  Was  endlich  das 
von  Professor  Laband  angeführte  Beispiel,  betreffend  die  Ausweisung  der  Engländer  aus 
Hamburg,  betrifft,  so  ist  es  um  deswillen  beweisunkräftig,  weil  der  Hamburger  Senat  so  wenig 
wie  eine  andere  Bundesregierung  solche  Torheiten  begehen  wird  {Hamburger  Nachrichten, 
June  7,  1906).  All  these  cases  are  survivals  of  early  N.H.G.  usage,  where  the  short  gen.  forms 
der,  des  (later  also  falsely  written  deß)  were  the  rule.  The  short  form  des  has  become  quite 
firm  in  the  above-mentioned  adverbial  compounds  deswegen,  &c.,  where  the  reference  is  to  a 
thought,  less  firm,  however,  in  indes  and  unterdes,  where  the  same  idea  is  found.  The  long 
form  dessen  is  also  often  used  in  um  dessen  willen  instead  of  um  deswillen  on  account  of  that 
with  reference  to  a  thought:  Der  Urheber  der  Steuer  nannte  sich  Bismarck,  und  dieser  Bismarck 
wurde  in  den  Stuben  der  Zigarrenarbeiter  um  dessen  willen  nicht  geliebt  (O.  Ernst's  Semper  der 
Jüngling,  p.  103).  The  corrupted  form  dessent  is  sometimes  used  in  the  adverbial  compounds 
dessentwegen,  &c.,  where  the  reference  is  to  a  thought,  but  it  is  more  commonly  employed  where 
the  reference  is  to  a  definite  antecedent.  Either  des  or  dessen  is  used  in  connection  with  um 
willen  when  a  relative  clause  introduced  by  was  follows:  Er  (T.  Mommscn)  war  seit  langer  Zeit 
in  Wahrheit  der  Führer  der  Universität,  nicht  nur  um  des  Glanzes  seines  Namens  willen,  son- 
dern um  deswillen,  was  er  ihr  leistete   (Adolf  Harnack  in  National-Zeitung,   1903,  No.  588). 


156 INFLECTION  OF  DEMONSTRATIVE  PER       129.  2.  A.  a. 

Ich  sage  das  aber,  Kind,  urn  dessen  willen,  was  mir  noch  zu  erzählen  bleibt  (Spielhagen 's  Was 
will  das  werden.'',  I,  chap.  xi).  Sometimes  also  'dessentwillen  here:  Zwar  nicht  um  dessentwillen 
was  er  getan  (Walther  Siegfried's  Um  der  Heimat  willen,  X). 

The  new  lengthened  forms  derer  (fem.  gen.  sing,  and  gen.  pl.)  and  denen  (dat.  pl.)  were  formed 
by  adding  the  regular  strong  adjective  endings  to  the  original  short  forms.  The  form  denen 
begins  to  appear  first  in  the  Southwest  about  1450,  the  form  derer  in  Middle  Germany  about 
1536.  They  both  became  established  in  prose  about  1600.  The  forms  dessen  and  deren 
lengthened  from  des  and  der,  originated  in  the  Southwest.  The  genitive  plural  form  deren 
begins  to  appear  about  1450  and  becomes  established  about  1600.  The  singular  forms  dessen 
and  deren  appear  later  than  the  plural  deren  and  come  slowly  into  general  use.  The  S.G.  deren 
and  the  M.G.  derer  have  not  as  yet,  as  stated  above,  become  clearly  differentiated. 

In  early  X.H.G.  also  the  M.H.G.  forms  dere  and  dero  were  used  with  the  force  of  deren: 
Denn  welche  diese  Grewel  thun  dere  seelen  sollen  ausgerottet  werden  von  jrem  volck  (Lev. 
xviii.  29).  Of  these  Dero  your,  his,  used  in  speaking  to  and  of  persons  of  high  rank,  were  in  the 
last  days  of  monarchical  Germany  still  lingering  on  in  official  style  and  in  the  language  of  the 
princely  courts;    Dero  Erlaubnis  the  permission  of  your  (or  his)  Highness. 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  distinction  that  the  short  forms  should  be  used  in  the  gen.  for 
attributive  and  the  long  ones  for  substantive  use  was  not  known,  and  even  in  the  classical  period 
was  not  yet  fully  developed:  Ich  habe  oben  gesagt,  der  Raum  sei  die  Ordnung  derer  Dinge, 
die  zugleich  sind,  die  Zeit  hingegen  die  Ordnung  dessen,  was  auf  einander  folgete  (Chr.  Wolff). 
Kurze  Übersicht  derer  Gaben,  welche  usw.  (Goethe).  Present  usage  is  nicely  reflected  in  the 
following  sentence  from  Wildenbruch:  Seine  dunklen,  blaugrünen  Augen  hatten  den  scharfen 
Blick  der  Menschen,  die  viel  und  aufmerksam  mit  der  Natur  verkehren,  und  seine  hageren 
Gesichtszüge  jenes  nach  innen  gekehrte  Lächeln  derer,  die  viel  erlebt  haben,  und  deren  (151. 
1)  Herz  ein  gutes  Gedächtnis  besitzt.  The  lengthened  forms  are  to-day  found  attributively 
only  in  antique  or,  as  in  the  following  sentence  from  Hans  Hopfen's  Studiosus  Tiiillcfcr,  p.  o7, 
in  comic  style:  Es  kam  üim  vor,  als  sollt'  er  von  ihm  wie  von  dem  Repräsentanten  aller  derer 
braven  Burschen,  die  eben  nicht  vom  gleichen  Bande  umschlungen  gewesen  waren,  das  ihrige 
aber  in  Ehren  getragen  hatten,  gleichfalls  gerührten  Abschied  nehmen. 

c.  To  give  a  clear  formal  expression  to  the  idea  of  the  dative  relation  the  genitive  forms  dessen 
and  deren,  which  are  used  instead  of  a  possessive  (see  138.  2.  d),  are,  tho  they  are  genuine  pro- 
nouns, sometimes  still  as  occasionally  also  earlier  in  the  period  treated  as  adjectives  and  inflected 
like  sein  and  ihr:  Minna  blieb  von  ihrem  Gatten  bis  zu  dessem  Tode  getrennt  (Stahr's  Goethe's 
Fraiiengestalten,  2.  286).  This  is  as  yet  confined  to  the  dat.  of  the  masc.  and  neut.  See  also 
151.  1.  c.  In  the  same  manner  within  historic  times  the  possessive  ihr  her,  their  was  developed 
out  of  the  gen.  of  sie. 

B.  Dative  Forms.  The  form  depends  upon  the  grammatical  function  in  the 
dat.  pl.  The  distinction  is  the  same  as  for  the  gen.,  namely,  the  short  form  is 
used  attributively  before  the  noun,  the  lengthened  form  substantively:  von  den 
Leuten,  die,  &c.;  mit  denen,  die  with  those  who;  mit  seinen  Verwandten  und 
d.enen  seiner  Frau.  If  the  dative  plural  is  used  determinatively  followed  by  a 
genitive  or  a  prepositional  phrase,  the  form  is  usually  denen  as  elsewhere  in 
substantive  use,  but  w^e  still  find  here  sometimes  the  older  short  form  den:  Ob 
sich  die  Verhältnisse  bei  größeren  Schiffsformen  mit  den  der  Versuchsobjekte 
decken  werden,  erscheint  fraglich  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Nov.  27,  1904). 
The  form  den  is  also  sometimes  employed  instead  of  denen  when  the  demon- 
strative stands  alone:  In  den  (i.e.  in  den  Hunden)  da  steckt  etwas  (Freytag's 
Die  verlorene  Handschrift,  1,  188).  Ginge  es  nach  den  (i.e.  den  Scharfmachern), 
so  hätten  wir  nicht  nur  Attentate  wie  in  Rußland,  sondern  auch  längst  den 
Bürgerkrieg  {Der  Türmer,  March  1905,  p.  822). 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  lengthened  form  deren  was  also  used  in  the  fem.  dat.  sing.:  Hab 
deren  zu  Lieb  ein  neu's.Liedlin  gedieht,  so  Euer  Gnad  das  begehrt  zu  hören,  wollt'  ich's  deren 
zur  Letzte  singen  (Wickram's  Rolhvagcn).  Still  in  dialect  in  the  form  of  dere,  deren,  or  derer: 
Wann  ich  nur  von  derer  wegkimm!  (Anzengruber's  Krcuzelschreibcr,  2,  9).  Also  in  adjective 
function :  Ich  frag'  dich  nur,  ob  du  glaubst,  daß  du  in  derer  Weise  was  richt'st?  (id. ,  Schandfleck,  xiv) . 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  distinction  between  attributive  and  substantive  use  of  the  double 
forms  had  not  developed  so  sharply  as  to-day;  von  denen  (now  den)  Leuten,  die,  &c.  (Goethe). 
This  usage  is  still  preserved  in  S.G.  and  West  M.G.  dialect. 

C.  The  Neuter  Singular.  The  neuter  singular  forms,  especially  the  nom. 
and  ace.  das  (in  dialect  frequently  spoken  des  or  dös)  and  the  dat.  dem,  are  much 
used  without  a  change  of  form  for  reference  to  one  or  more  objects  or  to  things 
of  different  genders  but  always  with  the  case  required  by  the  grammatical  con- 
struction : 

(1)  Like  dies  (see  128.  A.  a)  the  nom.  is  used  to  express  identity:  Das  ist 
meine  Feder.  Das  sind  meine  Federn.  It  is  often  very  similar  in  meaning  to 
dies:    1st  das  (or  dies)  der  Weg  auf  den  Bahnhof? 


129^ USES  OF  DEMONSTRATIVE  DAS,  PER 157 

(2)  It  is  often  used  as  subject  or  object,  a  more  emphatic  form  than  es, 
referring  without  regard  to  the  gender  of  the  noun  to  some  object  at  hand,  some 
matter  in  hand, a  condition  of  things,  or  an  activity:  Wie  heißt  man  das?  What 
do  you  call  that?  Das  geschieht  ihm  recht  That  serves  him  just  right.  Das 
geht  bei  mir  nicht  so  That  won't  do  with  me.  Das  können  wir  nicht  ruhig  mit 
ansehen  We  cannot  tolerate  that.  Dem  kann  ich  nicht  ruhig  zusehen  I  can't 
look  on  with  indifference  while  such  things  are  going  on.  Das  verwickelt  sich 
Matters  are  becoming  complicated. 

(3)  Das  with  sing,  verb  is  used  to  represent  a  class  of  people  or  beings  as  a 
whole:  Kinder  leben  sorglos  dahin;  das  singt  und  spielt  bei  den  ernstesten 
Lagen  des  Lebens.  Was  aber  sich  Mensch  nennt,  das  lebt  von  dem  Gedanken 
der  alles  schonenden  und  erhaltenden  Liebe  und  ihres  Gebotes  (Hermann  von 
Blomberg  in  Der  Türmer,  March  1905,  p.  824).  A.  Sie  sind  Anarchisten. 
B.  Was  ist  denn  das?  A,  Das  sind  Leute,  die  usw.  Often  also  with  reference 
to  one  or  more  in  a  contemptuous  sense:  Will  das  (referring  to  Riccaut)  zu  uns? 
(Lessing's  Minna,  4,  2).  Aber  das  (i.e.  die  Arkebusiere)  denkt  wie  ein  Seifen- 
sieder (Schiller's  Lager,  1.  1006), 

(4)  As  a  subject,  predicate,  or  object,  to  refer  emphatically  to  an  idea  already 
expressed  in  some  preceding  sentence,  noun,  adjective,  or  participle:  Er  hat 
mich  heute  morgen  barsch  angefahren.  Das  (subject)  darf  nicht  wieder  ge- 
schehen, or  das  (object)  darf  er  nicht  wieder  tun.  Zwischen  nicht  geringen 
Teilen  der  Bevölkerung  und  der  neu  geschaffenen  bewaffneten  Macht  hat  sich 
eine  Konflikts  Stimmung  eingestellt,  die  zu  einer  ernsten  Gefahr  werden  kann. 
Es  muß  versucht  werden,  dem  (dat.  object)  vorzubeugen  (  Vonvärts,  June  4, 
1919).  Often  in  the  predicate  relation:  Er  ist  ein  Bettler,  or  Er  ist  arm.  Das 
war  er  früher  nicht.  Dieses  Frauenzimmer  gibt  sich  für  die  Tochter  des 
englischen  Konsuls  aus.     Das  ist  sie  auch  in  der  Tat. 

Also  es  can  be  used  here  instead  of  das  except  in  the  dative  relation,  where 
dem  is  employed,  as  illustrated  in  the  sentence  from  "Vorwärts"  and  in  141.  4 
(2nd  par.).  Elsewhere  es  is  employed  much  more  frequently  than  das,  differ- 
ing, however,  from  it  in  that  it  is  less  emphatic  and  has  not  the  freedom  of  word- 
order,  in  the  object  and  predicate  relation  only  standing  after  the  verb:  Er  hat 
mich  heute  morgen  barsch  angefahren.  Es  darf  nicht  wieder  geschehen,  or 
Er  darf  es  (or  das)  nicht  wieder  tun.  Er  ist  jetzt  ein  Bettler,  or  Er  ist  jetzt  arm ; 
er  war  es  (or  das)  aber  früher  nicht.  Dieses  Frauenzimmer  gibt  sich  für  die 
Tochter  des  enghschen  Konsuls  aus.  Sie  ist  es  auch  in  der  Tat.  Sie  meint, 
du  seist  entflohen;   und  halb  und  halb  bist  du  es  schon. 

(5)  It  is  also  often  used  in  a  collective  sense.     See  153.  1.  (1);  263.  II.  4.  c. 

D.  Dative  and  Accusative  after  Prepositions.  After  prepositions  the  de- 
monstrative usually  takes  the  adverbial  form,  if  it  points  to  things.  See  141. 
5.  A.  &,  c,  d. 

Note.  This  adverbial  form  is,  however,  iisiiallv  replaced  by  the  inflected  form  of  the  demonstrative  when  it  points 
to  a  following  relative  clause:  Der  Minister  hat  die  Kommissionsmitgheder  gebeten,  von  dem  (instead  ot  davon), 
was  er  zur  Begründung  der  Vorlage  gesagt  hat,  nichts  in  die  Öffentlichkeit  kommen  zu  lassen.  This  rule  is  not 
rigidly  followed:  Auch  wußten  sie  nichts  davon  (instead  of  von  dem),  was  an  diesem  schönen  Sonntage  vorging 
(G  Keller).  Und  das  Ergebnis  davon,  das  sich  in  ihm  noch  immer  dämmernd  festsetzte,  war:  daß  man,  um  der 
Stärkere  zu  sein,  auch  die  Kraft  des  Geistes,  nicht  nur  die  des  Leibes,  besitzen  müsse  (Wilhelm  Fischer  s  Die  Freude 
am  Licht,  p.  135). 

3.  Der,  die,  das  this,  that,  are  the  most  popular  demonstrative  forms,  altho 
the  least  definite,  as  they  are  used  in  a  general  way  for  both  dieser  and  jener, 
indicating  the  position  of  objects  as  near  or  distant  only  by  the  aid  of  a  gesture 
or  the  context. 

Der  is  used  substantively  more  than  attributively,  yielding  in  large  measure 
to  dieser  and  jener  in  the  latter  function.  In  several  substantive  relations, 
however,  dieser  and  jener  are  common.  See  128.  A.  a  and  h;  128.  B.  Besides 
the  meanings  of  dieser  and  jener,  der  has  other  meanings,  often  replacing  the 
personal  pronouns  (see  141.  2)  and  being  used  like  derjenige  (see  130.  2)  as  a 
determinative  followed  by  a  genitive,  prepositional  phrase,  or  relative  clause. 
In  all  these  common  substantive  uses  of  der  the  primarily  adjective  forms  dieser 
and  jener  are  little  used. 


Singular. 
Fem. 

Neut. 

Plural. 
Common  form, 

diejenige 
derjenigen 
derjenigen 
diejenige 

dasjenige 
desjenigen 
demjenigen 
dasjenige 

diejenigen 
derjenigen 
denjenigen 
diejenigen 

1^8 DETERMINATI\^E   DERJENIGE 129.  3.  a. 

a.  Der  is  sometimes  still  omitted  before  a  dependent  gen.,  not  only  in  poetry 
but  also  in  plain  prose:  Und  welch  ein  Band  ist  sichrer  als  (das)  der  Guten? 
(Goethe's  Tasso,  3,  2).  Durch  wessen  Schuld  ist  sie  so  geworden,  wenn  nicht 
durch  Ezards  und  Galeidens?  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Urslen,  chap.  xxiv).  Earlier 
in  the  period  this  usage  was  much  more  common. 

b.  In  a  few  expressions  der  is  rendered  by  such,  So  and  So:  Wenn  das  sein 
Wunsch  ist  if  such  (that)  is  his  wish,  in  der  und  der  Stadt  in  such  and  such  a 
citv,  an  dem  und  dem  Tage  on  such  and  such  a  day.  Der  und  Der  (Die  und 
Die  1  hat  es  gesagt  Mr.  (Mrs.)  So  and  So  said  so. 

130.  1.  Derjenige,  diejenige,  dasjenige  that  are  declined  as  if  each  element 
(der  and  jenige)  were  written  apart  and  the  latter  element  were  a  wk.  adj. 
Used  adjectively  or  substantively,  their  declension  is  as  follows: 

Masc. 
N.     derjenige 
G.     desjenigen 
D.     demjenigen 
A.     denjenigen 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period  up  to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  we  find  here  the  simple 
wk.  form  of  jen-:  dem  jenen,  welcher  .  .  .  (Opitz  1.  105).  From  the  sixteenth  century  we  find 
the  lengthened  form  jenig.  Earlier  in  the  period  it  could  be  used  without  the  def.  art.:  ich 
verfluch  alle  jenige,  die  anderer  Meinung  sein  (Fischart). 

b.  The  form  dieserjenige  tJris  one  (here)  is  used  in  popular  speech:  Ich  denke  immer,  der  hat 
sich  aus  einer  andern  Welt  in  diesejenige  verirrt  and  karm  den  Weg  nicht  wieder  zurückfinden 
(Raabe's  Schüddernnip,  chap.  ix). 

2.  Derjenige,  unlike  der,  which  is  either  a  determinative  or  a  pure  demon., 
has  only  determinative  force,  i.e.  is  followed  always  by  a  gen.,  prep,  phrase,  or 
a  relative  clause:  derjenige,  der  (or  welcher)  that  one  ivho;  nicht  mein  Hut, 
sondern  derjenige  meines  Bruders;  nicht  dieses  Buch,  sondern  dasjenige  im 
roten  Einband;  derjenige  Mann,  der  (or  welcher).  There  is  no  difference  of 
meaning  between  the  determinative  der  and  derjenige  except  that  the  latter  is 
a  heavier  and  consequently  more  emphatic  word.  It  is  also  in  general  much 
used  in  the  written  language  in  the  attributive  relation  in  preference  to  der,  as 
the  latter  cannot  in  the  printed  form  be  distinguished  from  the  definite  article 
by  a  heavy  accent  as  in  the  spoken  word.  Also  in  the  precise  phraseology  of 
definition  and  law  and  of  exact  language  in  general  it  is  a  decided  favorite: 
Notwehr  ist  diejenige  Verteidigung,  welche  erforderlich  ist,  um  einen  gegen- 
wärtigen rechtswidrigen  Angriff  von  sich  oder  einem  anderen  abzuwenden 
{Bürgerliches  Gesetzbuch,  §  227).  As  derjenige  is  much  used  in  print  and  is 
much  employed  by  clumsy  speakers  to  gain  a  little  time,  certain  grammarians 
have  felt  themselves  called  to  ridicule  it  as  stilted  and  ungainly,  at  the  same  time 
failing  to  recognize  the  true  province  of  the  word.  Recent  literary  usage  is 
evidently  tending  to  prefer  it  to  der  as  a  clearer  expression  for  the  determinative 
idea.  The  lengthened  forms  of  der,  however,  especially  derer  (gen.  pi.),  are 
more  common  here  than  the  monosyllabic  forms,  as  they  are  clearer  determina- 
tives and  not  so  liable  to  be  confounded  with  the  definite  article  or  the  demon- 
strative. 

In  early  N.H.G.  also  welch  and  solch  were  used  as  determinatives.  The 
four  determinatives  der,  jener,  welcher,  and  solcher  were  already  in  use  in 
M.H.G.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  new  form  derjenige  came  into  use. 
Differentiation  in  meaning  and  function  has  been  gradually  developing.  Der 
is  more  inclined  to  pure  demonstrative  function  pointing  to  a  definite  person  or 
thing,  altho  it  is  still  widely  used  in  determinative  function  to  point  forward  to 
a  person  or  thing  described  in  a  following  relative  clause  or  a  genitive  or  prepo- 
sitional phrase.  For  definite  reference  to  a  person  or  thing  which  is  described  in 
a  following  clause  or  phrase  derjenige  is  now  the  favorite  determinative,  Jener 
is  also  still  used  here  but  with  a  little  different  shade  of  meaning.  See  a  below 
near  end  and  128.  B.  a.     For  indefinite  and  general  reference  derjenige,  welcher, 


131.  1. DETERMINATIVE   WELCHER 159 

and  solcher  are  employed.  The  use  of  welcher  is  given  in  3  below.  The 
boundaries  between  derjenige  and  solcher  in  present  usage  are  drawn  in  131.  3 
below. 

o^  Sometimes  in  accordance  with  older  usage  jener  is  still  used  determinatively  instead  of 
der  or  derjenige  modified  by  a  gen.  or  a  relative  clause.  Der  hohe  Adel  zürnte  über  den  po- 
litischen Einfluß  des  Bürgertums,  welches  im  Reichsrat  das  Ansehn  des  Herrenhauses  durch 
jenes  der  Abgeordneten  in  Schatten  stellte  (von  Sybel).  Mir  dienen  |  als  Zeugen  jene,  die's 
mit  Augen  sah'n  (F'ulda's  Der  Talisman,  4.  6).  Nur  gering  ist  die  Zahl  derjenigen,  welche 
sich  mit  der  Venus  beschäftigt  haben,  noch  geringer  die  Zahl  jener,  welche  auf  diesem  Planeten 
etwas  gesehen  haben,  und  am  allergeringsten  die  Zahl  jener,  deren  Beobachtungen  wirklich 
einen  Wert  besitzen  (Leo  Brenner).  Wenn  er  von  jenen  Dingen  sprach,  die  er  der  Welt  und 
dem  Leben  abzuringen  .  .  .  hoffte,  so  war  immer  nur  von  inneren,  seelischen  Gewinnen  die 
Rede  (Ganghofer's  Der  Clücksucher).  Also  in  general  usage  jener  or  its  governing  word  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  relative  clause,  but  it  here  differs  in  meaning  from  the  determinatives  der  and  der- 
jenige in  that  it  only  points  out  somebody  or  something  that  has  already  been  mentioned,  or 
refers  to  some  well-known  person  or  thing  that  is  at  once  recognized  by  the  accompanying  de- 
scription.    For  examples  and  further  explanation  of  this  use  of  jener  see  128.  B.  a. 

b.  Instead  of  der  der  (or  welcher)  or  derjenige  der  (or  welcher)  we  sometimes  still  find  in 
accordance  with  older  usage  simple  der:  Aber  die  einen  anderen  Menschen  brauchen,  kom- 
men selten  zur  Höhe  (Prof.  D.  Martin  Schian  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  1911,  vol.  146,  p.  408). 
The  relative  pronoun  after  the  determinative  der  is  here  not  expressed  in  accordance  with  older 
usage.  See  154.  Note.  The  reference  in  this  example  is  general,  but  it  has  as  in  case  of  derjenige 
der  a  shade  of  meaning  quite  distinct  from  that  found  in  wer  as  it  has  individualizing  force. 
See  156.  Simple  der  more  commonly  points  to  definite  or  fairly  definite  individuals:  Die  ich 
meine,  heißt  Frau  Findeklee  (Hauptmann's  Versunkene  Glocke,  1.  1047).  Jene,  die  am  meisten 
in  uns  getötet  und  begraben  haben,  sind  oft,  die  uns  am  nächsten  standen  (Heyking's  Briefe,  die 
ihn  nicht  erreichten,  New  York,  Dec.  1S99).  Aber  die  das  glaubten,  waren  doch  nur  wenige 
(Prof.  Dr.  Ernst  Vogt  in  Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Feb.  22,  1914). 

3.  Indefinite  and  General  Determinative.  The  old  general  indefinite  deter- 
minative welcher  is  still  sometimes  used:  In  welche  Unternehmung  er  sich  auch 
einläßt,  stets  hat  er  Glück  In  whatever  enterprise  he  enters  iipo7i,  &c.,  lit.  in  that 
enterprise  he  enters  npoji,  &c.  The  adverb  auch  is  now  usually  found  here  in 
connection  with  welch,  which  indicates  that  this  older  usage  only  survives  in 
concessive  clauses.  In  early  N.H.G.,  however,  it  was  not  thus  limited  but  was 
freely  used  where  to-day  derjenige  der,  or  wer  is  employed :  Welcher  Bawm 
(=  derjenige  Baum,  der)  nicht  gute  fruchte  bringet  |  wird  abgehawen  (Matth. 
iii.  10).  Welchen  (=  wen)  der  HERR  lieb  hat  |  den  züchtiget  er  (Hebrews 
xii.  6).  This  welch  is  usually  classified  as  a  general  indefinite  relative  adjective, 
but  historically  considered  it  is  a  general  indefinite  determinative.  The  definite 
or  indefinite  determinative  derjenige  is  always  followed  by  a  relative  pronoun. 
The  indefinite  determinative  welch  is  followed  by  an  asyndetic  relative  clause, 
i.e.  one  not  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun,  a  construction  very  common  in 
English,  as  illustrated  by  the  literal  translation  of  the  first  German  example 
given  above.  Compare  154.  Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  welcher  began  to  take  on 
definite  meaning:  Welchen  (=  den  or  derjenige,  den)  ich  küssen  werde  |  der 
ist's  (Mark  xiv.  44).  In  substantive  clauses,  as  in  this  example  and  other 
varieties  of  the  substantive  clause,  welcher  with  definite  force  has  not  become 
so  common  as  der  or  derjenige  der,  but  in  attributive  relative  clauses  it  is  now 
thoroly  established  and  used  interchangeably  with  der,  where,  however,  it  is 
now  felt  as  a  relative  pronoun:  Das  Buch,  welches  (originally  that  one,  an 
appositive  to  Buch  pointing  forward  to  the  following  explanatory  clause,  now 
only  felt  with  the  force  of  the  relative  which)  ich  in  der  Hand  halte,  ist  eine 
deutsche  Grammatik. 

131.  1.  Solch  such,  such  a  is  strong  or  weak  as  any  adjective,  but  is  unin- 
flected  before  ein  and  inflected  or  uninflected  before  a  descriptive  adjective. 
If  strong,  the  gen.  of  the  masc.  and  neut.  sing,  ends  properly  in  es,  but,  as  in 
the  case  of  descriptive  adjectives,  a  weak  gen.  is  often  found.  Exs.:  solcher 
kleine  Hund,  or  solch  ein  kleiner  Hund,  or  solch  kleiner,  or  (perhaps  the  most 
common  form)  ein  solcher  kleiner  Hund;  jedes  solche  geblümte  Täßlein; 
solches  or  solchen  Glückes  ungewohnt.  Not  such  is  translated  by  kein  solch: 
Ich  bin  kein  solcher  Narr.  Keines  solchen  Narren,  keine  solchen  Narren; 
in  einzelnen  solchen  Fällen  in  individual  cases  of  this  kind;    eine  Mehrheit 


160 DETERMINATIVE   SOLCH 131.  1. 

von  beigeordneten  solchen  Einheiten  a  number  of  such  units  that  have  been  co- 
ordinated; viele  solche  (or  solcher)  Menschen.  Es  gab  größere  und  kleinere 
solche  Wagen  There  were  larger  and  smaller  scales  of  this  kind.  Es  sind  zwei 
solche  da.  Substantively:  Ein  solcher  ist  gefährlich  Such  a  man  is  dangerous. 
Mußte  nicht  Christus  solches  leiden?  (Luke  xxiv.  26).  Das  sind  ein  Paar 
Ohrgehänge,  wie  der  Herr  keine  zweiten  solche  findet  in  Venedig  (H.  von 
Hofmannsthal's  Der  Abenteurer  und  die  Sängerin,  p.  171).  The  masc.  and 
neut.  gen.  sing,  is  usually  weak  in  substantive  use:  In  der  Lebensform  des 
Bürgers  als  solchen  (wk.  gen.)  liegt  etwas  Tragisches  (Kühnemann's  Schiller, 
p.  237).  Li  der  Anschauung  des  Griechentums  als  solchen  (Ernst  Heilborn  in 
Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Dec.  23,  1913). 
English  such  is  sometimes  rendered  by  der.     See  129.  3.  h. 

a.  In  colloquial  languagre  solch  is  very  commonly  replaced  by  so  ein,  negatively  often  in 
popular  language  in  the  form  so  kein:  Von  so  einem  Manne  spricht  man  Jahrhunderte.  So 
einer  such  a  one,  8cc.  So  kein  Gesicht  sah  ich  in  meinem  Leben!  (Cloethe's  Faust,  2808).  Ich 
habe  einen  Hunger,  so  hab'  ich  mein  Lebtag  keinen  verspürt.  Instead  of  the  neuter  substantive 
form  solches  we  now  more  commonly  hear  in  colloquial  speech  so  etwas:  Hat  man  je  so  etwas 
gehört?  So  etwas  verlernt  sich  nicht  so  leicht.  So  etwas  von  is  often  used  instead  of  attributive 
solch  or  so  ein:  Solchen,  or  so  einen,  or  so  etwas  von  Kot  sieht  man  nicht  alle  Tage.  Instead 
of  the  attributive  solch  we  often  find  the  adverbial  form  so  in  popular  language:  Es  gibt  so 
Gänschen  (i.e.  girls),  die  hübsch  weiche  Schnäbel  haben  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kur- 
fürsten, chap.  i). 

Note  1.  So  ein  is  often  used  referring  to  something  so  well  hnown  that  there  is  no  need  of  detailed  description: 
Er  trägt  auch  so  einen  großen  breitkrämpigen  Hut  He  also  wears  one  of  those  large  broad  brimmed  hats  (which  are 
now  so  commonly  worn).  Ich  möchte  so  ein  Bilderbuch  für  ein  kleines  Kind  haben  I  should  like  to  have  a  picture 
book  such  as  would  be  suitable  for  a  little  child. 

Note  2.  So  ein  is  often  contracted  to  so'n  and  quite  frequently  takes  a  plural,  altho  simple  ein  has  no  form  for 
the  plural:  Ich  dächte,  wenigstens  unsere  streng  gesitteten  Kreise  halten  sich  —  so — nen  —  so'ne  Sachen  vom 
Halse  (Sudermann's  Heimat,  1,  7). 

i.  Instead  of  solch  we  sometimes  find  in  colloquial  language  so  welch-,  only,  however,  in  the 
substantive  relation:  Es  sind  Waldbeeren;  so  welche  wachsen  in  den  Gärten  nicht  (Storm's 
Unter  dem  Tannenbaum,  vol.  I,  p.  191.) 

c.  Notice  especially  the  case  where  a  qualifying  adjective  follows  the  demonstrative  and  the 
idea  of  the  intensity  of  the  quality  is  more  prominent  than  the  demonstrative  idea.  Here  stuh, 
sucli  a  are  usually  translated  by  so,  ein  so:  sucli  bad  weather  so  schlechtes  Wetter,  sncli  a  good 
man  ein  so  guter  Mann.  Also  solch,  so  ein,  or  so  etwas  von  (example  in  a  above)  contains 
this  idea  of  intensity,  especially  before  a  noun  not  modified  by  an  adjective:  Dieses  Schiff 
rannte  mit  solcher  Heftigkeit  gegen  die  Brücke,  daß  es  sie  auseinander  sprengte.  Solch  ein, 
so  ein  (in  sing.),  solch —  (in  pl.)  arc  often  used  with  disparaging;  force:  Mit  solchen  (with  such 
a  meager  stock  of)  Kenntnissen  wollen  Sie  sich  zum  Examen  melden? 

2.  Solch  as  a  Determinative.  Solch  is  also  a  determinative,  followed  by  a 
relative  clause,  a  genitive,  or  a  prepositional  phrase,  but  it  differs  from  the 
determinatives  der  and  derjenige  in  that  it  does  not  point  to  definite  individuals 
but  refers  to  a  person  or  a  thing  as  a  member  of  a  class  of  persons  or  things  without 
fixing  definitely  the  identity  of  the  individual  in  question,  variously  translated, 
one,  such  (as),  that,  those,  or  by  repeating  the  noun  to  which  it  refers:  Zur  Be- 
gleitung eines  Flügels  sang  dort  eine  angenehme  weibliche  Stimme  ein  leiden- 
schaftliches Lied,  ein  solches,  das  Sturm  und  Aufruhr  der  heftigsten  Gefühle 
darstellte  (H.  Seidel's  Lorelei).  Der  weise  Erzieher  lehrt  seinem  Zögling 
solche  Wahrheiten,  die  der  Stufe  seiner  Erfahrung  und  seines  Verstandes  ent- 
sprechen (Kuno  Fischer).  Die  Krankheit,  welche  eben  vorwiegend  eine 
solche  des  Willens  gewesen  war  und  nicht  des  Körpers  (Frenssen's  Die  Sand- 
gräfin,  chap.  viii).  Bislang  war  es  mir  noch  nie  in  den  Sinn  gekommen,  daß 
mein  Vater  sich  vielleicht  mit  noch  anderen  entscheidenderen  Gedanken  trug 
als  nur  mit  solchen  der  Sorge  und  des  Kummers  (R.  Huch's  Ludolj  Ursleu, 
chap.  xxii).  Wohl  fehlte  es  weder  an  Ausdrücken  des  moralischen  Entzückens, 
noch  an  solchen  der  ästhetischen  Empörung  (Kühnemann's  Schiller,  p.  29). 
Ebenso  wichtig,  wie  ältere  Nachweise  für  Tollwut  sind  mir  natürlich  solche  für 
tollwütig  (Stosch  in  Zeitschrift  für  deutsche  Wortforschung,  I.  Band,  p.  374). 
Der  berühmte  Mann  einer  kleinen  Stadt  zu  sein  ist  etwas  ganz  anderes  als  ein 
solcher  in  einer  großen  (Wildenbruch 's  Schwester- Seele,  chap,  xi)  To  be  the 
famous  man  of  a  little  town  is  something  quite  different  from  being  the  famous 
man  of  a  large  city.  Eigentümlichkeiten  des  Wortschatzes  sowie  solche  der 
Syntax   (O.  Tacke  in  Zeitschrift  für  den   deutschen    Untcrriclit,   1915,    p.  776) 


131.  3.  SOLCH   COMPETINCx   WITH    OTHER   FORMS 161 

peculiarities  of  vocabulary  as  well  as  peculiarities  of  syntax.  There  is  in  solch 
always  something  indefinite,  hence  it  must  be  replaced  by  der  or  derjenige  when 
thQ  reference  becomes  definite,  even  where  the  idea  of  class,  kind,  quality  is 
clearly  present:  Wie  den  Engländern  eine  gewisse  Sentimentalität,  die  freilich 
ganz  verschieden  ist  von  derjenigen  ihrer  deutschen  Vettern,  durchaus  nicht 
fremd  ist  (Prof.  Dr.  Ernst  Sieper  in  Westermamis  Monatshefte,  vol.  111,  p.  189). 

(2.  Accented  ein  is  often  used  here  like  solch:  Es  war  eine  (=  eine  solche)  Nacht,  in  welcher 
man  nicht  gern  einen  Hund  hinausjagt.  Das  Zenzl  ist  eine,  die  einen  Mann  glücklich  machen 
kann   (Voss's  Psyche,  VIII J. 

3.  Solch  Competing  ivitli  Other  Forms.  In  the  use  of  solch  described  in  2  to 
refer  not  to  definite  individuals  but  to  persons  or  things  of  a  particular  class  or 
kind  the  idea  is  always  more  or  less  general  or  indefinite.  Hence  there  arose 
early,  even  in  the  M.H.G.  period,  the  tendency  to  use  solch  for  general  or  in- 
definite reference.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  new  form  derjenige  gradually 
became  established  as  the  determinative  for  more  definite  reference  than  that 
suggested  by  solch.  The  use  of  solch  for  indefinite  reference,  however,  is  at 
present  in  general  confined  to  cases  where  solch  refers  to  a  noun  w^hich  has  already 
been  used,  as  in  the  examples  from  Frenssen,  Huch,  Kühnemann,  Stosch,  Wil- 
denbruch, and  Tacke  in  2  above,  or  where  it  itself  stands  before  the  noun  and 
points  to  a  following  relative  clause,  as  in  the  example  from  Fischer.  If  there 
is  no  such  noun  present,  derjenige  is  usually  employed,  even  tho  the  reference 
is  general  and  indefinite:  Derjenige,  der  sich  mit  Einsicht  für  beschränkt  hält, 
ist  der  Vollkommenheit  am  nächsten  (Goethe).  Wie  sonst  diejenigen,  die  im 
Herrn  sterben  (Paul  Heyse's  Marienkind,  p.  96).  Compare  156.  In  the  plural, 
however,  also  solch  is  used  here:  Für  solche,  denen  die  vergleichende  Gram- 
matik schon  vertraut  ist,  ist  es  (i.e.  dieses  Werk)  nicht  bestimmt  (Meillet-Prinz's 
Einführung  in  die  vergleichende  Grammatik,  Preface).  Also  the  neuter  sing,  as 
it  has  indefinite  force:  Wir  können  im  Rahmen  der  Schule  von  zeitgenössischer 
Literatur  nur  eine  Auswahl  des  Besten  geben  und  nur  solches,  was  entweder 
an  andere  Lektüre  anzuknüpfen  ist  usw.  (Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unter- 
richt, 1915,  p.  447.)  Instead  of  solches  we  might  use  das  or  dasjenige  here,  but 
solches  stresses  more  the  idea  of  class  or  kind. 

In  contrast  to  this  use  of  solch  is  its  employment  to  refer  to  definite  persons 
and  things:  Nunmehr  fuhr  der  Kaiser  bei  dem  Zelt  an,  betrat  solches  (=  es) 
und  usw.  (Goethe).  Ein  Haufe  Franktireurs  überfiel  die  Brücke  und  sprengte 
solche  (=  sie)  in  die  Luft.  {Kölnische  Zeitung).  This  usage  is  not  in  accord 
with  the  indefinite  nature  of  solch  and  in  spite  of  its  frequent  employment  by 
the  great  writers  of  the  classical  period  is  now  gradually  disappearing  from  choice 
language.  Where,  however,  the  personal  pronouns  are  themselves  not  employed 
and  are  usually  replaced  by  other  words  it  is  much  used,  competing  here  with 
der  and  derselbe,  as  described  in  141.  1,  2,  3,  5.  B.  h.  Note. 

Solch  not  only  competes  with  derjenige  and  the  personal  pronouns,  as  de- 
scribed above,  but  is  also  used  instead  of  the  indefinite  welch  some,  any:  Bei 
alledem  verbrauchte  er  aber  Geld,  ohne  solches  (=  welches)  einzunehmen 
(R.  Huch's  Schlaraffis,  o.  140).  This  usage  is  in  harmony  with  the  indefinite 
nature  of  solch. 

Grammarians  have  written  a  good  deal  upon  the  faise  use  of  solch,  but  their 
censure  is  often  indiscriminate.  In  many  instances  present  usage  is  not  incor- 
rect, as  often  claimed,  but  manifests  a  keen  sense  for  a  fine  shade  of  meaning, 
the  solch  referring  not  to  a  definite  person  or  thing,  as  in  case  of  er,  sie,  es,  der, 
derjenige,  but  rather  to  an  object  or  objects  of  some  particular  kind,  often 
described  by  the  modifying  element  of  the  compound  in  case  of  a  compound 
antecedent  or  by  a  modifying  word  following  or  preceding  a  simple  antecedent: 
Ich  durfte  den  armen  Studenten  doch  nicht  für  einen  sechswöchigen  Kursus 
ihre  letzten  Zwanzigmarkstücke  aus  der  Tasche  ziehen,  wenn  sie  überhaupt 
solche  besaßen  (H.  Hoffmann ).  Die  bedeutendste  Schrift  über  das  Nieder- 
deutsche ist  Agathe  Laschs  mittelniederdeutsche  Grammatik.  Eine  solche 
nach  dem  jetzigen  Stande  der  Wissenschaft  zu  schreiben,  war  nicht  leicht 


162 INFLECTION   &   USE   OF   DERSELBE 131.  3. 

(Oskar  Weise  in  Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unterricht,  1915,  p.  520).  Ich 
danke  Ihnen  sehr  dafür,  daß  Sie  so  gütig  waren,  dem  Herzog  in  meinem  Namen 
ein  Exemplar  der  Hören  zu  überreichen.  Es  folgt  solches  ( =  dafür  ein  anderes 
Exemplar  der  Hören)  hierzurück  (Schiller  an  Goethe,  1.  105).  Er  erwartete 
von  ihr  unbedingt  den  ersten  Brief  und  dieser  Brief  kam  nicht,  denn  sie  er- 
wartete einen  solchen  von  ihm  (Ompteda's  Frieden,  chap.  xiij.  Ich  hatte  mir 
.  .  .  eingebildet  .  .  .  auf  dem  Bock  säße  der  Tod  in  einem  schwarzen,  flatternden 
Mantel,  auf  seinem  klappernden  Schädel  einen  blanken  niedrigen  Hut,  wie  ich 
solche  an  unseren  Droschkenkutschern  zu  sehen  gewohnt  war  (R.  Huch's 
Liidolf  Ursleii,  chap.  xxvi).  Out  of  this  common  usage  has  arisen  the  common 
employment  of  ein  solcher  or  simple  solcher  to  point  to  something  as  a  member 
of  a  class  without  definitely  fixing  its  identity:  Unter  den  zahlreichen  Tele- 
grammen befindet  sich  auch  ein  solches  aus  New  York  (Kölnisciie  Zeit.). 
\J  in  du  ist  zweimal  mit  Längezeichen  gedruckt,  zweimal  ohne  solches  (Oskar 
Weise  in  Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unterricht,  1915,  p.  430).  Here  ein 
solcher  competes  with  einer  one,  but  it  is  a  clearer  expression,  for  the  idea  of 
number  is  not  prominent.  Eines  may  be  used  instead  of  ein  solches  in  the  first 
example,  but  it  could  not  be  used  at  all  in  the  second  as  the  idea  of  class  entirely 
overshadows  the  idea  of  number.  Solch  often  refers  similarly  to  a  simple  noun, 
where  in  English  we  use  the  word  mere  before  the  repeated  noun:  Er  meinte, 
sie  wäre  selbstsüchtig,  sie  gönne  ihm  das  Vergnügen  (of  studying  Spanish 
dialects  in  Spain)  nicht,  das  ihm  mehr  als  ein  solches  {mere  pleasure)  war  (Omp- 
teda's Frieden,  chap.  xii). 

132.  1.  A.  Der'selbe,  die'selbe,  das'selbe  the  same  are  inflected  like 
derjenige.  See  130.  1.  It  is  not  only  used  adjectively,  as  in  derselbe  Mann, 
but  also  substantively:  Er  ist  derselbe,  der  (subject)  uns  gestern  anbettelte. 
Unser  Freund  ist  nicht  mehr  derselbe,  der  (predicate)  er  war,  or  als  der  (predi- 
cate appositive)  er  herkam. 

a.  If  contraction  with  a  preceding  preposition  takes  place  the  parts  are  separated:  am  selben, 
zur  selben,  &c. 

b.  Sometimes  the  article  is  dropped  and  selb  is  inflected  strong:  urn  selbe  Zeit  (Schiller). 
Ich  nehme  meinen  Kindern  alle  Bücher  ab,  sobald  sie  selbe  nicht  mehr  brauchen,  und  lege  sie 
in  Verwahrung  (Rosegger). 

c.  Lengthened  forms  both  with  and  without  the  article  were  common  earlier  in  the  period: 
derselbige,  selbiger.  With  the  article  the  form  is  weak,  without  it  strong.  The  lengthened 
forms  are  little  used  to-day  in  plain  prose,  but  still  occur  not  infrequently  in  poetic  language  or 
in  antique  or  solemn  style.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  an  emphatic  form  of  derselbe:  Auch  wenn 
man  zweimal  dasselbe  tut,  ist  es  gleichfalls  nicht  mehr  dasselbige  (Raabe's  Alte  Nester,  I. 
chap.  x). 

d.  In  S.G.  dialects  derselbe  or  selbiger  have  developed  various  forms,  as  dersall,  dersell, 
seller;  deseb,  seb.  These  forms  usually  have  demonstrative  force  =  der  or  jener.  See  B.  a. 
Note  below.     These  dialects  use  der  nämliche  instead  of  the  literary  derselbe. 

e.  The  form  dieser  selbe  is  occasionally  found,  usually  with  a  slight  shade  of  difference,  in 
that  it,  as  the  English  this  same  or  Ms  very  same,  has  more  distinctly  demonstrative  force  and 
conveys  more  emphasis:  Diese  plötzliche  Frage  setzte  das  Mädchen  kaum  in  Erstaunen,  das 
sich  heute  und  gestern  mit  nichts  anderem  als  nur  mit  diesem  selben  Gegenstande  beschäftigt 
hatte  (K.  F.  Aleyer). 

/.  The  form  jener  selbe  that  same  is  occasionally  found:  In  jenem  selben  Jahre  noch  war  es, 
wo  usw.  It  was  in  that  very  same  year  that,  &c. 

B.  Derselbe  has  a  wider  range  of  meanings  than  the  English  the  same  as 
used  in  ordinary  prose.  Besides  its  primary  meaning  it  is  also  used  in  the  fol- 
lowing derived  meanings: 

a.  Derselbe  is  often  used  instead  of  a  personal  pronoun.  See  141.  2,  3,  4,  5. 
B.  b,  6,  7.  This  use  developed  out  of  its  employment  as  a  demonstrative,  which 
was  common  in  early  N.H.G.     See  Note. 

Note.  The  demonstrative  idea  and  that  of  identity  approach  each  other  at  times  very  closely.  In  reply  to  the 
question  Sind  Sie  nicht  Herr  Waldfried,  der  Sohn  des  Bezirksförsters?  the  answer  may  be:  Ich  bin  derselbe,  or 
Der  bin  ich.  From  such  or  similar  cases  derselbe  had  already  in  M.H.G.  assumed  demonstrative  or  determinative 
force,  and  hence  was  strongly  stressed:  Weh  aber  dem  Menschen  |  durch  welchen  des  menschen  Son  verrhaten 
wird  I  Es  were  dem  selben  Menschen  besser  !  das  er  nie  geboren  were  (Mark  xiv.  21).  Wenn  du  in  einem  unge- 
wissen und  zweifelhaften  Werke,  da  du  zweierlei  für  dir  hast,  begriffen,  so  erwehle  (erwähle)  denselben  Teil,  welcher 
am  leichtesten  zu  thun  ist  (Olearius,  Rosenlhal).  Also  used  substantively:  vnd  wenn  du  seinen  Mund  auffthust 
I  wirstu  einen  Stater  finden  |  Den  sellaigen  nim  vnd  gib  jn  fur  mich  und  dich  (Matth.  xvii.  27).  As  can  be  seen  in  the 
first  two  sentences  of  this  N'ote,  both  der  and  derselbe  may  have  the  force  of  emphatic  personal  pronouns.  Both 
of  them  often  lose  their  original  force  and  are  then  used  merely  to  replace  personal  pronouns,  as  described  in  141. 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  B.  6,  6,  7.     The  older  use  of  derselbe  as  a  demonstrative  or  determinative  pure  and  simple  has  in  a  large 


134.  2.  INTERROGATIVE  &  RELATIVE  ADJECTIVES 163 

ni'^asure  disappeared  in  the  literary  language  of  our  time,  surviving  only  in  dialect  (see  A.  d  above):  Aber  ein  neues 
Gewissen  muß  einer  schon  haben,  wenn  er  so  etwas  auf  sich  nehmen  kann,  ein  funkelnagelneues.  Selb  (  =  das )  ist 
meine,  Meinung  Voegtlin's  Das  neue  Gewissen,  p.  SO).  Its  use,  however,  instead  of  the  personal  pronouns  has  in- 
creased.    See  141.  7.   Historical  Note. 

b.  In  the  language  of  monarchical  Germany  derselbe  was  used  in  connection 
with  allerhöchst,  höchst,  hoch  in  addressing  an  emperor,  king,  and  other  poten- 
tates, and  is  still  used  in  case  of  legislative  bodies,  to  replace  as  a  personal  pro- 
noun the  title  Ew.  Kaiserliche  Majestät,  Hoher  Reichstag,  &:c.,  after  it  has  once 
been  used.  The  exact  form  depends  upon  the  title  in  question:  Allerhöchst- 
dieselben (to  the  emperor;  pi.  in  form,  also  with  pi.  verb),  Hochderselbe  (to 
the  Reichstag),  &c. 

Note.  Wherever  derselbe  in  the  cases  in  a  and  h  is  used  to  replace  a  personal 
pronoun  it  is  more  weakly  accented  than  in  the  primary  demonstrative  use. 

2.  Der  nämliche  the  same,  the  very  same,  the  identical  is  inflected  like  der- 
selbe; the  parts,  however,  are  separated  in  writing.  The  parts  of  derselbe 
were  also  written  separately  early  in  the  period.  Der  nämliche  has  a  much 
narrower  range  of  meanings  than  derselbe,  not  being  used  at  all  in  the  groups 
a  and  b  under  1.  B  above.  It  is  sometimes  used  with  the  primary  meaning  of 
derselbe,  sometimes  with  a  different  shade  in  the  sense  of  identical:  unter  dem- 
selben Blau,  über  dem  nämlichen  Grün  (Schiller's  Spaziergang,  199).  Wir 
gehen  tausendmal  den  nämlichen  (identical)  Weg,  aber  nimmer  wieder  den- 
selben (Raabe's  Alte  Nester,  I.  chap.  x). 

133.  Derartig  of  such  a  nature,  strong  or  weak,  or  less  frequently  derart 
uninflected:  derart  or  derartige  Beleidigungen  insults  of  such  a  nature.  Das 
Verhältnis  war  nicht  derart  or  ein  derartiges,  daß  es  Johanna  große  Verlegen- 
heit verursacht  hätte.  Eine  derartige  Schnelligkeit  war  bisher  unerhört. 
Derartiges  kommt  nicht  vor  Such  things  do  not  occur. 

Note.  The  form  derart  or  der  Art  should  remain  uninflected,  as  it  is  in  fact  a  fem.  noun  in  the  gen.  However, 
it  is  sometimes  felt  as  a  demon,  adj.  and  accordingly  inflected:   von  derarten  Maßnabmen  (  Volks-Zeitung). 

Interrogative  and  Relative  Adjectives. 

134.  1.  The  interrogative  adjective  welcher,  welche,  welches  which,  what, 
used  adjectively  or  substantively,  in  questions  direct  or  indirect,  is  always  strong 
when  declined,  but  must  be  uninflected  before  ein,  and  may  be  before  a  descrip- 
tive adjective  and  sometimes  before  a  neut.  noun  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  sing.: 
welcher  Schüler?  welches  edle  Herz?  Welch  edlen  or  more  commonly  welches 
edlen  Mannes  Tat  ist  das?  Ich  möchte  wissen,  welcher  Mann  das  gesagt  hat 
(indirect  question).  The  uninflected  form  is  especially  frequent  in  exclamations: 
Welch  eine  Torheit!  Welch  edler  Mann!  Welch  schönes  Fest!  Welch  or 
more  commonly  welches  Glück!     What  good  fortune! 

2.  The  parts  of  the  interrogative  was  für  ein  (eine,  ein)  what  kind,  used  in 
questions  direct  and  indirect,  are  indeclinable  except  ein,  which  is  declined  as 
the  indefinite  article  when  used  adjectively,  and  like  strong  adjectives  when 
used  substantively:  Was  für  ein  Buch  ist  das?  Ein  deutsches.  Was  für  eins? 
What  kind  of  book  is  that?  A  German  book.  What  kind?  Ich  möchte 
wissen,  was  für  ein  Buch  Sie  lesen  (indirect  question). 

The  ein  drops  out  before  a  noun  denoting  an  abstract  idea  or  a  material  and 
in  the  plural  of  the  adjective  use,  but  in  the  substantive  use  it  is  replaced  thruout 
by  the  strong  indefinite  welch  some:  Was  für  Torheit  treibst  du  da?  Was  für 
Wein  haben  Sie  getrunken?  Wir  haben  starken  Wein  getrunken.  Was  für 
welchen?  What  kind?  Was  für  Bücher  sind  das?  Deutsche  Bücher.  Was 
für  welche?  What  kind?  Er  hat  Freunde,  aber  was  für  welche?  Mit  was  für 
einem  Bleistift  schreibt  er?,  but  Mit  was  für  Bleistiften  schreiben  sie?  The  für 
in  these  examples  is  not  a  preposition,  but  a  particle  introducing  the  following 
appositive.  For  the  history  of  this  construction  and  the  relation  in  meaning 
between  was  für  ein  and  welch-  see  d  below. 

The  use  of  welch-  in  the  substantive  relation  after  names  of  materials  and 
abstract  ideas  and  in  the  plural,  as  found  in  the  above  examples,  is  wide-spread. 
Many,  however,  prefer  to  drop  the  welch-:    Wünschen  Sie  Butter?     Was  für 


164 INTERROGATIVE  &  RELATIVE  ADJECTIX^ES  134.  2. 

haben  Sie?  (instead  of  Was  für  welche  haben  Sie?)  Gelehrsamkeit,  aber  was 
für?  (Goethe).  Ich  kaufte  zwei  Bücher.  Was  für  sind  es?  (instead  of  Was  für 
welche  sind  es? )  Bei  der  Kur  erfuhr  man  gegenseitig  alle  Leiden  und  Schick- 
sale und  was  für!  (Berlepsch's  Fortunats  Roman,  178).  In  popular  language 
eine  is  often  heard  in  the  plural  instead  of  welche  :  In  dem  Park  wachsen  Bäume. 
Was  für  eine? 

When  the  reference  is  not  to  a  material  or  an  abstract  idea,  but  to  a  single 
thing,  was  für  was  is  used  in  the  substantive  relation:  ,,Wie  heißt  er  denn?" 
„Tiberius."  „Was  für  was?"  frug  er,  und  das  Kind  wiederholte  das  Wort 
(Storm's  Bötjer  Basch,  p.  27). 

a.  In  the  nom.  and  acc.  für  can  be  separated  from  was:  Was  ist  das  für  ein  Vogel? 

b.  Was  für  ein  is  often  used  like  welch-  in  exclamations:   Was  für  ein  schönes  Haus! 

c.  In  questions  direct  and  indirect,  also  in  indefinite  or  general  relative  clauses,  was  für, 
often  strengthened  by  the  adverb  alles,  is  used  in  the  general  indefinite  sense  of  what,  what  all, 
what  different,  all  the  various  Cthings,&c.)  which:  Was  ist  das  alles  für  ein  Schreien  und  Toben? 
Was  sind  das  nicht  alles  für  Ausflüchte!  Was  du  dir  doch  alles  für  Sorgen  machst!  Sie  fing 
an,  herzuzählen,  was  alles  für  gute  Dinge  und  schöne  Sachen  im  Hause  seien,  was  sie  selbst 
für  Hauptsachen  in  einer  kleinen  Truhe  besitze. 

d.  In  M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.  was  with  the  partitive  genitive  was  used,  where  we  now 
find  was  für  ein:  Was  Nutzens  hast  du  von  mir?  (Steinhöwel)  In  what  have  you  received  any 
benefit  from  me?  Here  as  elsewhere  the  genitive  passed  over  into  the  appositional  construction, 
later  the  appositive  being  usually  introduced  by  für  (see  252.  2.  A.  b.  (2).  Note):  In  was  Land 
[now  was  für  ein  Land]  ziehen  nicht  die  Zigeiner  (Zigeuner)?  (Fischart,  1590).  Ach,  was  ist's 
ein  Mann!  (Goethe's  Egmont,  1,  Bürgerhaus).  Now,  and  even  in  Goethe's  time,  the  usual  form 
is  Was  ist's  für  ein  Marn!  The  simple  appositional  construction  is,  however,  still  common  in 
colloquial  language,  especially  in  exclamations:  Ei  was  Gewissenhaftigkeit!  (Ludwig's  Zivischen 
Himmel  und  ^Erde,  XIX).  Was  ein  Gesicht!  (M.  Dreyer's  Drei,  3).  O  was  komische  Sachen! 
(id.,  In  Behandlung,  1).  For  a  fuller  history  of  the  construction  see  147.  1.  E.  In  such  sentences 
was  für  ein  may  be  replaced  by  welch  when  it  inquires  after  a  particular  thing:  Welchen  Nutzen 
(what  particular  benefit)  hast  du  von  mir?  There  is  often,  however,  no  difference  between 
was  für  ein  and  welch-,  but  the  growing  tendency  has  been  to  differentiate  the  meanings  of  the 
two  expressions,  the  former  expressing  an  inquiry  after  a  particular  kind  or  sort,  the  latt  er  an 
inquiry  after  a  particular  thing:  Was  für  ein  Pferd  ist  das?  What  kind  of  horse  is  that?  but 
Welches  Pferd  wollen  Sie  reiten?  —  Den  Braunen  Which  horse  are  you  going  to  ride?  —  The  bay. 
In  some  dialects  welcher  is  not  used  here  at  all,  was  für  ein  still  being  used  for  welcher:  Was  for 
en  Mann  is  des?  (dialect  of  Mainz). 

3.  In  indirect  questions  and  exclamations  the  German  has  two  adjective 
forms,  ein  wie,  eine  wie,  ein  wie,  or  ein  welch,  eine  welch,  ein  welch,  wiiich 
correspond  to  English  ivhat  a,  which  is  also  confined  to  indirect  questions  and 
exclamations:  Der  Vorfall  führt  uns  recht  lebhaft  vor  Augen,  eine  wie  gewal- 
tige Wirkung  die  geistUchen  Spiele  zu  ihrer  Zeit  auszuüben  vermochten  (Vogt 
and  Koch's  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Literatur,  p.  248).  Es  ist  erstaunlich, 
ein  welch  intensives  Leben  aus  diesem  Wörterbuch  hervorquillt  {Jahresbericht 
der  germaftischen  Philologie,  33,  163). 

4.  The  early  N.H.G.  form  waser  has  been  entirely  replaced  by  was  für  ein. 
See  147.  I.E. 

135.  The  relative  adj.  welcher,  welche,  welches  is  declined  like  the  inter- 
rogative: Er  sagte  „guten  Tag,"  welchen  Gruß  sie  freundlich  erwiderte;  with 
noun  understood:  Die  Bevölkerung  Rumäniens  besteht  zu  "/s  aus  Rumänen, 
einem  Mischlingsvolke  aus  lateinischen  und  slavischen  Bestandteilen,  welche 
letzteren  (the  latter  of  which)  romanisiert  wurden. 

a.  Welcher  is  usually  a  pure  pronoun  with  the  additional  function  of  a 
subordinate  conjunction,  and  requires  the  verb  at  the  end  of  its  clause.  Even 
as  real  adjectives,  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  enough  of  the  pronominal  and 
conjunctional  nature  is  left  to  require  the  verb  at  the  end. 

Possessives. 

136.  The  possessives  are  mein  my,  dein  thy,  your,  sein  his,  its,  ihr  her,  its 
their,  unser  our,  euer  your,  Ihr  your.  These  words  are  used  either  adjectively 
or  substantively,  but  with  different  inflection  for  each  use.    For  their  use  see  138. 

a.     In  S.G.  dialects  other  possessives  are  in  use:   enker  =  euer  your,  ihner  their,  sonar  their. 


137.  2.  A.  c.      INFLECTION  OF  POSSESSIVE  ADJECTIVES 165 

Declension. 

137.  1.  Used  adjectively  the  possessives  are  inflected  exactly  like  the 
indefinite  article  in  the  sing,  and  like  the  strong  adjective  in  the  pi.:  mein  Hut, 
meine  Feder,  mein  Buch,  dieser  mein  Sohn  this  my  son,  pi.  meine  Hüte, 
Federn,  Bücher.  When  a  strong  pronominal  precedes,  we  sometimes  find  instead 
of  the  correct  strong  form  weak  inflection  of  the  possessive  after  the  analogy  of 
descriptive  adjectives:  in  diesem  unseren  Phantasiestübchen  (Raabe's  Die 
Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  90).  Bei  allem  seinen  großen  Ruhm  (Ebner-Eschen- 
bach's  Glaubenslos,  chap.  iii). 

a.  In  poetr>'  the  uninflected  form  following  the  noun  can  still  be  found :  Steh  auf,  du  Schwester 
mein  (Uhland).  This  word-order  is  also  found  in  the  first  words  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  always 
when  used  as  a  noun:  Vater  unser  usw.  Our  Father,  &c.,  das  Vaterunser  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Also 
the  form  Euer  (sometimes  found  in  the  contracted  form  Ew.,  which  form  is  explained  bv  the 
older  spelling  ewer)  is  still  sometimes  uninflected  when  used  before  a  title  in  direct  address: 
Die  Nachrichten  aus  Paris,  welche  Euer  Excellenz  durch  das  Auswärtige  Amt  mitgeteilt  worden 
sind,  &c.  (General  Tresckow  to  General  Roon);  das  Schreiben  Euer  Hochwürden  vom  25.  v.  M. 
{Graf  von  Bülow  an  den  Missionsinspektor  Herrn  Haußleiter,  Dec.  8,  1904). 

h.  With  reference  to  ruling  princes  and  persons  of  high  rank  we  often  find  in  the  language  of 
monarchical  Germany  höchst  before  the  possessive:  Euerer  Hoheit  und  Liebden  für  Höchstihren 
heutigen  Vortrag  Meinen  aufrichtigen  Dank  auszusprechen,  ist  Mir  Herzensbedürfnis  (Herzog 
Johann  Albrecht  zu  Mecklenburg  an  Herzog  Adolf  Friedrich  zu  Mecklenburg,  Feb.  3,  1912). 

2.  A.  Used  substantively  they  agree  in  gender  with  the  noun  to  which  they 
refer  and  are  inflected  like  a  descriptive  adjective,  and  hence  have  three  forms  — 
the  strong,  the  weak,  and  in  the  predicate  the  uninflected  form. 

a.  When  standing  alone  without  a  preceding  limiting  adjective  they  are, 
especially  in  familiar  language,  inflected  like  strong  adjectives,  except  in  the  gen. 
of  the  masc,  and  neut.  sing.,  where  they  still  have  the  strong  form  es  instead  of 
the  wk.  en  (see  106.  Note  1):  nom.  meiner,  meine,  meines,  &c.  Ist  das  Ihr  Hut 
oder  ist  es  meiner?  Mein  Bruder  und  seiner,  unser  Haus  und  Ihres. 

h.  If  preceded  by  the  def.  article,  which  form  is  now  a  favorite  substitute  for 
the  simple  possessive  (see  a  above),  they  are  declined  exactly  as  the  wk.  adj.: 
der  meine,  die  meine,  das  meine;  mein  Bruder  und  der  seine,  meine  Schwester 
und  die  seine,  mein  Buch  und  das  seine. 

Often  the  stem  mein,  dein,  &c.  is  lengthened  by  adding  ig  and  then  inflected 
in  the  same  way:  der  meinige,  die  meinige,  das  meinige;  Unser  Haus  und  das 
Ihrige.  These  lengthened  forms  have  gradually  established  themselves  since 
the  sixteenth  century  and  have  now,  perhaps,  become  more  common  than  the 
unlengthened  ones.  The  latter,  however,  are  in  no  wise  felt  as  unusual,  and  are 
even  favorites  in  choice  prose  or  poetry:  Wenn  Ihr  Gesetz  denn  anders  lautet 
als  das  meine,  so  kann  ich  nur  dem  meinen  folgen.  Lieber  will  ich  ein  gequälter 
Sünder  bleiben  als  eine  Puppe  in  der  Hand  meiner  Mutter  oder  in  der  Ihren 
(H.  Hoft'mann's  Rittmeister). 

Note.  This  possessive  form  with  the  article  is  now  only  used  substantively,  but  this  is  only  a  modern  differentia- 
tion.    In  M.H.G.  it  is  also  used  attributively  before  the  noun:  die  sine  riche  geste  {Nibelungenlied,  Aventiure  9). 

c.  These  possessives,  with  the  exception  of  ihr  her,  their,  Ihr  your,  which  are 
now  usually  inflected  or  replaced  by  some  other  construction,  may  like  descrip- 
tive adjectives  remain  uninflected  in  the  predicate  after  the  intransitives  sein, 
werden,  bleiben,  scheinen,  and  sometimes  gehören  (not  only  colloquially,  as 
often  stated,  but  occasionally  even  in  elevated  discourse),  and  as  an  objective 
predicate  after  nennen,  wissen,  glauben,  fühlen,  empfinden,  machen,  &c., 
if  they  express  the  abstract  or  general  idea  of  ownership,  authorship,  but  they  are 
inflected  strong  or  weak  if  it  is  simply  desired  to  indicate  that  the  thing  represent- 
ed by  the  predicate  is  identical  with  that  represented  by  the  subject:  Was  euer 
ist,  soll  euer  bleiben  What  is  yours  shall  remain  yours.  Der  Wagen  ist  nur  halb 
mein.  Das  Geld  ist  sein.  Der  Tag  ist  unser  (Liliencron's  KriegsnoveUen,  battle 
of  Vionville).  So  lang  das  Schwert  ich  schwinge,  |  gehört,  was  ich  besitze, 
Herr,  auch  dein!  (M.  Greifs  Heinrich  der  Löwe,  1,  2).  Dein  g'hört  alles  da 
herum  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Glaubenslos,  chap.  vii).  Mein  scheint  die  Schuld, 
doch  weiß  ich  sie  dein.  Der  Mensch  hat  nur  sich  selber  sein  zu  nennen  (P.  Heyse) . 


166 INFLECTION  &  FUNCTION  OF  POSSESSIVES    137.  2.  A.c. 

Earlier  in  the  period  also  ihr  was  used  predicatively,  but  it  is  also  possible  to  con- 
strue this  form  in  early  N.H.G.  as  a  gen.  of  the  personal  pronoun  (  see  140.  &), 
and  later  in  the  period,  where  the  reference  is  to  one  woman,  as  a  dative  of  the 
personal  pronoun  (see  258.  1.  A.  c):  Selig  sind  |  die  da  geistlich  arm  sind  I  Denn 
das  Himmelreich  ist  jr  (Matth.  v.  3).  Sagen  Sie  meinem  Fränzchen,  daß  ich 
noch  immer  ihr  bin  (Goethe  to  K.  Fabricius,  June  27,  1770).  Ihr  bin  ich,  bildend 
soll  sie  mich  besitzen  (id.,  Tasso,  2,  2).  Instead  of  Ihr  and  ihr  in  the  predicate 
we  now  often  find  Ihre  and  ihrer  (see  Note  2  below).  Perhaps  most  people 
would  avoid  this  construction  here  and  use  another. 

But  inflection  for  the  expression  of  identity:  Mein  Geschmack  ist  immer 
auch  der  seine  (Fulda's  Talisman,  2,  6).  Er  wollte  Reilands  Sache  auch  weiter- 
hin die  seine  bleiben  lassen  (Fedor  Sommer's  Ernst  Reiland,  p.  -iOö).  Sein  Los 
ist  uns'res!  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  III,  lY,  4).  Die  Wünsche,  die  sie  hegt,  sind 
auch  die  meinen  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  III,  8).  Compare  these  last  exam- 
ples with  Ihr  habt  mich  auserwählt  zu  Eurem  Führer,  j  mein  wurde  Euer  Wille, 
Eure  Tat  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows,  2). 

Nole  1.  If  the  subject  is  er,  sie,  es,  the  uninflected  form  of  the  possessive  is  usually  employed  in  the  predicate; 
but  if  situation  es  (141.  9.  a),  wliich  does  not  change  form  for  gender  and  number,  is  made  subject,  the  inflected  sul)- 
stantive  forms  must  be  used:  Wem  gehört  der  Hut  —  die  Feder  —  das  Buch?     Answer:  Er  ist  mein  —  sie  ist  mein 

es  ist  mein;    or  es  ist  meiner  (der  meinige  or  der  meine)  — meine  (die  meinige  or  die  meine)  — meines  (das 

meinige  or  das  meine),  and  in  the  pl.:  es  (spealcing  of  hats,  pens,  books)  sind  meine  (diemeinigen  or  die  meinen). 
The  uninflected  form  emphasizes  the  idea  of  possession,  and  the  inflected  form  that  of  identity.  Even  if  the  subject 
is  er,  sie,  or  es,  the  inflected  form  must  be  used  if  the  idea  of  identity  is  prominent:  Dein  Weg  ist  krumm,  er  ist  der 
meine  nicht  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  2,  7).  Also  here  the  uninflected  form  emphasizes  the  idea  of  possession 
and  the  inflected  form  that  of  identity. 

Nole  2.  In  familiar  conversation  still,  especially  in  the  Midland  and  North,  and  also  in  the  classics,  there  is  an 
uninflected  form  in  the  predicate  which  in  case  of  ihr  her,  ihr  their,  Ihr  your  ends  in  e,  as  ihre,  Ihre,  which  is  a  sur- 
vival of  the  M.H.G.  form  ire,  employed  in  the  Midland  for  the  usual  M.H.G.  ir,  the  fern.  gen.  sing,  and  the  gen.  pl. 
of  the  personal  pronoun  si  (sie):  Ich  fürchte  fast,  daß  dieses  Frauenzimmer  niemals  Ihre  wird  (Schiller).  Mein  ist 
alles,  was  sonst  ihre  war  (Grillparzer's  Ollokar,  2).  Das  [das  Kruzifix]  ist  nun  Ihre  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm. 
IV.  26).  Trud  und  Gerdt  schritten  langsam  die  lange  Straße  hinunter,  bis  an  das  Mindesche  Haus,  das  nun  ihre  war 
(id.,  Grete  Minde,  chap.  vii).  'Wir  denka  halt  alle,  das  Mädchen  war'  Ihre  (Hauptmann's  Fuhrmann  Henschel,  Act  2). 
This  is  a  survival  of  older  periods  when  there  was  no  possessive  adjective  for  the  fern.  3rd  person  and  for  the  3rd  pers. 
pl.,  altho  there  were  elsewhere  regular  adjective  possessive  forms.  The  possessive  idea  was  in  these  places,  where 
special  forms  were  lacking,  expressed  by  the  gen.  of  the  personal  pronoun.  The  surviving  pronominal  forms  ihre, 
Ihre  were,  however,  after  the  formation  of  a  possessive  adjective  for  the  3rd  pers.  fem.  and  3rd  pers.  pi.,  construed  as 
a  weak  predicate  adjective,  and  hence  similar  forms  were  sometimes  made  from  the  other  possessives:  Sie  doch  we- 
nigstens wissen,  daß  das,  was  meine  ist,  auch  Ihre  ist  (Lessing). 

Instead  of  the  colloquial  ihre  we  lind  in  choice  language  the  form  ihrer,  the  modern  genitive  of  the  personal  pro- 
noun sie:  Wir  selbst,  als  Schwestern  deiner  Fürstin  gleich,  |  gehorchen  ihr,  weil  ihrer  ward  das  Reich  (Grillparzer's 
Libussa,  3).  Deim  ihrer  (i.e.  der  Leidenschaften)  ist  ja  das  Reich  und  die  Herrlichkeit  der  Welt  (Raabe's  Schüd- 
derump,  chap.  xii).     Ihrer  ist  die  Schuld,  — ganz  allein  ihrer!  (Telmann's  Wahrheit,  X). 

B.  These  possessives  can  also  be  used  as  real  substantives  without  antecedent, 
in  which  case  they  are  written  with  capitals,  with  inflection  as  follows: 

a.  Referring  to  one's  relatives,  friends,  party  associates,  and  also,  in 
neut.  form,  to  one's  property  or  duty,  they  are  inflected  weak:  Er  lebt  nur  für 
die  Seinigen  He  only  lives  for  his  family.  Die  Meinigen  werden  erfreut  sein, 
die  Ihrigen  zu  begrüßen  My  folks  will  be  glad  to  greet  yours.  Die  —  Meinigen? 
Ich  habe  keine  Meinen  (Wildenbruch's  König  Laurin,  3,  1).  Die  drei  ver- 
bündeten Herrscher  hielten  selbst  auf  einer  Anhöhe  in  der  Nähe  und  sahen 
die  übermenschlichen  Anstrengungen  der  Ihrigen.  In  letters:  Ganz  der 
Ihrige,  die  Deinige.  Meine  Schwester  hat  all  das  ihrige  verloren  My 
sister  has  lost  all  her  property.  Ich  habe  das  Meinige  getan  I  have  done 
my  duty. 

Note.  Provinciallv  these  substantives  may  be  heard  strong:  Meiner  my  husband,  my  master.  Meine  my  wife, 
my  mistress.  Die  hat  eine  Kusin,  der  Ihrer  (whose  husband)  trifft  nur  alle  vier  Wochen  einmal  nach  Haus  (Ebner- 
Eschenbach's  Rillmeister  Brand,  V). 

h.  The  short  forms  Mein,  Dein,  &c.  are  uninflected  neut.  substantives  when 
used  in  the  abstract  or  general  sense  of  possession,  right  of  possession:  Streit  urn 
Mein  und  Dein  contention  as  to  what  is  mine  and  yours.  Dein  und  Mein  bringt 
alles  Unglück  herein  Contention  as  to  the  right  of  possession  of  property  brings 
about  a  good  deal  of  misfortune. 

Note.  From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  aside  from  the  special  case  in 
B.  b,  above,  there  are  four  substantive  forms  for  the  predicate,  but  only  three 
for  the  subject,  while  there  is  only  one  form  for  the  adj.  use:  Das  Buch  ist  mein, 
meines,  das  meine,  or  das  meinige  (predicate).  Ihr  (adj.)  Buch  ist  neuer  als 
meines,  das  meine,  or  das  meinige  (subject.) 


138.  2.  a. USE    OF    POSSESSIVE   ADJECTIVES 167 

Use. 

138.  The  following  points  as  to  the  use  of  possessives  may  be  of  practical 
value : 

1.  As  there  are  three  forms  corresponding  to  the  three  forms  for  the  second 
person  of  the  personal  pronoun,  care  must  be  exercised  as  to  their  proper  use. 
Dein  your,  thy  is  the  form  of  the  possessive,  corresponding  to  the  familiar  form 
du  (140.  a) :  Du  wirst  das  Deine  empfangen  You  will  get  what  is  due  you.  Ich 
habe  mein  Buch  vergessen;  leihe  (du)  mir  deines.  The  form  of  the  possessive 
corresponding  to  Sie,  the  polite  form  of  address,  is  Ihr:  Wo  haben  Sie  Ihren 
Überrock  gekauft?  The  form  of  the  possessive  corresponding  to  ihr,  the  familiar 
address  to  two  or  more,  is  euer:  Ich  rate  euch,  bekümmert  ihr  euch  mit  euren 
Angehörigen  nicht  um  meine,  sondern  um  eure  Angelegenheiten.  Thus  in 
familiar  language  dein  or  euer  is  used  according  as  the  address  is  to  one  or  more 
persons,  but  each  must  agree  in  gender,  number,  and  case  with  the  following 
noun  which  it  limits:  dein  Buch  your  (speaking  to  one  friend)  book,  pi.  deine 
Bücher  your  books;  euer  Buch  your  (speaking  to  several  friends  who  own  one 
book)  book,  pi.  eure  Bücher  your  books. 

All  pronouns  and  their  corresponding  possessives  are  written  wnth  capitals 
when  employed  in  direct  address  in  letters  (not  usually,  however,  elsewhere 
except  in  case  of  the  polite  form  of  address):  Lieber  Bruder!  Ich  habe  seit 
Deinem  letzten  Hiersein  keine  Nachricht  von  Dir  erhalten.  The  polite  form 
of  address  Sie  (with  reference  to  one  or  more)  and  the  corresponding  possessive 
Ihr  are  always  written  with  a  capital,  and  usually  also  the  other  forms  of  con- 
ventional address  explained  in  140.  a.  Note,  namely  Er,  Sie  (fem.  sing.),  Ihr 
(with  reference  to  one  or  more)  along  with  their  corresponding  possessives 
Sein,  Ihr,  Euer.  Usage,  however,  fluctuates  here  at  several  points,  some  using 
capitals  more  freely,  others  more  sparingly. 

a.  In  the  language  of  monarchical  Germany  in  addressing  potentates,  dignitaries,  kings,  &c., 
the  usual  possessive  is  Euer,  altho  the  corresponding  personal  pronoun  is  no  longer  Ihr:  Mein 
Herz  weissagt,  Ew.  (=  Euer)  Durchlaucht  werden  die  Erhaltung  meines  Lebens,  das  ganz 
Ihnen  gehört,  nicht  verschmähen  und  mich  auch  in  der  Feme  als  Ihren  unveräußerten  Untertanen 
betrachten  wollen  (Voss  to  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg,  May  20,  1S02).  Ich  gebe  mich  gerne  der 
Hoffnung  hin,  daß  Eure  Heiligkeit,  wenn  von  der  wahren  Lage  unterrichtet,  Ihre  Autorität 
werden  anwenden  usw.  (Kaiser  Wilhelm  an  den  Papst,  Sept.  3,  1873).  Notice  here,  however, 
that  Euer  is  used  only  immediately  before  the  title,  and  is  elsewhere  replaced  by  Ihr.  Sein,  Ihr, 
and  Ihre  (uninflected)  were  earlier  in  the  period  also  used  here  like  Euer.     See  140.  a.  Note. 

2.  There  are  two  pronominals  for  the  third  person.  Referring  either  to  a 
masc.  or  neut.  noun,  sein  is  used  and  hence  must  be  translated  by  his,  one's,  or 
its:  Er  hat  sein  Schläfchen  gemacht  He  has  taken  his  nap.  Man  kennt  nicht 
immer  seine  wahren  Freunde  One  does  not  always  know  one's  true  friends. 
Jedes  Land  hat  seine  Vorzüge  Every  land  has  its  advantages.  When  the 
reference  is  to  a  neut.  collective  noun,  the  German  possessive  is  sein,  which  must 
in  some  cases  be  translated  by  their:  Das  Volk  bestand  auf  seine  Rechte  The 
people  insisted  upon  their  rights.  The  form  ihr  may  mean  in  English  her,  its, 
their.  If  it  refers  to  a  female,  it  is  to  be  translated  by  her:  Marie  schreibt  ihren 
Aufsatz  Mary  is  writing  her  essay.  If  it  refers  to  a  thing  of  fem.  gender,  it  is 
translated  by  its:  Die  Sache  hat  ihre  gute  Seite  The  affair  has  its  bright  side. 
If  it  refers  to  more  than  one,  it  is  translated  by  their:  Die  Mädchen  schreiben 
ihre  Aufsätze  The  girls  are  writing  their  essays. 

a.  The  adverbial  expression  seinerzeit  is  used  with  reference  to  a  word  in  the  first,  second, 
or  third  person,  sing,  or  pi.,  masc,  fem.,  or  neut.,  with  the  meaning  171  our  {your,  his,  her,  its)  day 
or  time,  once  upon  a  proper  occasion  in  connection  with  a  past  tense,  and  in  due  time  or  season  in 
connection  with  a  reference  to  a  future  time:  Wir  waren  seinerzeit  auch  rüstige  Bergsteiger  We 
were  also  in  our  time  (lit.  in  its  time,  in  the  time  for  it)  sturdy  mountain  climbers.  Diese  Kirche 
galt  seinerzeit  (in  its  day)  für  die  schönste  der  Stadt.  Seine  Abhandlung  über  Cynips  scutel- 
laris,  die  Gallapfelwespe,  machte  seinerzeit  (at  the  time  of  publication)  in  den  betreffenden 
Kreisen  Aufsehen  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  10).  Meine  Frau  sagte  seinerzeit 
(once  upon  a  proper  occasion):  „Guter  Gott,  wie  dankbar  können  wir  doch  sein,  daß  du  nicht 
'  so  warst  wie  die  beiden  anderen  von  euch"  (ib.).  Ich  werde  seinerzeit  (in  due  season)  auf  die 
Sache  zurückkommen.     Das  wirst  du  seinerzeit  (in  due  time)  erfahren.     Some  prefer  here  to 


168  POSSESSn'ES  REPLACED  BY  DEMONSTRATIVES     138.  2.  a. 

select  the  possessive  accordinej  to  the  gender,  person,  and  number  of  the  word  to  which  it  refers: 
Eine  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Volkes,  welche  an  Stelle  der  ihrer  Zeit  tüchtigen  .  .  .  Geschichte 
der  Teutschen  von  Pfitzer  treten  soll  {Augsb.  Allg.).  This  is  especially  the  case  to  bring  out  a 
contrast:  Auch  Gärten,  die  aneinander  grenzten  .  .  .  gab  es  da  noch  zu  unserer  Zeit,  als  die 
Stadt  noch  nicht  das  ,, erste  Hunderttausend"  überschritten  hatte  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogel- 
safigs,  p.  8). 

b.  The  possessives,  like  the  personal  pronouns,  may  be  used  reflexlvely  referring  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  sentence,  and  when  the  subject  is  pi.  may  also  be  used  reciprocally :  Ich  fördere  meine, 
du  förderst  deine,  er  fördert  seine,  sie  fördert  ihre  Interessen  I  further  my,  you  further  your, 
he  furthers  his,  she  furthers  her  interests.  Sie  fördern  ihre  Interessen  They  further  their  own 
interests,  or  it  may  mean  their  mutual  interests. 

In  case  of  the  third  person  of  the  reflexive  possessive  and  the  reciprocal  possessive  thruout, 
the  reference  cannot  always  be  made  clear  by  the  use  of  the  simple  pronominal.  It  may  not  be 
clear  whether  sein  his  and  ihr  her  refer  to  the  subject  or  to  another  part}',  and  whether  unser  07ir, 
euer,  Ihr  your,  ihr  their,  are  to  be  considered  as  personal,  reflexive,  or  reciprocal  pronominals. 
hence  it  is  often  necessary  to  add  eigen  own  to  the  reflexive  and  gegenseitig  mutual  to  the  recipro- 
cal possessive:  Er  fördert  seine  eigenen  Interessen.     Sie  fördern  ihre  gegenseitigen  Interessen. 

Note.  In  careless  and  in  popular  language  sein  is  sometimes  found  as  a  reflexive  possessive,  referring  indifferently 
to  a  fern.,  ma^c.  or  pi.  noun  instead  of  the  usual  sein  for  the  masc,  ihr  for  the  fem.  and  pi.:  Die  Untersuchung  wider 
Sonzognos  Mörder  geht  seinen  regelmäßigen  Gang  (  Volkszeitung,  23.  39).  Alle  diese  tendenziösen  Stellen  mußten 
seine  fulminante  Wirkung  üben  (ib.,  24,  56). 

c.  In  IM.H.G.  and  even  as  late  as  the  classical  period  of  N.H.G.  we  find  a  pleonastic  possessive 
of  the  third  person  in  conjunction  with  the  gen.  of  a  noun:  an  des  Illo  (name)  seinem  Stuhl 
(Schiller),  des  Teufels  sein  Angesicht.  Often  where  in  the  literary  language  of  to-day  the 
genitive  is  dependent  upon  a  form  of  the  determinative  der,  or  where  some  other  construction 
must  be  used:  Da,  nimm  meinen  Ring,  verwahre  ihn  und  gib  mir  des  Majors  seinen  (for  gib 
mir  den  des  Majors)  dafür  (Lessing's  Minna,  4,  5).  This  construction  is  still  found  in  colloquial 
and  popular  speech,  but  the  dative  which  has  also  been  in  use  for  a  long  time  and  has  l)een  steadily 
gaining  ground  has  become  more  common  here  than  the  genitive:  Da  schlägt  FrÜz'  seine  Pendule 
elf  Uhr  (Moltke  in  a  letter).  Du  bist  meine  Frau  und  nicht  der  Diplomaten  ilire  (Bismarck's 
Briefe  an  seine  Braut  und  Gattin,  May  14,  1851).  Meiers  (gen.  of  a  name)  ihr  Haus  ist  schön. 
In  Meiers  ihrem  Hause  gefällt  mir's  gut.  Gegen  dem  seine  Weisheit  (Lessing).  Wem  sein 
Hut  ist  das?  for  the  literary  form  Wessen  Hut  ist  das?  Es  ist  dem  Wilhelm  seiner  for  Er  gehört 
dem  Wilhelm.  Dem  Vogel  seine  Federn,  dem  Hans  sein  Hut,  dem  sein  Hut,  der  ihr  Kind,  &c. 
Für  meinem  Feldwebel  seine  Frau  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten).  Ich  will  dem  Mathes  (name) 
seine  Kinder  sehen  (ib.).  Du  hast  eine  gute  Stirn,  ganz  wie  dem  Väterchen  seine  (Schulze- 
Smidt's  Denk'  ich  an  Deutschland  in  der  Nacht,  II). 

The  dative  construction  has  arisen  out  of  the  dative  of  interest  (258.  3.  B).  From  dem  Vater 
ist  sein  Haus  abgebrannt  has  come  Dem  Vater  sein  Haus  ist  abgebrannt.  The  dative  is  now 
naturally  the  favorite  in  popular  speech  as  the  genitive  is  in  general  little  used  there. 

d.  The  demon,  genitives  dessen  his,  deren  her,  their,  are  much  used  instead  of  the  declined 
forms  of  sein  and  ihr  to  avoid  ambiguity,  dessen,  deren  referring  to  an  oljlique  case,  and  sein, 
ihr  to  the  subject:  Sie  sprach  viel  von  ihrer  Schwester  und  erzählte  viel  von  deren  Schicksalen 
She  spoke  much  of  her  sister  and  related  a  good  deal  of  her  (i.e.  the  sister's)  experiences.  But 
if  the  reference  is  to  her  own  experiences,  it  should  read:  von  ihren  Schicksalen.  Der  Graf  hat 
diesem  Manne  und  dessen  Sohne  alles  anvertraut  The  count  has  entrusted  all  to  this  man  and 
his  (the  latter's)  son.  But  if  the  reference  is  to  the  count's  own  son,  it  must  read:  seinem  Sohne. 
Also  derselbe  can  be  used  instead  of  dessen,  deren  in  such  cases.  Der  Graf  hat  diesem  Manne 
und  dem  Sohn  desselben  alles  anvertraut. 

Dessen,  deren  are  also  used  in  a  following  independent  proposition  instead  of  the  possessive 
when  the  reference  is  to  a  nom.  or  an  oblique  case  in  a  preceding  independent  or  subordinate 
proposition:  Ablativ  und  Lokativ  sind  am  frühesten  untergegangen,  schon  in  urgermanischer 
Zeit,  und  die  übrig  gebliebenen  Kasus  mußten  deren  frühere  Aufgaben  mit  vertreten  (Behaghel's 
Die  deutsche  Sprache,  p.  316,  2nd  ed.).  Zuletzt  trat  Heinrich  in  diesem  trauernden  Hause  fast 
ganz  in  die  Stelle,  die  Rudolf  eingenommen  hatte.  Er  wohnte  in  dessen  Stube,  er  benutzte 
dessen  Bücher  (Raabe). 

Dessen  and  deren  are  also  used  elsewhere  instead  of  sein  to  avoid  ambiguity:  die  Gräfin,  ihre 
Verwalterin  und  deren  (i.e.  the  latter's)  Tochter. 

Dessen  and  deren  are  often  used  of  persons  of  high  rank  or  position  even  where  no  ambiguity 
would  arise  by  the  use  of  sein,  ihr:  der  König  und  dessen  Gemahlin.  The  use  of  dessen  and 
deren  is  not  thus  limited  to  persons  of  rank:  Es  unterschreibt  der  Vater  oder  dessen  Stellver- 
treter {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Feb.  19,  1905).  In  IM.H.G.  the  use  of  the  demonstrative  was 
common  where  a  possessive  is  now  employed.  Later  a  differentiation  between  possessive  and 
demonstrative  developed,  as  described  above,  but  as  in  the  last  two  German  examples  older 
undifferentiated  usage  still  lingers  on. 

e.  Instead  of  the  possessive  the  demonstrative  der  or  derselbe  is  much  used  if  the  reference 
is  to  things:  Sie  legte  die  Hand  auf  den  Stein  und  empfand  dessen  Wärme  or  die  Wärme  des- 
selben rather  than  seine  Wärme.  Meine  Absichten  will  ich  verteidigen,  nicht  deren  künstlerische 
Ausführung  (Fulda's  Die  Kameraden,  Vorwort). 

/.  Earlier  in  the  period  Ihr  or  the  uninflected  Ihre  was  used  instead  of  Sein  his,  when  the 
reference  was  to  a  person  with  a  high  title,  as  it  was  thought  proper  to  use  a  possessive  which 
would  accord  with  the  fern,  title  or  the  plural  form  of  the  verb:  Ich  bin  kein  Rebell,  habe  gegen 


139.  1.  d. INDEFINITE    NUMERALS 169 

Ihro  Kaiserliche  Majestät  nichts  verbrochen  (Goethe's  Götz,  4,  2).  We  now  say  here  Seine 
Majestät,  with  reference  to  the  ciueen  or  empress  Ihre  Majestät.  With  reference  to  a  preceding 
fern,  title,  Ihr  is  still  used  to  indicate  males.     See  263.  I.  3. 

3.  The  possessive  is  often  in  German  replaced  by  the  article  in  connection 
with  the  dative  of  a  personal  pronoun.  For  examples  of  this  usage  see  258. 
3.  B.  a.  The  simple  article  without  the  personal  pronoun  is  often  employed 
instead  of  a  possessive,  provided  no  ambiguity  could  arise  thereby:  Sie  hatte 
die  Blumen  in  der  Hand  She  had  the  floivers  in  her  hand. 

Also  dessen,  deren,  and  derselben  may  under  certain  circumstances  replace 
the  possessive,  as  explained  in  2.  d  and  e  above. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  possessives  are  used  in  some  expressions  in  German 
where  they  are  omitted  in  English:  Meine  Herren!  Gentlemen!  Meine  Damen! 
Ladies!  Sie  werden  Ihren  Ärger  mit  ihm  haben  You  will  have  a  good  deal  of 
trouble  with  him.  Er  hat  seine  liebe  Not  mit  dem  Reden  He  has  a  good  deal  of 
difhculty  in  speaking.  In  popular  and  colloquial  language  the  possessive  is  a 
favorite  and  is  often  used  even  where  it  does  not  seem  necessary:  Seine  siebenzig 
Jahre  hat  er  bald  gut  auf  dem  Nacken  (Raabe's  Meister  Autor,  chap,  xviii). 
Der  Ring  ist  seine  100  Mark  wert.  This  unnecessary  use  of  the  possessive  is 
especially  frequent  in  the  popular  constructions  described  in  2.  c  above,  and 
in  258.  3.  B.  a. 

4.  Notice  the  difference  of  idiom  in  the  two  languages  In  the  following  ex- 
pressions: ein  Verwandter  von  Ihnen  a  relative  of  yours,  ein  Freund  von  mir 
a  friend  of  mine.  Die  Sperlinge  sind  noch  mein  Tod  (H.  Seidel's  Eme  Sperlings- 
geschichte) The  sparrows  will  be  the  death  of  me  yet. 

Indefinite   Numerals. 

139.  The  indefinites,  which  are  used  adjectively  or  substantively,  may  be 
divided  into  three  groups: 

1.     The  following  contain  the  idea  of  number: 

a.  'aller'hand  all  kinds  of,  every  kind  of,  uninflected:  allerhand  gute  Weine, 
mit  allerhand  guten  Weinen,  allerhand  guter  Wein,  mit  allerhand  Flitter  ge- 
schmückt, allerhand  UnverständUches.  Substantively:  einem  allerhand  mit- 
teilen. See  161.  4.  The  stress  here  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  adjectives  in  47. 
3.  A.  h.  cc. 

Note.  This  form  is  in  fact  a  modern  compound  consisting  of  the  noun  hand  kind  in  the  gen.  pi.  and  its  modifying 
adjective,  which  in  M.H.G.  were  written  apart:   aller  bände  of  all  kinds. 

b.  'aller'lei  all  kinds  of,  roery  kind  of,  uninflected:  allerlei  gute  Weine, 
mit  allerlei  guten  Weinen,  allerlei  guter  Wein,  allerlei  Unverständliches. 
Sie  fuhren  in  allerlei  Gefährt  (Ilse  Frapan's  Mamsell  Biene).  Substantively: 
Sie  sprechen  von  allerlei.  Da  hat  man  denn  allerlei  solchen  Klatsches  ge- 
hört, der  dich  vielleicht  auch  interessiert  (Frau  von  Thadden  in  a  letter,  March 
23,  1863,  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Dec.  1911,  p.  373).  See  also  126.  1.  a.  For 
accent  see  47.  3.  A.  b.  cc. 

c.  ander-  other,  str.  and  wk. :  ein  and(e)rer  Mann;  der  and(e)re  Mann; 
and(e)re  Männer;  ein  and(e)rer  another  (man);  eine  and(e)re  Frau;  ein 
and(e)res  Buch;  am  anderen  (see  122.  1,  '2nd')  Tage  the  next  day.  Wollen 
Sie  noch  eine  (not  eine  andere )  Tasse  Tee  haben? 

Note.  Altho  in  the  literary  language  ander  in  expressions  of  time  points  to  the  future,  it  may  in  dialect,  as  also  in 
literary  English,  point  to  the  past.  Compare:  I  saw  him  the  other  day.  This  usage  is  also  found  in  older  literary 
German:  da?  ist  mir  durch  den  linappen  leit,  |  ders  andern  lages  {the  day  before)  mit  züchten  reit  |  und  Gawan  sagte 
maere  (Parzival,  381.  4-7). 

d.  beid-  both,  str.  and  wk. :  beide  Hände,  or  die  beiden  Hände,  die  (or  meine, 
diese,  jene)  beiden  Knaben  both  of  the  (or  my,  these,  those)  boys.  The  neut. 
sing,  is  used  collectively,  embracing  two  nouns  or  the  ideas  contained  in  two 
verbs:  beides.  Brief  und  Paket  both  letter  and  package.  Er  irrte  sich  in  bei- 
dem  He  was  mistaken  in  both  points.  Das  beides  ist  richtig  Both  points  are 
correct.  Wir  müssen  büßen  und  wir  können  sühnen;  diese  Frau  hat  es  beides 
getan  (Ompteda's  Frieden,  chap.  xiii).  Much  used  in  idiomatic  com.binations: 
wir  beide,  or  less  commonly  beide  wir  both  of  us,  diese  beiden  Knaben  more 


170 INDEFINITE    NUMERALS 139.  l.d. 

common  than  diese  Knaben  beide,  or  beide  diese  Knaben,  the  latter  forms, 
however,  being  more  emphatic;  keiner  von  beiden  neither  of  them,  alle  beide 
(or  in  popular  and  colloquial  language  zwei  beide,  or  alle  zwei  beide)  both  of 
them,  welche  beide  both  of  which. 

Nole  1.  Following  pronouns,  the  inflection  of  beid-  is  strong  except  after  wir  and  ihr,  where  after  the  manner 
of  descriptive  adjectives  we  also  find  the  weak  inflection,  and  even  more  frequently  so  after  ihr:  wir  beide  (Raabe), 
wir  zwei  beide  iP.  O.  Höcker's  Dodi,  i),  wir  beiden  verlornen  (M.  Halbe ),  ihr  beide  (Grillparzer's  König  Oltokar,  i ), 
iiir  beiden  Narren  (Raabe),  ihr  beiden  fHauptmann's  Miiiiad  Kramer,  3),  dies  beides  both  of  these,  das  beides 
both  of  those,  alles  beides  both.  Sein  Tod  ist  ein  schwerer  Schlag  für  die  Gemahlin  und  für  die  Königin,  die  beide 
(both  of  whom )  niedergeschmettert  sind. 

Note  2.  Beide,  alle,  and  often  jeder  (see  last  example  in  1st  par.  of /below)  have  a  position  in  the  sentence  differ- 
ing sometimes  from  English:  (1)  They  usually  follow  pronouns,  standing  in  the  appositional  construction,  when  all 
are  embraced  in  the  statement:  Ich  kann  nicht  Ihnen  allen  helfen  I  cannot  help  all  of  you  (or  as  in  German  you  all). 
Sie  schickten  mir  Handschuhe,  welche  mir  alle  zu  groß  sind  You  sent  me  gloves  all  of  which  are  too  large  for  me. 
For  examples  of  the  position  of  beide  see  examples  in  A'ole  1  above.  When  a  partitive  idea  is  to  be  expressed,,  they 
usually  stand  in  the  dat.  after  von:  Einer  von  beiden  kommt  One  of  the  two  will  come.  (2)  They  may  for  emphasis 
follow  a  noun:  Ich  sah  die  Eltern  beide  I  saw  both  of  the  parents.  Er  wandte  sich  von  seinen  Freunden  allen  ab. 
(3)  When  they  are  modifiers  of  the  subject  they  may  for  emphasis  stand  after  the  verb:  Die  Schuldigen  verstummten 
alle  Every  one  of  the  guilty  ones  became  silent.  Deine  Eltern  sind  beide  wohl  Both  of  your  parotis  are  well,  or  as  in 
German  Your  parents  are  both  well.  (4)  For  especial  emphasis  they  may,  when  they  are  modifiers  of  the  subject,  also 
stand  first  in  the  sentence  followed  by  the  verb  and  later  by  the  subject:  Alle  wollen  sie  des  Kaisers  Antlitz  sehen 
(Wildenbruch's  Kaiser  Heinrieh,  2,  2).  Beide  standen  wir  am  Fenster.  (5)  Beide  differing  from  alle  now  usually 
follows  a  gen.,  a  possessive,  or  other  pronominal:  aU  seines  Vaters  Gut  and  alle  meine  Bücher,  but  meines  Vaters 
beide  Güter  and  mit  meinen  beiden  Augen.  Earlier  in  the  period,  however,  beid-  might  also  precede:  beiden  seinen 
Frauen  (Luther),  von  beiden  diesen  Punkten  (Lessing).  This  older  word-order  is  still  occasionally  found  and  indeed 
Sanders  in  his  Hauptselnvierigkeilen,  p.  G7  recommends  it  for  present  usage  where  beid-  is  to  be  made  emphatic. 
Beid-  still  regularly  precedes  the  possessive  when  it  is  itself  preceded  by  the  article:  Meinert  hatte  überrascht  die 
Hand  seines  Besuchers,  die  er  bis  dahin  in  den  beiden  seinen  gehalten,  losgelassen  (Telmann's  Wahrheit,  I).  The 
first  examples  in  (5)  show  how  beide  in  a  greater  degree  than  alle  is  becoming  more  like  attributive  adjectives,  in  that 
it  now  usually  follows  the  article  and  the  pronominals.  They  were  both  originally  predicate  appositives,  which  ac- 
counts for  their  peculiar  position  in  the  sentence,  as  illustrated  in  (l)-(5). 

e.  ein  one,  any,  some,  often  in  connection  with  the  adverb  irgend,  which 
gives  the  generalizing  force  in  the  sense  of  any,  some,  any  at  all,  inflected  like 
the  indefinite  article  when  used  adjectively,  and  like  a  strong  adjective  when 
used  substantively:  Wenn  ich  nur  irgend  ein  Mittel  dagegen  wüßte!  If  I  only 
knew  some  remedy  for  it!  Substantively:  irgend  einer  any  one;  jenes  Buch 
oder  irgend  eines. 

The  wanting  plural  of  irgend  ein  is  supplied  by  irgend  welche  or  simple 
welche  in  declarative  sentences,  and  in  questions  either  by  irgend  welche  or 
irgend  alone:  Irgend  eine  Person  hat,  or  in  the  plural  irgend  welche  Personen 
haben  es  ihm  verraten.  Meiner  Überzeugung  nach  richtet  sich  die  Schwere 
der  Silben  weder  nach  der  Klasse  noch  nach  irgend  welchen  syntaktischen 
Funktionen  (Saran's  Deutsche  Verslehre,  p.  45).  Die  Fischlein  waren  ...  so 
schön,  wie  er  noch  nie  welche  gesehen  hatte  (R.  Huch's  Schlaraffis,  p.  94). 
Haben  irgend  welche  Personen  or  irgend  Personen  außer  Ihnen  darum  gewußt? 
In  the  Substantive  relation  welche  cannot  be  dropped  here. 

The  wanting  plural  of  ein  in  the  meaning  several,  a  feiv  is  supplied  by  welch- 
(used  as  a  rule  only  substantively)  or  einige  (used  adjectively):  Hast  du  ein 
paar  Pfennige?  Ich  habe  welche,  but  usually  Er  ist  schon  einige  Jahre  tot. 
Many  prefer  to  omit  welch.  See  3.  k  below,  last  sentences.  In  popular  and 
colloquial  language  welch  is  often  used  here  adjectively:  Welche  (in  choice 
language  einige)  Menschen  sind  nicht  zufrieden.  Other  forms  than  welche 
and  einige  occur  in  dialect,  such  as  ere  (a  partitive  gen,  =  ihrer),  eine:  Hast 
du  ein  paar  Pfennige?  Ich  habe  ere  or  eine  With  reference  to  materials  ein 
is  replaced  in  the  singular  by  welch-  in  the  substantive  and  by  etwas  in  the 
attributive  relation :  Wenn  Sie  Geld  haben,  so  geben  Sie  mir  welches.  Geben 
Sie  mir  etwas  Geld. 

So  great  a  favorite  is  welch-  that  it  is  often  used  in  the  singular  where  ein 
might  be  used :  Kann  ich  und  will  ich  früher  abreisen,  so  kann  ich  ja  am  Don- 
nerstag noch  irgend  welche  mir  triftig  scheinende  Ausrede  nach  Letzlingen 
senden  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Oct.  21,  1850).  Sie  smd  am  allermächtigsten 
ohne  irgend  welchen  Rang  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap.  x). 

/.  jed-  every,  each,  any,  strong  (see  106.  Note  1),  or  if  preceded  by  the  in- 
definite article  mixed,  used  adjectively  or  substantively.  The  indefinite  article 
must  precede  the  genitive  in  the  substantive  relation.  Exs.:  ein  jeder  recht- 
schaffene Bürger  (Goethe's  Egmont,  2),  or  jeder  rechtschaffene  Bürger;  das 
Gefühl  eines  jeden,  but  das  Gefühl  jedes  or  eines  jeden  edlen  Menschen. 
Ein  jeder  ist  seines  Glückes  Schmied.     Jede  Feder  ist  gut  genug  Any  pen  will 


139.  l.i. INDEFINITE    NUMERALS 171 

do.  Jeder  (anybody)  kann  Ihnen  sagen,  wo  ich  wohne.  Jeder  dieser  Männer 
hat  sein  Verdienst,  or  diese  Männer  haben  jeder  ihr  Verdienst.  Wenn  drei 
Konsonanten,  die  jeder  gesprochen  werden  usw.  When  three  consonants  each 
of  which  is  pronounced,  &c. 

Earlier  in  the  period  jed-  could  be  used  in  the  plural  with  the  force  of  alle : 
jede  andern  Mittel  (Goethe's  Egmont,  1,  Palast  der  Regentin),  jede  zehn 
Schritte  (Heine).  Occasionally  still:  Lustig  rasselt  über  ein  Räderwerk  der 
Lotdraht  in  die  Tiefe;  bei  jeden  neuen  1000  m.  steigt  die  Erwartung  usw.  (F. 
Bidlingmaier  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  July  1904,  p.  69).  Mit  anzusehen,  wie 
unfehlbar  Baldwin  in  allen  (with  collective  force)  und  jeden  (with  individualiz- 
ing, force)  Fragen  ihre  Einwände  besiegte  (Walther  Siegfried's  Um  der  Heimat 
willen,  VII). 

Earlier  in  the  period  jedwed-,  jedweder-,  and  jeglich-,  all  with  the  inflection 
and  meaning  of  jed-,  were  frequently  used,  and  with  the  exception  of  jedweder- 
still  occur  in  choice  language,  especially  in  a  solemn  or  dignified  style:  jedwede 
Art  von  Sünde  (Ranke),  ein  jeglicher  wunderliche  Vogel  (Raabe's  Unseres 
Herrgotts  Kanzlei,  chap.  v).  The  form  jeglich,  like  all,  is  sometimes  found 
uninflected  before  a  possessive:  So  zieht  mit  jeglich  ihrer  Habe  die  Seele  des 
Kindes  und  kindhaft  junger  Völker  in  die  ahnende  Weite  der  Unerforschlich- 
keit  hinaus  (Prof.  Dr.  Ed.  Heyck  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  May, 
1905,  p.  274). 

Note.  Instead  of  ein  jeder  vve  find  jed-  ein-  in  N.G.  dialect,  just  as  in  Englisli:  Damit  kriegt  man  jeden  einen 
mürbe  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,  2). 

g.  manch  many  a,  many,  a  number  of,  strong  and  weak,  but  uninflected 
before  ein,  also  often  before  a  descriptive  adjective:  mancher  Mann,  manche 
Frau,  manches  Kind,  mancher  many  a  man.  Ich  habe  Ihnen  so  manches  zu 
sagen  I  have  a  number  of  th'ngs  to  tell  you.  Manche  gute  Leute  a  number  of 
good  people;  die  manchen  Stunden,  die  ich  darauf  verwendet  habe.  But 
manch  ein  starker  Mann,  or  manch  starker  Mann,  or  mancher  starke  Mann; 
im  Erinnerungsbilderbuch  manch  jetzigen  Millionärs  (Heyking's  Briefe,  die 
ihn  nicht  erreichten,  New  York,  Jan.  1900).  It  is  rather  uncommon  in  general 
to  place  the  indefinite  article  before  manch-,  altho  in  some  sections,  as  in  the 
S.W.,  it  occurs  occasionally:  Ein  mancher  blieb  haften  (Scheffel's  Ekkehard, 
13). 

Manch  dift'ers  from  viel  in  that  it  denotes  only  number,  while  the  latter  de- 
notes also  quantity:  viel  (not  manch)  Geld.  Both  viel  and  manch  denote 
number  in  the  plural.  The  former  denotes  a  large  number  and  stands  in  con- 
trast to  wenige  few,  while  manche  indicates  an  indefinite  number  larger  than 
einige  several.  Also  in  the  singular  in  a  collective  sense  with  the  same  differen- 
tiation in  meaning:  Von  Gold  und  Silber  starrt  Euer  Schatz:  |  mir  fehlt's  an 
manchem,  fehlt's  an  vielem  wohl  (Grillparzer's  Ottokar,  3).  Manch  differs 
from  viel  also  in  having  individualizing  force,  which  explains  its  frequent  use 
in  the  singular,  just  as  many  a  in  English.  On  account  of  its  individualizing 
force,  it  cannot  be  used  in  questions  asking  after  the  number:  Wie  viele  (not 
manche)  waren  da? 

h.  mehrer-  (117.  1.  b)  several,  strong  and  weak:  mehrere  wichtige  Dinge, 
mehreres  Wichtige  several  important  things.  Wie  sollte  man  die  mehrern 
Wagen  fortbringen?  (Goethe).  A  little  earlier  in  the  period  the  form  mehr  was 
not  infrequent:   mit  mehren  Damen  (Bismarck  to  his  betrothed,  Feb.  1,  1847). 

i.  ein  paar  a  feie,  several,  uninflected  (see  121.  1.  A.  a):  mit  ein  paar  Worten. 
In  colloquial  language  and  dialect  the  ein  is  often  suppressed:  Ich  lebte  paar 
Jahre  in  Berlin.  Ich  war  nur  paarmal  da.  Vor  paar  Täg'n  (Anzengruber's 
Cicissensicnirm).  The  definite  article  or  a  limiting  adjective  may  precede  paar: 
Aber  diese  paar  archaistischen  Abweichungen  sind  kaum  von  Belang  (Wacker- 
nagel's  Altindische  Grammatik,  I.  p.  xlv).  A.  Ich  war  nur  5  Tage  in  Berlin, 
aber  in  den  paar  Tagen  habe  ich  die  Stadt  gründlich  kennen  gelernt.  B.  (con- 
temptuously) Was?  In  den  paar  Tagen  (or  in  den  paar)  Tagen  willst  du  Berlin 
gründlich  kennen  gelernt  haben?     A.  (contemptuously)    Mit  deinen  paar  (or 


1_72 INDEFINITE   NUMERALS 139.  1.  i. 

mit  deinen  paar)  Groschen  willst  du  dich  durchschlagen?  B.  Ja,  mit  meinen 
paar  Groschen  will  ich  schon  fertig  werden.  When  paar  is  preceded  by  a  strong 
limiting  adjective  and  followed  by  a  descriptive  adjective  the  latter  is  sometimes 
strong  instead  of  weak  as  the  substantive  origin  of  paar  is  still  felt:  Diese  paar 
unmögliche  Wortstellungen  (Engel's  Deutsche  Stilkunst,  p.  308).  The  definite 
article  and  the  limiting  adjectives  are  always  inflected.  When  Paar  is  written 
with  a  capital  and  ein  is  inflected,  the  expression  takes  again  its  original  mean- 
ing, i.e.  a  pair:   mit  einem  Paar  Kanarienvögel.      See  also  253.  I.  1.  g.  Note  1. 

2.     The  following  contain  the  idea  of  quantity: 

a.  bißchen  (S.G.  bissel)  little,  little  bit,  more  confined  to  the  style  of  every 
day  than  ein  wenig,  and,  moreover,  implying  a  smaller  amount.  It  is  unin- 
flected,  but  may  be  preceded  by  an  inflected  article,  demonstrative,  or  possessive, 
which,  however,  does  not  agree  in  gender  with  the  noun  following  bißchen,  but 
is  neuter,  as  is  also  the  following  relative,  the  article  and  relative  agreeing  not 
with  the  substantive  but  with  bißchen  itself,  thus  distinctively  indicating  its 
original  substantive  nature:  Die  Johanniswürmchen  sind  um  des  bißchen 
Glanzes  willen  noch  keine  Sterne  Glow-worms  are  not  by  any  means  stars 
because  of  the  little  light  they  shed.  Darüber  hinaus  möchte  ich  fürs  erste 
allerdings  den  verbleibenden  Rest  meines  bißchen  Kapitals  nicht  angreifen 
(Boy-Ed).  Mit  ihrem  bißchen  Kraft;  das  bißchen  Armut,  das  Reiche  (name) 
hinterließ  (Fedor  Sommer's  Ernst  Reiland,  p.  14G ) ;  das  ganze  bißchen  Willens- 
energie, was  (153.  1.  (1))  ihr  die  Ohnmachtsanwandlung  übrig  ließ  (Boy-Ed's 
Das  ABC  des  Lehens,  p.  364).  If  there  is  a  descriptive  adjective  before  the  noun 
it  is  sometimes  strong  as  the  article  or  limiting  adjective  before  bißchen  is  not 
felt  as  belonging  to  the  following  noun:  Der  Beobachtung  wert  ist  hierbei  die 
Grandezza,  mit  welcher  .  .  .  und  wie  sie  (the  half-breeds  of  Central  America) 
in  ihrem  Wesen  das  bißchen  „spanisches  Blut,"  welches  vielleicht  in  ihren 
Adern  rollt,  zur  Geltung  bringen  wollen  (B.  von  W^erner's  Ein  deutsches  Kriegs- 
schiff in  der  Südsee,  p.  52).  The  weak  form  of  the  descriptive  adjective  is  more 
common  here:  das  bißchen  warme  Mittagsessen  (Hermann  Anders  Krüger's 
Kaspar  Krumhholtz,  p.  27);  aber  die  Lumpen,  in  die  das  bißchen  Eingeborene 
eingewickelt  war  (Enking's  Momvi,  p.  189). 

The  substantive  following  bißchen  sometimes  drops  the  s  of  the  genitive  in 
accordance  with  94.  3.  A,  2nd  par.  as  it  is  felt  as  an  appositive  to  the  noun 
bißchen,  which  denotes  a  measurement  or  amount:  ,,Mein  Bruder  ist  Kaufmann 
geworden  und  gilt  als  das  schwarze  Schaf  in  der  Familie."  ,,Na,  hören  Sie, 
Sie  werden  ihn  wegen  des  bißchen  Farbenunterschied  doch  nicht  anfeinden!" 
{Fliegende  Blätter,  July  4,  1911).  Compare  with  the  first  example  from  Boy-Ed 
given  above. 

Used  substantively:  Die  ganze  Welt  kommt  mir  mit  einem  Mal  so  dumm 
und  unsinnig  vor,  daß  auf  das  bißchen,  was  ich  von  der  Sorte  dazu  gebe,  wirk- 
Uch  nichts  ankommt  (Raabe).  Nicht  ein  bißchen  mehr!  Don't  take  the  least 
bit  more!  Usually  the  indef.  art.  before  bißchen  remains  uninflected  after  the 
analogy  of  ein  wenig,  ein  paar:  mit  ein  bißchen  Verstand.  The  uninflected 
wenig  can  only  be  used  after  ein,  and  hence  could  not  stand  in  the  first  four 
examples  in  the  first  paragraph  above. 

Note.  Often  ein  bißchen  is  used  adverbially:  Warten  Sie  ein  klein  bißchen.  Er  ist  nicht  ein  bißchen  eitel  He  is 
not  a  bit  (or  not  in  the  least)  vain.  Sometimes  with  suppressed  ein:  Wir  wollten  Sie  bißchen  besuchen  (Anna  Som- 
mer's Die  zerbrochene  Sonne). 

h.  etwas  some,  uninflected:  etwas  Wein,  etwas  Geld.  It  is  often  used  ad- 
verbially: etwas  sauer  somewhat  sour. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  etwas  was  felt  as  a  neut.  substantive  and  could  have  a  following  gen.  depending  upon  it: 
etwas  Trosts  (Luther).  Later  the  gen.  passed  over  into  the  appositional  construction:  etwas  Trost.  To-day  etwas 
can  in  such  cases  be  regarded  as  an  uninflected  adj.  with  the  same  general  meaning  as  the  inflected  adj.  einig-,  with 
this  modification,  that  etwas  is  now  in  general  used  with  singular  nouns  for  an  indefinite  amount,  mass,  while  einig-  rnay 
be  used  for  an  indefinite  amount,  but  is  more  particularly  used  with  pi.  nouns  or  the  singular  of  adjective-substantives 
for  an  indefinite  number:  etwas  Butter,  etwas  Ehre,  etwas  Mut,  einiges  Geld,  einige  Bücher,  einiges  Interessante 
several  interesting  things.  However,  before  abstract  nouns  in  the  sing.,  einig-  is  often  used  instead  of  etwas:  einige 
Zeit,  einige  Erfahrung,  nach  einigem  Stolpern  über  allerhand  Unebenheiten  (Raabe's  Finkenrode,  chap.  ii).  In 
the  substantive  relation  etwas  is  replaced  by  welch-.  See  1.  e  above.  For  etwas  as  a  real  substantive  (with  de- 
pendent noun)  see  145./.  Note  1. 


139.  3.  a. INDEFINITE   NUMERALS 173 

c.  ganz  all,  zvhole,  entire,  strong  and  weak,  but  may  also  be  uninflected  before 
names  of  countries  and  places  which  have  no  art.  before  them,  when  used  in  a 
figurative  or  inexact  sense:  ein  ganzer  Apfel  a  whole  apple,  der  ganze  Apfel, 
ein  ganzer  Mann  a  man  every  inch  of  him;  das  ganze  Deutschland  the  whole  of 
Germany,  Germany  one  and  undivided,  but  Ganz  Deutschland  lag  in  Schmach 
und  Schmerz  All  Germany  lay  in  disgrace  and  grief.  „Ganz  Berlin"  ist  noch 
lange  nicht  „das  ganze  Berlin."  Die  begeisterten  Wünsche  ganz  Frankreichs. 
Ich  durchreiste  ganz  Deutschland.  But  the  ending  cannot  be  dropped  in  case 
of  those  countries  which  always  take  the  art. :  die  ganze  Schweiz  all  Sn'itzerland, 
not  ganz  Schweiz.  It  is  much  used  in  idiomatic  expressions:  im  ganzen  on  the 
whole,  im  ganzen  einkaufen  to  buy  by  wholesale,  im  ganzen  und  großen  über- 
schlagen to  make  a  rough  estimate,  &c. 

Ganz  is  often  used  in  the  plural,  but  it  never  denotes  number,  indicating  also 
there  entirety,  i.e.  the  completeness  of  each  whole.  See  3.  d.  Note,  below, 
toward  end. 

Note  1.  The  usual  adverbial  form  is  ganz  quite,  entirely,  very:  ganz  gut.  Formerly  gänzlich  was  the  usual  ad- 
verbial form  and  is  still  sometimes  used.  This  form  is  also  used  adjectively,  only,  however,  before  abstract  nouns 
denoting  an  activity  or  a  quality,  where  the  original  adverbial  nature  of  the  form  is  largely  preserved  (see  245.  II.  11. 
2.  A.  /):   gänzliche  Befreiung,  gänzUche  Verschiedenheit. 

Note  2.  Ganz  is  also  used  as  a  neut.  noun,  but  with  its  original  adj.  declension:  Zwei  Halbe  (halves)  sind  ein 
Ganzes  fa  whole).  Vier  Halbe  sind  zwei  Ganze,  or  sind  zwei  Ganzen  gleich  (equal  to).  Ein  harmonisch  geordnetes 
Ganze  or  Ganzes  (see  111.  4.  a),  der  dritte  Teil  eines  Halben.  Also  masc.  referring  to  Schoppen:  einen  Ganzen, 
einen  Halben  trinken  to  drink  a  whole,  a  half-measure  (.of  beer  or  wine ). 

d.  halb  half,  strong  and  wk.,  and  like  ganz  remains  uninflected  before  names 
of  countries  and  places  which  have  no  article  before  them,  when  used  figuratively 
or  in  an  inexact  sense:  ein  halber  Apfel  half  of  an  apple,  der  halbe  Apfel,  die 
halbe  Stadt,  ein  halber  Mann,  das  halbe  Paris  half  of  Paris,  das  halbe  Paris  or  more 
commonly  halb  Paris  half  of  the  people  of  Paris,  durch  halb  Paris.  Die  fran- 
zösische Revolution  erschütterte  halb  Europa.     But  always  die  halbe  Schweiz. 

No/e  1.  It  is  uninflected  in  the  form  ein  halb  used  as  a  fraction,  also  in  the  form  halb  when  used  adverbially,  and 
in  a  few  expressions  substantively.  Zehn  mit  ein  halb  multipliziert  gibt  fünf.  Die  Stunde  ist  schon  halb  um  The 
hour  is  already  half  up.  Die  Uhr  schlägt  die  halbe  Stunde,  or  schlägt  halb.  Es  ist  halb  neun  (o'clock).  Formerly 
and  still  in  popular  language  inflected  in  the  predicate:   Ich  bin  halber  im  Traum.     S  i-  111.  S. 

Note  2.     Halb  is  also  used  as  a  neut.  or  masc.  noun,  but  with  its  original  adj.  declension.     See  Note  2,  under  c. 

e.  ein  wenig  a  little,  uninflected:  ein  wenig  Wasser  (in  older  German  ein 
wenig  Wassers  — Gen.  xviii.  4),  mit  ein  wenig  Verstand.  Substantively:  Ich 
nehme  ein  wenig  von  dem  Brot.  There  is  little  or  no  difference  between  ein 
wenig  here  and  ein  weniges  a  small  amount,  a  little  in  3.  j  below.  See  also 
a  above. 

Note.     Ein  wenig  is  much  used  adverbially:    Sie  haben  die  Sache  ein  wenig  übereilt. 

3.  The  following  contain  the  idea  of  quantity  or  number,  according  as  the 
noun  is  in  the  sing,  or  pi.: 

a.  aller,  alle,  alles  all,  usually  strong  when  inflected,  but  may  remain  unin- 
flected before  an  article  or  pronominal,  usually  with  the  form  all,  but  often  in 
popular  language  alle:  alle  Freude  all  the  joy,  alles  Gute  all  that  is  good,  all 
or  alle  der  Wein,  all  or  alle  des  Weins,  «Sic. ;  all  der  Wein  all  the  wine  (quantity), 
but  alle  Schüler  all  the  pupils  (number);  alles  in  allem  all  in  all,  but  alle,  Gute 
und  Böse  all  people,  good  and  bad;  all  der  Schmerz  all  the  pain,  but  Sie  kamen 
alle  They  all  came.     For  further  details  concerning  inflection  see  111.  8. 

In  referring  to  definite  persons  and  things  which  are  clearly  indicated  by  the 
context,  the  definite  article  is  not  used  so  frequently  after  all  as  in  English, 
being  usually  employed  only  when  it  has  strong  demonstrative  or  determinative 
force:  aller  Wein,  alle  Butter  all  the  wine,  butter  (in  the  house,  &c.,  according 
to  the  connection).  Alle  Gäste  verUeßen  eiUgst  das  Haus  All  the  guests  left 
the  house  in  great  haste.  But  with  demonstrative  or  determinative  force: 
All  das  Geld  reicht  nicht  hin,  ihn  zufrieden  zu  stellen  All  this  money  (which  has 
been  given  him)  does  not  suffice  to  satisfy  him.  Bei  all  der  Pracht  ist  er  nicht 
glücklich  In  the  midst  of  all  the  splendor,  which  surrounds  him,  he  is  not  happy. 
All  die  (or  alle  die  or  simply  alle)  Gemälde,  die  er  auf  die  Ausstellung  gesandt 
hat,  sind  verkauft. 

For  the  position  of  alle  in  the  sentence  see  1.  d.  Note  2  above. 


174 INDEFINITE    NUMERALS 139.  3.  a. 

Note  1.  Instead  of  the  regular  str.  forms,  all  often  has  wk.  forms  in  the  gen.  (see  106.  Nnle  1)  sing,  when  not  pre- 
ceded by  def.  art.,  and,  perhaps,  still  more  freuuently  in  the  gen.  and  dat.  sing,  when  preceded  by  the  article:  trotz 
allen  Vertrauens.  Und  fiel'  ein  Feind  in  unsre  Gauen,  |  wir  würden  des  allen  die  Früchte  schauen  (Grillparzer's 
Libussa,  2).  Dabei  läf5t  sich  aber  nicht  leugnen,  daß  die  Erreichung  des  allen  durch  die  neuen  Bestrebungen  stark 
behindert  wurde  (Dr.  Hans  Kleinpeter  in  lU-Uage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeil.,  Sept.  10,  1905).  Mir  ist  so  angst  bei  dem 
allen.     Ich  werde  nichts  von  dem  allen  tun. 

Note  2.  In  the  predicate  in  the  sense  of  out  of  the  invariable  form  alle  is  much  used:  Der  Wein  ist  alle  We  are 
out  of  wine.  Perhaps  the  form  alle  was  originally  a  predicate  appositive  in  the  nom,  pi.,  originating  in  such  sentences 
as  die  Kuchen  sind  alle  (verzehrt). 

Nole  -i.     Before  the  dat.  neut.  sing,  the  uninflected  form  alle  is  quite  common:   trotz  alle'dem  in  spite  of  all  that. 

Nole  4.  In  the  classical  authors  all-  is  sometimes  equal  to  jed-:  So  schläft  nun  aller  Vogel  fGoethe).  In  a  few 
cases  we  can  still  use  both  all-  an  I  jed-,  the  former  with  general,  the  latter  with  individualizing  force:  Aller  or  jeder 
Anfang  ist  schwer.  Wir  hatten  allen  Grund  (every  reason,  in  a  general  sense)  zum  Verdacht  gegen  ihn.  Getragenes 
Zeug  aller  Art  (H.  Seidel's  Das  Atelier.  I).  Usage  now  generally  prefers  here  the  sing,  of  jed-  or  the  plural  of  all-, 
especially  the  latter,  in  a  number  of  expressions:  alle  paar  Minuten  every  few  minutes,  alle  Tage  every  day,  alle  drei 
Tage  every  third  day.  alle  sieben  Tage  ein  Heft  (on  the  outside  cover  of  each  number  of  Die  ]Voche). 

Xote  Ö.  After  ohne  we  translate  both  all-  and  jed-  by  any:  ohne  alle  (or  ohne  jede,  or  ohne  alle  und  jede)  Ur- 
sache mit  haut  any  reason. 

Note  6.  In  the  course  of  the  present  period  all-  has  gradually  been  supplanted  by  ganz-  in  the  meaning  whole, 
entire,  but  tlie  older  usage  still  survives  in  poetic  language:  durch  all  sein  Leben  (Geibel,  2,  241  ),  now  usually  durch 
sein  ganzes  Leben.  Differentiation  of  meaning  here  has  taken  place  in  alle  Welt  everybody  and  die  ganze  Welt  the 
universe.     Compare  die  ganze  Nacht  all  night;    ganz  Deutschland  all  Germany;    die  ganze  Familie  all  the  family. 

Note  7.  In  dialect  the  neut.  form  alles  is  frequently  contracted  to  als,  which  often  by  reason  of  this  change  of 
form  becomes  isolated  from  the  original  form,  and  takes  on  more  general  meaning,  especially  that  of  the  adverb  immer- 
fort: Da  saugt  mir  das  Mädel — weiß  Gott,  was  als  (for  alles)  für? — überhimmlische  Alfanzereien  ein  (Miller  in 
Schiller's  Kabale  und  Liebe.  1,  1).  Solltest  nur  die  wunderhübsche  Billeter  auch  lesen,  die  der  gnädige  Herr  an 
deine  Tochter  als  (  =  immeirfort)  schreiben  tut  (ib.,  Frau  Miller).  Er  ist  ah  (  =  immer)  noch  ledig  Wörlerbueli  der 
elsässischen  Mundarten,  i,  p.  28).  .\Iso  with  the  force  of  eben,  gerade:  Es  ist  als  nach  Ihrem  Herrn  Pastor  geschickt 
(C.  Viebig's  Die  Wacht  am  Rhein,  p.  448). 

b.  einig-,  earlier  in  the  period  =  O.H.G.  einag  one,  07ily,  single,  later,  in 
N.H.G.  har^nonious  (in  this  meaning  still  in  use),  and  O.H.G.  einig  =  irgend  ein 
(see  1.  e  above),  from  the  latter  of  which  come  the  common  meanings  of  our  day, 
a  few,  some,  several,  inflected  strong  and  weak:  der  einige  Gott  (Matth.  xix.  17), 
ein  einiger  Son  (Tobit  vi.  16).  Denn  du  vermagst  nicht  ein  einigs  Har  weis 
und  Schwartz  zu  machen  (Matth.  v.  36).  Kein  Handwercksman  einiges  Hand- 
wercks  (Rev.  xviii.  22),  aus  Furcht  des  Todes  oder  sonst  einiges  Dinges  (Clau- 
dius) from  fear  of  death  or  some  other  thing;  einiges  frische  Obst  some  fresh 
fruit,  einige  Schritte  davon  several  steps  away,  in  einiger  Entfernung,  einige 
Zeit  darnach.  In  diesem  Buche  findet  sich  neben  einigem  Guten  auch  einiges 
Mittelmäßige  und  einiges  Schlechte.  Von  diesen  einigen  70  Bänden  der 
Tauchnitz  Edition  gehören  nur  20  den  Jahren  1893  bis  1898  an  (Conrad's 
Syntax  der  Englischen  Sprache,  p.  v).  Nur  einige  waren  da  Only  a  few  people 
were  there.  Er  besah  die  zwei  Gespanne  Ochsen,  die  Kühe,  die  einigen  Schafe 
(Stifter's  Witiko,  1.  202).     See  also  2.  b.  Note  and  1.  e  above. 

aa.  The  forms  etlich-  (strong  and  weak  =  einig-  and  now  being  gradually  displaced  by  it) 
and  etwelch-  (strong  and  weak  =  irgend  ein  or  irgend  welch-,  or  einig-  in  the  sing,  and  irgend 
welche  and  einige  in  the  pi.)  still  occur  in  the  literary  language.  The  former  was  very  common 
in  Luther's  language  and  is  still  sometimes  used,  and  quite  frequently  so  in  archaic  and  biblical 
style.  The  latter  form  was  not  common  earlier  in  the  period,  but  it  still  lingers  on  in  choice 
language:  Etwelches  kleine  Geschenk  mitzubringen  sei  immer  empfehlenswert  bei  großen 
Herren  (H.  HotTmann's  Tettfcl  vom  Sande,  p.  174).  Zum  Überfluß  hatte  er  die  Gewohnheit, 
jedesmal  selbst  gleichsam  seine  Visitenkarte  abzugeben,  vermöge  etwelchen  kleinen  Unfugs, 
den  er  in  dem  betretenen  Räume  zu  verüben  für  gut  fand  (id.,  Rohleders  hohe  Al-iuiic).  Das 
anvertraute  Gut  war  viel  zu  kostbar,  um  es  etwelchen  Gefahren  auszusetzen  (id.).  Denn  dieser 
pflegte  an  dergleichen  niedlichen  Geschöpfen  Wohlgefallen  zu  haben,  welche  im  Grunde  doch 
mehr  ihn  verehrten,  als  er  ihnen  huldigte,  da  sein  Alter  und  seine  geistige  Bedeutung  eine 
Überlegenheit  mit  sich  brachten,  die  nicht  einmal  durch  etwelche  Verliebtheit  seinerseits  aus- 
zugleichen waj  (R.  Huch's  Liidolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xv).  Dann  etwelche  Portionen  Kaffee,  sagen 
wir  vorläufig  fünf  (Fontane's  Frau  Jetin'y,  chap.  xi).  Auch  setzte  sie  ihm  ein  Glas  trinkbaren 
Weines  vor  .  .  .  mit  etwelchen  Schnitten  kalten  Bratens  (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Die  Freude  am  LicJit, 
II,  p.  40).  In  the  language  of  Switzerland  it  is  often  preceded  by  ein  and  der:  Hierauf  trat  eine 
etwelche  Besserung  ein.  Wegen  der  etwelchen  Unsicherheit,  in  welcher  die  Männer  die  Welt 
halten  (Keller's  Seldw.,  2.  311). 

c.  g(e)nug  (sometimes  genung  earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in  dialect  and 
poetry)  enough,  uninflected,  also  used  adverbially:  Er  hat  genug  Geld,  or  Geld 
genug;  genug  Bücher.  It  formerly  governed  the  genitive,  which  is  still  some- 
times used :  Es  ist  des  Weins  genug,  or  genug  des  Weins,  or  genug  Wein,  or 
Wein  genug.     See  i.  Note. 

d.  gesamt  and  sämtlich  all,  entire,  complete,  both  strong  and  weak:  die 
sämtlichen  zwölf  Kessel  des  Dampfschiffes  waren  im  Betrieb.  Schillers 
sämtliche  Werke,  die  gesamte  Familie,  mit  gesamter  Heeresmacht,  die  ge- 
samten Armen  des  Ortes;  eine  Arbeit,  die  ihre  gesamten  Geisteskräfte  in 
Anspruch  nahm. 


139.  3.  /■ INDEFINITE   NUMERALS 175 

Note.  Usually,  as  in  the  above  examples,  gesamt,  in  accordance  with  the  force  of  its  prefix  ge-,  denotes  a  union 
of  homogeneous  or  integral  parts  into  o>ie  whole,  and  even  when  used  in  the  plural  has  the  force  of  one  mass  or  a  corps 
of  forces  working  as  one,  while  sämtlich  in  the  sing,  or  pi.  indicates  that  there  are  different  distinct  units  which  form 
the  whole.  They  both  differ  from  the  more  common  and  general  all-  in  that  the  latter  simply  indicates  that  the  quantity 
or  number  is  complete  and  lacks  the  distinct  idea  of  a  union  of  integral  or  homogeneous  parts  or  individual  forces 
working  toward  a  common  end.  Different  from  the  preceding  is  ganz,  which  does  not  refer  at  all  to  the  parts  that 
make  up  a  whole,  but  represents  in  idea  an  undivided  whole,  or  in  the  plural  undivided  wholes:  der  ganze  Körper  the 
whole  body,  mit  ganzem  Herzen  with  all  my  heart,  das  ganze  Haus  the  whole  house,  die  ganze  Familie,  die  einzige 
schöne  Frau  der  ganzen  Eysen  (G.  Ompteda)  the  only  bcautif\il  woman  in  all  the  different  branches  of  the  Eysen 
familv,  ganze  Schuhe  shoes  that  are  not  rent.  Die  Kriege  der  Gegenwart  rufen  die  ganzen  Völker  zu  den  Waffen 
(Moltke). 

e.  kein  no,  none,  not  a,  not  (see  Note),  no  one,  not  a  one,  inflected  like  the 
indef.  article  ein  when  used  adjectively  in  the  sing.,  but  like  a  strong  adjective 
when  standing  alone  (see  106.  Note  1)  in  the  sing,  or  pi.,  or  when  used  adjectively 
in  the  plural:  kein  Buch.  Ein  Buch  ist  besser  als  kein(e)s.  Das  steht  in 
keines  or  keines  Menschen  Macht.  Keine  Bücher.  For  the  genitive  after 
kein  see  Note  under  i  below. 

Note  1.  The  adverb  no  is  translated  by  nein.  The  adjective  no  is  rendered  by  kein,  but  kein  has  a  broader  field 
than  the  English  adjective  no,  as  it  also  generally  corresponds  to  not  a,  not  iwith  intervening  words)  a,  not  any,  and  not 
'before  a  noun  or  a  noun  and  its  modifiers):  Das  ist  kein  übler  Einfall  That  is  not  a  bad  idea.  Weiche  keinen 
Fingerbreit  von  Gottes  Wegen  ab  Do  not  deviate  a  finger's  breadth  from  God's  ways.  Bitte,  geben  Sie  mir  Käse. 
Ich  habe  keinen  im  Hause  Please  give  me  some  cheese.  I  haven't  any  in  the  house.  Es  ist  noch  keine  sechs  Uhr 
(colloquial)  It  is  not  six  o'clock  yet.  Kein  is  the  negative  of  ein,  but  it  has  a  broader  field,  as  it  can  stand  where  ein 
usually  cannot,  namely,  before  names  of  materials,  abstract  nouns,  and  in  the  plural:  Ich  habe  kein  Geld.  Er  kennt 
keinen  Kummer.  Das  Kind  hat  keine  Eltern.  Kein  is  replaced  by  nicht  or  nicht  ein  when  it  is  desired  to  bring  out 
especial  emphasis  or  a  contrast:  Ein  Vater  schuf  die  Welt,  kein  (or  emphatically  nicht  ein)  Gott  des  Streifgerichtes. 
Mich  rettet  nicht  Gewalt,  nicht  List. 

Note  2.  In  early  X.H.G.  and  still  in  dialect  kein  has  also  the  meaning  any.  For  example  see  277.  1.  B.  a.  This 
double  meaning  of  no  and  any  comes  from  the  fact  that  two  different  M.H.G.  words  dechein  any  and  nechein  no  were 
confounded,  so  that  the  latter  sometimes  assumed  the  meaning  of  the  former. 

Note  .3.  Instead  of  keiner  we  find  in  N.G.  dialect  kein  ein  just  as  in  English:  Das  kann  auch  kein  ein  (Kröger's 
Leute  eigener  Art,  p.  232.) 

/.  lauter  and  now  less  commonly  eitel  nothing  hut,  indeclinable:  lauter 
schöne  Blumen.  Natürlich  ist  das  alles  eitel  Wind  (talk,  wind) !  Es  herrschte 
eitel  Ruhe  und  Frieden. 

Note.     The  e  words  are  still  inflected  in  early  N.H.G.:  aus  lauterm  Haß  (Ezek.  xxxv.  11). 

g.  mehr  more,  usually  uninflected:  mehr  Geld;  mehr  Leute.  See  i.  Note. 
For  the  form  mehrer-  see  117.  \.  b. 

Note.  Thruout  th"  period  attempts  have  been  made  by  good  authors  to  introduce  inflection,  and  such  forms  still 
occur:  Ein  Dutzend  Häuser  stehen  schon  in  Brand,  imd  es  kommen  ihrer  noch  sehr  viel  mehre  dran  (H.  Hoß'mann's 
Wider  den   Kurfiirslen,  chap,  .xxviii).     Inflection  is  most  common  in  the  adverb  mehrenteils  =meistenteils. 

//.  Übrig  the  rest,  remai^iing,  superfluous,  strong  and  weak:  Er  tut  nie  ein 
übriges  He  never  does  more  than  he  has  to  do.  Im  übrigen  Europa  in  the  rest 
of  Europe;  die  übrigen  Personen;  im  übrigen,  or  was  das  übrige  betrifft  as  to 
the  rest. 

i.  viel  much,  pi.  many,  strong  and  weak,  inflected  or  uninflected,  but  inflected 
always  when  preceded  by  the  definite  article  or  a  pronominal  adjective  and 
almost  alwa\s  in  the  pi.  when  used  substantively:  viele  or  viel  Bücher,  viele  (or 
viel)  gute  Bücher,  die  vielen  Bücher,  viel  Gutes  much  that  is  good,  vieles  Gute 
many  good  things,  mit  viel  Gutem.  Unter  vielem  Verhaßten  ist  mir  das  Schrei- 
ben das  Verhaßteste  (Goethe's  Egtnont,  2).  Laß  dein  vieles  Reden.  Der  viele 
"Wein,  den  er  trinkt;  die  viele  Milch,  die  wir  brauchen.  Substantively:  viele 
many  persons;  zum  Besten  vieler;  die  vielen,  die  hier  sind;  vieles  many  things 
(see  Note  toward  end). 

German  often  distinguishes  between  the  idea  of  quantity  and  that  of 
degree,  where  in  English  no  distinction  is  made:  Er  ißt  viel  He  eats  much,  but 
Ich  liebe  ihn  sehr  I  love  him  much.  Formerly  viel  was  used  with  the  force  of 
sehr  before  adjectives,  and  this  older  usage  is  still  found  in  poetic  and  archaic 
style:  die  vielschöne  gnädige  Frau  (Eichendorff's  Taug.  8).  It  is  still  com- 
monly used  before  a  comparative  or  zu:  Er  ist  viel  reicher.  Er  läuft  viel 
schneller  als  Hans.   Er  ist  viel  zu  reich,  als  daß  usw. 

Note.  Viel,  wenig,  mehr,  genug  are  here  for  practical  reasons  classed  as  adjectives  inflected  or  uninflected,  but 
the  following  is  a  more  scientific  statement  of  the  case.  They  were  in  earlier  periods  construed  as  indeclinable  sub- 
stantives, requiring  a  dependent  partitive  gen.,  and  still  admit  of  this  construction,  but  take  now  usually  the  apposi- 
tional  construction  after  them,  especially  in  the  sing.,  or  in  case  of  viel  and  wenig  are  also  used  as  inflected  attributive 
adjectives:  early  in  the  period  viel  Volcks  (Markviii,  1).  viel  falscher  Propheten  fMatth.  xxiv.  11);  now  viel  Geld, 
viel  edle  Männer  (in  apposition  with  viel),  or  viele  (adjective)  edle  Männer.  When  the  article  or  a  pronominal 
adjective  precedes,  viel  and  wenig  are  always  inflected:  Er  lebt  von  dem  wenigen  Vermögen,  das  ihm  übrig  geblieben 
ist.  In  certain  set  expressions  coined  earlier  in  the  period,  the  older  construction  of  the  indeclinable  substantive  with 
its  dependent  partitive  gen.  usually  remains  intact,  and  cannot  be  replaced  by  the  newer  one  of  attributive  adj.  before 
its  substantive:  viel  Atifhebens  von  etwas  machen  to  make  a  great  fuss  about  something,  viel  Wesens  von  etwas 
machen  to  make  rauch  ado  about  something,  but  sometimes  in  modern  form:  Was  macht  ihr  so  viel  Aufheben  |  mit 
einem,  der  wie  ich  im  Sande  lag,  1  den  ihr  allda  in  Gnaden  aufgelesen?  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  3,  5). 


176 INDEFINITE    NUMERALS 139.  3.  i. 

There  is  little  live  feeling  for  the  old  partitive  Rcnitive  here,  for  it  is  often  construed  as  a  word  in  the  accusative  or 
nominative  limited  by  ein,  kein,  einig,  solch,  kein  +  descriptive  adjective,  or  without  a  limiting  word:  Kein  Mensch 
hat  davon  ein  Aufhebens  (acc."i  gemacht  (Bismarck's  Reden,  2.  76)  No  one  has  made  a  fus-s  about  it;  but  also  with  its 
correct  form,  Ich  meinte,  Sie  wären  doch  viel  zu  sehr  von  der  Wissenschaft  und  Philosophie,  um  um  solch  'ne  Kleinig- 
keit so'n  Aufheben  zu  machen  iRaabe's  Der  Lay,  p.  2.3).  Er  macht  kein  Federlesens  lacc. )  He  will  make  short  work 
of  it.  Die  Jupiterstatue  des  Phidias,  von  der  damals  einiges  Aufhebens  nom. )  gemacht  wurde  (Ebner-Eschenbach  ). 
Mach'  mir  kein  großes  Aufhebens!  lacc. )  Don't  make  a  great  fuss,  I  beg  of  you!  Ich  weiß  ja  nicht,  was  antworten, 
werm  du  solch  ein  Aufhebens  acc. )  machst  (Walther  Siegfried's  Ein  Wohltäter).  Also  without  a  limiting  word: 
ohne  Rühmens  (acc.)  (Grünebaum  in  Raabe's  Hunger  pastor,  chap,  vi),  ohne  Aufhebens  (acc.)  (Lauff's  Kärrekiek, 
p.  107). 

The  words  viel,  wenig,  mehr,  genug  are  differently  treated  when  they  express  the  idea  of  number  and  stand  alone 
or  before  a  pronoun  or  a  noun  which  is  modified  by  an  article  or  pronominal  adj.  In  these  cases  viel  and  wenig  are 
usually  inflected,  and  if  modified  must  be  followed  by  the  partitive  gen.,  or  by  von  or  unter  with  dat.,  while  genug 
and  mehr  are  indeclinable  here,  but  like  viel  and  wenig  are  followed  by  the  gen.,  or  von  with  dat.:  viele  waren  da 
many  persons  were  there,  aber  diesem  Rufe  folgten  heute  nur  wenig  [as  a  survival  of  older  usage;  more  commonly 
wenige  'Fontane's  Qiiitt,  chap,  vi),  viele  von  ihnen,  viele  dieser  Bücher,  or  viele  von  (or  unter)  diesen  Büchern; 
genug  waren  da  enough  people  were  there,  mehr  solcher  (or  solche )  Leute,  mehr  von  ihnen,  genug  der  Träume. 

Genug,  mehr,  viel,  and  wenig  are  all  used  as  indeclinable  substantives  when  they  denote  an  indefinite  mass  or  amount, 
in  whicli  case  they  may  stand  alone  or  be  followed  by  the  gen.  or  the  dat.  after  the  prep,  von:  Ich  habe  genug  davon. 
Genug  des  Geschwätzes  or  genug  von  dem  Geschwätz.  Du  reichst  mit  wenig  von  dem  bessern  Stoff  (or  des  bessern 
Stoffes)  weiter  als  mit  viel  von  dem  schlechtem  Vou  will  accomplish  more  with  a  little  of  the  better  material  than 
with  much  of  tlie  worse.  See  also  253.  I.  1.  g.  Note 2,  with  reference  to  the  number  of  the  verb  after  these  words.  The 
substantives  viel  and  wenig  may  also  be  inflected,  taking  the  neut.  forms  of  the  strong  adjective,  however,  usually 
with  a  different  .shade  of  meaning  from  the  uninflected  forms.  The  former  may,  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of 
the  strong  neut.  form  not  preceded  by  an  article,  contain  a  collective  idea,  while  the  uninflected  form  or  the  strong 
form  preceded  by  the  indef.  article  emphasizes  the  idea  of  amount:  Ich  meine  nicht  vieles,  sondern  viel:  ein  weniges, 
aber  mit  Fleiß  (Lessing's  Emilia,  1,  2)  I  do  not  mean  |that  an  artist  should  work  on]  many  things,  but  much  of  one 
thing:   a  small  amount,  but  thoroly.     Man  kann  vieles  (many  things)  lernen  und  doch  nicht  viel  (much)  wissen. 

j.  •wenig,  earlier  in  the  period  and  in  a  few  expressions  still  little  in  size, 
value,  importance,  now  and  thruout  the  period  more  commonly  little  in  amount, 
pi.  feiu;  strong  and  weak,  inflected  or  uninflected,  but  inflected  always  when 
preceded  by  the  definite  article  or  a  pronominal  adjective  and  almost  ahva}-s 
in  the  plural  when  used  substantively:  Denn  du  bist  das  wenigst  vnter  allen 
völckern  (Deut.  vii.  7).  Meine  wenige  Person  (Adelung);  wenig  Gutes  little 
that  is  good,  weniges  Gute  few  good  things,  mit  wenig  Gutem;  wenige  or 
wenig  Bücher,  von  wenigen  or  wenig  Büchern;  mit  seinem  wenigen  Gelde; 
das  wenige  Geld,  was  ich  besaß  (Raabe),  Ich  malte  es  mir  aus  mit  der  wenigen 
Phantasie,  die  mir  gegeben  (Ompteda's  Frieden,  VI).  Die  wenigen  Bücher. 
Substantively:  das  wenige,  was  ich  habe  the  little  that  I  have;  wenige  few 
persons;  die  wenigen,  die  es  gesehen  haben.  The  strong  form  here  not  pre- 
ceded by  the  indef.  article  contains  the  idea  of  number:  ein  weniges  a  small 
amount,  a  little,  but  Von  den  Menschen  wüßte  ich  nur  weniges  {Jew  things)  und 
wenig  (/Me)  Erfreuliches  zu  sagen.     See  also  i.Note. 

Note.  The  comparative  form  weniger,  tho  inflected  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  period,  now  prefers  decidedly  non- 
inflection  except  where  ambiguity  would  arise  therefrom:  Mit  weniger  Vergnügen.  Es  waren  heute  weniger  Abge- 
ordnete versammelt  als  gestern  There  were  fewer  representatives  present  to-day  than  yesterday.  But  weit  wenigere 
Freisinnige  much  fewer  Liberals  is  clearer  than  weit  weniger  Freisinnige,  which  might  mean/ar  less  liberal-minded  men, 
as  weniger  can  be  construed  as  an  adverb.  As  the  positive  is  sometimes  inflected  and  sometimes  uninflected,  the 
form  weniger  is  sometimes  ambiguous,  as  it  may  be  construed  as  a  fern.  gen.  or  dat.,  or  as  the  uninflected  comparative. 
Thus  in  mit  weniger  Mühe  the  meaning  may  be  Tfith  Utile  trouble  or  u'ith  less  trouble.  The  ambiguity  can  be  avoided 
by  dropping  inflection  in  the  former  meaning  and  by  substituting  the  inflected  comparative  of  gering  little  for  the 
uninflected  comparative  weniger  or  the  rare  inflected  form  wenigerer:  mit  wenig  Mühe  with  little  trouble,  mit  geringerer 
Mühe  with  less  trouble.  On  the  other  hand,  the  uninflected  form  should  be  avoided  in  the  positive  when  it  would 
stand  before  an  adjective,  as  it  might  be  construed  as  an  adverb:  not  Er  verkehrt  mit  wenig  gebildeten  Herren,  but 
Er  verkehrt  mit  wenigen  gebildeten  Herren  He  associates  with  few  educated  men. 

k.  welch  sotne,  strong:  Haben  Sie  Zucker  — Milch  — Geld— Äpfel?  Ich  habe 
welchen  — welche  — welches  — welche.  It  serves  as  the  plural  of  ein  and  is 
also  used  instead  of  the  singular  of  ein  when  the  reference  is  to  materials.  See 
1.  e  above,  also  134.  2.  Sometimes  with  the  definite  article:  Da  (auf  dem  Was- 
ser) sind  sie  (die  Schiffer)  was,  un  da  haben  sie'n  weiten  Blick  —  die  welchen 
wenigstens,  die  welchen  auch  nich  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,  1).  A  number 
of  grammarians  are  unfriendly  to  this  word,  but  they  are  not  supported  by  actual 
usage:  Wenn  die  Pferdchen  nicht  Geschäfte  haben,  so  möchte  ich  Väterchen 
wohl  bitten,  daß  er  welche  zu  heut  über  acht  Tage,  27.  früh  nach  Schlawe  oder 
Stolz  schickte  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Oct.  21,  1850),  Je  mehr  Geld  sie  ver- 
loren, desto  sehnsüchtiger  wünschten  sie  welches  zu  haben  (G.  Keller's  Romeo 
und  Julie  auf  dem  Dorfe,  p.  25).  Unanfechtbare  Wahrheiten  gibt  es  überhaupt 
nicht,  und  wenn  es  welche  gibt,  so  sind  sie  langweilig  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  chap. 
i).  Auch  setzte  sie  ihm  ein  Glas  trinkbaren  Weins  vor  mit  Küchlein,  wenn  sie 
welche  gebacken  hatte  (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Die  Freude  am  Lichte,  II.  p.  40). 
,, Rosen!"  „Das  sind  mindestens  für  fünfzig  Mark  welche,"  meinte  Marie, 
,,so  ein  Haufen!"  (H.  Böhlau's  Adam  und  Eva,  chap.  vi).  The  examples  could 
be  indefinitely  increased,  as  the  word  is  a  general  favorite  in  colloquial  language. 


140.  a. 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS 


177 


Often,  especially  in  the  South,  the  welch  is  omitted,  and  some  grammarians 
recommend  this  form  of  statement :  Elisabeth :  Weißt  du  noch,  wie  er  das  letzte 
Mal  ausritt,  da  er  dir  Weck  mitbrachte?  Karl:  Bringt  er  mir  wieder  mit? 
(Goethe's  Got:;,  1,  3).  Ja,  Geld,  mein  Freund,  |  Geld  ist  ein  gutes  Ding,  wenn 
man  nur  hat  (Grillparzer's  Ottokar,  3).  Dort  standen  allerlei  Schächtelchen  mit 
guten  Hustenbonbons,  die  ich  sonst  sehr  zu  würdigen  wußte.  ,,Nimm  Dir," 
sagte  sie  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Meine  Kinderjahre).  Jetzt  hast  du  Ohrringe. 
Wart'  einmal,  ich  hänge  mir  auch  an  (Anna  Schieber's  Alle  guten  Geister,  p.  52). 


PRONOUNS. 

Personal  Pronouns, 

140.     The  personal  pronouns  are:   ich  I,  du  (familiar  form)  tlwu  or  you,  Sie 
(polite  form)  yoii,  er  he,  sie  she,  es  it.     These  are  declined  as  follows: 

Singular. 


First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

(for  all  Genders). 

(for  all  Genders). 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Familiar. 

Polite  (see  a). 

N.     ich 

du 

Sie 

er 

sie 

es 

G.     meiner 

deiner 

Ihrer 

seiner 

ihrer 

seiner 

(mein) 

(dein) 

(sein) 

(ihr) 

(sein,  es) 

D.     mir 

dir 

Ihnen 

ihm 

ihr 

ihm 

A.     mich 

dich 

Sie 

Plural. 

ihn 

sie 

For  all  Genders. 

es 

N.     wir 

ihr 

Sie 

sie 

G.     unser 

euer 

(ihr) 

uns(e)rer 

eu(e)rer 

Ihrer 

ihrer 

D.     uns 

euch 

Ihnen 

ihnen 

A.     uns 

euch 

Sie 

sie 

a.  Form  atid  Use  of  Pronouns  in  Direct  Address.  The  polite  form  of  the 
second  person  is  in  reality  only  the  capitalized  forms  of  the  3rd  person  pi.  The 
pi.  is  exactly  like  the  sing.  This  form  is  now  used  in  all  ordinary  intercourse 
between  people  except  in  the  familiar  language  of  close  friendship.  Altho  it  is 
so  common  in  actual  life,  it  is  almost  unknown  in  poetic  language  and  higher 
diction  generally,  as  the  air  of  conventionality  associated  with  it  ill  accords  with 
the  spirit  of  poetry. 

The  familiar  form  du  in  the  sing,  and  ihr  in  the  pi.  is  used  towards  animals, 
children,  parents,  and  close  friends,,  also  in  lyrical  poetry  and  in  the  solemn 
language  of  the  Church  and  prayer,  and  stating  general  truths  not  directed  to 
any  person  in  particular,  and  occasionally  in  addressing  individuals  not  as  such, 
but  as  a  mass  or  a  class  in  an  informal  and  general  way,  where  it  is  not  necessary 
to  observe  the  formalities  of  polite  society,  and  furthermore  in  polemical  treatises 
in  directing  words  directly  to  one's  opponent,  or  in  one's  thoughts  in  directing 
words  to  one  to  whom  one  would  aloud  only  use  Sie:  Sage  mir,  mit  wem  du 
umgehst,  und  ich  will  dir  sagen,  wer  du  bist  (a  proverb  couched  in  familiar 
language,  since  the  address  is  to  no  person  in  particular).  Darum,  Bergleute, 
steigert  weiter  die  Kohlenförderung,  Landwirte,  liefert  Kartoffeln  ab  (Proclama- 
tion of  President  Ebert,  Nov.  4,  1919  to  urge  greater  production,  &c.).  Aber 
die  Herren  Journalisten  haben  Nerven,  wie  die  Frauen.  Alles  regt  euch  auf, 
jedes  Wort,  das  jemand  gegen  euch  sagt,  empört  euch!  Geht  mir  (away  with 
you),  ihr  seid  empfindliche  Leute  (Freytag's  Journalisten,  1,  1).  In  the  last 
three  sentences  the  speaker  addresses  in  a  general  way  several  sharp  remarks 
in  the  familiar  form  to  journalists  as  a  class,  but  he  would  not  be  so  impolite  as 
to  use  this  form  in  speaking  directly  to  any  one  person  or  a  definite  group  of 


178 HISTORY   OF   THE    FORMS   OF   ADDRESS 140.  a. 

persons.  Kurzsichtigster  aller  Schullehrer,  verknöchertster  aller  Pedanten, 
ist  dir  denn  niemals  davon  eine  Spur  der  Erkenntnis  aufgegangen,  daß  gerade 
ihre  unerschöpfliche  Fruchtbarkeit  der  größte  Vorzug  der  deutschen  Sprache 
ist?  (the  reply  of  Dr.  Karl  Kaerger  to  the  lamentations  of  Dr.  Gustav  Wustmann 
over  the  decay  of  the  German  language).  Kommandant,  du  bist  ein  armer 
Mann  (Heer's  Felix  Notvest,  p.  190,  words  directed  in  thought  to  one  previously 
addressed  by  Sie. 

Note.  Historical  Development.  Of  later  origin  than  the  editorial  we,  the  Plural  of  Modesty  discussed  in  /.  (3 ) 
below,  is  the  associative  u'e  used  in  imperial  decrees  in  that  period  of  Roman  history  when  two  or  three  rulers  reigned 
together  and  hence  were  associated  in  the  official  proclamations.  Later  whenever  the  poHtical  power  was  centered 
in  one  emperor  the  old  we  was  retained,  so  that  altho  often  the  associative  force  was  pri^sent  as  the  ruler  included  his 
advisors  the  associative  we  developed  into  royal  we,  the  Plural  of  Majesty  or  the  Plural  of  Dignity,  as  the  ruler  spoke 
of  himself  in  his  official  announcements  in  the  pi.  instead  of  the  sing.,  as  'We  decree'  instead  of  'I  decree.'  This  usage 
was  imitated  by  German  kings,  dukes,  &c.,  in  their  official  decrees,  and  still  in  our  own  time  the  last  German  emperor 
writes  (Oct.  28,  1893):  Wir  Wilhelm,  von  Gottes  Gnaden  deutscher  Kaiser,  König  von  Preußen  usw.  verordnen  usw. 
.\  person  of  high  rank  speaking  thus  of  himself  in  tlie  1st  pers.  pi.  must  use  the  possessive  unser  instead  of  main:  Es 
ist  uns  zu  Oluren  gekommen,  daß  unsere  getreuen  lieben  tJntertanen  usw. 

In  the  ninth  century  such  persons  in  higli  standing  who  thus  spoke  of  themselves  in  the  1st  pers.  pi.  were  by  others, 
addressed  by  Ihr  (2nd  pers.  pi.)  instead  of  the  2nd  pers.  sing.  Later  all  persons  of  rank  or  even  of  good  standing  were 
addressed  by  Ihr,  and  thus  Ihr  became  the  universal  polite  form  till  the  fifteenth  century.  In  the  Middle  Ages  children 
also  addressed  each  of  their  parents  by  Ihr,  which  custom  lingers  still  in  places  in  the  countrj-:  Vater,  das  erste  Reis, 
das  Euch  auf  Eurem  Heimweg  an  den  Hut  stößt,  das  brecht  für  mich  ab  (from  Grimm's  Härchen).  Likewise  in 
Wolfram's  "Parzival"  Gahmuret  addresses  his  elder  brother  by  Ihr  but  is  in  return  addressed  by  du.  This  usage  still 
survived  in  the  eighteenth  century  as  seen  in  Geliert 's  comedy  "Die  zärtlichen  Schwestern,"  where  the  younger  sister 
respectfully  addresses  the  elder  sister  by  Ihr. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  arose  a  new  form  of  address  towards  persons  of  high  rank.  From  a  feeling 
of  hesitation  to  approach  them  directly  they  were  addressed  indirectly  by  their  pompous  titles,  which  caused  the  verb 
to  be  placed  in  the  3rd  person,  at  first  in  the  singular,  later  in  the  singular  or  plural,  finally  only  in  the  plural:  Ich  thet 
was  üwer  gnad  mich  hieß  (Hans  von  Bühel,  A.D.  1400).  Wenn  Euer  KurfürstUche  Gnade  glaubte,  so  würde  Sie 
Gottes  HerrUchkeit  sehen  (Luther).  Wir  wollen  also  tun  wie  Euer  Fürstliche  Gnaden  schreiben  (id.).  Haben 
Euer  Fürstliche  Durchleuchtigkeit  (Durchlauchtigkeit)  auch  Falken?  (1594,  H.  J.  v.  Braunschweig).  The  plural  of 
the  verb  here  is  due  to  the  plural  subject  Gnaden,  an  abstract  plural  much  used  also  elsewhere  as  a  more  emphatic 
form  than  the  singular,  as  in  von  Gottes  Gnaden  by  the  grace  of  God.  The  plural  form  of  the  verb  was  then  e.xtended 
by  analogv  to  use  with  other  titles.  The  plural  form  of  the  title  itself,  however,  has  become  fLxed  only  in  Eure  or 
Euer  (137.  1.  a)  Gnaden  (formerly  an  address  to  princes  and  rulers,  now  only  to  a  Graf,  Reichsfreiherr,  and  the  highest 
orders  of  the  clergy,  as  Bischof),  Eure  Hochwürden  (the  address  used  to  a  Propst,  Abt,  Domherr,  Ober-Konsistorialrat, 
Hofprediger),  Eure  Hochehr  würden  (address  to  a  pastor).  Euer  Liebden  (in  the  time  of  the  empire  the  address  used  by 
one  prince  or  ruler  to  another).  They  are  now  felt,  however,  as  singulars  in  spite  of  the  plural  form:  Sr.  (Seiner) 
Hochwürden  dem  Propst  N.  N.  (form  of  address  upon  the  envelop).  As  in  the  e.xamples  given  above  from  Luther 
the  possessive  Euer,  which  was  used  in  connection  with  the  old  polite  address  Ihr,  was  inconsistently  retained  in  con- 
nection with  the  new  polite  form  in  the  third  person,  but  there  soon  sprang  up  the  third  person  possessives  Sein  with 
reference  to  a  male  (Ihr  with  reference  to  a  female),  Ihr  with  reference  to  either  a  male  or  a  female:  Euer,  Seine,  or 
Ihre  Gnaden.  The  last  mentioned  form,  i.e.  Ihr,  was  used  either  because  the  title  to  which  reference  was  made  was 
usually  feminine  or  plural,  or  it  was  thought  that  the  plural  form  of  the  verb  which  was  so  often  used  with  these  titles 
required  a  possessive  which  referred  to  more  than  one.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  uninflected  possessive  Ihro 
sprang  up  to  vie  with  Euer,  Sein,  and  Ihr.  To-day  only  Euer  is  used  immediately  before  the  title,  but  elsewhere  it 
is  replaced  by  Ihr.     See  also  138.  1.  a  and  2.  /. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  direct  address  in  the  third  person,  so  common  with  persons  of  rank, 
began  to  be  used  toward  untitled  persons  as  a  polite  form  of  address.  The  titles  Herr  Mr.  and  Frau  Mrs.,  or  often 
with  the  article  der  Herr,  die  Frau,  were  used  and  further  on  in  the  same  sentence  or  following  ones  were  replaced 
by  the  pronouns  Er  and  Sie:  Ich  bitt  gantz  freundlich,  der  Herr  woll'  (instead  of  du  wollest  or  the  more  polite  Ihr 
wollet)  mu-  es  nicht  für  übel  deutn,  das  (  =  daß)  ich  ihn  (instead  of  Dich  or  Euch)  ansprech'  bey  den  Leutn  (Her- 
zog Heinrich  Julius,  A.D.  1593).  Finally  Herr  and  Frau  dropped  out.  and  Er  and  Sie  with  the  3rd  pers.  sing,  of  the 
verb  were  used  in  direct  address:  Wohin  geht  Er?  Where  are  you  going?  (addressed  to  a  gentleman).  Wohin  geht 
Sie?  (to  a  lady).     Ihr  was  the  next  polite  form,  and  du  was  used  toward  friends. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  a  new  polite  address  arose,  which  began  a  struggle  for  supremacy 
with  the  polite  forms  Er,  Sie,  and  Ihr  already  in  use.  The  new  polite  form  was  Sie,  the  3rd  pers.  pi.  instead  of  the 
3rd  pers.  sing,  thus  onlv  having  one  form  for  the  two  genders.  It  was  first  used  as  a  convenient  substitute  for  Euer 
Gnaden  after  the  full  title  had  alreadv  been  mentioned:  Ich  bin  oft  vermahnet  und  gebeten  von  vielen,  ich  wollte 
und  sollte  Euer  KurfürstUchen  und  FürstUchen  Gnaden  schreiben,  daß  Sie  den  Gefangenen  H.  ja  nit  wiederumb 
loslassen  wollten  (Luther).  Later  its  use  was  widened,  so  that  it  replaced  Er  and  Sie  (with  the  3rd  pers.  sing,  of 
the  verb).  This  new  form  gained  the  final  victory  somewhere  near  1740  and  became  firmly  fixed  by  the  rich  prose 
literature  which  sprang  up  at  this  time.  However,  Er,  Sie,  Ihr,  du  still  continued  to  be  used  with  varying  shades 
of  meaning.  Towards  the  third  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Sie  (with  the  verb  in  the  3rd  pers.  pi.)  was  the 
very  polite  form  used  to  persons  of  high  rank  or  position,  or  as  a  special  mark  of  respect.  Er  and  Sie  (with  verb  in 
3rd.  pers.  sing.)  were  the  ordinary  polite  forms  for  ordinary  people  not  well  acquainted,  for  older  people  in  addressing 
respectfully  those  younger,  for  those  in  higher  station  in  addressing  in  respectful  tone  those  in  lower  station,  or  for 
young  people  who  desired  to  be  respectful  to  older  people  but  not  coldly  formal.  Ihr  was  still  less  formal,  and  du 
with  its  pi.  ihr  was  used  towards  intimate  friends  or  towards  young  people.  This  state  of  things  can  be  seen  in  Les- 
sing's  play  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  and  continued  over  into  the  nineteenth  century,  and  even  lingers  still  in  the  con- 
servative country  districts,  as  can  be  seen  in  recent  authors  who  give  us  pictures  of  rural  life,  as  in  Ludwig's  Der  Erb- 
förster, Ebner-Eschenbach's  Die  Unverstandene  auf  dem  Dorfe,  and  Lauff's  Frau  Aleit.  The  student  must  remem- 
ber, however,  that  this  relation  of  Sie,  Ihr,  and  Er  to  each  other  will  not  usually  be  found  in  the  more  stately  language 
of  the  higher  forms  of  the  dramatic  literature  of  this  period,  for  Sie  is  here  replaced  by  Ihr.  Thus  in  Goethe's  Faust, 
Margaret  addresses  her  neighbor  Martha  bv  Sie  (3rd  sing,  fem.),  towards  whom  she  desires  to  be  at  once  respectful 
and  cordial,  while  she  addresses  Faust  at  first  by  the  more  formal  and  dignified  Ihr.  Martha  addresses  Margaret  by 
the  familiar  du,  but  usually  uses  Ihr  to  the  stranger  Mephistopheles.  On  the  other  hand,  strict  distinctions  of  rank 
often  disappear  and  du  is  uniformly  used  or  occasionally  employed  without  regard  to  the  station  of  the  person  ad- 
dressed. This  is  especially  true  in  dramas  of  a  high  ideal  character  where  the  petty  distinctions  of  conventional  so- 
ciety are  naturally  disregarded  thruout  or  are  for  a  moment  forgotten.  Thus  with  Greek  simplicity  Goethe  uses 
du  quite  uniformly  thruout  his  "Tasso."  For  our  own  time  usage  is  given  above.  Er  and  Sie  (with  verb  in  sing.) 
once  so  polite,  have  sunk  in  rank  even  below  Ihr,  and  are  now  very  rarely  used  except  in  a  half-jesting  familiar  tone, 
while  Ihr,  which  was  promoted  to  use  in  poetry  and  elevated  discourse,  especially  in  the  more  serious  dramas  of  the 
classical  period  and  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  has  been  relegated  to  use  among  peasants,  where  it  is 
in  sections  still  employed  as  a  form  of  address  to  avoid  the  too  familiar  du  and  the  too  polite  Sie  (withverb  in  p!.), 
or  is  employed  by  children  as  a  more  respectful  form  of  address  to  parents  than  du.  The  polite  form  Sie  has  in  the 
drama  of  our  day  in  large  measure  replaced  the  stately  Ihr  of  the  classical  period,  as  the  language  of  the  drama  has 
in  general  taken  on  to  a  greater  extent  than  ever  before  the  form  and  tone  of  the  living  spoken  language.  In  the 
recent  dramas,  however,  that  are  of  a  high  ideal  character,  removed  from  the  common  scenes  of  every  day,  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  classical  drama  are  faithfully  preserved  and  the  stately  Ihr  prevails. 

For  the  peculiar  use  of  pronouns  in  over-polite  language  see  /  below. 


140.  c.  GEN.  &  DAT.  OF  THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 179 

b.  Genitive  and  Dative  Forms.  The  short  forms  for  the  gen.  sing,  are  now 
rarely  found  except  in  a  few  set  expressions  and  in  poetry.  Tho  grammarians 
concede  that  the  long  forms  have  gained  the  victory  for  the  gen.  sing.,  they 
still  dispute  the  victory  of  all  the  long  forms  except  ihrer  for  the  pi.  Of  these 
short  forms  ihr  (earlier  spelling  jr)  for  the  gen.  fem.  and  gen.  pi.  for  all  genders 
is  now  (except  occasionally  in  the  gen.  pi.  before  aller,  as  in  Ihr  aller  Glück- 
wünsche empfing  ich)  entirely  obsolete,  altho  used  much  in  early  N.H.G.,and  even 
occurring  sometimes  in  poetry  up  to  our  own  time:  Der  HErr  bedarf  jr  (Matth. 
xxi.  3).  Da  wurden  jr  beider  Augen  auffgethan  (Gen.  iii.  7).  Allein  je  mehr 
die  Seele  wert,  je  mehr  der  Teufel  ihr  begehrt  (Uhland).  But  now  ihrer,  not 
only  in  the  sing,  but  also  in  the  pl. :  ihrer  beider  Augen.  Hence  it  is  only  natural 
that  the  plural  gen.  of  the  other  pronouns  often  assumes  the  long  form  after  the 
analogy  of  ihrer.  In  spite  of  the  oft-repeated  protests  of  the  grammarians, 
these  forms  are  quite  common  in  every  style  of  literature:  Ich  erinnere  mich 
Eurer  nicht  (Goethe's  Götz,  3,  6).  O  meine  Eltern!  Muß  ich  erst  jetzt,  jetzt 
eurer  mich  erinnern!  (Grillparzer's  Sappho,  2,  1 ).  Kein  merkwürdigerer  Gegen- 
satz hätte  unserer  warten  können  (G.  Keller's  Nachgelassene  Schriften,  223). 
So  Ihr  Euch  nur  wacker  haltet,  |  wartet  Eurer  noch  ein  Stuhl  im  |  hohen  Reichs- 
gericht zu  Wetzlar  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  zweites  Stück).  So  sind  Eurer  zu 
viel  (Frey tag's  Rittmeister,  chap.  iv).  So  muß  ich  es  tun  statt  eurer  (Fontane's 
Schach  von  Wnthenow,  chap.  iv).  So  lachen  wir  eurer  (Raabe's  A.T.,  chap. 
xxiii).  Und  laßt  dies  Bett  statt  Eurer  mich  besteigen  (M.  Greifs  Heinrich  der 
Löwe,  2,  1).  Wir  müßten  unserer  hundert  sein,  um  das  Erforderliche  tun  zu 
können  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder!,  III,  p.  270).  Die  Tafel  wartet  Eurer, 
Herr  König  (Wildenbruch's  König  Heinrich,  1,  9).  Du  hörst  den  Jubel  aller 
Frühlingssänger,  die  unsrer  warten  (Hauptmann's  Versunkene  Glocke,  1.  1208). 
Vor  eurer  aller  Augen  (Fulda's  Talisman,  1,9).  Und  dann  wäre  auch  wohl  mal 
die  Zeit  gekommen,  daß  du  dich  unserer  geschämt  hättest  (Ompteda's  Sylvester 
von  Geyer,  XCI).  Aber  ach,  welche  Enttäuschung  harrte  unserer  (Königs- 
marck's  Japan  und  die  Japaner,  p.  4).  Um  unserer  selbst  willen  (Felix  Hol- 
laender's  Der  Weg  des  Thomas  Truck,  II,  p.  413),  eurer  gedenkend  (Heer's 
Joggeli,  p.  77).  Jetzt  oder  nie  bedarf  ich  eurer  (H.  von  Hofmannsthal's  Die 
Hochzeit  der  Sobeide,  p.  97).  Die  Frage,  ob  in  der  Zukunft  ein  neues  Jena 
oder  ein  neues  Sedan  unserer  harrt  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  May  21,  1906). 

The  lengthened  gen.  forms  meiner,  deiner,  seiner,  ihrer,  instead  of  older 
mein,  dein,  sein,  ihr,  have  probably  arisen  under  the  influence  of  the  ending 
er  in  the  gen.  pl.  forms  unser  and  euer.  The  lengthened  forms  began  to  appear 
in  the  fourteenth  century  and  in  prose  in  the  singular  gained  the  ascendency  over 
the  short  forms  by  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  ascendency  of  the 
long  forms  in  the  plural  has  not  yet  been  generally  recognized.  In  the  South- 
west the  lengthened  singular  forms  meinen,  deinen,  &c.,  were  in  use  in  the 
Bisteenth  rrnlur^'  instead  of  meiner,  deiner,  &c. 

In  Luttier's  earlier  writings  the  old  dat.  pl.  3rd  pers.  jn  (M.H.G.  in)  is  still 
used.  The  weakened  form  en  is  still  found  in  the  language  of  the  youthful 
Goethe:  Ich  will  'en  die  Wurme  (now  Würmer)  schon  aus  der  Nase  ziehn 
(  Urfaust,  p.  23).  This  weakened  form  is  still  in  use  in  colloquial  language,  but 
is  no  longer  written.  Traces  of  the  lengthened  form  ihnen  began  to  appear  in 
M.H.G.  in  the  twelfth  century.  From  there  the  long  form  slowly  spread  over 
the  entire  territory.  It  became  the  prevailing  form  about  1600  in  prose  and  a 
little  later  also  became  established  in  poetry.  The  addition  of  -en  is  after  the 
analogy  of  the  dative  plural  in  -en  found  in  nouns  and  adjectives. 

c.  Old  Genitive  es.  The  old  neut.  gen.  sing,  es  is  still  found  in  a  few  set  ex- 
pressions, but  is  in  fact  not  felt  as  a  genitive:  Ich  bin  es  müde  I  am  tired  of  it. 
Er  will  es  nicht  Wort  haben  He  will  not  acknowledge  it.  Dann  wird  es  jeder 
Dank  wissen,  wenn  Preußens  Regent  und  Preußens  Heer  bereit  sind  (Raabe's 
Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  xix).  This  es  is  now  felt  as  a  nom.  or  ace,  and  this 
false  conception  has  led  to  the  use  of  the  nom.  or  ace.  of  other  words,  where  the 
gen.  should  stand:    Es  (gen.  construed  as  nom.,  hence  also  das)  nimmt  mich 


180 PECULIAR   USES   OF   PRONOUNS 140.  c. 

Wunder  It  surprises  me,  lit.  wonderment  seizes  me  on  account  of  it.  Es  stand 
also  wirklich  schlimm;  aber  das  (ace.)  wollte  er  nicht  Wort  haben  (Spielhagen's 
Frei  geboren,  p.  264).  Ich  weiß  dir  deine  (acc;  better  für  deine)  Freigebigkeit 
großen  Dank  (Alex.  König,  1001  Nacht,-  II.  p.  15).  See  also  260.  3.  b,  and 
262.  II.  B.  b). 

d.  Meinetwegen,  meinethalben.  The  gen.  of  all  genders  and  numbers  in 
composition  with  the  prepositions  wegen  on  account  of,  willen  for  the  sake  of, 
halben  (or  halb)  on  account  of,  change  the  last  letter  of  their  long  forms  to  t: 
meinetwegen  on  my  account,  for  all  I  care;  meinetwillen  for  my  sake;  meinet- 
halben on  my  account;  deinetwegen,  &c. 

Note  1.  This  is  only  a  convenient  way  of  stating  this  rule,  for  et  in  meinet,  deinet,  &c.  is  in  reality  not  the  gen. 
ending  of  the  personal  pronouns  at  all.  but  the  corrupted  form  of  a  possessive  adj.  In  compounds  with  halben  (some- 
times°contracted  to  halb),  the  second  element  is  in  reality  a  noun  in  the  dat.  pi.,  used  adverbially  (see  223.  1.  10.  c), 
the  first  element  is  the  modifving  possessive:  meinen  halben,  lit.  upon  my  sides  (i.e.  account).  In  the  compounds 
with  wegen  the  forms  meinetWe;e  i,  deinetwegen,  &c.  represent  older  von  meinen  Wegen  on  my  accoiail,  lit.  from 
tny  side  °  The  compounds  with  willen  are  in  realitv  in  the  acc.  sing,  governed  by  the  prep,  um:  (um)  ihre(n)twillen 
=  um  ihren  Willen  (still  in  this  form  in  Luther's  Bible,  Gen.  xii.  16).  In  all  these  cases  an  excrescent  t  has  forced 
its  way  into  the  words  after  the  n  of  the  possessive,  followed  by  the  dropping  of  n.  However,  by  popular  concep- 
tion these  possessives  are  construed  as  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  and  indeed  often  the  real  genitive  of  the 
personal  pronouns  can  be  heard:  Es  tut  mir  leid,  daß  Ihr  jetzt  wegen  meiner  den  weiten  Weg  macht  (Auerbach's 
DorfiieschiclUen.  8,  p.  11).  Wegen  meiner  lies!  (Hauptmann 's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  i)  Read  for  all  I  care!  Quälen 
Siesich  nicht  wegen  meiner  (.\dele  Gerhard's  Die  Pilgerfahrt,  p.  2(J7).  The  genitive  forms  are  the  rule  when  the 
pronoun  is  separated  from  the  preposition  by  one  or  more  words  meiner  selbst  und  deinetwegen,  deiner  und  der 
Mutter  wegen,  um  seiner  selbst  willen,  but  with  different  word-order:    nur  der  Mutter  und  meinetwegen,  &c. 

No'e  2.  Instead  of  the  ending  -et  or  -er  we  often  find  -s  in  colloquial  language  after  the  analogy  of  the  genitive 
of  nouns  in  such  expressions  as  Rechts  halben,  Gesundheitswegen:  Meinshalben  redet  doch,  was  ihr  wollt  (Haupt- 
mann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  1).  Meinswegen  (ib.;  also  Hirschfcld's  Agnes  Jordan,  Act  3).  We  sometimes  find 
the  double  ending  ts:    mein'tswegen  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap.  xiii). 

e.  Reduction  or  Change  of  Form.  On  account  of  the  enclitic  or  proclitic 
nature  of  the  personal  pronouns  they  often  in  colloquial  language  suffer  aphere- 
sis,  syncope,  or  a  shortening  of  the  vowel.  If  monosyllabic  the  initial  vowel, 
if  dissyllabic  the  unaccented  e,  may  drop  out,  as  in  the  following  examples  taken 
from  Hauptmann's  Einsame  Me^ischen:  Und  der  Junge  ...  na  ja!  Dem  gibt 
man  seine  Milch,  man  hält'n  (for  ihn)  sauber  .  .  .  aber  das  kann  'ne  Magd  auch 
machen,  und  später  .  .  .  später  kann  ich'm  (for  ihm)  doch  nichts  mehr  bieten. 
Ich  muß  Ihn'n  sagen.  Ich  hab's  (for  es)  schon  lange  bemerkt.  The  one  form 
's  (for  es)  is  now  common  even  in  the  literary  form  of  speech.  In  colloquial 
language  unaccented  Sie  often  becomes  Se  (zs). 

Note.  In  dialect  the  personal  pronouns  are  often  curiously  deformed,  as  in  the  following:  mir  or  mer_(for  wir), 
arising  from  assimilation  to  the  final  consonant  of  the  preceding  verb,  as  in  habm  mir  (for  haben  wir);  dir  (or  der) 
or  tir  (or  ter)  =  ilir,  arising  from  such  forms  as  sei  dir  (for  seid  ihr);  ns  (for  sie),  from  such  forms  as  habns  (for 
haben  sie). 

/.  Peculiar  Uses  of  Pronouns.  In  addition  to  the  statement  of  usage  given 
in  a  and   Note  thereunder,  attention  is  here  called  to  the  following  points: 

(1).  Over-polite  Speech.  In  over-polite  language,  when  the  address  is  to  a 
superior,  the  direct  form  Sie  is  avoided  in  the  first  instance  and  the  title  in  the 
third  person  used  instead.  Later  on  in  the  sentence  when  the  same  person  is 
again  addressed,  the  third  person  pi.  form  of  the  personal  pronoun  is  used  and 
also  the  possessive  corresponding  to  this  form,  both  pronoun  and  possessive, 
however,  being  written  with  a  capital  letter  to  indicate  direct  address:  Dem 
Karl  muß  man  gut  sein,  der  ist  so  alert,  wie  was,  Herr  Amtsrat  werden  Ihre 
Freude  haben  (Arnold).  Mein  Herz  weissagt,  Ew.  Durchlaucht  werden  die 
Erhaltung  meines  Lebens,  das  ganz  Ihnen  gehört,  nicht  verschmähen,  und  mich 
in  der  Ferne  als  Ihren  unveräußerten  Untertanen  betrachten  wollen  (J.  H.  Voss). 
In  early  N.H.G.,  however,  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person  sing,  could  also  be 
used  here,  as  the  verb  could  also  be  in  the  sing,  (see  Note  under  a  above):  Da 
nun  Ew.  kurfürstliche  Gnade  begehrt  zu  wissen,  was  Sie  tun  soll  in  dieser 
Sache,  zumal  Sie  meint,  Sie  habe  viel  zu  wenig  getan,  so  antworte  ich  unter- 
tänig, Ew.  kurfürstliche  Gnaden  hat  schon  allzuviel  getan,  und  sollte  gar  nichts 
tun  (Luther). 

When  the  person  is  spoken  of  in  the  third  person,  the  third  person  pi.  form  of 
the  pronoun  is  now  also  used  here,  but  is  written  with  a  small  letter:  Der  Herr 
Maler  lassen  sich  empfehlen,  und  sie  würden  am  Sonntag  zum  Diner  erscheinen 
(report  of  a  servant  to  his  mistress  in  Wildenbruch's  Eifernde  Liebe,  chap,  vi) 
The  artist  sends  his  compliments  and  begs  to  say  that  it  will  give  him  great 
pleasure  to  dine  with  you  on  Sunday. 


141.  2. SUBSTITUTES   FOR   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS 181 

(2).  The  First  Person  Plural  for  the  Second  Person  Singular.  This  often 
takes  place  in  colloquial  language  in  a  tone  of  stern  censure:  Wo  haben  wir  so 
lange  gesteckt?  Where  have  you  been  all  this  time?  Often  also  instead  of  the 
imperative.  See  177.  I.  B.  b.  (2nd  par.).  On  the  other  hand  often  in  a  mild 
tone  of  familiarity:  Was  haben  wir  Neues,  Marinelli?  (Lessing's  Emilia,  1,  6) 
What  news  do  you  have  for  me,  Marinelli? 

(3).  The  Editorial  "M^e."  Just  as  in  English  the  first  person  plural  is  often 
used  by  authors  and  speakers  instead  of  the  first  person  singular  and  the  pos- 
sessive unser  instead  of  mein,  the  author  or  speaker  thus  modestly  turning  the 
attention  away  from  himself  by  representing  his  readers  or  hearers  as  accom- 
panying him  in  thought:  Wir  wenden  uns  nun  zunächst  zur  Zeit  des  15.  Jahr- 
hunderts usw.  (Behaghel's  Der  Gebrauch  der  Zeitformen,  p.  104.).  Ist  unsere 
Ableitung  der  Nebensätze  richtig  usw.  (ib.,  p.  181).  This  Plural  of  Modesty 
is  very  old,  for  we  find  a  quite  similar  usage  in  classical  Latin. 

g.  In  Gothic  the  personal  pronouns  have  a  dual,  i.e.  a  form  used  in  addressing  two  persons. 
Later  the  dual  disappeared  from  the  Hterary  language,  and  the  plural  assumed  its  office  in  addi- 
tion to  its  own.  In  Bavarian  and  Austrian  dialects,  however,  the  dual  forms  for  the  second 
person,  es  or  ös  (or,  according  to  e  Note,  des,  dös),  enker,  enk,  enk,  replaced  the  plural  forms 
ihr,  euer,  euch,  euch,  and  are  still  generally  used,  filling  the  office  of  both  dual  and  plural:  Um- 
kehren könnt's  (for  könnt  es  =  könnt  ihr),  stieß  der  Bote  hervor.  Aus  ist's.  Der  Anderl 
(name)  laßt  sagen:  Mir  (for  wir;  see  e.  Note)  brauchen  enk  nicht  (Rosegger).  From  the  fre- 
quent contraction  of  the  verb  with  thefollowing  dual  has  arisen  the  idea  that  the  2nd  pers.  pi. 
ending  of  the  indie,  and  imper.  is  ts:  Ös  jung'  Leut'  kennts  freilich  nur  'n  lustigen  Steinklop- 
ferhanns (Anzengruber's  Kreuzelschreiber,  3,  1).  Gehts  jetzt,  Kinder,  gehts  ein  wenig  in  den 
Hof  'naus  (Raimund's  Der  Verschwender,  3.  7). 

141.     Substitutes  for  the  Personal  Pronouns. 

Personal  pronouns  have  a  much  narrower  range  of  usefulness  in  German  than 
in  English.  The  lack  of  accent  and  other  defects  cause  them  very  often  to  be 
replaced  by  heavier  or  more  explicit  forms. 

1.  When  the  third  person  is  emphasized,  the  demon,  der,  die,  das  very  often 
takes  the  place  of  the  personal  pronoun:  Mit  dem  kann  man  nichts  machen 
You  can't  do  anything  with  him.  Und  ein  Hut,  ein  Hut!  Mit  dem  ging'  ich 
nicht  in  der  Wüste  Sahara  um  Mitternacht  What  a  hat!  I  wouldn't  wear  it 
in  the  desert  of  Sahara  at  midnight.  Formerly  er  often  had  strong  demonstra- 
tive or  determinative  force  as  he  in  he  ivho  in  English  and  derjenige  in  German. 
A  survival  of^this  older  usage  is  given  in  160.  2.  a.  Note.  It  is  still  stressed  in 
a  contrast:  fir  ging  von  hinnen,  aber  dir  ließ  er  als  Erbe  das  halb  zerstörte 
Reich  (Sudermann's  Teja,  11). 

When  the  reference  is  not  to  definite  individuals  but  to  things  as  members 
of  a  class  of  things  without  a  definite  fixing  of  their  identity  we  usually  find  a 
form  of  solch,  which  is  variously  translated,  they,  one,  such,  or  is  often  ren- 
dered by  repeating  the  noun  to  which  it  refers:  Die  Zahl  der  Abkürzungen  im 
Bibeltexte  ist  gering.  In  den  lateinischen  Randbemerkungen  begegnen  dagegen 
solche  häufig  (P.  Pietsch  and  E.  Thiele  in  Einleitung,  p.  xxi,  vol.  I,  Luthers 
Deutsche  Bibel)  There  are  few  abbreviations  in  the  text  of  the  Bible.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  Latin  marginal  notes  they  occur  frequently.  Die  bedeu- 
tendste Schrift  über  das  Niederdeutsche  ist  Agathe  Laschs  mittelniederdeutsche 
Grammatik.  Eine  solche  nach  dem  jetzigen  Stande  der  Wissenschaft  zu 
schreiben,  war  nicht  leicht  (Oskar  Weise  in  Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unter- 
richt, 1915,  p.  520)  The  most  important  work  on  Low  German  is  Agathe  Lasch's 
Middle  Low  German  Grammar.  To  write  one,  or  To  write  such,  or  more  smoothly 
To  write  a  Middle  Low  German  Grammar  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  subject  was  not  an  easy  task.  The  use  of  solch  in  2,  3,  5.  B.  b.  Note  below 
is  based  upon  this  principle.  See  also  131.  3  (2nd  par.)  for  incorrect  use  of 
solch  for  the  personal  pronouns  er,  sie,  es. 

2.  The  gen.  sing,  and  pi.  of  pronouns  representing  things  is  usually  replaced 
by  the  demon,  genitives  dessen,  deren,  desselben,  derselben,  or  in  the  plural 
where  the  reference  is  a  little  more  indefinite  also  solcher  or  von  solchen :  Behalte 
dein  Geld;  ich  bedarf  dessen  nicht  Keep  your  money;  I  am  not  in  need  of  it. 


182 SUBSTITUTES    FOR   PERSONAL    PRONOUNS 141.  2. 

Spare  die  Worte;  es  sind  deren  genug  gewechselt  Save  your  words;  enough  of 
them  have  already  been  spoken.  Sie,  trotz  eines  languissanten  Zuges,  oder 
vielleicht  auch  um  desselben  willen,  eine  Schönheit  ersten  Ranges  (Fontane's 
Cccile,  chap.  ix).  Während  der  Winterabende  war  im  Refektorium  etwas 
Figurenzeichnen  getrieben  worden,  und  ich  hatte  mir,  als  ich  eine  Menge 
radierter,  bekleideter  Staffagefiguren  kopierte,  einige  oberflächHche  Übung 
im  Entwerfen  solcher  erworben  (G.  Keller's  Der  grüne  Heinrich,  p.  2S0).  Der 
logische  Akzent  ermöglicht  bei  abweichender  Wortfolge  die  Bildung  von 
Formeln,  andererseits  kann  er  aber  auch  bei  normaler  Wortstellung  die 
Bildung  von  solchen  hintertreiben  (Herbert  Wenck  in  Beiträge,  190Ö,  vol.  31, 
p.  233). 

Except  in  the  case  of  a  collective  idea  or  a  general  or  indefinite  reference 
there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  use  here  the  regular  genitive  forms  of  the  personal 
pronouns,  especially  wherever  a  thing  is  personified  or  is  vividly  pictured  as 
having  individual  life  or  force:  ,, Sicherheiten  für  die  Zukunft'*  hat  der  Reichs- 
kanzler wiederholt  als  das  unerläßliche  Ziel  des  Krieges  für  uns  bezeichnet." 
Wir  bedürfen  ihrer  gegen  Rußland  mindestens  so  sehr  wie  gegen  eine  andere 
Macht  (Prof.  J.  Haller  in  Das  größere  Deutschland,  March  13,   1915,  p.  356). 

Note.  The  partitive  gen.  of  persona]  pronouns  representing  either  persons  or  things  may  often  be  replaced  in  the 
3rd  person  not  only  by  the  gen.  of  der  or  derselbe,  but  also  by  the  dat.  of  the  personal  pronoun  after  the  prep,  voa 
in  case  of  persons  and  the  adverbial  compound  of  the  prep,  with  the  demon,  da  (see  5  below)  in  case  of  things:  viele 
derselben,  deren  viele  many  of  them  (persons  or  things  according  to  the  context),  sechs  von  ihnen  six  (persons)  of 
them,  sechs  davon  si.x  (things)  of  them.  The  dat.  after  von  may  also  replace  the  gen.  of  the  first  and  second  persons: 
sechs  von  uns.  Sometimes  the  prep,  unter  is  used  instead  of  von:  welcher  unter  euch  which  of  you,  who  among 
you. 

3.  The  gen.  of  a  pronoun  which  represents  a  thing  and  depends  upon  a 
noun  preceded  by  the  indefinite  article  or  a  pronominal  adjective  is  usually 
replaced  by  the  gen.  of  derselbe,  not  by  the  gen.  of  der:  Namen  wie  Nävius, 
Pacuvius,  Attius  usw.  schießen  weit  über  das  Ziel  des  Gymnasiums  hinaus  und 
brauchen  nicht  in  einem  Lehrbuch  desselben  zu  stehen  {Zeitschrift  für  das 
Gymnasialivesen,  xi,  p.  023).  Zwischen  meiner  letzten  Heimkehr  ins  Vater- 
haus und  meinem  endgültigen  Verlassen  desselben  (Raabe).  In  case  of  a 
reference  to  an  amount  or  part  we  may  also  use  an  adverbial  compound  here: 
Er  hatte  die  von  Anna  ihm  mitgegebenen  Brotschnitte  aus  seiner  Jagdtasche 
genommen;  aber  er  aß  nur  einen  kleinen  Teil  davon  (Storm's  Schiveigen). 
Es  bUeb  nichts  übrig  als  den  Bart  abzuschneiden;  dabei  ging  ein  kleiner  Teil 
desselben  (or  davon)  verloren  (Märchen). 

In  the  plural  where  the  ein  before  the  noun  drops  out  and  the  reference  be- 
comes indefinite  solcher  (gen.  pi.)  or  sometimes  von  solchen  is  usually  employed 
instead  of  derselben:  Auf  die  Lexikographie  angewendet,  will  das  besagen, 
daß  die  Behandlung  jeder  einzelnen  Terminologie  oder  doch  einer  beschränkten 
Anzahl  solcher  je  einem  anderen  Philologen  anzuvertrauen  wäre,  der  in  den 
betreffenden  Fächern  heimisch  ist  (Dr.  H.  Tiktin  in  Germanisch-Romanische 
Monatsschrift,  1910,  p.  247).  Die  zweite  Eigenschaft  besteht  in  der  Beschrän- 
kung der  Aufmerksamkeit  auf  bestimmte  Gegenstände  und  auf  gewisse  Teile 
von  solchen  (Wundt's    VöJlicr psychologic,  II,  p.  80). 

4.  The  simple  dative  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns  are  not  freely  used 
with  reference  to  things,  but  occur  with  ever  increasing  frequency:  Die  Unter- 
nehmungen meines  Busens  sind  zu  groß,  als  daß  du  ihnen  im  Wege  stehen 
solltest  (Goethe's  Götz.  4,  4).  Beide  Hebten  das  Zimmer  und  gaben  ihm  auf 
Kosten  aller  andern  den  Vorzug  (Fontane's  Schach  von  Wuthenow,  IV).  The 
dat.  forms  ihm,  ihr,  ihnen  are  so  thoroly  identified  with  persons  that  with 
reference  to  things  they  are  avoided  by  many  who  prefer  here  the  dat.  of  der- 
selbe: Versuche,  den  Verein  zu  verfolgen,  werden  demselben  nur  neues 
Wachstum  verleihen.  Durch  Höhe  der  Gebäude  suchte  man  zu  ersetzen, 
was  denselben  an  Breite  und  Tiefe  abging. 

The  dat.  dem  is  usually  used  with  reference  to  the  thought  of  a  preceding 
clause  or  sentence:  Das  Fräulein  tat  einen  affektierten  Schrei  und  wich  zurück. 
Joachim  schenkte  dem  keine  Beachtung,  sondern  sagte  bloß,  &c.  (Marriot's 
Der  geistliche  Tod,  chap,  xviii). 


141.  5.  A.  e.      SUBSTITUTES  FOR  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 183 

5.  A.  Personal  Pronouns  Replaced  by  Adverbial  Compounds.  The  dat.  and 
ace.  of  the  personal  pronouns  of  all  genders  and  numbers,  when  they  represent 
things,  are  not  usually  used  after  prepositions,  but  are  replaced  by  an  adverbial 
compound  formed  by  appending  the  prep,  to  the  demon,  adverb  da  (before 
consonants  except  in  case  of  darnach,  which  occurs  about  as  frequently  as 
danach)  or  dar  (before  a  vowel):  Hier  ist  ein  Tisch,  und  drauf  or  da'rauf  (for 
auf  ihm)  ist  ein  Buch.  Er  kam  vor  eine  Tür  und  stieß  da'gegen  (for  gegen 
sie).  A:  Er  hatte  mir  versprochen,  diese  wichtigen  Briefe  auf  die  Post  zu 
geben.  B:  Wenn  Ihnen  da'ran  hegt,  will  ich  da'mit  (with  them)  hingehen. 
Seine  Stühle  waren  uralt,  aber  er  lud  täglich  jemanden  ein,  da'rauf  zu  sitzen 
(Goethe). 

In  colloquial  language  these  adverbial  compounds  may  in  a  few  cases  be  used 
with  reference  to  das  Mädchen,  and  hence  in  this  one  instance  may  refer  to 
persons:  Nämlich  der  junge  Mensch  ...  in  unserer  Geschichtserzählung 
kriegt  sein  Mädchen  ebenfalls,  und  wird  so  glücklich  damit  als  möglich  (Raabe's 
Gutmanns  Reisen,  Intr.). 

The  one  preposition  in  is  changed  to  ein  in  these  compounds  to  express  the 
ace.  relation  (223.  I.  9.  B.  4):  Wer  andern  eine  Grube  gräbt,  fällt  selbst  drein 
or  da'rein,  but  Ist  er  im  Hause?     Nein,  er  ist  nicht  drin  or  da'rin. 

Sometimes  another  adverb  can  be  used  instead  of  da;  Endlich  fanden  wir 
das  Zimmer  und  gingen  hinein. 

In  many  cases  the  preposition  has  entered  into  such  close  relations  with  the 
verb  that  it  forms  a  compound  with  it,  in  which  case  it  is  treated  as  a  separable 
prefix,  not  as  a  preposition,  altho  it  still  retains  its  original  prepositional  force: 
In  diesem  Zimmer  liegen  viele  Bücher  auf  In  this  room  there  are  many  books 
lying  on  the  tables  for  reference,  for  use.  The  peculiar  development  of  meaning 
in  the  compound  differentiates  this  construction  from  the  one  described  above. 
Where  the  differentiation  of  meaning  is  not  so  sharp  fluctuation  of  usage  fol- 
lows: Er  sitzt  am  Tisch  und  stemmt  die  Ellbogen  auf  (prefix)  or  darauf  (ad- 
verbial compound).     Compare  223.  I.  9.  B. 

In  connection  with  the  rule  for  the  use  of  the  adverbial  compounds  study 
carefully  e  and  B  below,  where  exceptions  to  the  rule  are  given.  The  literary 
language  of  our  time  is  not  in  general  favorable  to  adverbial  compounds  as 
substitutes  for  pronouns,  and  the  rule  is  not  so  broad  and  not  so  uniformly  fol- 
lowed as  the  grammarians  represent.     See  also  153.  2.  A. 

a.  This  same  construction  is  used  when  the  reference  is  to  persons,  if  they  are  taken  col- 
lectively: Viele  Knaben  waren  da,  aber  Wilhelm  war  nicht  da'runter  Many  boys  were  there, 
but  William  was  not  among  them,  or  in  the  crowd. 

It  is  also  used  with  reference  to  words  representing  persons  where  the  reference  is  more  to 
the  abstract  idea  contained  in  the  word  than  to  an  individual:  Hatten  sie  keinen  Kaiser?  Liebe 
Frau!     Er  ist  nur  der  Schatten  davon  (Goethe's  Götz,  4,  4)  He  is  only  the  s-hadow  of  one. 

b.  In  the  preceding  compounds  the  accent  rests  upon  the  vowel  of  the  preposition,  and  hence 
the  vowel  of  the  preceding  adverb  being  slighted  is  often  entirely  suppressed.  By  shifting  the 
accent  from  the  preposition  to  the  adverb  da  a  new  point  of  view  is  gained.  In  da(r),  which 
is  of  the  same  origin  as  the  demonstrative  der,  the  demonstrative  force  becomes  strong  with 
the  aid  of  the  accent,  and  the  attention  is  called  to  the  place  or  all  the  attendant  circumstances: 
nicht  'dadurch,  'hierdurch  not  thru  Üiat  entrance,  but  thru  this.  'Daran  erkenn(e)  ich  ihn  By 
that  very  thing  I  recognize  him.  Was  er  einmal  sagt,  'dabei  bleibt  er.  Often  doubled,  espe- 
cially in  popular  language:    'Dadrin,  nicht  'hierdrin. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  demonstrative  adverb  da  was  here  not  so  closely  united  with  the  preposition  as  now, 
but  could  be  separated  from  it -by  several  words,  and  so  occasionally  even  later  in  the  classical  period:  Da  soil 
es  bei  bleiben  (Luther).  Da  behüte  mich  Gott  vor  (Goethe).  In  popular  speech  this  usage  is  still  common:  Da 
muß  ein  Loch  in  sein  (Jensen's  Schatzsucher,  p.  2G6).  When  thus  separated  the  da  has  demonstrative  force,  and 
hence  is  strongly  accented.  Where,  however,  the  demonstrative  force  is  weak  the  da  is  often  omitted  altogether 
in  easy  colloquial  and  popular  language:  Hängen  Sie  den  ganzen  Krempel  an  den  Nagel!  Kommt  ja  doch  nichts 
bei  (=  dabei)  'raus!  (Halbe's  Die  Heimallosen,  p.  52). 

c.  Hier  +  preposition  usually  has  pure  demonstrative  force,  being  equal  to  dieser  and  prepo- 
sition, and  hence  has  the  accent  and  cannot  be  contracted:  'Hierin  haben  Sie  recht  In  this  respect 
you  are  right. 

d.  Thus  we  see  in  b  and  c  that  the  demonstratives  der  and  dieser,  when  they  refer  to  things, 
are  replaced  after  prepositions  in  the  same  way  as  the  personal  pronouns,  differing  from  the 
latter  only  in  accent. 

e.  The  regular  pronominal  forms  are,  however,  with  ever  increasing  frequency  preferred 
to  the  adverbial  compounds  in  all  grammatical  and  rhetorical  uses,  but  especially  in  the  plural 


184 SUBSTITUTES  FOR  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS      141.  5.  A.  e. 

(except  in  case  of  a  collective  idea)  and  where  a  thins  or  idea  is  personified,  or  is  vividly  pictured 
as  having  individual  force  or  life:  Er  nahm  einen  Bogen  Schreibpapier,  der  vor  ihm  auf  dem 
Pulte  lag,  und  begann  auf  ihm  mit  dem  Bleistift  allerhand  Schnörkel  und  Arabesken  zu  zeichnen 
(\'olkmann).  Unmittelbar  hinter  dem  Pfarrhause  steigt  der  Kirchhof  lehnan,  auf  ihm  so 
ziemlich  in  seiner  Mitte  die  frühmittelalterliche  Feldsteinkirche  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  I.  p.  4). 
Ihre  blauen  Augen  waren  vielleicht  zu  hell,  aber  es  lag  Seele  in  ihnen  (G.  Ompteda).  In 
Straßburg  bildete  sich  jenes  Leben  m  und  mit  der  Natur,  jenes  Gefühl  der  Verwandtschaft, 
des  Emsseins  mit  ihr  (personifving  nature)  bei  Goethe  zu  der  Kraft  und  Tiefe  aus,  die  wir 
in  seiner  Dichtung  der  nächsteia  Jahre  als  einen  bedeutenden  Fortschritt  zur  modernen  Auf- 
fassung der  Natur  bewundem.  Die  Dichtung  ist  kein  photographischer  Apparat,  der  Autor 
kommt  in  ihr  doch  stets  zum  Vorschein  (Richard  Weißenfels).  Vom  besten  Stil  und  vom  Wege 
zu  ihm  (heading  to  chap.  V  in  Eduard  Engel's  Deutsche  Stilkiinst).  Die  genaue  Auffassung 
der  Bezugsart  des  Genitivs  und  des  Grades  seiner  Abhängigkeit  von  einem  andern  Satzteil 
ist  uns  Deutschen  einigermaßen  erschwert  durch  unsere  heutige  Gewohnheit,  den  adnominalen 
Genitiv  unmittelbar  neben  sein  Nomen  zu  stellen  und  so  engstens  an  es  zu  fesseln  (Brug- 
mann's    Vergleichende  Grammatik,  II.  p.  615). 

In  the  same  manner  we  often  find  the  adverbial  compound  hier  +  preposition  replaced  by 
a  preposition  followed  by  a  case  form  of  the  neuter  of  dies-:  Nach  diesem— es  war  wieder  ein 
Sonnabend — gingen  Lewin  und  Hirschfeldt  in  die  Pfarre  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  IV.  chap, 
xxvii).  The  adverbial  construction,  however,  is  quite  uniformly  used  to  refer  to  a  verb,  or 
to  the  thought  contained  in  a  preceding  or  following  phrase  or  proposition,  also  to  refer  col- 
lectively to  things  already  mentioned:  Wird  er  kommen?  Ich  zweifle  daran.  Aber  sage 
mir  doch,  fragte  die  Weide  den  Domstrauch,  warum  du  nach  den  Kleidern  der  vorbeigehenden 
Menschen  so  begierig  bist.     Was  willst  du  damit? 

f.  In  colloquial  speech  the  pronoun  is  often  omitted:  Das  Haus  ist  nicht  neben  dem  Berge, 
sondem  auf  (Georg  Edward).     Der  Unfall  ereignete  sich  nicht  nach  dem  Balle,  sondern  vor  (id.). 

B.  Not  all  prepositions  can,  as  in  A,  form  compounds  with  the  demonstra- 
tive da,  but  this  construction  is  limited  to  an,  auf,  aus,  bei,  durch,  für,  gegen, 
hinter,  in,  mit,  nach,  neben,  ob,  ohne  (only,  however,  in  popular  language), 
über,  unter,  um,  von,  vor,  wider,  zu,  zwischen.  In  case  of  other  prepositions, 
this  construction  is  replaced  by  others: 

a.  The  preps,  halb  and  wegen  are  appended  to  the  gen.  of  the  demon,  pro- 
noun (see  129.  2.  A.  a):  deshalb,  deswegen  on  account  of  it,  therefore. 

b.  After  all  other  preps,  or  prep,  phrases  with  the  force  of  a  prep,  the  per- 
sonal pronouns  are  usually  replaced  by  derselbe:  Sie  wollte  sich  durch  das 
Geld  Vorteile  verschaffen,  auf  die  sie  ohne  dasselbe  nicht  rechnen  konnte. 
In  meinem  dritten  Jahre  befiel  mich  eine  schwere  Krankheit  und  ich  bUeb 
infolge  derselben  an  allen  Gliedern  gelähmt. 

Note.  We  often  find  derselbe  even  after  prepositions  which  can  form  with  da  the  adverbial  compounds  described 
in  A,  as  there  is  a  desire  for  a  more  concrete  expression  of  the  idea  of  object  than  that  afforded  by  an  adverbial  form: 
Vnd  segnete  den  siebenden  Tag  vnd  heiliget  jn  j  darumb  |  das  er  an  dam  selben  geruget  hatte  von  alien  seinen  Wercken 
(Gen.  ii.  3).  Vier  Wochen  später  hatte  er  das  alte  Haus  im  gerichtlichen  Aufgebot  gekauft  imd  hielt  mit  einem 
alten  Gesellen  und  einer  noch  älteren  Schwester  seinen  Emzug  in  dasselbe  (Storm's  Böijer  ßasch). 

The  use  of  derselbe  is  especially  common  to  represent  a  noun  after  one  preposition  in  instances  where  two  prepo- 
sitions which  take  different  cases  govern  one  noun:  in  der  Kirche  und  um  dieselbe  instead  of  the  incorrect  in  und  um 
die  Kirche.  In  case  of  persons  the  personal  pronoun  should  be  used  instead  of  derselbe:  mit  dem  Vater  und  ohne 
ihn.  Good  authors,  however,  often  disregard  these  rules  of  the  grammarians  and  place  both  prepositions  before 
the  noun  or  pronoun,  which  is  then  governed  by  the  second  preposition:  um  und  neben  dem  Hochaltare  (Goethe). 
Ihre  Tochter  wird  meine  Frau  mit  oder  gegen  Ihren  Willen  (H.  Seidel's  Lang,  lang  ist's  her).  Sometimes  the  noun 
is  repeated:  mit  Gott  und  durch  Gott  (Andresen's  Sprachgebratich,  p.  193).  Often  in  case  of  a  pronominal  object: 
Was  in  ihm  und  um  ihn  und  über  ihm  ist  (W.  Wackernagel). 

There  is,  in  general,  a  feeling  against  the  clumsy  form  derselbe  and  an  evident  tendency  in  choice  language  to  re- 
place it  by  a  simple  personal  pronoun,  as  in  A.  e.:  Sie  (Frau  von  Olfers)  kaimte  ihre  Grenze,  aber  innerhalb  ihrer  ihr 
Recht  und  ihre  Befugnis  (Hermann  Grimm's  Fragmente,  I.  p.  379).  So  sehen  wir  also,  daß  Raabe  trotz  semer  Vor- 
liebe für  die  Fremdwörter  doch  statt  ilirer  oftmals  schöne  deutsche  Wörter  verwendet  (Otto  Schütte  in  Zeitschrift 
des  Allgemeinen  Deutschen  Sprachvereins,  1908,  No.  2,  p.  42). 

Often  in  colloquial  speech  the  pronoun  is  omitted:  Wie  jammert  mich  Vaters  Bärtchen:  ich  kenne  ihn  gar  mclit 
mehr  ohne  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Oct.  7,  1850).  .•■••■,, 

Solch  is  usually  employed  instead  of  a  pe-sonal  pronoun  when  the  reference  is  not  to  a  definite  mdividual  but  to  a 
member  of  a  class  without  a  definite  fixing  of  its  identity:  U  in  du  ist  zweimal  mit  Längezeichen  gedruckt,  zweimal 
ohne  solches  (Oscar  Weise  in  Zeilschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unterricht,  1915,  p.  430).     Compare  131.  3  (last  par.). 

6.  Similar  to  the  distinction  between  sem,  ihr  and  dessen,  deren  (see  138. 
2.  d)  is  the  difference  between  er,  sie,  es  and  derselbe,  dieselbe,  dasselbe. 
Er  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  preceding  sentence,  or  in  a  complex  sentence  to 
the  subject  of  the  main  clause,  while  derselbe  (or  dieser)  refers  to  some  oblique 
case  in  the  preceding  sentence,  or  in  a  complex  sentence  to  some  oblique  case 
in  the  main  proposition,  or  to  some  word  in  a  preceding  subordinate  clause 
or  infinitive  phrase,  be  it  a  nom.  or  an  oblique  case:  Mein  Bruder  ist  zu  seinem 
Freunde  gegangen.  Derselbe  (or  better  dieser)  will  ohne  ihn  den  Kauf  nicht 
abschließen  My  brother  has  gone  to  his  friend's.  The  latter  will  not  close 
the  bargain  without  him.     Tagtäglich  ritt  er   (Graf  Beust)   aus  auf  seinem 


141.  9.  a. SITUATION   ES,   OTHER  USES   OF   ES 185 

bekannten  Schimmel,  bis  derselbe  (i.e.  der  Schimmel)  in  Paris  an  Alters- 
schwäche starb.  Der  Knabe  wollte  nicht  sagen,  daß  der  Hund  ihn  gebissen 
hatte,  damit  man  denselben  (i.e.  den  Hund)  nicht  schlagen  möchte. 

The  personal  pronoun  should,  however,  always  be  used  in  all  the  above 
cases  instead  of  derselbe  or  dieser,  if  no  ambiguity  would  arise  therefrom :  Die 
Diplomaten  forderten  die  Völker  auf,  demütig  Gott  zu  preisen  und  ihm  Lob 
zu  singen  (Raabe). 

a.  The  oblique  cases  of  cither  er  or  derselbe  may  refer  to  an  oblique  case  in  the  preceding 
sentence:  Mein  Bruder  ist  zu  seinem  Freunde  gegangen.  Er  will  dann  mit  ihm  (now  more 
common  than  demselben  or  diesem)  in  die  Stadt  gehen.  In  case,  however,  the  reference  is  to 
a  thing,  derselbe  is  quite  common:  Durch  Höhe  der  Gebäude  suchte  man  zu  ersetzen,  was 
denselben  an  Breite  und  Tiefe  abging.  Die  Pronomina  demonstrativa  bezeichnen  einen  Ge- 
genstand dadurch,  daß  sie  auf  denselben  hinweisen.  Always  so  in  case  of  a  gen.  which  points 
back  to  some  definite  thing  and  depends  upon  a  noun  modified  by  an  article  or  pronominal  adj.: 
Die  heutigen  Mundarten  haben  die  Geltung  des  Präteritums  noch  weiter  eingeschränkt:  weite 
Gebiete  haben  den  Indikativ  desselben  auch  als  Form  der  einfachen  Erzählung  ganz  oder 
teilweise  eingebüßt  (Behaghel's  Die  deutsche  Sprache,  p.  324,  2nd  ed.). 

b.  If  there  are  two  substantives  in  a  sentence  besides  the  subject,  both  of  which  are  referred 
to  in  a  following  sentence  or  clause,  it  is  often  best  to  represent  the  one  which  in  the  following 
sentence  or  clause  must  be  in  the  nom.  by  dieser  and  the  other  one  by  derselbe:  Der  Herr 
nahm  dem  Bedienten  das  Geld  wieder  ab,  als  dieser  ihm  dasselbe  gestohlen  hatte,  or  als  ihm 
dieses  von  demselben  gestohlen  worden  war.  It  is  best  to  avoid  such  clumsy  sentences  wherever 
ambiguity  would  not  arise,  and  use  the  simple  personal  pronoun  for  reference  to  persons:  Ich 
nehme  meinen  Kindern  alle  Bücher  ab,  sobald  sie  selbe  nicht  mehr  brauchen  (Rosegger). 

7.  In  general  derselbe  is  used  instead  of  a  personal  pronoun  for  sake  of 
euphony  or  harmony.     The  following  cases  of  this  use  occur  not  infrequently. 

a.  To  prevent  two  sie's,  or  a  Sie  and  a  sie  from  coming  together:  Ich  bitte 
um  die  Zeitung,  wenn  Sie  dieselbe  gelesen  haben.  Many  good  stylists,  how- 
ever, do  not  feel  the  repetition  of  sie  as  harsh:  Anna  Elisabeth  .  .  .  faßte  des- 
wegen Onkel  Harres  Andeutungen  einerseits  ernster  auf  als  Eva,  anderseits 
beurteilte  sie  sie  weniger  streng  als  der  Großvater  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu, 
chap.  xxi). 

b.  Derselbe  is  often  used  in  a  comprehensive  sense  to  refer  to  some  pre- 
ceding word  with  all  its  modifiers,  as  it  is  felt  as  a  more  appropriate  form  than 
the  light  personal  pronouns  to  represent  a  weighty  expression  or  a  heavy  com- 
bination of  words:  zum  täglichen  Umgang  wackerer  Leute  sowohl  als  zur 
Briefwechslung  zwischen  denselben.  Das  Erscheinen  der  Wörterbücher  von 
Kluge  und  Heyne  konnte  mich  nicht  von  meinem  Vorhaben  (intention  to  pub- 
lish a  dictionary)  abbringen,  da  dieselben  (i.e.  die  Wörterbücher  von  Kluge 
und  Heyne)  in  ihrer  Anlage  ganz  verschieden  von  dem  meinigen  sind  (Paul's 
Wörterbuch,  Preface). 

Historical  Note.  In  early  N.H.G.,  derselbe,  aside  from  its  primary  mean- 
ing the  same,  was  often  employed  as  a  pure  demonstrative  or  determinative  = 
der  or  derjenige.  See  132.  1.  B.  a.  The  word  gradually  extended  its  boun- 
daries so  that  it  included  the  meanings  of  der  and  er  (sie,  es).  The  older  use 
as  a  pure  demonstrative  or  determinative  has  in  large  measure  disappeared, 
but  its  use  instead  of  the  personal  pronouns  has  increased  so  that  it  is  often  used 
without  reason  where  a  personal  pronoun  would  be  simpler  and  better:  Kleinig- 
keiten, die  er  von  Mariannen  erhalten  oder  derselben  (=  ihr)  geraubt  hatte 
(Goethe).  Der  Prinz  Karl  ist  von  seinem  Unwohlsein  so  weit  wieder  her- 
gestellt, daß  derselbe  (=  er)  nicht  mehr  das  Bett  zu  hüten  genötigt  ist  {Kölni- 
sche Zeitung).  At  the  present  time  grammarians  quite  generally  censure  this 
free  use  of  derselbe,  and  urge  that  the  simple  forms  der  and  er  be  used  where 
it  is  possible.     The  best  usage  of  our  time  has  been  given  in  the  preceding  articles. 

8.  The  demonstrative  solch  is  often  used  instead  of  the  personal  pronouns. 
See  1,  2,  3,  above,  and  also  131.  3. 

9.  Uses  of  es.  Except  after  prepositions  the  uninflected  es  has,  differing 
from  other  personal  pronouns,  a  wide  field  of  usefulness: 

a.  Situation  Es.  Like  dies  (128.  A.  a)  uninflected  es  is  employed  in  the 
identification  of  persons  and  things,  where  es  refers  to  an  unidentified  person 
or  thing  that  becomes  known  thru  the  situation,  or  is  identified  by  some  per- 


186 REFLEXIVE    PRONOUNS 141.  9.  a. 

son:  Es  ist  Hans  (uttered  by  someone  who  has  just  heard  approaching  steps). 
Wer  kommt  die  Treppe  herunter?  Es  ist  Hans,  or  Es  ist  mein  Bruder.  Wer 
ist  an  der  Tür?  Es  ist  eine  arme  Frau.  Was  liegt  auf  dem  Tische?  Es  ist 
eine  schöne  Blume,  or  in  the  pkiral  Es  sind  schöne  Blumen.  Sind  es  Ihre 
Kinder?  Es  sind  die  Kinder  meines  Bruders.  Es  often  points  to  some- 
thing definite  which  is  more  or  less  clearly  defined  by  the  situation:  Es  steht 
schlecht  Things  are  in  bad  condition.     Compare  219.  3  (last  par). 

b.  As  object  in  various  constructions,  especially  referring  to  some  fact 
or  thing  already  mentioned  or  more  or  less  understood,  or  to  a  condition  of 
things:  Marie  ist  hier.  Ich  weiß  es.  Ich  kann  es  nicht  länger  mit  ansehen. 
Ich  hielt  es  endlich  nicht  länger  aus.  Er  bringt  es  weit  He  is  getting  along  in 
the  world.  Machen  Sie  sich's  bequem  Make  yourself  comfortable.  Er  macht 
es  zu  arg  He  carries  things  too  far.  Er  läßt  es  gehen,  wie's  Gott  gefällt  He 
lets  things  go  as  it  pleases  God. 

c.  As  a   predicate,    representing  an   idea  already  expressed.     See   129.    2. 

C.  (4). 

d.  As  a  grammatical  and  anticipative  subject.  See  185.  A.  I.  3;  251.  I. 
2.  A  and  B,  and  H.  B. 

e.  As  an  anticipative  object.     See  185.  A.  I.  3  and  272.  C.  a. 

/.  As  a  mere  formal  subject  in  the  various  impersonal  constructions  de- 
scribed in  219. 

Reflexive  Pronouns. 
(Compare  with  218.) 
142.  1.  A  personal  pronoun  can  also  show  that  the  action  which  goes 
forth  from  the  subject  bends  back  upon  that  subject,  and  is  then  called  a  re- 
flexive pronoun:  Ich  lobe  mich  I  praise  myself.  Special  pronominal  forms 
to  show  this  reflexive  action  are  wanting  except  in  the  third  person,  where 
sich  himself,  herself,  itself,  themselves  is  used  for  all  genders  and  both  numbers 
and  for  both  dat.  and  ace:  er  lobt  sich;  sie  lobt  sich;  sie  loben  sich  they 
praise  themselves;  er  spricht  immer  nur  von  sich;  sie  spricht  immer  nur  von 
sich,  &c.  For  the  gen.  of  the  third  person  and  the  gen.,  dat.,  and  ace.  of  the 
first  and  second  persons,  the  reflexives  are  identical  in  form  with  the  personal 
pronouns:  du  lobst  dich;  wir  loben  uns;  ihr  lobt  euch,  &c.  The  reflexive 
by  its  very  nature  has  no  nom.,  as  it  is  always  an  object,  either  of  a  verb  or  a 
prep.,  or  dependent  upon  some  adjective.  Reflexive  verbs  in  German  usually 
take  an  ace.  object,  but  certain  verbs,  contrary  to  the  English  idiom,  take  an 
object  in  the  dat.  or  gen.:  Du  lobst  dich,  but  du  spottest  deiner,  du  schmei- 
chelst dir.  Tg  the  gen.  of  the  third  person  the  indeclinable  selbst  is  usually 
added,  or  otherwise  it  is  ambiguous:  Er  spottet  seiner  selbst.  Without  selbst 
it  would  mean.  He  is  ridiculing  him  (some  one  else),  but  with  selbst  himself. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  there  was  except  after  prepositions  no  dative  of  the  reflexive,  its  place 
being  supplied  by  the  dative  of  the  personal  pronoun,  which  usage  occasionally  occurs  as  late 
as  the  classical  period,  and  in  popular  South  German  is  still  found:  Wer  sich  Knall  und  Fall,  ihm 
( =  sich)  selbst  zu  leben,  nicht  entschließen  kann,  der  lebet  andrer  Sklav  auf  immer  (Lessing's 
Nathan,  2,  9). 

Note.  The  use  of  sich  instead  of  the  dative  of  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  reflexive  relation  arose  at  the  close  of 
the  O.H.G.  period,  at  first  however  only  found  after  prepositions.  Luther  much  later  still  only  uses  dative  sich 
after  prepositions,  elsewhere  the  dative  of  the  personal  pronoun,  some  writers  of  his  time  use  the  dative  of  the  per- 
sonal pronoun  thruout.  The  present  usage  of  employing  dative  sich  thruout  began  to  gain  the  ascendency  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  under  Low  German  and  Middle  German  influence.  In  Middle  and  Low 
Franconian  dialect  dative  sich  has  in  certain  sections  been  modified  to  sir  under  the  influence  of  mir  and  dir.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  South  German  dialects  the  old  usage  of  employing  the  dative  of  the  personal  pronoun  here  is 
in  general  well  preserved. 

b.  If  the  reflexive  refers  to  subjects  of  difi^erent  persons  the  first  person  usually  has  the  prefer- 
ence over  the  second  and  third  and  the  second  person  the  preference  over  the  third:  Ich  und 
du  (wir)  retteten  uns.  Du  und  er  (ihr)  rettetet  euch.  Sich  is  so  frequently  used  with  the 
verb  in  the  third  person  plural  that  it  has  become  so  thoroly  identified  with  this  form  that  in 
loose  colloquial  speech  and  dialect  it  is  also  often  used  with  the  other  person  of  the  plural  having 
the  same  form,  namely  the  first  person:  Bloß  ich  und  ein  paar  Kameraden  konnten  sich  (instead 
of  uns)  retten  (Hans  HofTmann's  Von  Haff  und  Hafen,  p.  74).  Besonders  in  der  Annaberger 
Gegend  hört  man  selbst  von  Gebildeten  oder  liest  man  in  der  Lokalpresse:  Wir  müssen  sich 
beeilen,  Wir  haben  sich  Mühe  gegeben  (Göpfert's  Mundart  des  sächsischen  Erzgebirges,  p.  75). 


142.  2.  C.  a.  (3J.      USE   OF   THE   REFLEXIVE   PRONOUN 187 

In  S.G.  this  usage  is,  of  course,  confined  to  the  accusative  in  the  sections  which  according  to 
a  use  sich  only  in  the  accusative:  Weil  wir  uns  (Hterary  form  instead  of  dialectic  sich)  scheuen, 
das  Red'  zu  haben,  was  wir  uns  (hterary  form)«eigentlich  zu  sagen  hätten  und  worüber  wir  sich 
(dialectic  form)  ausreden  sollten  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap,  xviii). 

2.  A.  The  reflexive  usually  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  proposition  in 
which  it  stands.  The  Germans  also  use  a  reflexive  of  the  third  person  after 
prepositions  if  the  reference  is  to  the  subject,  while  in  English  a  personal  pro- 
noun is  used  here  as  a  survival  of  older  usage,  where  in  general  personal  pro- 
nouns also  served  as  the  usual  reflexive  forms:  Er  (sie)  hat  Geld  bei  sich  He 
(she)  has  money  with  him  (her).  In  poetry  older  English  usage  survives  also 
elsewhere:   To  their  salute  he  bends  him  slightly  (Byron). 

a.  In  prepositional  phrases  modifying  a  noun  a  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person  must 
be  used  according  to  C  if  the  phrase  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause  and  the  reference  is 
to  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition:  Diethelm  traf  die  Brüder  mitten  im  Gespräch  über 
ihn  (Auerbach)  [=  als  sie  über  ihn  sprachen],  but  Alle  Unzufriedenheit  des  Menschen  ist 
Frucht  seines  "Widerspruchs  mit  sich  selbst  (Thümmel)  [=  Frucht  des  Widerspruchs,  den  er 
mit  sich  selbst  empfindet]. 

B.  If  there  is  a  reference  in  the  subordinate  clause  to  the  subject  of  the 
principal  proposition,  a  personal  pronoun  should  be  used:  Er  belobte  die  Sol- 
daten, die  sich  gehorsam  gegen  ihn  (referring  to  the  subject  of  the  principal 
proposition)  bewiesen  hatten. 

C.  In  participial,  adjective,  prepositional,  and  infinitive  constructions 
which  have  the  force  of  a  subordinate  clause,  the  reflexive  refers  to  the  subject 
of  the  contracted  clause:  Wir  erblickten  einen  Mann,  der  sich  schnell  ent- 
fernte. Wir  erbHckten  einen  sich  schnell  entfernenden  Mann.  Wir  baten 
ihn,  sich  zu  entfernen.  Soll  ich  diese  an  sich  verständliche  Regel  (=  diese 
Regel,  die  an  sich  verständUch  ist)  wiederholen?  If  there  is  a  reference  in 
the  contracted  clause  to  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition,  a  personal 
pronoun  must  of  course  be  used:  Er  bat  uns,  ihn  zu  besuchen.  Sie  trug  ein 
ihr  vollkommen  ähnliches  Kind  auf  dem  Arme. 

a.     Usage  makes  distinctions: 

(1)  If  the  infinitive  has  no  subject  expressed,  or  has  passive  force,  the  re- 
flexive refers  to  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition:  Er  hörte  über  sich 
schmähen  He  heard  someone  talking  abusively  about  him.  Er  hörte  sich 
(ace.)  von  seinem  Freunde  rufen  He  heard  his  friend  call  him,  lit.  He  heard 
himself  called  by  his  friend.  Dort  ließ  er  sich  (dat.)  erzählen,  wie  alles  ge- 
kommen There  he  allowed  himself  to  be  told  how  all  had  come  about. 

(2)  If  the  infinitive  has  an  accusative  subject  and  is  active,  it  usually  takes 
a  personal  pronoun  as  a  reflexive  object  referring  to  the  subject  of  the  prin- 
cipal proposition:  Pentheus  sieht  die  Furien  ihm  nahen  (Schiller).  Er  ließ 
sie  ihm  zu  Füßen  fallen  (id.).  Er  sah  sein  Luftschloß  noch  einmal  ihm  zu- 
winken (Kurz).  Es  fühlt  der  Mensch  mit  bleichem  Beben  den  Tod  ihm 
sitzen  im  Genick  (Lenau).  Sometimes,  however,  we  find  a  reflexive  here 
instead  of  a  personal  pronoun,  especially  after  lassen:  Da,  als  er  aufblickte, 
sah  er  zwei  Arbeiter  mit  ihren  Feldgerätschaften  sich  entgegenkommen  (Storm's 
Der  Schimmelreiter,  Werke  VII,  p.  246).  Der  Förster  ließ  sich  d^en  Wild- 
schützen nicht  nahe  kommen  (Blatz's  Deutsche  Grammatik,  II,  p.  271).  Der 
Kanzler  Heß  sich  das  nicht  anfechten  (id.).  This  is  the  survival  of  an  old 
construction  which  required  the  reflexive  in  the  infinitive  clause  when  the 
reference  was  to  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition:  Ir  gast  si  sich  küssen 
bat  (Parzival,  23.  30)  =  Sie  bat  ihren  Gast,  sie  (referring  to  the  subject  of  the 
sentence)  zu  küssen.  This  older  usage  is  still  lingering  on,  but  its  ambiguity 
is  leading  to  the  firmer  establishment  of  the  rule  given  above.  It  is,  however, 
still  the  rule  in  (3). 

(3)  The  old  usage  of  employing  a  reflexive  referring  to  the  subject  of  a 
principal  proposition  is  still  the  rule  if  the  reflexive  depends  upon  a  preposi- 
tion: Er  sah  einen  Fremden  neben  sich  stehen.  A  personal  pronoun,  how- 
ever, is  used  if  the  reflexive  would  cause  ambiguity:  Sie  sieht  ringsum  im 
Waldesschlag  die  Wipfel  ernst  sich  zu  ihr  neigen  (Redwitz). 


188 RECIPROCAL    PRONOUNS 142.  2.  C.  a.  (4). 

(4)  A  reflexive  verb  is  used  as  an  infinitive  where  the  reflexive  refers  to 
the  subject  of  the  infinitive:  Die  Stadt  sah  den  Hunger  nebst  seinem  ganzen 
Gefolge  mit  schrecklichen  Schritten  sich'nähern  (Goethe).  Er  sah  den  Pithecus 
sich  über  ihn  (with  reference  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence)  beugen  (Raabe's 
Der  Lar,  p.  220).     Ich  hieß  ihn  sich  setzen. 

(5)  A  reflexive  often  refers  to  an  object  of  an  infinitive  when  there  is  no 
ambiguity:  Beim  Scheiden  bat  ich  mir  die  Erlaubnis  aus,  ihn  bei  sich  zu  sehen 
(Goethe's  Dicht,  u.  Wahr.,  Zweiter  Teil,  Zehntes  Buch).  Wir  wollen  ihn  sich 
selbst  erhalten  (Gustaf  E.  Karsten).  Ich  wollte  ihn  bei  sich  zu  Hause  sehen 
(Georg  Edward),  but  in  Er  wollte  ihn  bei  sich  sehen  the  sich  is  felt  as  belong- 
ing to  er,  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  When  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is 
thus  in  the  third  person  and  it  is  desired  to  bring  the  reflexive  in  relation  to 
an  object  of  the  infinitive  in  the  third  person  we  may  often  use  the  personal 
pronoun:   Er  wollte  ihn  bei  ihm  zu  Hause  sehen  (Gustaf  E.  Karsten). 

The  Emphatic  Adjectives  Selbst  and  Selber. 

143.  The  indeclinable  strongly  stressed  limiting  adjective  selbst  or  selber 
self  is  much  used  to  emphasize  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns  and  also  nouns, 
always  following  as  an  appositive  the  governing  word  but  not  always  imme- 
diately as  it  was  originally  a  predicate  appositive  and  still  often  stands  in  the 
predicate  referring  to  the  subject:  ich  selbst  or  selber,  wir  selbst  or  selber. 
Ich  tat  es  selbst.  Ich  selbst  habe  ihren  Brief  gelesen,  or  Ich  habe  ihren  Brief 
selbst  gelesen,  the  latter  of  which  forms,  however,  may  also  mean:  I  have 
read  her  letter  itself,  not  a  copy  of  it.  Er  kam  selbst.  Er  ist  die  Ehrlichkeit 
selbst.  Er  lobt  sich  selbst  or  selber,  but  not  without  the  reflexive,  as  in  er 
lobt  selbst.  Selbst  may,  however,  be  used  alone  after  the  prep,  von  and  in  a 
few  other  idiomatic  expressions:  Die  Mühle  geht  nicht  von  selbst.  Selbst 
essen  macht  satt  If  you  want  to  get  satiated  you  must  do  your  own  eating. 
Selbst  ist  der  Mann  If  you  want  to  have  a  thing  done  well,  do  it  yourself. 
Selbst  eingebrockt,  selbst  ausgegessen  As  you  have  brewed,  so  you  must  drink. 
Selbstgebackenes  Brot  home-made  bread.  Also  in  paying  back  an  insult: 
Er  schalt  ihn  einen  Betrüger.     „Selbst  Betrüger!"  gab  der  Bescholtene  zurück. 

Nole  1.  In  M.H.G.  the  emphatic  limiting  adjective  selb  was  inflected  strong  and  weak.  Selbst  is  the  corrupted 
form  of  the  old  strong  gen.  selbes  and  selber  is  the  old  strong  masc.  nom.  The  frequent  use  of  the  old  gen.  and  nom. 
led  to  their  becoming  established  as  set  forms  for  all  cases,  genders,  and  numbers. 

Note  2.  As  an  adverb  selbst  fonly  rarely  selber)  may  stand  before  or  after  a  noun  or  pronoun,  usually  with  the 
meaning  even,  always  with  weak  accent:   Die  Ermahnung  selbst  des  Vaters  (or  des  Vaters  selbst)  fruchtete  nichts. 

The  Reciprocal  Pronouns. 

144.  When  the  pronoun  shows  that  the  action  of  the  verb  is  mutual  be- 
tween two  or  more  persons,  it  is  called  a  reciprocal  pronoun.  The  following 
reciprocal  forms  are  used : 

a.  The  reciprocal  pronoun  for  the  dat.  and  ace.  of  all  genders  and  persons 
is  ei'nander  each  other,  one  another:  Wir  loben  einander;  sie  loben  einander; 
sie  sprechen  voneinander. 

b.  For  the  gen.  einer  (eine)  .  .  .  des  andern  (der  andern)  are  used:  Sie 
gedenken  einer  des  andern  They  (lady  and  gentleman,  or  two  gentlemen)  are 
thinking  of  each  other.  Sie  gedenken  eine  der  andern  They  (two  ladies)  are 
thinking  of  each  other. 

c.  For  the  dat.  and  ace.  the  reflexive  pronouns  are  often  used  for  the  recip- 
rocal when  no  ambiguity  can  arise:  Ihr  seht  euch  oft  You  see  one  another  often. 
Die  Eheleute  sind  sich  (dat.  =  einander)  treu  und  lieben  sich  (acc.  =  ein- 
ander) innig.  Sie  geben  sich  die  Hände.  Sie  lieben  sich  is  ambiguous,  as 
sich  may  mean  each  other  or  themselves,  but  by  the  addition  of  selbst  or  selber 
the  reflexive  idea  is  brought  out,  and  sich  may  be  changed  to  einander,  or 
einander  or  more  commonly  gegenseitig  may  be  added  to  sich,  to  make  the 
reciprocal  idea  clear:   Sie  lieben  sich  selbst  They  love  themselves,  but  Sie  lieben 


145.  d. INDEFINITE    PROXOL'XS 189 

einander  They  love  one  another.  Sie  halfen  einander,  or  sich  gegenseitig,  or 
sometimes  sich  einander. 

Only  when  the  reciprocal  depends  immediately  upon  a  verb  or  an  adjective, 
as  in  the  first  sentence,  can  it  be  replaced  by  a  reflexive,  hence  after  preposi- 
tions the  reciprocal  form  is  as  a  rule  einander:  Sie  saßen  nebeneinander, 
not  neben  sich.  After  the  prepositions  unter  and  über,  however,  either  einan- 
der or  a  reflexive  can  be  used:  Wir  woUen  das  untereinander  (or  unter  uns) 
abmachen.  Sie  machten  das  untereinander  (or  unter  sich)  ab.  Sie  fielen 
übereinander  (or  über  sich  ^  her. 

Several  common  intransitive  verbs  take  sich  as  object:  Die  zwei  Jungen 
streiten  sich,  balgen  sich,  zanken  sich,  or  Der  eine  streitet  sich  mit  dem  an- 
deren usw. 

Note.  In  dialect  sich  is  often  used  reciprocally  instead  of  uns  or  einander:  Na,  mir  (wir)  können  sich  net  hei- 
raten (Anzengruber's  Jungferngift,  4,  7). 

Indefinite  Pronouns. 

145.  The  indefinites  have  been  treated  under  adjectives,  as  most  of  them 
can  be  used  as  an  ordinary  adj.,  or  used  alone  substantively.  The  following 
are  more  like  real  independent  pronouns: 

a.  jedermann  everybody  has  only  the  gen.  sing,  in  s,  the  dat.  and  ace.  being 
like  the  nom. 

h.  jemand  somebody,  declined:  X.  jemand,  G.  jemandes,  D.  jemand,  or 
jemandem  (a  comparatively  new  str.  form,  but  common),  jemanden  (see  106. 
Note  3;  like  the  preceding  a  new  form,  but  not  so  common  as  earlier  in  the 
period),  jemande  (formerly  in  limited  use,  now  obsolete),  A.  jemand  or  je- 
manden (new  but  common);  very  common  in  combination  with  anders:  jemand 
anders  or  anderer  somebody  eke,  dat.  jemand(em)  anders,  or  jemand  em) 
anderem,  ace.  jemand'en)  anders  or  jemand  en )  anderen.  In  early  X'.H.G. 
the  indeclinable  form  jemands  is  also  found.  See  Xumbers  xvi.  40;  Leviticus 
xxi.  17. 

Note  1.  In  these  cases  anders  is  a  dependent  gen.  and  should  as  such  remain  unchanged,  but  according  to  com- 
mon interpretation  it  is  often  construed  as  a  neut.  adjective-substantive  in  apposition  with  jemand.  As  there  lies 
in  the  neuter  gender  a  vague  or  general  conception,  it  is  often  as  here  employed  in  German  as  the  masc.  is  in  English, 
to  make  a  general  reference,  applying  to  either  males  or  females.  Jemand  anders  is  often  replaced  by  jemand  and(e)- 
rer,  as  the  masc.  is  also  as  well  as  the  neut.  used  to  represent  both  genders.  When  any  other  adjective  follows  je- 
mand it  cannot  now  as  anders  stand  in  the  genitive,  but  it  may,  like  anders,  be  treated  as  an  appositional  adjective- 
substantive  having  either  neuter  or  masculine  form:  jemand  Vertrautes  or  Vertrauter  someone  who  is  an  intimate 
acquaintance,  Cdat. )  jemand  Vertrautem,  ace.)  jemand  Vertrautes  or  Vertrauten.  Es  mußte  jemand  Bedeutendes 
sein  (.\nna  Schieber's  Alle  guten  Geister,  p.  167  K  Jemand  Fremder  ist  angekommen  Blatz's  Xeuhochdeutsche 
Grammatik,  II.  p.  3S0).  Beate  duckte  sich  ein  wenig  im  Kreuz,  wie  jemand  Ertappter  Hermann  Bessemer's  Mond- 
nacht in  Amalfi,  p.  42).  Wenn  sia  mit  jemand  Erwachsenem  sprach  (Rosegger).  Du  siehst  vorm  Hause  jemand 
Alten  (Kapper's  Christen  und  Türken,  2,  121  '.  Als  ob  es  sich  um  irgend  jemand  Gleichgiltigen  dabei  handelte 
(Ertl's  Freiheil,  p.  1821.     Ohne  jemand  anderen  zu  beachten  Mewis's  Der  große  Pan,  p.  49). 

In  M.H.G.  the  adjective-substantive  here  was  in  the  genitive,  either  singular  or  plural:  ieman  \Temdes  or  ieman 
vremder  =  N.H.G.  jemand  Fremdes  or  jemand  Fremder.  Thus  both  forms  still  survive,  but  they  are  now  felt  as 
neuter  and  masculine  nominatives,  the  genitive  yielding  to  the  appositional  construction.  The  new  construction, 
according  to  c.  Note  1,  began  in  M.H.G.  Goethe  is  still  acquainted  with  the  old  genitive  form  here:  Das  ist  ein 
Brief,  er  muß  von  jemand  Hohes  sein. 

Note  2.     The  str.  and  wk.  forms  of  jemand  ffrom  je  -t-  Mann)  show  the  influence  of  the  adj.  declension. 

A'ole  .3.  The  adverb  irgend  is  often  used  in  connection  with  jemand  to  increase  the  indefiniteness:  Wir  werden 
wohl  irgend  jemanden  antreffen,  der  uns  Bescheid  gibt. 

c.  niemand  nobody,  inflected  exactly  like  jemand. 

Note  1.  It  has  the  same  fluctuating  construction  of  the  following  adjective-substantive:  Niemand  anders  or 
niemand  anderer  no  one  else,  niemand  Bestimmtes  Carl  Spitteler's  Imago,  p.  2.5),  niemand  Fremdes  Xogel's 
Deutsches  Nachschla%ebuch).  niemand  andrer  G.  Keller's  Grüner  Heinrich,  4,  350).  niemand  Rechtschaffener 
(Moriz  Heyne's  Wörterbuch),  die  niemand  Lebenden  betrifft  Schiller  an  Goethe).  Solang  man  niemand  Teuren 
hat  sterben  sehen,  glaubt  man  nicht  recht  an  den  Tod  (Marriot). 

The  appositional  construction  was  perhaps  used  here  in  M.H.G.:  Darumbe  ich  niemen  vremden  füere  in  dize  laut 
(Nibelungenlied,  .-Vventiure  2.3).  It  is  possible  vremden  here  is  a  weak  gen.  singular  or  plural,  but  it  seems  more  natural 
to  assume  that  it  is  a  strong  accusative  in  apposition  with  niemen,  for  the  adjective-substantive  here  is  uniformly 
strong.  The  usual  form  here  would  be  the  genitive  singular  or  plural,  i.e.  vremdes  or  vremder,  but  the  adjective- 
substantive  is  here  felt  as  an  appositive  and  later  this  construction  becomes  general. 

Note  2.     In  dialect  various  forms  occur:   neamd,  niemer,  niemerd.     Compare  d.  Note  2. 

d.  man  (in  dialect  often  me  or  ma^i  or  einer  or  sometimes  ein(e)s  one  (as 
in  one  says  =  they  say),  a  felloiv  (as  in  What  is  a  felloii:  to  do?),  a  man,  a  person, 
a  body.  The  oblique  cases  of  man  are  replaced  by  those  of  einer:  N.  man, 
G.  eines,  D.  einem,  A.  einen:  So  was  erinnert  einen  an  etwas,  woran  man 
nicht  erinnert  sein  will;  eines  Haus  und  Hof  one's  house  and  land.  Das 
\7ird  einem   sauer.     Man  ist  erst  ganz    man    selbst,  wenn  man  wieder  den 


190 INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS 145.  d. 

eigenen,  angestammten  Boden  unter  sich  hat  (Frieda  von  Bülow).  Wenn 
man  (or  einer)  Reisen  gemacht  hat,  so  kann  man  (or  er  if  the  antecedent  is 
einer)  etwas  erzählen.  Da  soll  eins  nicht  aufwachen,  wenn  'n  ganzes  Ulanen- 
regiment zum  Felddienst  ausrückt!  (Beyerlein's  Zapfenstreich,  1,  5).  The 
personal  pronoun  referring  to  man,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  next  to  the  last  example 
and  in  the  first,  is  man,  but  er  if  it  refers  to  einer,  and  the  corresponding  pos- 
sessive of  both  man  and  einer  is  sein:  Man  or  einer  kann  seinen  eigenen 
Kopf  nicht  essen. 

Noic  1.  In  popular  or  colloquial  language  einer  or  einfe')s  is  often  used  with  the  force  of  jemand.  It  also  frequently 
indicates  that  the  person  referred  to  excels  in  something,  often  in  something  bad:  Das  soli  einmal  einer  nachmachen 
Let  somebody  imitate  that  if  he  can.  Er  lügt  wie  einer  He  lies  equal  to  anybody,  lies  like  a  trooper.  Das  ist  einer! 
He's  a.  fine  fellow!  (ironical). 

In  colloquial  language  man  or  einer  is  often  used  with  the  force  of  a  personal  pronoun:  Wenn  ich  einmal  deine 
Frau  bin,  tust  du  doch  nichts  mehr  für  einen  ( =  mich).  Wenn  einem  Mädchen  ein  Schurzband  aufgeht,  denkt 
der  Verehrer  an  einen  (=  sie). 

Note  2.  In  dialect  man  is  often  redui^ed  to  the  form  of  me  or  ma,  or  on  the  other  hand  assumes  the  form  mer, 
mar,  or  mr:  Ma  muaß  sagen,  was  recht  is  f Ludwig  Thoma's  /)/t'  Medaille,  p.  94).  Es  kann  ja  ein'  Menschen 
recht  sein,  daß  mer  ihm  merken  laßt,  mer  weiß,  was  er  für  a  Mensch  is  (Anzengruber's  Das  vierte  Gebot,  1,  12). 

e.  wer  (for  declension  see  147.  1),  which  is  used  as  an  interrogative  and 
also  relative  pronoun,  is  moreover  not  infrequently  in  colloquial  language  used 
as  an  indefinite  =  jemand  or  einer:  Ich  glaube,  wenn  mein  Bruder  Alfred 
stirbt,  oder  vielleicht  auch  wer,  der  dir  noch  näher  steht,  &c.  (Fontane's  Un- 
wiederhr  in  glich,  chap.  vi).  Ich  habe  auch  keine  Geheimnisse — wie  wer  an- 
derer (Schnitzler's  Liehelei,  p.  68).  Michael  kümmerte  sich  wenig  um  mich — 
dem  mußtest  du  erst  klar  machen  kommen,  daß  ich  auch  wer  bin  (Sudermann's 
Es  lebe  das  Lehen,  p.  37).  Also  sonstwer  anyhody  eise  is  used:  Bezeichnend 
bei  dieser  Lage  .  .  .  daß  weder  von  Correggio  noch  von  sonstwem  .  .  .  die 
Probleme  der  Luftperspektive  gefördert  worden  sind  (Lamprecht's  Deutsche 
Geschichte). 

Note  1.  A  following  adjective-substantive  has  the  same  double  construction  as  after  jemand  and  niemand  (b,  c, 
above):  Schmidts  haben  Besuch;  's  ist  wer  Fremdes  da.  Ich  meine  — wer  Fremdes?  (Sudermann's  Blumenboot, 
4,  10)  I  mean,  was  there  any  stranger  there?  Wer  Vornehmer  hat  dich  empfohlen  (Blatz's  Neuhochdeutsche  Gram- 
matik, II,  p.  .380).     Das  Ding  wird  wer  anderer  gemacht  haben  (Rosegger). 

Note  2.  From  the  indef.  wer  have  come  the  interrogative  and  relative  wer,  in  both  of  which  the  former  indefinite 
force  is  still  felt. 

/.  etwas  (often  in  dialect  in  the  assimilated  forms  ettes,  eppes,  öppis,  &c.) 
or  in  colloquial  speech  otten  in  its  original  simple  form  was  something,  some, 
somewhat,  zvhat,  uninflected:  Er  hat  etwas  getan.  Soll  ich  Ihnen  etwas  von 
diesem  Hammelbraten  zukommen  lassen?  Er  ist  etwas  (somewhat)  von 
einem  Gelehrten.  Ich  will  dir  was  sagen  I'll  tell  you  what.  Es  mochte  nun 
von  Glaubenssachen  .  .  .  oder  von  was  immer  (anything  whatever)  die  Rede 
sein  (Mörike's  Werke,  6,  273).  Note  that  the  negative  not  anything  is  ren- 
dered, not  by  nicht  etwas,  but  by  nichts:  Haben  Sie  nichts  von  Ihrem  Freunde 
gehört? 

Note  1.  When  a  neut.  adjective-substantive  depends  upon  etwas,  it  was  formerly  in  the  partitive  gen.,  but  this 
usage  has  now  given  place  to  the  appositional  construction,  the  adjective-substantive  agreeing  with  etwas:  etwas 
Gutes  something  good,  von  etwas  Gutem.  Es  ist  etwas  Wahres  (once  felt  as  a  gen.,  but  now  felt  as  a  neut.  nom. 
in  apposition  with  etwas)  daran.  Ich  kann  vor  etwas  Schönem  stundenlang  stehen.  Die  Scham  brennt  Mascha 
auf  den  Wangen,  nach  rechts  und  links  bhckt  sie  scheu  und  ängstlich,  etwas  Schrecklichen  fold  weak  gen.  to  avoid 
tlie  strong  form  in  -es,  which  is  not  distinguished  from  the  nom.  and  ace.  in  -es)  gewärtig  (Schubin's  Boris  Lensky, 
xi).  Ich  muß  dich  noch  wegen  etwas  anderen  (weak  gen.)  or  anderem  (as  the  prep,  also  governs  the  dat.)  fragen. 
Only  rarely  is  the  partitive  gen.  of  the  adjective-substantive  now  found  here,  but  the  following  example  from  Haupt- 
mann's  Vor  Sonnenaufgang,  p.  90,  proves  that  it  is  not  entirely  extinct:  Du  schwatzest  von  alter  Freundschaft 
und  so  was  Guts  (106.  Note  2). 

Note  2.  In  early  N.H.G.  corresponding  to  the  neuter  etwas  was  a  masculine  etwer  (now  replaced  in  literary  speech 
by  jemand)  somebody,  which  is  still  widely  used  in  the  dialects  in  the  assimilated  forms  etter,  epper,  öpper,  &c. 

g.  nichts  (in  popular  speech  nix)  nothing,  uninflected:  Gott  hat  die  Welt 
aus  nichts  erschaffen.     It  is  avoided  in  the  gen. 

Note  1.  If  a  neut.  adjective-substantive  depends  upon  it,  the  same  appositional  construction  is  found  as  after 
etwas  (see/.  Note  1):   Wissen  Sie  nichts  Neues?   Kannst  du  dich  mit  nichts  Besserem  beschäftigen? 

Note_  2.  It  was  once  inflected  as  a  few  set  expressions  still  show.  The  old  nom.  and  ace.  form  nicht  (contracted 
from  ni  wicht  =  nicht  ein  Wicht,  not  a  thing,  not  a  whit)  is  used  in  a  number  of  set  expressions,  preceded  by  the  par- 
titive gen.:  Hier  ist  meines  Bleibens  nicht  fnom.)  It's  too  warm  (fig.)  for  me  here,  or  /  cayi't  stay  here.  Wenn  ich  mit 
Menschen-  und  mit  Engelzungen  redete  und  hätte  der  Liebe  nicht  (acc.)  Tho  1  speak  with  the  tongues  of  men  and 
of  angels  and  have  not  charity.  The  real  gen.  still  survives  in  nichtswürdig  contemptible,  lit.  worthy  of  nothing.  In 
the  expression  zu  nichte  machen  to  destroy,  it  is  dat.  with  the  usual  dat.  case  ending.  The  dat.  form  in  mit  nichten 
not  at  all  has  arisen  from  a  contraction  of  M.H.G.  mit  nihte  en  (old  negative;  see  close  of  this  Note).  The  gen. 
nichts  was  formerly  much  used  as  a  partitive  gen.  depending  upon  nicht  (nom.  or  ace),  nichtes  nicht  nothing  at  all, 
lit.  nothing  of  nothing.  Later  when  nicht  was  felt  as  an  adverb  the  gen.  nichts  remained  as  the  regular  nom.  or  acc. 
of  the  pronoun.  This  change  of  construction  was  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  nichts  remained  as  an  old  gen.  in  a  num- 
ber of  set  expressions  where  it  was  construed  as  a  nom.  or  acc:  Nichts  (old  gen.  felt  as  a  nom.  since  gebrechen  was 
often  used  with  a  nom.  subject,  as  explained  in  255.  II.  1.  H.  c)  gebricht  (formerly  impers.  verb  with  gen.)  uns  Nothing 
is  lacking  to  us.  Er  vergißt  (formerly  with  gen.,  now  usually  with  acc.)  nichts  (an  old  gen.  felt  as  an  acc).  The 
old  acc.  nicht  has  now  become  the  regular  form  for  the  adverbial  negative  not.     This  adverbial  negative  is  in  fact 


147.  1.  B.  c. INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS m 

the  adverbial  ace.  of  degree  (amount),  and  was  in  an  earlier  period  only  added  to  strenßtlien  the  negative  en  or  ne: 
(M.H.G.)  er  «"«ist  nilit  guot  He  is  not  good,  lit.  He  is  not  good,  not  in  any  respect  or  thing.  After  the  close  of  the 
twelftli  century  ne  or  en  was  little  used  as  an  independent  negative  without  the  support  of  niht  and  gradually  dis- 
appeared leaving  to  nicht  the  office  of  negative,  or  where  there  was  no  nicht  disappearing  without  leaving  any  trace 
behind,  as  in  case  of  weder  (see  235.  A.  a). 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

146.  The  interrogative  pronouns  are:  wer  who;  was  what;  welcher,  welche, 
welches  which,  what;   was  für  einer,  was  für  eine,  was  für  ein(e)s  what  kind. 

147.  1.     Wer  is  decHned: 

Masc.  and  Fern.  Neuter. 

N.     wer  who  was  ivhat 

G.     wessen,  wes  (poet.)  whose  wessen,  wes  of  what 

D      wem  (masc.  and  fem.),  wer  wem    (B.  a),    wö(r)  -p  prep,   (see 

(fern.;   see  B.  ö"»  to  ivhom  C.  h);  was  (see  C.  a) 

A.     wen  whom  was  what 

It  is  usual  to  say  only  wer  anders  ivho  else,  wessen  anders,  wem  anders,  &c., 
altho  it  is  common  to  say  either  jemand  anders  or  jemand  anderer,  jemand  (em) 
anders  or  jemand  anderem,  &c.     Compare  145.  b.  Note  1. 

A.  Genitive.  The  neut.  gen.  wes,  still  common  in  early  N.H.G.,  is  now  little  used  except 
in  the  adverbial  compounds  weshalb  for  what  reason,  weswegen  on  what  account,  why,  also 
in  attributive  use,  as  exidaincd  in  E  below. 

The  corrupted  form  wessent,  instead  of  the  more  correct  wessen,  is  still  quite  common  in 
composition  with  the  prepositions  wegen  and  urn  — willen,  where  the  reference  is  to  a  person: 
wessentwegen,  um  wessentwillen.  Ex.:  Um  wessentwillen  quälen  wir  uns  denn  überhaupt 
mit  solchen  Sachen?  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  XI.  p.  145).  As  wessen  is  so  often  used  with  reference 
to  a  person,  it  is  avoided  with  reference  to  a  thing.  The  colloquial  language  employs  here  the 
ace.  was  instead  of  the  more  correct  but  ambiguous  wessen:  Und  wegen  was  denn?  (Wilhelm 
Fischer's  Die  Freude  am  Licht,  p.  196).  Wegen  was  denn,  hä?  (Hauptmann's  Fuhrmann  Hen- 
schel,  2).  Wegen  was  hast  du  dich  so  aufgeregt?  (Georg  Edward).  See  also  C.  a  below.  The 
genitive  wessen,  however,  is  often  used  with  a  verb  that  governs  the  genitive:  Wessen  hätt'  es 
weiter  bedurft!  (Jensen's  Pirol  und  Pirola).  But  even  here  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  avoid 
the  ambiguous  wessen  and  use  the  ace.  was,  even  in  careful  writers  who  elsewhere  use  the  genitive 
with  these  verbs:  Was  bedurfte  es  mehr!  (Johanna  Wolff's  Das  Hanneken,  p.  241),  but  Solange 
die  Arbeitenden  gesund  waren,  hatten  sie  ihr  Auskommen  und  bedurften  des  Beistandes  nicht 
weiter,  als  daß  man  ihnen  die  Kinder  über  Tag  aufhob  (ib.,  p.  220). 

a.  In  inquiring  after  an  individual  in  a  group  of  two  or  more  we  may  use  welch-  or  wer: 
welches  (according  to  148.  a),  or  welcher,  or  wer  von  beiden  ist  Herr  Schmid?  Welcher  or 
wer  von  Ihnen?,  but  also  the  gen.  after  welcher  if  the  definite  article  or  a  pronominal  is  used: 
Welcher  der  beiden  Brüder?  Wer  in  connection  with  von  is  also  used  where  we  employ  attribu- 
tive luhat:  Sie  war  gekommen,  um  den  Schwestern  die  wichtige  Nachricht  zu  überbringen, 
wer  am  morgigen  Neujahrstage  von  jungen  Mädchen  {ivhat  young  ladies)  nun  mit  aller  Be- 
stimmtheit bei  Hofe  vorgestellt  werden  würde  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XXXVII). 
Instcad  of  wer  von  jungen  Mädchen  we  could  also  say  welche  jungen  Mädchen.  In  case  of 
adjective-substantives  the  appositional  construction  is  used:  Denn  wer  bin  ich  Großes,  |  daß 
ich  zu  fragen  hätte?  (Sudermann 's  Der  Bettler  von  Syrakus,  1,  1),  in  the  plural:  Wer  sind  wir 
Großes,  daß  usw.     Compare  E  below. 

b.  Altho  the  gen.  of  welch-  was  common  here  in  early  N.H.G.,  it  is  now  replaced  by  the  gen. 
of  wer:  Nu  in  der  Aufferstehung  |  wenn  sie  aufferstehen  |  welchs  (in  revised  editions  wessen) 
weib  wird  sie  sein  vnter  jnen?  (Mark  xii.  23). 

B.  a.  Dative.  The  masc.  dat.  wem  usually  refers  only  to  living  beings  and  is  avoided  when 
the  reference  is  to  things,  but  it  must  be  used  here  with  verbs  that  govern  the  dative:  (Recha) 
Allein -7- allein  —  das  geht  zu  weit!  Dem  kann  ich  nichts  entgegensetzen,  nicht  Geduld, 
nicht  Überlegung,  nichts!  (Sittah)  Was  [geht  zu  weit]?  Wem  [kannst  du  nichts  entgegen- 
setzen]? (l.es-ing's  Nathan,  5,  6).  Wem  anders  aber  als  der  vergleichenden  Forschung  ver- 
danken wir  eine  sinngemäße  Auffassung  der  Kasus  mit  richtiger  Scheidung  der  in  ihnen  viel- 
fach zusammengeronnenen  Bestandteile?  (Hans  Meltzer  in  Anzeiger  für  indogermanische 
Sprach-  und  Altertumskunde,  1903/1904,  p.  234).  Likewise  with  reference  to  the  statement 
Er  sah  den  Schiffen  nach  the  question  form  must  be  Wem  sah  er  nach?     Compare  A  above. 

b.  The  fem.  dat.  wer,  tho  not  usually  given  by  grammarians,  is  occasionally  found  in  good 
authors:  Von  Helios  gezeugt?  von  wer  geboren?  (Goethe)  Begotten  of  Helios?  Born  by  what 
mother?  Da  du  so  eine  Art  Bruder  von  ihr  bist  —  Von  ihr?  Von  wer?  (\^'ilbrandt's  Die  Maler, 
3,  3)  Since  you  are  a  kind  of  brother  to  her  —  To  her?  To  whom?  Also  other  ways  of  making 
the  gender  clear  occur:  (Carl)  Er  gibt  Singstunde?  Wem?  (Isolde)  Der.  (Carl)  Wem  der? 
(Ernst  Rosmer's  Dämmerung,  Act  3).  Festgeregnet!  .  .  .  Wem  und  welcher  steigt  nicht  bei 
diesem  Worte  eine  gespenstische  Erinnerung  in  der  Seele  auf?  (Raabe's  Keltische  Knochen). 

c.  W.  Alexis  has  boldly  used  wen  as  a  dative  plural:   Mit  wen?     Mit  den  Bürgern? 


192 INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS 147.  1.  C. 

C.  With  Prepositions.  The  neuter  dative  is  not  used  in  connection  with  a  preposition, 
in  which  case  the  form  is  either: 

a.  That  of  the  ace,  not  infrequently  in  the  classical  authors  and  with  ever  increasing  fre- 
quency in  the  language  of  our  time,  which  is  in  general  becoming  averse  to  adverbial  compounds 
(see  b):  Zu  was  die  Posse?  ((Tocthc).  Bestellt,  gnädiger  Kaiser?  zu  was?  (Wildenbruch's 
Kaiser  Heinrich,  2,  18).  Zu  was  soll  der  eine  was  voraus  haben?  (Halbe's  Haus  Rosenhagen, 
I.  p.  43).  Brigitta:  Sie  liegt,  weint,  schwört:  sie  müsse  ihn  erlösen.  Gottfried:  Von  was? 
(Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  I.  p.  33).  Odysseus:  Herr,  ich  fürchte  mich.  Eumaios: 
Vor  was?  (id..  Der  Bogen  des  Odysseus). 

b.  Or  especially  in  choice  language  the  adverbial  compound  wo  (or  wor  before  a  vowel)  +  a 
preposition:  womit  with  what,  wovon  of  what,  worin  in  what,  &"c.  The  prepositions  governing 
the  ace.  also  form  compounds  with  wo(r)  in  the  same  way:  worüber  about  what,  wofür  for  what, 
worein  (the  one  prep,  in  changes  its  form  in  these  adverbial  compounds  to  express  the  ace.  rela- 
tion, becoming  ein)  into  what,  worum  (more  commonly  in  this  case  um  was)  concerning  what, 
&c.  The  accent  fluctuates  here.  In  questions  direct  and  indirect  the  preposition  is  usually 
stressed,  wo'rauf,  &c.,  but  in  direct  questions  the  accent  for  especial  emphasis  often  rests  upon 
the  wo.  These  compounds  cannot  be  freely  formed,  but  occur  only  in  case  of  the  prepositions 
enumerated  in  141.  5.  B.  But  also  here  there  is  a  growing  aversion  to  the  adverbial  forms:  „Rede, 
I  damit  wir  uns  verständigen."     ,,Über  was?"  (Wildenbruch's  König  Laurin,  3,  1). 

D.  Plural.  The  German  like  the  English  has  no  special  form  for  the  plural,  but  differs 
from  the  PZnglish  in  that  the  verb  also  remains  sing.,  excei)t  in  case  of  wer  and  was  as  predicate 
in  connection  with  the  verb /o  ?)c:  Wer  sind  die  Damen  da?  Ich  weiß  nicht,  wer  sie  sind.  Was 
sind  die  Dinge  da?  Das  sind  Blumen.  But  as  subject:  Wer  war  da?  Who  7i'as  or  icere  there? 
A  general  indcf.  pi.  idea  can  be  l)rought  out  by  placing  directly  after  wer  (or  was),  or  several 
words  removerl,  the  adverbial  alles:  Wer  kommt  denn  alles?  Who  all  are  coming?  Ich  weiß 
nicht,  wen  alles  er  eingeladen  hat,  or  wem  alles  (or  wem  allem,  or  sometimes  to  bring  out  the 
plural  idea  wen  alien  in  collociuial  speech  and  welchen  Leuten  allen  in  the  literary  language) 
er  eine  Einladung  geschickt  hat.  Was  man  doch  nicht  alles  hört!  Well,  I  declare,  what  strange 
things  one  hears!  Es  ist  unglaublich,  was  uns  hier  jetzt  alles  als  Schillerfest  geboten  wird 
(Hamburger  Correspondent,  May  8,  1905).  A  plural  may  follow  wer  anders  icho  but,  who  else, 
altho  the  verb  is  in  the  singular:  Wer  anders  wohnte  denn  zu  jener  Zeit  vor  den  Toren  der 
Städte  als  nur  armes  und  geringes  Volk,  Gärtnersleute  noch  im  besten  Falle?  (S.  Junghans's 
Lore  Fay,  I).  In  inquiries  after  definite  persons  or  things,  the  sing,  verb  with  wer  or  was  alone 
is  used,  as  usually  the  connection  will  show  whether  one  is  speaking  of  one  person  or  thing,  or 
of  more  than  one.  Some  form  of  welcher,  e,  es  should  be  used  if  some  noun  or  pronoun  can 
be  understood:  Wer  hat  das  gebracht?  —  Zwei  Schüler.  — Welche  (Schüler)?  Wer  hat  das 
gebracht? — Ein  Schüler.  — Welcher  (Schüler)?  Thus  in  German  wer  usually  introduces  an 
inquiry'  of  a  more  general  and  welcher  of  a  more  individual  nature. 

E.  Partitive  Construction.  Was  was  formerly  often  followed  by  a  dependent  noun  in  the 
partitive  gen.:  was  Dancks  habt  jr  dauon  (davon)?  (Luke  vi.  34).  This  construction  is  still 
occasionally  found:  Aber  was  hast  du  nun  Vorteils  davon.  Lieber?  (Lienhard's  Till  Eulenspiegel, 
3).  It  is  still  the  regular  construction  in  case  of  adjective-substantives:  Was  ist  Gutes  dabei? 
What  good  is  there  in  it?  In  case  of  these  adjective-substantives  all  feeling  for  the  genitive  is 
lost,  and  the  form  is  regarded  as  a  nom.  or  ace.  neut.  in  apposition  with  was,  as  in  similar  cases 
after  etwas  (see  145.  /.  Note  1). 

Except  in  case  of  adjective-substantives  simple  apposition  is  now  little  used,  altho  more  com- 
mon earlier  in  the  period,  and  is  usually  replaced  by  the  appositional  construction  introduced 
by  für  or  by  the  construction  with  welch:  Was  gibt  es  Vorzügliches  im  heutigen  Konzert?,  but 
rarely  Mit  was  lieblichem  Bezeigen  ]  gab  sie  sich  mir  ganz  zu  eigen!  (Canitz),  now  Mit  was 
für  einem  lieblichen,  or  welch  lieblichem,  &c.  Ach,  was  ist's  ein  Maim!  (Goethe's  Egmont,  1), 
now  Was  ist's  für  ein  Mann!  So  weiß  ich  doch  nun  auch,  auf  was  [now  was  für  eine,  or  welche] 
Art  sich  die  Teufel  danken  (Schiller).  Was  zahlt  man  Eintritt?  (Grillparzer's  Ein  treuer  Diener 
seines  Herrn,  2)  (Eintritt  here  =  Eintrittsgeld,  now  more  commonly  Was  zahlt  man  für  Ein- 
trittsgeld?) Was  hast  du  hier  [now  usually  -|-  für]  Geschäfte  [in  apposition  with  was  or  possibly 
a  pi.  partitive  gcn.j?  (Storm's  Ein  Fest  auf  Hadcrslcvhuus,  p.  'löS).  Zu  was  [now  welchem] 
Zweck  und  Nutzen  haben  wir  die  weltliche  Geschichte  gelernt?  (Scheffel).  In  certain 
set  expressions,  however,  the  simple  appositional  construction  has  become  established: 
Was  Wunder!  (the  gen.  here  is  also  used:  Was  Wunders,  daß  unser  Dichter  für  diese 
in  fast  täglichem  Verkehr  vor  ihm  entfalteten  Vorzüge  nicht  unempfindlich  blieb  — Johannes 
Scherr's  Schiller,  II.  chap,  iii)  what  wonderl  was  Teufel!  Was  der  Teufel!  (Ebner-Eschenbach's 
Verschollen),  but  also  with  gen.:  Was  Teufels  einem  doch  plötzlich  durch  das  Dach  herein- 
schneien kaim!  (Walther  Siegfried's  Um  der  Heimat  willen,  \'lll).  Was  Henker!  Wes  Geistes 
Kind  ist  er?  Of  what  mettle  is  he?  Wes  Namens,  Standes,  Wohnorts  seid  ihr?  (H.  v.  Kleist).  Das 
preußische  Kultusministerium  hat  in  der  Frage  der  marianischen  Kongregationen  gezeigt, 
wessen  Geistes  es  ist  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Feb.  24,  1905).  In  some  of  these  examples 
was  or  wes  (recently  also  wessen,  as  in  the  preceding  German  sentence)  is  used  almost  or  quite 
as  an  attributive  adjective,  and  earlier  in  the  period  even  assumed  in  the  dat.  of  the  fem.  the 
form  of  a  strong  adjective:  Aus  waser  (in  revised  editions  was  für)  macht  thustu  das?  (Matth. 
xxi.  23).  In  English,  what  has,  indeed,  become  an  attributive  adjective  in  many  cases,  and 
can  be  used  freely  as  such,  while  in  German  the  appositional  construction  has  in  general  been 
retained,  and  is  usually,  aside  from  certain  groups  described  above,  clearly  marked  as  such 
by  the  für  preceding  the  appositive.     The  construction  with  for  is  also  found  in  older  English: 


150. RELATIX  K    PRQxNOUNS 193 

What  is  he  for  a  fool  that  betroths  himself  to  unquietness?  (Shakespeare's  Much  Ado,  1,  3). 
In  dialect  and  colloquial  language  the  development  of  usage  here  lies  in  the  direction  of  the 
English,  in  that  was  is  often  used  attributively:  Ne,  was'n  Jux,  was'n  Jux!  (Adalbert  Mein- 
hardt's  Allerlei  rauh,  p.  71)  for  the  literary  was  für  ein  Jux!  or  welch  ein  Jux!  Also  separated: 
Was  gibst  du  mir  denn  gute  Lehren,  Mutter!  (Georg  Hirschfeld's  Nebeneinander,  p.  35).  For 
other  examples  see  134.  2.  d. 

Wer  was  in  M.H.G.,  like  was,  followed  by  a  dependent  partitive  gen.,  as  in  wer  herren,  which 
is  now  replaced  by  a  prep,  construction,  wer  von  or  unter  den  Herren.  Another  stage  of  develop- 
ment, the  appositional  or  attributive  construction,  as  in  case  of  was,  is  found  in  early  N.H.G. : 
Wer  Künstler  (originally  gen.  pi.)  möcht's  erdenken?  (Spee's  Trutznacht-igal,  91,  196).  Wen 
Schatz  han  [haben]  wir  gefunden?  (id.).  This  old  attributiv^e  use  of  wer  what  survives,  in  case 
the  following  word  is  a  pronoun:  „Er  ist  nicht  da?"  „Wer  er?"  (Suttner's  Daniela  Dormes,  III). 
(Carl)  Er  gibt  Singstunde?  Wem?  (Isolde)  Der.  (Carl)  Wem  der?  (Ernst  Rosmer's  Däm- 
merun?, Act  o).     Compare  Es  ist  kein  Er;   es  ist  eine  Sie  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome,  XI). 

2.  Wer  and  was  are  used  in  questions  direct  and  indirect:  Wen  meinen 
Sie?  Ich  weiß  nicht,  wen  Sie  meinen.  Wer  ist's?  (a  biographical  dictionary 
by  H.  A.  Degener)  Who  is  who? 

a.  Wer  can  be  limited  by  a  relative  clause:  Wer,  der  es  nicht  mit  Augen  gesehen  hat,  vermag 
sich  dies  geheimnisvolle  Gebiet  auch  nur  vorzustellen?  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  III.  p.  133) 
What  person  ivho,  &c. 

b.  Was  is  much  used  colloquially  after  the  statement  of  an  opinion  or  idea  to  ask  for  a  con- 
firmation of  the  same  from  the  person  addressed:  Hübsche  Straße,  was?  It's  a  fine  street,  isn't 
it?     Ich  liebe  schnelle  Entschlüsse  —  Sie  auch — was? 

c.  Sometimes  was  is  used  ach'crbially  in  the  meaning  why:  Was  lachst  du?  Why  do  you  laugh? 
It  is  also  used  sometimes  like  wie  hoiv:  Was  sind  Sie  glücklich!  How  happy  you  are! 

148.  Welcher,  welche,  welches  ivhich,  what,  used  adjectively  or  substan- 
tively. For  inflection  see  134.  1.  Ex.:  Welches  Buch  ist  das  Ihrige  und 
welches  ist  das  seinige? 

a.  Welches  used  with  identifying  force  is  treated  like  dies  (see  128.  A.  a) :  Welches  ist  länger, 
der  Bleistift  oder  die  Feder?  Welches  ist  der  jüngste  Sohn?  Welches  sind  Ihre  Brüder? 
Welches  ist  Ihre  Hutnummer?  What  is  the  size  of  your  hat?  Welches  sind  die  Ergebnisse 
dieses  Sommersemesters?  (Wilbrandt's  Franz,  II).  Also  in  indirect  questions:  Welches  die 
individuellen  Ursachen  von  Raabes  Wendung  zum  Pessimismus  gewesen,  läßt  sich  einstweilen 
nicht  feststellen  (A.  Bartels,  Deutsche  Dichtung,  p.  5G). 

Was  is  also  used  here,  but  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning.  Was  is  more  general,  while 
welcher  always  points  to  an  individual  among  individuals.  Thus  we  say  to  a  single  gentleman 
in  inquiring  in  a  general  way:  Was  ist  Dire  Erfahrung  in  bezug  auf  Seekrankheit?,  but  in  speak- 
ing to  a  number  of  gentlemen  in  turn  we  say:  Welches  ist  Ihre  Erfahrung?  On  account  of  the 
general  meaning  of  was  it  is  not  used  in  inquiring  after  a  definite  individual:  Welches  (not 
was)  ist  die  Hauptstadt  Rußlands? 

149.  Was  für  einer,  eine,  ein(e)s  what  kind.     For  inflection  see  134.  2. 

Relative  Pronouns. 

150.  There  are  no  independent  forms  for  the  relative  pronouns,  but  as 
such  are  used:  the  demonstratives  der,  die,  das  (151)  tvho,  ivhich,  or  the  de- 
terminative (130.  3)  welcher,  welche,  welches  (152)  who,  which;  the  indefinites 
wer  who,  whoever  (155  and  156),  was  ivhich,  what,  whatsoever  (153.  1;  157);  the 
adverbial  compounds  worin,  worunter,  &c.  (153.  2.  A),  or  darin,  darunter,  &c. 
(153.  2.  B);  the  adverbs  wo,  woher,  wohin  (153.  3.  A),  wie  or  als  (153.  3.  B, 
D.  (1)),  wie  (153.  3.  E),  als,  wenn,  wann,  wo,  da,  wie  (153.  3.  C),  so  viel  (153. 
4);  so  (153.  5);  daß  (153.  3.  C.  e),  dergleichen  (153.  3.  D.  (3)),  derselbe  (153. 
6),  was  für  ein  (153.  7),  wo  (153.  8),  als  (153.  8),  da  denn   (238.  2.  c.  Note  2). 

They  have  in  course  of  time  developed  a  different  word-order  from  the  orig- 
inal demonstratives  and  indefinites  and  now  require  the  verb  to  stand  at  the 
end  of  the  clause:  diejenigen  Fürsten  sind  die  besten,  die  mit  Aufopferung 
ihrer  selbst  des  Volkes  Wohl  befördern. 

The  parent  language  did  not  contain  relative  pronouns.  Hence  they  are 
comparatively  modern  formations  that  have  developed  independently  in  the 
different  languages  and  consequently  var\'  widely  in  structure,  altho  at  points 
a  number  of  languages  employ  materials  that  were  originally  common  to  them 
all.  Glimpses  into  their  development  are  given  in  154.  ISlote,  153.  5.  Note, 
and  130.  3. 


194 INFLECTION   OF   RELATIVE   PER 151.  L 

151.  Inflection  of  the  Relative  Der.  L  Der,  die,  das  are  inflected  as  the 
substantive  forms  of  the  demon,  der,  die,  das  (129.  1)  except  in  the  gen.,  where 
the  forms  dessen  (masc.  and  neut.  sing.),  deren  (fem.  sing,  and  pi.  for  all  gen- 
ders) are  used. 

a.  The  forms  of  der  are  unaccented,  thus  differing  from  those  of  the 
demon,  der;  but  the  vowels  except  before  ss  are  long  and  cannot  be  con- 
tracted, thus  differing  from  those  of  the  def.  art.  and  resembling  those  of  the 
demonstr. 

h.  In  composition  with  the  prepositions  wegen  on  account  of,  urn  —  willen 
for  the  sake  of,  halb  (en)  on  account  of,  are  the  following  corrupted  gen.  forms: 
dessent,  gen.  masc.  and  neut.;  derent  or  deret,  gen.  fern.  sing,  and  gen.  pi. 
for  all  genders:  der  Mann,  um  dessentwillen ;  die  Frau,  um  derentwillen; 
die  Absicht,  um  deretwillen  das  Buch  geschrieben  ist  (Dr.  U.  Zernial  in  Anglia, 
1886,  vol.  IV,  p.  27),  &c.  There  is  a  pronounced  tendency  to  restore  the 
correct  form:  Jenes  Vorrecht,  um  dessenwillen  sich  einst  Bayern  unterworfen 
hatte  (Giesebrecht);  das  Weib,  um  dessenwillen  ich  Jahre  lang  alles  getan 
und  gesprochen  und  geopfert  habe  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  IL  p.  172). 
Auf  jenem  schönen  Turm  habe  ich  der  das  Wiederkommen  versprochen, 
um  derenwillen  ich  jetzt  diese  weite  Reise  mache  (Storm's  ^7.  Jürgen).  Das 
also  war  die,  für  die  sie  drangegeben,  um  derenwillen  sie  um  ihr  Leben  be- 
trogen und  bestohlen  worden  war  (Wildenbruch 's    Vize- Mama). 

The  short  genitive  des  is  often  used  here  instead  of  dessent  when  the  ante- 
cedent has  a  general  or  indefinite  meaning  or  contains  a  collective  idea:  Alles 
das,  um  deswillen  er  fünf  Jahre  gelebt  und  gelitten  hatte  (Johannes  Wilda's  Bei 
der  Glockenboje).    Compare  153.  1.  (1).  a. 

The  preceding  forms  refer  to  antecedents.  When  the  reference  is  to  the 
thought  contained  in  a  sentence,  the  short  gen.  forms  wes,  or  now  less  commonly 
des,  are  used  in  composition  with  wegen  and  halb(en):  Vollkommenheit  ist 
ein  nie  zu  erreichendes  Ziel,  weshalb  (or  now  less  commonly  deshalb)  so 
wenige  danach  streben.  Also  wo'her  or  da'her  (153.  3.  A)  and  da  denn  (238. 
2.  c.  Note  2)  are  sometimes  used  here.  Earlier  in  the  period  also  da'rum: 
Ich  bin  nicht  werd  |  das  du  vnter  mein  Dach  gehest  |  Darum  ich  auch  mich 
selbs  nicht  wirdig  geachtet  hab  |  das  ich  zu  dir  kerne  (Luke  vii.  6-7). 

If  wegen  precedes  the  relative,  the  regular  uncorrupted  long  gen.  forms 
are  used:  Sie  passen  zu  dem  dreibeinigen  Halunken,  wegen  dessen  wir  hier 
versammelt  sind!  (Lienhard's  Till  Eulenspiegel,  1). 

c.  To  give  a  clear  formal  expression  to  the  idea  of  the  dative  relation  the  forms  dessen  and 
deren  are  sometimes  still  as  occasionally  also  earlier  in  the  period  inflected  like  strong  adjectives, 
when  they  stand  before  a  masc.  or  a  neut.  noun  in  the  dat.  sing.,  altho  they  are  in  fact  the  gen. 
forms  of  the  relative  pronoun:  die  letzten  Reste  ihrer  (i.e.  der  Häuser)  Fundamente,  in  derem 
Kalkgehalt  sich  eine  kleine  aparte  Flora  häuslich  eingerichtet  hat  (Fedor  Sommer's  Ernst 
Reiland,  p.  197).     See  129.  2.  A.  c. 

d.  Instead  of  the  gen.  forms  dessen  and  deren  the  older  forms  des  (formerly  written  deß) 
and  der  still  occur,  the  former  often  earlier  in  the  period  but  now  only  in  poetry,  the  latter, 
der  (fem.  gen.  sing,  and  gen.  pi.  for  all  genders),  now  little  used  in  the  plural  but  still  often  used 
in  the  fem.  gen.  sing,  even  in  plain  prose  when  it  is  the  object  of  a  preposition,  verb,  or  adjective, 
but  never  when  it  modifies  a  noun  in  the  attributive  relation:  Wo  bist  du,  Faust,  des  Stimme 
mir  erklang  (Goethe's  Faust,  erster  Teil,  Nacht).  Dann  auf  Wellen  ]  fliegt  der  Mann,  des 
Bild  ich  wirkte,  in  die  Weite  (W'ildenbruch's  Die  Lieder  des  Euripides,  p.  26).  Fejervary  hat 
die  Regierung  nach  einer  langen  ministerlosen  Zeit,  wälirend  der  (=  deren)  Graf  Tisza  die 
Geschäfte  weitergeführt  hatte,  am  13.  Juni  übernommen  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Sept.  13, 
1905).  Die  Frau,  der  er  so  liebreich  gedachte  (Eduard  Engel's  Gutes  Deutsch,  152).  Earlier 
in  the  period  besides  the  short  fem.  gen.  sing,  and  the  gen.  pi.  form  der  there  were  the  two  longer 
forms  deren  and  derer.  Later  derer  became  restricted  to  demonstrative  use,  but  survivals 
of  the  older  usage  occur  occasionally,  especially  after  a  preposition:  Das  dauerte  wohl  eine 
Minute,  während  derer  ich  mich  nicht  zu  regen,  kaum  zu  atmen,  wagte  (Spielhagen's  Was  will 
das  werdend,  I.  chap.  xi).  Einige  bängliche  Minuten,  während  derer  Frau  Curtis  die  Augen 
geschlossen  hielt  (id.,  Ein  neuer  Pharao,  p.  13). 

e.  The  early  N.H.G.  occasional  long  form  deren  (fem.  dat.  sing.)  has  entirely  given  way 
to  the  short  form  der,  as  there  seemed  a  desire,  as  in  case  of  the  demonstrative  der,  to  distinguish, 
contrary  to  usage  elsewhere  in  the  inflection  of  fem.  adjective  forms,  between  the  gen.  and  dat. 
sing:  O  Fürstin,  deren  (now  der)  sich  ein  solcher  Fürst  verbunden  (Wcckherlin).  The  older 
short  form  den  (dat.  pl.)  is  now  entirely  replaced  by  denen. 


151.  3.  B. USES   OF   RELATIVE   PER 195 

/.  In  the  language  of  monarchical  Germany  the  relative  der  is  used  in  connection  with  Aller- 
höchst, Höchst,  Hoch  with  reference  to  the  antecedents  seine  Majestät,  seine  Königl.  Hoheit, 
seine  Durchlaucht:  Auf  Anregung  Ihrer  Königl.  Hoheit  der  Großherzogin  von  Baden  und 
mit  Genehmigung  Sr.  Majestät  des  Kaisers,  Allerhöchstdenen  für  diese  hochherzige  Ent- 
schließung ehrfurchtsvoller  Dank  gebührt,  erscheint  zum  hundertsten  Geburtstage  der  Kaiserin 
Augusta  der  erste  Teil  einer  Auswahl  ihrer  Aufzeichnungen  und  Briefe  (Paul  Bailleu  in  Deutsche 
Rundschau,  1911,  p.  161). 

g.  The  relatives  das  and  welches  were  earher  ni  the  period  employed  like 
the  identifying  das  (129.  2.  C.  (1))  as  the  subject  of  the  clause,  remaining 
unchanged  for  all  genders  and  numbers:  Unter  andern  hat  er  eine  Sündflut 
gemalt,  das  etwas  Einziges  ist  (Goethe).  Die  Luftkanäle  anzubringen,  welches 
kleine  Röhren  von  gebrannter  Erde  waren  (id.).  Dies  Buch  nannte  man  den 
Shakespeare,  welches  der  Verfasser  desselben  war  (G.  Keller).  These  rel- 
atives are  now  usually  inflected  and  agree  with  the  antecedent.  The  older 
usage  is  still  sometimes  found  when  the  relative  is  used  in  a  collective  sense: 
Ich  kenne  den  Bruder  und  die  Schwester,  welches  beides  (or  more  commonly 
welche  beide)  sehr  achtungswerte  Personen  sind  (D.  Sanders).  Different  is 
the  case  where  the  relative  is  the  predicate.     See  153.  1.  (3),  towards  end  of  art. 

2.  Where  Der  Is  Not  Used.  Der  is  not  used  adjectively  at  all,  in  which  func- 
tion it  is  replaced  by  forms  of  welcher:  Er  sagte  ,, guten  Tag,"  welchen  Gruß 
sie  freundlich  erwiderte.  Also  in  the  expressions  welch  ersterer  (or  welcher 
erstere)  the  former  of  ich  ich  and  welch  letzterer  Cor  welcher  letztere)  the  latter 
of  which,  where  the  substantive  is  understood:  Das  Bild  stellt  Johannes  den 
Täufer  und  den  Christusknaben  dar,  welch  letzterer  von  dem  Täufer  in  die 
Welt  eingeführt  wird. 

3.  Uses  of  Der.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  substantive  relation  der  is  more 
frequent  than  welcher  both  in  the  literary  language  and  in  common  conversa- 
tion.    The  leading  points  as  to  use  are  as  follows: 

A.  Der,  not  welcher,  is  used  in  the  gen.  sing,  and  pi.  if  the  gen.  stands 
before  the  noun  upon  which  it  depends:  Das  Haus  in  der  Kaiserstraße,  dessen 
Besitzer  wir  kennen,  ist  feil.  Elsewhere  also  the  genitive  of  welcher  is  used 
with  the  limitation  however  that  it  is  only  employed  in  the  plural  and  the 
feminine  singular:  Die  alte  Mauer,  innerhalb  deren  or  welcher  jetzt  nur  ein 
Teil  der  Stadt  liegt,  wird  bald  abgebrochen  werden. 

It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  dessen  and  deren,  differing  from  the  English 
of  which,  of  whom,  must  always  precede  the  noun  or  pronoun  upon  which  they 
depend,  and  that  the  definite  article  before  the  governing  noun  is  then  dropped: 
das  Gebäude,  dessen  Fenster  geschlossen  sind  the  hiiilding  the  windows  of 
which  are  shut]  HeldenHeder,  bei  deren  jedem  (/;/  every  one  of  which)  sich 
eine  reine  Märchengestalt  hinter  einem  geschichtlichen  Namen  verbirgt 
(Wundt's  Völkerpsychologie,  II,  p.  393).  Sometimes  apparent  exceptions 
occur:  Die  Statistik,  auf  Grund  deren  Prof.  Lorenz!  sein  Werk  aufbaute, 
erstreckte  sich  auf  419  Häuser  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Oct.  18,  1904). 
The  relative  deren  does  not  here  depend  upon  the  substantive  Grund, _  but 
upon  the  two  words  auf  Grund,  which  together  have  the  force  of  a  preposition 
and  hence  precede. 

a.  In  adjective  use  welcher  must  be  used  even  if  the  gen.  precedes  the  noun  upon  which  it 
depends:    Denk'  an  Goethe,  welches  Dichters  Werke  dir  oft  empfohlen  wurden. 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  also  the  gen.  of  welch-  could  stand  before  the  governing  noun:  Lie- 
ber I  verderbe  den  nicht  mit  deiner  Speise  |  vmb  welches  willen  Christus  gestorben  ist  (Rom. 
xiv.  15).  Denn  ein  Weib  hatte  von  jm  gehört  !  welcher  Töchterlin  einen  vnsaubern  Geist  hatte 
(Mark  vii.  25).  Eine  so  edle  Tat .  .  .  wie  die  ist,  um  welcher  willen  ich  gefangen  sitze  (Goethe's 
Götz,  4,  2). 

B.  Der  is  also  usually  employed  when  the  relative  refers  to  an  interrogative, 
a  personal  or  indefinite  pronoun,  or  a  noun  in  the  vocative:  Wer,^  der  es  nicht 
mit  Augen  gesehen  hat,  vermag  sich  dies  geheimnisvolle  Gebiet  auch  nur 
vorzustellen?  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  III.  p.  133).  Er,  der  nur  |  gewohnt 
ist  zu  befehlen  und  zu  tun,  |  kennt  nicht  die  Kunst,  von  weitem  ein  Gespräch 

I  nach  seiner  Absicht  langsam  fein  zu  lenken  (Goethe's  Iphi genie,  1,2).     Jeder, 
der   ihn   kennt.     Niemand,    der   ihn   kennt.     Especially   after   the    indefinite 


196 USES   OF   RELATIVE   PER 151.  3.  B. 

welch  for  sake  of  euphony:  Mit  dieser  Sorte  von  Spiritisten  habe  ich  nichts 
zu  tun.  In  den  spiritistischen  Klubsitzungen  treiben  sich  immer  welche 
herum,  die  da  im  Trüben  fischen  (Blüthgen's  Die  Spiritisten,  p.  275).  After 
a  vocative:  Ha,  Herr  Graf,  der  Sie  nicht  nach  Massa  wollten  (Lessing's  Emilia, 
3,  2).  Much  less  commonly  welcher:  O  Du  Lamm  Gottes,  welches  Du  hin- 
wegnimmst die  Sünden  der  Welt  (Lauff's  Pittje  Pittjewitt,  p.  176). 

a.  If  a  personal  pronoun  referring  to  a  vocative  or  repeating  a  personal 
pronoun  of  the  first  or  second  person  already  mentioned  stands  after  the  rel- 
ative, which  is  very  commonly  the  case  when  the  relative  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb,  der  is  usually  employed,  and  the  verb  must  agree  with  the  antecedent 
in  person:  unser  Vater,  der  du  bist  im  Himmel  (Luther);  du,  die  du  alle  Wun- 
den heilest  (Schiller)  thou  (friendship)  who  dost  heal  all  wounds.  The  pro- 
noun of  the  first  or  second  person  to  which  reference  is  made  may  be  contained 
in  a  possessive:  Und  tröste  dich  an  meinem  größern  Jammer,  |  die  ich  getan, 
wo  du  nur  unterlassen  (Grillparzer's  Medea,  5.). 

This  construction  originated  in  the  fifteenth  century  and  hence  is  younger 
than  the  two  competing  constructions  described  in  b,  but  it  is  at  present  ap- 
parently the  favorite. 

Welcher,  formerly,  little  used  here,  is  now  beginning  to  compete  here  with 
der.     For  example  see  last  sentence  in  B  above. 

A'ote.  When  such  sentences  are  transferred  to  indirect  discourse,  the  personal  pronoun  may  be  allowed  to  remain 
standing  after  the  relative,  altho  it  as  well  as  its  antecedent  has  become  a  third  person  in  the  indirect  statement: 
Wie  kannst  du,  die  du  es  selbst  gesehen  hast,  das  bezweifeln?  becomes  Er  wunderte  sich,  wie  sie,  die  sie  es  selbst 
gesehen  habe,  das  bezweifeln  könne.  The  personal  pronoun  of  the  first  or  second  person  to  which  reference  is  made 
may  be  contained  in  a  possessive:  (independent  form  of  indirect  discourse;  see  172.  a)  Sie  hatte  einmal  gelesen: 
,, Nichts  ist  ohne  Zweck."  Aber  was  war  ihr  Zweck?  Ihr  Zweck,  die  sie  doch  keine  Blüte  trieb.  Sie  war  doch 
eine  tote  Frucht,  sie  war  Tante  (G.  Ompteda's  Cäcilie  von  Sarryn,  chap.  xii). 

h.  Sometimes  there  is  no  personal  pronoun  after  the  relative  as  in  the  cases 
described  in  a,  the  verb,  however,  agreeing  in  the  same  manner  with  the  ante- 
cedent in  person:  Unselige,  die  [du]  mir  aus  deinen  Höhen,  |  ein  Meteor, 
verderblich  niederstreifst  (Goethe).  This  usage  arose  in  O.H.G.  under  Latin 
models  and  in  later  times  was  favored  by  the  example  of  French,  which  has 
the  same  construction,  but  it  has  never  secured  a  firm  foothold  in  German 
as  in  English.  In  the  fifteenth  century  attempts  were  made  to  avoid  the  harsh 
clash  here  between  the  third  person  form  of  the  relative  der  and  the  first  or 
second  person  of  the  verb  by  inserting  a  personal  pronoun  of  the  first  or  second 
person  after  the  relative  and  thus  bringing  the  old  historic  foreign  construction 
nearer  to  German  feeling.  This  is  the  now  common  construction  described 
in  a.  Much  earlier  a  more  simple  way  out  of  the  difficulty  was  found,  a  pure 
German  construction,  in  O.H.G.  rare,  later  more  common,  and  still  quite  fre- 
quent, but  never  as  yet  prevailing  over  the  construction  in  a.  The  clash  be- 
tween the  third  person  form  der  and  the  first  and  second  person  of  the  verb 
was  avoided  by  placing  the  verb  in  the  third  person,  thus  bringing  it  into  har- 
mony with  the  relative:  O.H.G.  fater  unser,  der  ist  in  himilom  {Freisinger 
Paternoster,  Emmeram  MS.)  =  N.H.G.  Vater  unser,  der  im  Himmel  ist. 
Ich  bin  Gabriel,  der  fur  Gott  stehet  (Luther;  Luke  I.  19).  Was  kann  ich  tun, 
der  selber  hilflos  ist?  (Schiller).  Wir,  die  Bergmann  und  Virchow  (professors) 
hörten,  haben  den  Eindruck  usw.  {Westermanns  ]\Ionatshefte,  Feb.  1912,  p.  897). 

The  verb  cannot  of  course  be  controlled  by  the  relative  if  some  other  word 
is  subject:   O  du,  den  ich  suchte  von  meiner  Kindheit  an. 

The  verb  is  in  the  third  person  if  the  pronoun  to  which  the  subject  refers 
is  in  the  third  person :  Er,  der  es  weiß. 

The  relative  welcher  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  der:  Du,  welcher  der 
Welt  die  Komödien  des  Plautus  wiedergegeben  hast  (K.  F.  Meyer). 

Note._  If  the  reference  is  to  the  polite  form  Sie  referring  to  one  individual,  the  relative  and,  provided  the  third 
person  is  employed,  also  its  verb  are  in  the  sing.,  altho  Sie  is  grammatically  in  the  3rd  person  pi.:  Das  weiß  eben 
niemand  besser  zu  beurteilen,  als  eben  Sie,  der  meine  Mutter  so  gut  kennt. 

c.  The  construction  with  the  verb  in  the  third  person  is  still  much  used, 
but  the  newer  form  in  a  seems  in  general  more  common  and  in  one  case  must 
be  employed,  as  ambiguity  might  otherwise  arise.  If  there  are  two  pronouns 
in  the  principal  clause,  one  in  the  first  or  second  person,  the  other  the  unin- 


152.  1. INFLECTION  &  USES  OF  WELCHER 197 

fleeted  es,  the  construction  which  repeats  the  personal  pronoun  after  the  relative 
should  be  chosen,  if  the  es  is  predicate  and  the  relative  refers  to  the  pronoun 
of  the  first  or  second  person,  which  is  itself  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause; 
but  the  construction  which  drops  the  personal  pronoun  and  puts  the  dependent 
verb  in  the  third  person  is  of  course  used  if  the  es  is  the  grammatical  subject 
and  the  following  relative  clause  the  real  subject  of  the  main  verb:  Wer  ist 
unglücklich?  Ich  (subject)  bin  es  (predicate),  der  ich  meine  Eltern  verloren 
habe  TT7zo  is  tmhappy?  I  am,  I  ivlio  have  lost  my  pai-c^ils,  but  Ich  (predicate)  bin 
es  (subject;  see  251.  II.  B.  a.  aa)y  der  seine  Eltern  verloren  hat  //  is  I  who  has 
lost  his  parents.  In  the  second  sentence  the  verb  of  the  main  clause  is  attracted 
into  the  person  of  the  predicate  ich,  which  stands  before  it,  and  hence  it  does 
not  agree  with  its  real  subject.     The  relative  here  is  usually  der  according  to  C. 

C.  In  subject  and  object  clauses  where  the  relative  is  equal  to  der  (jenige) 
welcher,  we  usually  find  der:  Subject  clause:  Selig  sind,  die  Gottes  Wort 
hören  und  bewahren.  Accusative  clause:  Lehre,  die  dir  folgen  wollen,  deine 
Wege.  Dative  clause:  Ehre,  dem  Ehre  gebührt.  Notice  that  in  these  clauses 
the  partitive  idea  is  expressed  by  the  appositional  construction,  not  by  the 
genitive  or  the  preposition  von:  Die  wir  viel  gelitten,  wir  scheuen  uns  davor, 
die  dunkelsten,  verborgensten  Tiefen  des  eigenen  Herzens  zu  durchleuchten 
(Heyking's  Briefe,  die  ihn  nicht  erreichten,  p.  232)  Those  of  us  who,  &c.  Also 
when  the  provisional  subject  es  precedes,  the  relative  of  subject  clauses  is 
usually  der:  War  ich's,  der  ihm  sein  Glück  zerstörte?  See  also  B.  c.  Where 
the  predicate  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  precedes  the  subject,  as  in  the  last  sen- 
tence, welcher  is  also  often  used:  Er  selbst  war  es  gewesen,  welcher  dem 
Freunde  die  letzten  Liebesdienste  erwiesen  hatte  (Marriot's  Der  geistliche 
Tod,  chap.  xvii).  Welch-  is  much  rarer  in  object  clauses:  Und  sicherst  deinen 
Kindern  großes  Gut:  |  sie  dürfen  nennen,  welche  sie  gebar  (Grillparzer's 
Aledea,  4).  Earlier  in  the  period  welch-  was  used  freely  in  subject  and  object 
clauses,  but  with  a  different  shade.     See  a  below. 

Wer  is  also  employed  in  subject  and  object  clauses,  but  with  a  different 
meaning,  namely,  with  generalizing  or  indefinite  force.     See  156. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  welcher  was  used  in  subject  clauses  with  sjeneral  or  indefinite  force  just 
as  wer  (see  156)  is  now  employed:  Welcher  isset  |  der  isset  dem  HErrn  (Rom.  xiv.  ß).  See 
also  Rom.  xiv.  2,  3.  Der  was  also  rauch  used  in  subject  clauses,  but  with  a  different  shade  of 
meaning,  namely,  with  indi\'idualizing  force.  Compare  130.  2.  b.  Later  wer  replaced  welcher 
here  for  general  or  indefinite  reference,  and  welcher  assumed  the  definite  force  of  der  and  often 
became  interchangeable  with  it.  Welcher  is  not,  however,  used  here  in  subject  and  object 
clauses  so  much  as  der,  and  cannot  be  used  so  freely,  as  it  is  limited  to  the  cases  where  the  predi- 
cate is  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  precedes  the  subject.     Compare  130.  3. 

D.  Der  is  usually  employed  in  predicate  clauses  (270.  1):  Du  bist  nicht, 
der  du  scheinst  (Fulda's  Talisman,  1,  4).  In  early  N.H.G.  welcher  was  some- 
times used  here,  but  it  has  not  become  well  established:  Welchen  (now  usually 
den)  ich  küssen  werde  I  der  ist's  (Mark  xiv.  44).  Compare  130.  3.  Wer  is 
now  used  here  if  the  relative  has  a  general  or  indefinite  meaning:  Ach  Väter- 
chen, wir  (in  a  broad  general  sense)  bleiben,  wer  wir  sind  (Fulda's  Talisman, 
1,  10).  In  early  N.H.G.  welcher  was  quite  common  here.  Compare  C.  a 
and  130.  3. 

General  Note  to  B.  C.  D.  In  M.H.G.  welch  in  its  older  form  swelch  was  a  general  determinative  like  solch  (131. 
3),  pointing  not  to  definite  individuals  but  employed  for  general  or  indefinite  reference.  The  corresponding  English 
forms  which  and  Ihe  which  once  alsojiad  this  same  general  or  indefinite  meaning,  but  they  developed  definite  force 
much  earlier  than  German  welch.  In  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the  general,  indefinite  meaning  in  welch 
was  still  stronger  than  the  idea  of  definite  reference.  This  older  meaning  is  still  in  general  keenly  enough  felt  to 
prevent  its  use  in  B,  usually  also  in  C  and  regularly  in  D.  On  the  other  hand,  in  attributive  relative  clauses  where 
there  is  a  general,  indefinite  reference  to  a  kind  or  class  rather  than  to  ind  viduals  there  still  often  seems  to  be  a  pref- 
erence for  welch:  Aber  lieber  Papa,  die  Leute  können  sich  doch  Bücher  verschaffen,  welche  sie  wollen  (Frieda  von 
Bülow's  Hiller  der  Schwelte,  p.  16U).  As  illustrated  in  130.  3  welch  had  already  in  early  N.H.G.  begun  to  assume 
more  definite  force  and  since  that  time  has  been  competing  with  der. 

152.  Inflection  and  Uses  of  welcher.  1.  Welcher  (welche,  welches)  tcho, 
which  is  inflected  as  a  strong  adjective  except  in  the  gen.  masc.  and  neut.  sing., 
where  the  strong  ending  -es  is  used  instead  of  the  weak  -en.  For  those  places 
where  welcher  is  not  usually  found  see  151.  3.  A,  B,  C,  and  D.  In  the  con- 
struction mentioned  in  151.  2  welcher  is  used  exclusively.  Elsewhere  there  is  a 
free  choice  between  der  and  welcher,  so  far  as  these  forms  are  used. 


198 DER  &  WELCH  REPLACED  BY  OTHER  WORDS  152.  2. 

2.  Welcher  is  much  used  in  some  parts  of  Germany,  where  it  is  preferred 
to  der,  and  is,  in  general,  very  useful  where  a  number  of  relatives  occur  in  the 
sentence  in  relieving  der,  thus  varying  the  construction,  especially  where  one 
relative  depends  upon  a  word  in  another  relative  clause.  Or,  on  the  other 
hand,  der  may  relieve  welcher;  and  indeed  it  is  more  common  in  case  there 
are  two  relatives  to  use  first  welcher  and  then  der :  Es  ist  eine  Reihe  von  Jahren 
her,  als  zu  dem  Artillerieregiment,  welches  hier  in  Garnison  steht,  ein  Haupt- 
mann versetzt  wurde,  der  aus  dem  Westen  Deutschlands  kam  (Wildenbruch). 
Grammarians  usually  state  that  either  der  or  welcher  can  be  used  in  parallel 
clauses  depending  upon  the  same  word,  but  that  they  should  not  relieve  each 
other:  Worte,  deren  Sinn  man  einmal  gefaßt,  die  man  sich  einmal  ins  Ge- 
dächtnis eingeprägt  hat.  Even  good  authors  do  not  always  follow  this  rule, 
but  sometimes  prefer  to  change  relatives  for  the  sake  of  variety  of  expression, 
or  as  in  the  following  sentence  to  heighten  a  contrast:  Ich  beginne  meine 
Geschichte  mit  unbegrenztem  Wohlwollen  sowohl  gegen  Mitwelt  und  Nach- 
welt, als  auch  gegen  mich  selber  und  alle  mir  im  Lauf  der  Erzählung  vorüber- 
gleitenden Schattenbilder  des  großen  Entstehens,  Seins  und  Vergehens — des 
unendlichen  Werdens,  welches  man  Weltentwickelung  nennt,  welches  freilich 
ein  wenig  interessanter  und  reicher  als  dieses  Buch  ist,  das  aber  auch  nicht, 
wie  dieses  Buch,  in  drei  Teilen  zu  einem  befriedigenden  Abschluß  kommen 
muß  (Raabe's  Hunger  pastor,  chap.  i). 

a.  Some  grammarians  claim  that  welch-,  not  der,  should  be  used  if  the  relative  is  preceded 
by  the  demonstrative  der  and  followed  by  the  article  der,  to  avoid  an  unpleasant  repetition; 
but  the  colloquial  language  does  not  seem  to  be  averse  to  this  combination,  as  the  words  are  so 
differently  accented  that  they  receive  quite  a  different  pronunciation:  Ach,  das  (i.e.  die  Schneider 
the  daddy-long-legs)  sind  die,  die  die  langen  Beine  haben  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  XXX).  H. 
Seidel  in  his  story  Die  weißen  Ratten  facetiously  calls  attention  to  a  warning  notice  in  a  public 
park  which  shows  a  too  liberal  use  of  this  repetition:  Die,  die  die,  die  die  Anlagen  beschädigen, 
zur  Anzeige  bringen,  erhalten  fünf  Taler  Belohnung. 

153.     Der  and  Welcher  Replaced  by  Other  Words. 

Both  der  and  welcher  are  replaced  by  other  words  in  the  following  cases: 
•    1.     Was.     In  the  nom.  and  ace.   relation  was  is  usually  employed  under 
the  following  circumstances: 

(1)  If  the  antecedent  is  a  word  of  general  or  indefinite  meaning,  or  expresses 
a  collective  idea,  such  as  das,  einiges,  eins,  das  einzige,  etwas  (or  was),  solches, 
ein  anderes,  nichts,  mehreres,  manches,  viel(es),  allerhand,  allerlei,  das 
bißchen,  wenig,  genug,  an  ordinal,  as  das  Erste,  das  Zweite,  with  especial 
frequency  alles,  also  a  neuter  abstract  noun  or  adjective-substantive  (das 
Schöne  the  beautiful,  &c.,  especially  a  superlative,  das  Beste  that  which  is  best), 
also  a  neuter  noun  denoting  a  material  or  a  collective  idea,  provided  the  ref- 
erence is  to  an  indefinite  mass  or  amount:  Eins  aber  weiß  ich,  was  ihr  nicht 
mehr  wißt:  was  Recht  und  Unrecht,  Gut  und  Böse  ist  (Hauptmann's  Ver- 
sunkene Glocke,  p.  106).  Sie  sprach  wie  von  etwas,  was  sie  gar  nichts  anging 
(H.  Böhlau's  Rangierbahnhof,  p.  43).  Infolge  davon  (in  consequence  of  group- 
ing conjugational  forms  in  accordance  with  their  meaning)  hat  sie  (i.e.  die 
traditionelle  Grammatik)  zum  Teil  solches,  was  formal  zusammengehört, 
voneinander  getrennt,  und  solches,  was  formal  verschieden  ist,  vereinigt 
(Brugmann's  Vergleichende  Grammatik,  II,  III.  Teil,  p.  42).  Sie  sah  aber 
nichts,  was  um  sie  vorging.  Es  gibt  im  Leben  so  manches,  was  uns  rätselhaft 
erscheint.  Freilich  vieles,  vielleicht  sehr  vieles,  was  dieser  und  jener  noch 
wünschen  würde,  fehlt  (Fuchs's  Deutsches  Wörterbuch,  Vorwort).  Und  das 
Dritte,  was  der  modernen  Kunst  als  Schwäche  anhaftet,  ist  ihr  Streben,  nur 
ästhetisch  sein  zu  wollen  (Otto  Lyon  in  Zeitschrift  für  de?i  deutschen  Unterricht, 
190."),  p.  5).  Er  sprach  mit  ihm  vertraulich  von  allem,  was  ihm  nahestand. 
Er  verzweifelt  überhaupt  an  allem  Heil,  was  der  Menschheit  durch  die  Gesell- 
schaft zu  teil  werden  kann  (Albert  Geiger  in  Die  Nation,  lOth  March,  1900). 
Man  kann  das  ja  nicht  im  entferntesten  ausdrücken:  das  Mysterium,  was 
sich  damals  vollzog  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  3).     Alles  Weh,  was 


153.  1.  (1).  h.      DER  &  WELCH  REPLACED  BY  OTHER  WORDS  199 

er  mir  bereitet  hat  (Fontane's  Schach  von  Wuthenow,  chap.  xxi).  Das  Häßliche, 
was  in  seinem  Gesichte  lag,  wurde  durch  sein  gefälliges  Benehmen  zurück- 
gedrängt. Er  preiset  das  Höchste,  das  Beste,  was  das  Herz  sich  wünscht 
(Schiller).  Um  ihn  her  war  alles  Getier  lebendig,  was  auf  der  Heide  die 
Junischwüle  auszubrüten  pflegt  (Storm's  Ein  grünes  Blatt).  Das  wenige 
Geld,  was  ich  besaß,  war  in  den  nächsten  Tagen  vertan  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus 
dem  Walde,  chap.  x).  Wenn  damals  ein  Säemann  gekommen  wäre,  ein  kluger, 
wahrhaft  kluger,  herzenskluger,  und  die  Saat  gestreut  hätte,  aus  der  Heil 
für  die  Menschen  aufgeht,  einzig  und  allein,  Vergebung,  Vergebung,  Vergebung, 
statt  des  tauben,  toten  Zeugs,  was  so  schöne  Schulmeisternamen  hat,  Zucht 
und  Ordnung,  heilsame  Strenge,  und  wie  es  heißt  usw.  (Wildenbruch 's  Neid^ 
P-  127).  . 

Was  often  points  to  a  definite  person  or  thing,  the  speaker  at  first  mtention- 
ally  making  the  reference  indefinite  by  the  use  of  was,  reserving  the  definite 
information  for  the  last  part  of  the  statement:  Das  erste,  was  ihnen  hier  be- 
gegnete, war  die  Krügersfrau  (Fontane's   Vor  dem  Sturme,  IV.  3). 

Was  is  also  used  here  contemptuously  of  a  person :  Was  ist  das  für  ein  unge- 
backenes  Brötchen  (referring  to  Emil),  was  da  hinten  sitzt  und  mitspricht 
(H.  Böhlau's  Rangierbahnhof,  p.  208). 

The  use  of  was  as  described  above  seems  to  be  the  outcome  of  a  long  process 
of  differentiation.  Earlier  in  the  period  das  and  welches  were  also  used  here. 
This  older  usage  is  still,  especially  in  elevated  diction,  not  infrequently  found, 
as  the  process  of  differentiation  is  not  yet  completed :  Vieles,  das  diesem  Volke 
gut  hieß  (Nietzsche's  Zarathustra,  p.  80).  It  is  possible  that_  there  is  often 
here  an  intentional  use  of  das  or  welches  by  way  of  differentiation,  to  refer 
to  something  definite,  definite  at  least  to  the  speaker:  Herr  v.  Körber  erwi- 
derte, er  erachte  die  Schaffung  einer  provisorischen  Fakultät  als  das  einzig 
Richtige,  das  die  Regierung  vorläufig  tun  könnte  (Hamburger  Nachrichten, 
Nov.  7,  1904).  Das  Höchste  und  das  Beste,  das  der  Deutschlehrer  in  Schule 
und  Universität  leistet,  kann  immer  nur  Anregung  sein  (Friedrich  Kluge,  in 
Marburg,  1913).  We  cannot,  however,  in  many  cases  on  account  of  the  lack 
of  clearness  in  the  thought  absolutely  determine  whether  the  das  or  welches  is 
used  merely  as  a  survival  of  older  usage  to  indicate  a  collective  idea  or  something 
indefinite  or  general,  or  is  employed  intentionally  in  accordance  with  modern 
usage  elsewhere,  to  refer  to  something  definite.  Thus  das  and  welches  are 
now  as  formerly  still  used  with  both  of  these  two  groups  of  meanings,  with 
a  tendency,  however,  toward  the  second  group,  while  was,  which  also  once 
fluctuated  between  both  of  them,  is  now  established  in  the  first  group,  as  de- 
scribed above. 

(a)  In  the  genitive  relation,  wessen  is  sometimes  used  under  the  same 
circumstances  which  require  was  in  the  nom.  or  ace.  relation :  Es  handelt  sich, 
Helmuth,  nicht  um  das,  wessen  Du  bedarfst,  sondern  es  handelt  sich  um 
das,  wessen  die  Kinder  bedürfen  (Fontane's  Unwiederbringlich,  chap.  vi). 
Indessen  beunruhigte  ihn  das,  was  ich  ihm  von  dem  Betragen  seines  Vaters 
in  dieser  Angelegenheit  sagte,  und  alles,  wessen  er  ohnehin  von  ihm  gewärtig 
sein  zu  müssen  glaubte  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxvi).  The  older 
form  dessen  (or  dessent-)  is  still  the  usual  construction  here,  especially  where 
as  in  the  preceding  paragraph  the  reference  becomes  a  little  more  definite: 
das  Gleiche,  dessen  sie  ihre  Gegner  anklagten  (Keller's  Seldwyla,  I.  p.  194); 
das  unaussprechlich  Innige  aller  Musik,  vermöge  dessen  sie  als  ein  ganz 
vertrautes  Paradies  an  uns  vorüberzieht  (Schopenhauer's  Die  Welt  als  Wille 
und  Vorstellung,  p.  347).  Der  Nebensatz  kleidet  meist  dasjenige  in  Worte, 
um  dessentwillen  die  Periode  ausgesprochen  wird  (Armin  Dittmar's  Syn- 
taktische Grundfragen,  p.  8).     Also  des  is  used  here.     See  151.  h  (2nd  par.) 

{b)  In  the  dative  relation  wem  is  not  used  here.  The  old  dative  form 
dem  is  still  uniformly  employed:  Wir  müssen  das  für  recht  halten,  dem  es 
der  Verstand  zuspricht  (Felix  Stahl  in  Preußische  Jahrbücher,  1915,  vol.  159, 
p.  302). 


200 DER  &  WELCH  REPLACED  BY  OTHER  WORDS     153.  1.  (2). 

(2)  With  reference  to  a  thing,  was  is  now  usually  used  in  substantive  clauses. 
The  student  should  remember  this  especially  in  case  of  clauses  which  are  in 
apposition  with  es:  Nicht  Furcht  war  es,  was  seine  verstellte  Hartnäckigkeit 
endlich  besiegte  (Schiller).  Steht  auf!  sind's  diese  nicht  und  dieser  Ort,  |  was 
euch  zu  Boden  zieht  (Grillparzer's  Libiissa,  1).  Es  ist  nicht  Furcht,  was  mich 
bewegt  (Hebbel's  Agnes  Bernauer).  Es  war  eine  große  Neigung,  was  sie 
zusammenführte  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  XIII.  p.  104).  War  es  ein  Traum, 
was  sie  erlebten?  (Wildenbruch's  Neid,  p.  61). 

Thruout  the  entire  present  period  das  is  more  or  less  frequently  found  in 
substantive  clauses  instead  of  was  as  a  survival  of  older  usage:  Was  ist's,  das 
den  Befehl  des  Königs  hindert?  (Goethe's  Iphigevie,  4,  2).  Was  war  es  nur 
gewesen,  das  alle  Menschen  zu  ihm  hinzog?  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf   Ursleu,  chap. 

xxxvii). 

When  the  predicate  of  the  sentence  precedes  the  relative  clause,  as  in  the 
preceding  examples,  the  relative  (either  der  or  welcher)  is  very  often  attracted 
to  the  gender  and  number  of  the  predicate:  Der  Zweifel  ist's,  der  Gutes  böse 
macht  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  5,  3).  Denn  eben  diese  kaiserliche  Mild'  und 
Gnade  ist's,  die  sie  bisher  so  ungeheuer  mißbrauchten  (Goethe's  Götz,  3,  1). 
Diese  Fragen  und  andere  mehr  waren  es,  welche  die  untern  Räume  des  Hauses 
bewegten  (Raabe's  Frühling,  chap.  xiii). 

(3)  In  descriptive  clauses  where  the  reference  is  to  the  idea  contained  in 
a  whole  sentence:  Sie  fürchtete  wohl  —  was  auch  wirklich  geschah  —  daß  ich 
ihr  auf  alle  mögliche  Weise  die  Verbindung  widerraten  würde.  In  the  classics 
of  the  eighteenth  century  welches  was  still  used  here  as  in  older  German,  indeed 
more  commonly  than  was,  and  it  even  occurs  sometimes  in  the  language  of 
to-day.  For  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  a  contrast  both  was  and  welches  may 
be  used  here  in  the  same  sentence:  Davon  sagte  er  zu  niemandem  etwas,  was 
freilich  ein  Vergehen  war,  aber  welches  ihm  vorzuwerfen  mir,  seinem  Sohne, 
nicht  ziemt  (R.  Huch's  Liidolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xvi)._  The  employrnent  of  welch 
here  in  early  N.H.G.  is  explained  by  the  general  indefinite  meaning  that  very 
commonly  lay  in  welch  in  earlier  usage.  As  it  gradually  acquired  more  definite 
force  with  definite  reference  to  a  particular  person  or  thing  it  was  gradually 
replaced  here  by  the  new  general  indefinite  was.  In  M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G. 
das  was  used  here,  but  as  its  force  was  felt  as  too  definite  it  was  gradually 
replaced  by  welch. 

Welches  should  not  be  employed  if  ambiguity  might  arise  from  its  use:  Er 
hat  den  Verkauf  abgeschlossen,  was  (or  sometimes  welches)  ich  ihm  wider- 
raten hatte,  but  Mein  Freund  hat  ein  neues  Haus  gekauft,  was  (referring  to 
the  fact  of  the  purchase,  but  welches  or  das  if  the  reference  is  to  the  house 
itself)  mir  gefällt. 

A  reference  to  the  former  or  latter  of  two  ideas  is  expressed  by  was  ersteres, 
was  letzteres :  Man  baute  eiserne  Treppen,  die  von  den  Logengängen  direkt 
ins  Freie  führten,  was  nutzt  das  aber?  Sie  sind  zu  steil  und  werden  nie  be- 
nutzt. Jetzt  steckt  man  neuerdings  ein  Heidengeld  hinein,  um  ein  neues 
Gestühl  und  Gänge  im  Parkett  anzubringen,  was  letzteres  {the  latter  of  which 
procedures,  i.e.,  putting  in  new  seats  and  aisles)  allerdings  sehr  begrüßenswert 
ist  (Alfred  Frhr.  von  Mensi  in  Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Oct.  27,  1905). 

Both  was  and  (less  commonly)  welches  are  used  when  the  relative  refers 
collectively  to  two  or  more  things  or  ideas  in  the  preceding  proposition:  Sein 
Pelz  hängt  an  der  Wand  zwischen  einer  Auswahl  stark  angerauchter  Pfeifen, 
zwischen  Bastbündeln,  Hirschgeweihen,  Leinwandsäckchen  mit  Sämereien, 
was  alles  im  behaglichen  Durcheinander  sich  darstellt  (H.  Böhlau's  Rangier- 
bahnhof, p.  ö).  So  erkannte  er,  daß  jenes  Fenster  nicht  nach  dem  Flusse 
hinausging,  vielmehr  sich  zwei  Fuß  hoch  über  der  sichern  Erde  befand,  welches 
fmore  commonly  was)  beides  er  bei  etlicher  Besonnenheit  ohne  große  Geistes- 
anstrengung genau  hätte  wissen  können  (H.  Hoftmann's  Rittmeister,  III.  p.  41). 

In  another  case  welches  is  still  not  infrequent — when  the  relative  is  used 
as  a  predicate  and  the  reference  is  not  to  individuals  but  to  the  idea  contained 


153.  2.  B.     DER  &  WELCH  REPLACED  BY  OTHER  WORDS 201 

in  some  adjective  or  noun:  Mein  Bruder  ist  reich  or  ein  Millionär,  welches 
(or  perhaps  more  commonly  was)  ich  nicht  bin. 

(4)  Was  is  now  avoided  in  choice  language  if  the  reference  is  to  one  object. 
See  157.  Earlier  in  the  period,  however,  this  usage  was  not  infrequent  even 
in  the  best  authors,  and  still  survives  in  loose  colloquial  speech:  Ottilie  erinnerte 
sich  jedes  Wortes,  was  gesprochen  ward  (Goethe).  Ihr  wollt  das  Gut  ver- 
kaufen, was  über  zweihundert  Jahre  in  der  Familie  ist?  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde, 
I.  p.  52). 

2.  Prepositional  Relative  Adverbs.  When  the  relative  pronoun  refers  to  a 
thing,  it  is  very  often  replaced  after  prepositions  by  a  compound  adverb  con- 
sisting of  wo  or  wor  (before  a  vowel)  and  the  desired  preposition:  die  Feder, 
wo'mit  ich  dieses  schreibe,  ist  sehr  schlecht.  These  compound  adverbs  can- 
not be  freely  formed,  but  occur  only  in  case  of  the  preps,  enumerated  in  141. 
5.  B.  This  adverbial  construction  can  even  be  used  of  persons  if  taken 
collectively:  Er  bekam  30  gefangen,  wo 'von  auf  der  Stelle  20  aufgehängt 
wurden.  These  compounds  are  separable  in  popular  speech:  Es  war  ein 
Loch,  wo  der  Wind  durch  pfiff.     See  also  B  below. 

A.  Besides  these  relative  adverbs  the  appropriate  forms  of  der  and  welcher,  as  mit  dem, 
mit  welchem,  &c.,  are  also  employed  here.  Altho  the  relative  adverbs  are  still  common  in 
popular  and  colloquial  speech,  as  in  older  usage,  there  is  in  choice  language,  whether  spoken  or 
written,  a  decided  preference  for  the  inflected  pronominal  forms:  Es  war  eine  Nacht,  in  der  or 
welcher  man  nicht  gem  einen  Hund  hinausjagt.  Lies  nicht  solche  Bücher,  aus  denen  du  nichts 
lernen  kannst.  Einmal  gibt  es  Situationen,  in  denen  eine  Regierung  selbständig  nach  po- 
litischen Überzeugungen  entscheiden  muß  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  April  29,  1921).  The 
ad\crbial  forms,  however,  are  widely  used  in  the  three  following  categories,  in  the  first  and 
third  of  which  it  is  the  usual  form  of  expression:  (1)  In  descriptive  clauses  where  the  antecedent 
is  a  whole  sentence:  Der  Vater  hatte  nach  dem  Sohne  geschickt,  wovon  dieser  freilich  nichts 
erfahren  hatte.  In  the  cases  given  in  2  above,  where  the  adverbial  forms  are  not  used,  der 
must  still  be  employed,  even  when  the  antecedent  is  a  whole  sentence:  Ich  bin  sehr  gedrückt, 
infolge  dessen  ich  nicht  arbeiten  kann.  With  the  prepositions  wegen  and  halb  the  short  gen. 
form  of  was,  i.e.  wes,  is  usually  used.  See  151.  1.  b.  (2)  \\'hen  the  antecedent  is  an  expres- 
sion of  general  or  indefinite  meaning,  such  as  alles,  nichts,  &c.:  Er  wußte  alles,  wovon  ich  mit 
Ihnen  gesprochen  hatte  He  knew  everything  of  which  I  had  spoken  to  you.  There  is  at  present 
a  strong  tendency  here  to  the  use  of  der,  welcher,  or  was,  as  described  in  a.  (2)_,  (3).  (3)  After 
names  of  places  we  find  wo,  compounded  with  hin  or  her  according  to  the  meaning:  Gumbinnen, 
wohin  ich  in  Garnison  kam  Gumbinnen,  to  which  place  I  came  to  join  the  garrison. 

a.  After  prepositions  the  relative  pronoun  is  used:  (1)  If  any  ambiguity  might  arise  from 
the  use  of  the  relative  adverb:  Er  hat  ihm  viele  Vorwürfe  gemacht,  von  denen  (with  reference 
to  Vorwürfe;  wovon  would  refer  to  the  statement  of  the  main  proposition)  aber  nichts  in  die 
Öffentlichkeit  gekommen  ist.  (2)  The  relative  pronoun  der  and  welcher  is  also  usually  em- 
ployed when  it  refers  back  to  the  general  or  indefinite  determinatives  der,  derjenige:  Der  liebe 
Gott  gebe  ihrer  Seele  das,  zu  dem  (or  wozu)  er  sie  geschaffen,  Freude.  As  can  be  seen  by 
the  form  in  parentheses  the  relative  adverb  is  also  employed  here  in  accordance  with  the  once 
more  general  usage  after  indefinites,  but  the  present  tendency  is  toward  the  use  of  a  pronominal 
form,  der  or  welcher,  as  there  is  an  aversion  to  the  employment  of  an  adverb  in  the  function 
of  a  pronoun:  Bei  den  Sachen  habe  ich  eine  vielleicht  willkürliche  Auswahl  getroffen,  habe 
dasjenige  verzeichnet,  von  dem  ich  glaubte,  daß  man  es  leichter  und  lieber  hier  nachschlagen 
würde  als  in  der  Inhaltsübersicht  (Behaghel's  Die  deutsche  Sprache,  Vorwort,  2nd  ed.).^  In  the 
accusative  relation  by  the  use  of  was  we  can  give  expression  to  the  general  indefinite  idea  here 
and  at  the  same  time  avoid  the  adverbial  form:  Die  Kenntnisse  dessen,  um  was  man  neidet 
(Felix  Stahl  in  Preußische  Jahrbücher,  1915,  p.  298).  (3)  After  a  neuter  adjective-substantive 
present  usage  requires  the  relative  der  or  welcher:  Viel  Festes,  an  dem  er  nicht  gerüttelt  haben 
will;  das  Unmögliche,  vor  das  er  sie  gestellt  hatte.  (4)  \\'hen  there  is  a  collective  idea  in- 
volved with  reference  back  to  two  or  more  things  already  mentioned  the  relative  was  accom- 
panied by  the  appositive  alles  is  used:  Er  tüftelte  über  diese  Dinge,  deren  Zweckmäßigkeit 
und  den  Kostenpunkt,  über  die  Jahreshoffnungen  und  den  Stand  der  Feldfrüchte,  von  was 
allem  er  nicht  den  Teufel  (223.  XL  B.  d)  verstand  (Gottfried  Keller's  Die  drei  gerechten  Kamm- 
macher). 

B.  Instead  of  the  relative  adverb  we  still  find  sometimes  the  demonstrative  adverb,  a  con- 
struction which  was  very  common  earlier  in  the  period:  An  dieser  Stelle,  einer  Waldlichtung, 
lag  das  Haus,  drin  (now  more  commonly  in  dem  or  worin)  Aloys  und  sein  Bruder  Stephan 
wohnten  (Fontane).  These  adverbial  compounds  are  now  little  used  with  reference  to  the 
thought  in  a  preceding  sentence,  but  this  usage  was  common  earlier  in  the  period:  Die  Gesell- 
schaft lachte,  und  er  herzlich  mit,  bis  er  in  einen  Husten  verfiel,  der  unsem  Diskurs  eine  Zeit 
lang  unterbrach,  darauf  denn  der  junge  Mensch  wieder  das  Wort  nahm  (Goethe's  Werther, 
am  1.  Julius).     See  also  151.  1.  b,  3rd  par.  (last  sentence). 

Fariier  in  the  period  such  adverbs  also  referred  to  persons,  and  were  often  separable:  ein  Weib, 
da  der  Mann  keine  Freude  an  hat  (Luther),  den  Berg,  da  du  auf  wohnest  (Luther). 


202 DER  &  WELCH  REPLACED  BY  OTHER  WORDS      153.  2.  C. 

C.  This  adverbial  construction,  except  in  the  case  mentioned  in  2  above,  must  not  be  used 
of  persons,  as  is  often  heard  in  the  language  of  the  common  people:  Der  Freund,  mit  dem  or 
welchem  (not  womit)  ich  gereist  bin.  Earlier  in  the  period,  however,  these  adverbs  were  also 
used  with  reference  to  persons  even  in  the  literary  language:  der,  womit  man  spricht  (Hagedorn); 
das  Mädchen,  wovon  du  gestern  das  Lied  sangst  (Goethe).  Ich  dachte  der  lieben  Brüder, 
der  Westfalen,  womit  ich  so  oft  in  Göttingen  getrunken  (Heine). 

3.  OtJier  Relative  Adverbs.  Other  adverbs  and  conjunctions  can  also  take 
the  place  of  the  relatives  after  prepositions  and  sometimes  elsewhere. 

A.  Place.  Wo,  wo'her,  wo'hin,  or  in  choice  prose  and  poetry  da,  da'her, 
da'hin,  for  place:  Der  Platz,  wo  (=  an  welchem)  er  stand;  die  Stadt,  woher 
(=  von  welcher)  er  kam;  die  Stadt,  wohin  (nach  welcher)  er  geht.  Also 
figuratively:  Fälle,  wo  cases  in  which.  The  idea  of  place  in  wo'her  (common 
form)  and  da'her  (in  choice  language)  often  goes  over  into  that  of  cause,  i7i 
consequence  of  which:  Das  war  der  Gewaltige,  den  das  Land  nur  mit  unter- 
drückter Empörung  als  das  Geschöpf  und  Werkzeug  der  Despotenlaune 
nannte,  der  aber  den  Zauber  einer  bezwingenden  persönlichen  Liebenswürdig- 
keit besaß,  daher  er  in  der  Familie  ebenso  geliebt  wie  anderwärts  gehaßt  und 
gefürchtet  war  (Isolde  Kurz  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Sept.  1905). 

B.  Manner,  Degree.  Wie  for  manner  and  als  or  now  also  wie  for  degree: 
Die  Art  und  Weise,  wie  (=  in  welcher)  er  auftrat.  Seit  jenem  Tag  verfolgt 
mich  sein  Vertrauen  |  in  gleichem  Maß,  als  ihn  das  meine  flieht  (Schiller's 
Piccolomini,  1,  3).  Sie  errichten  Verschanzungen  in  dem  Maße,  wie  sie 
vordringen  (Hamb.  Nachr.,  Oct.  25,  1905). 

C.  Time: 

a.  Als  when,  if  actual  occurrences  or  conditions  are  recorded:  im  Jahre 
1890,  als  ich  in  Berlin  studierte. 

b.  Wenn  or  wann  (now  rather  infrequent,  occurring  only  as  a  survival  of 
earlier  usage)  when,  if  not  a  definite  actual  occurrence  is  before  the  mind,  but 
something  that  is  or  was  wont  to  happen,  or  a  point  in  future  time:  An  schönen 
Abenden,  wenn  wir  vor  der  Tür  sitzen.  Manchmal  in  tiefer  Nacht,  wenn 
alles  rings  umher  ruhte,  sang  sie  mir.  O  schöner  Tag,  wenn  endlich  der 
Soldat  I  ins  Leben  heimkehrt,  in  die  Menschlichkeit  (Schiller's  Riccolonn?ii,  1,4). 

c.  Wo  when,  the  most  common  of  the  temporal  particles  used  either  of 
actual  occurrences  or  conditions  in  the  past  or  present,  or  of  some  point  in  the 
future,  largely  replacing  als  in  case  of  present  and  often  wenn  in  case  of  future 
time:  Und  mit  der  Dämmerung  kam  ein  Augenblick,  wo  jede  Stimme  ver- 
stummte (Raabe).  Ich  bin  in  einem  Alter,  wo  mir  die  schönen  Worte  nichts 
mehr  helfen  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  p.  75).  Ich  war  in  den  glücklichen  Jahren, 
wo  uns  alles  gefällt.  Einst  kommt  der  Morgen,  wo  ich  .  .  .  die  Burg  schon 
früh'  verlasse  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  II.  1,  2). 

d.  Da  is  often  used  instead  of  wo,  quite  commonly  earlier  in  the  period  and 
not  infrequently  still  in  choice  prose:  Bis  den  Augenblick,  da  mich  Ihr  Billet 
aus  dem  Schlafe  weckt  (Goethe).  Trotz  des  Zwischenfalls  scheint  die  Zeit 
nicht  mehr  allzufern,  da  England  findet,  daß  usw.  (Hamburger  Nachrichten, 
Nov.  5,  1904). 

e.  Also  the  conjunction  daß  is  used  in  a  few  expressions  of  time,  especially 
after  Mai,  Zeit,  where  however  it  is  now  more  commonly  replaced  in  most 
cases  by  other  words:  Das  letzte  Mal,  daß  (or  als)  ich  ihn  sah,  war  er  wohl, 
but  still  regularly:  Freunde,  dies  ist  wohl  das  letzte  Mal,  daß  ich  den  Krug 
euch  führe  zum  Munde  (Goethe).  Die  Zeit,  daß  (or  während)  du  hier  bist, 
but  die  Zeit  als  (or  wo,  not  daß)  du  ankamst.  Während  der  Zeit,  daß  (or  in 
der)  ich  Don  Karlos  ausarbeitete,  hat  sich  in  mir  vieles  verändert  (Schiller). 
Während  der  Viertelstunde,  daß  (or  in  der)  ich  diese  kleine  weiße  Hand  in 
der  meinigen  gehalten  habe,  hat  das  Herz  des  jungen  Dinges  fast  zweitausend 
Schläge  getan  (Raabe's  Frühling,  chap.  xiii).  Die  drei  Monate  —  die  kurze 
Zeit,  daß  (or  während)  ich  hier  bei  euch  futtere  (colloq.  eat,  board),  bin  ich 
zwanzig  Pfund  schwerer  geworden  (M.  Dreyer's  Drei,  1). 

/.  Sometimes  wie  is  found  instead  of  the  more  common  als  or  wo:  Es  fällt 
in  die  Zeiten,  wie  ich  die  von  Miltenberg  in  der  Wirtsstube  fand  (Goethe). 


153.  7.  DER  &  WELCH  REPLACED  BY  OTHER  WORDS 203 

D.  Such  as.     The  English  such  as  is  translated  in  various  ways: 

(1)  By  wie  (earher  in  the  period  als )  followed  usually  by  a  personal  pronoun 
of  the  third  person  or  sometimes  in  the  plural  in  case  of  indefinite  reference 
solche  referring  to  the  antecedent  (see  251.  II.  A.  d):  Es  war  eine  Kälte,  wie 
sie  nur  im  Februar  erlaubt  ist.  Das  war  ein  Kampf,  wie  ihn  keiner  noch 
gesehen  hat.  Er  zeigte  eine  Rührung,  wie  jener  kleine  Dienst  sie  gar  nicht 
wert  war.  A  solch,  derartig,  derlei,  dergleichen,  so  may  precede  the  wie  (als): 
Solche  (derartige,  derlei,  dergleichen,  so  große)  Schiffe,  wie  (sie)  hier  gebaut 
werden,  sieht  man  anderwärts  selten.  Grammatische  Verstöße,  wie  solche 
die  Umgangssprache  der  besseren  Wiener  Kreise  verunstalten,  kommen  in 
der  guten  Berliner  Gesellschaft  nicht  vor  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder!,  II, 
p.  170).  Dergleichen  schlechte  Übersetzer,  als  (now  wie)  ich  Ihnen  bekannt 
gemacht  habe,  sind  unter  der  Kritik  (Lessing).  So  ein  armes  Mädchen,  als 
(now  wie)  ich  bin  (Goethe). 

Instead  of  the  personal  pronoun  or  solch-  we  also  find  ein-  in  the  sing,  and 
welche,  viele,  wenige  in  the  pi.:  Auf  der  Stirn  hat  es  ein  Horn,  aber  nicht 
ein  so  krummes  wie  das  Nashorn  eins  hat.  .  .  .  Von  seinen  vier  Hufen  ist  der 
eine  von  Gold,  .  .  .  der  vierte  wie  einer  von  den  blauen  Steinen,  wie  Mama 
welche  um  den  Hals  trägt  (Wildenbruch's  N'eid,  p.  100).  So  hat  er  (Raimund) 
sich  hier  als  ein  Volksdichter  bewährt,  ein  Volksdichter  im  wahrsten,  echtesten 
und  schönsten  Sinn  des  Wortes,  wie  Deutschland  ihm  nicht  viele  an  die  Seite 
zu  stellen  hat  (A.  Sauer's  Ferdinand  Raimund).  Lehrhaft  ohne  Aufdring- 
Hchkeit  ist  es  (Grillparzer's  Der  Traum,  ein  Lehen)  ein  Volksstück  der  edelsten 
Art,  wie  die  deutsche  Literatur  deren  wenige  besitzt  (id.,  Festrede). 

To  express  the  partitive  idea  the  genitive  deren  or  ihrer  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  the  nominative  or  accusative  of  the  pronoun :  Unweit  wird  die  heiUge 
Wiese  sich  befunden  haben,  wie  deren  in  diesem  Kulte  oft  vorkommen  (Wi- 
lamowitz-Moellendorff's  Griechische  Tragödien,  I.  p.  105).  Briefe,  wie  ich 
deren  häufig  erhielt.     See  also  255.  IL  1.  H.  c. 

The  pronoun  is  sometimes  omitted,  the  wie  or  als  serving  as  a  relative  as  in 
English  the  conjunction  as:  Denn  selten  steht  neben  dem  Perfektum  des 
Nebensatzes  dasselbe  Tempus  im  Hauptsatz,  außer  in  solchen  Fällen,  wie 
oben  besprochen  sind  (H.  Blase  in  Historische  Grammatik  der  lateinischen 
Sprache,  III,  p.  169).  In  general  some  pronoun  in  connection  with  wie  is  more 
common  than  the  employment  of  simple  wie,  while  in  English  simple  as  is  alone 
used.  In  older  English,  however,  an  accompanying  pronoun  is  sometimes 
found:  Such  young  knyghtes  as  he  is  one  ben  neuer  abydynge  in  no  place 
(Caxton's  Blanchardyn  and  Eglantine). 

(2)  After  solch-  also  by  the  usual  relatives:  solche  Bücher,  die  dazu  bei- 
tragen, das  Herz  zu  beruhigen. 

(3)  By  dergleichen  (uninflected) :  Es  überfiel  ihn  ein  Unbehagen,  der- 
gleichen er  in  seinem  Leben  noch  nicht  empfunden  hatte.     See  also  161.  2. 

E.  English  as  =  a  thing  or  fact  which  is  translated  by  wie  or  was :  Er  war 
Engländer,  wie  (or  was)  sie  an  seinem  Akzent  bemerkten. 

4.  Soviel.  Soviel  is  used  relatively:  Die  Fremden,  soviele  ihrer  anwesend 
waren,  unterhielten  sich  gut. 

5.  So.  In  the  nom.  and  acc.  of  all  genders  and  numbers  the  uninflected  form  so  was  much 
used  for  der  or  welcher  in  early  N.H.G.,  and  is  still  occasionally  found  in  poetry  and  in  colloquial 
language  in  some  sections:  Bittet  fur  die  |  so  euch  beleidigen  (Matth.  v.  44).  Das  Haupt,  so 
er  ihm  abgehauen  (Uhland).  Kopf  hoch!  Lohnt  sich  ja  nicht,  daß  man  sich  über  den  ganzen 
Rummel  aufregt,  so  man  Leben  nennt  (Halbe's  Das  Tatisendjährige  Reich,  p.  45). 

Note.  This  so  was  originally  a  demonstrative  adverb,  i.e.  a  determinative  CiS^.Note)  pointing  to  the  following 
asyndetic  (\h\.Note)  relative  clause,  just  as  the  determinative  der  and  so  described  in  154.  A''o/e.  Later  this  so, 
just  as  der,  developed  into  a  relative. 

6.  Derselbe.  Earlier  in  the  period  derselbe  was  used  occasionally  as  a  relative,  but  this 
usage  is  now  quite  rare:  So  hielten  sie  mich  acht  Tage  im  Gefängnis,  nach  Verlauf  derselben 
(now  nach  deren  Verlauf)  sie  mich  zum  Verhör  holen  ließen  (Goethe).  Die  Kreise  zu  über- 
schauen, innerhalb  derselben  (now  deren)  sich  jene  hohen  Geister  bewegten  (Heine). 

7.  Was  Für  Ein.  In  concessive  clauses  was  für  ein  is  used  relatively:  Was  er  für  Handels- 
geschäfte beginnt,  er  gewinnt  bei  allen. 


204 RELATI\E    NOT  OMITTED    IN    GERMAN 153.  8. 

S.  Popular  Relative  Forms.  The  relatives  der  and  welcher  are  not  popular  with  the  common 
people,  and  are  often  here  replaced  by  the  demonstrative  der,  the  relative  adverbs  wo  and  als, 
the  adverbial  compounds  womit  (see  2.  C  above),  &c.,  and  the  uninflected  was:  Ach  Vater, 
sagte  Hansel,  ich  sehe  nach  meinem  weißen  Kätzchen,  das  sitzt  oben  auf  dem  Dach  (CJrimm's 
Märchen).  Das  schlechte  Messer,  wo  (=  das)  er  hat  (Hebel).  Ist  doch  all  manche  zu  Rang 
und  Stand  gekommen,  wo  (=  der,  fem.  dat.  sing.)  man's  nicht  an  der  Wiege  gesungen  hat, 
daß  die  mal  wird  gnädige  Frau  heißen  und  vierlang  fahren  (Ilalbe's  Das  tausendjährige  Reich, 
p.  43).  Wer  sind  die,  wo  (=  welche)  eben  gekommen  sind?  (ib.,  p.  63).  Das  Quecksilber 
in  der  Röhre  ist  demjenigen,  als  in  dem  Kölblein  steht,  gleich  (Hebel).  Der  Knecht,  was 
mit'm  Wagen  war,  hat  so  was  dergleichen  g'redt  (Anzengruber).  Compare  als  in  the  next  to 
the  last  sentence  with  the  coi.rnate  relative  as  that  is  used  in  older  English  and  is  still  found  in 
popular  English:  Those  as  sleep  and  think  not  on  their  sins  (Shakespeare's  Tl/^rry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  5,  5).  Compare  was  in  the  sentence  from  Anzengruber  with  English  lahat  as  used 
in  popular  speech:    If  I  had  a  donkey  what  wouldn't  go. 

9.     For  the  use  of  da  denn  as  a  relative  see  238.  2.  c.  Note  2. 

154.  Relative  not  Omitted  in  German. 

Neither  der  nor  welcher  can  be  omitted  as  so  often  the  relative  in  English: 
Das  Buch,  das  (or  welches)  ich  gestern  gelesen  habe,  ist  interessant  The 
book  I  read,  &c. 

Note.  In  older  periods  the  relative  was  often  lacking  in  German:  In  droume  sie  in  zelitun  den  weg  sie  faran  scoltun 
(Otfrid's  Evangelienbuch,  I.  17.  74)  In  a  dream  they  (the  angels)  told  them  the  way  they  should  go.  In  this  primi- 
tive construction  the  relative  clause  sie  faran  scollun  is,  as  so  often  in  English,  merely  placed  alongside  of  the  prin- 
cipal proposition  without  a  relative  pronoun,  i.e.  without  a  connective  to  indicate  its  subordination  to  the  principal 
proposition,  but  the  weakened  demonstrative  (i.e.  the  article)  den  before  lirg  in  fact  points  graphically  as  with  an 
index  finger  to  the  following  modifying  asyndetic  clause,  i.e.  a  clause  not  introduced  by  a  connective.  vVhen  a  de- 
monstrative thus  points  to  a  following  clause  which  determines  or  modifies  the  thought  we  often  call  it  a  determinative. 
Often  in  oldest  German  the  determinative  for  clearness'  sake  was  repeated  after  the  noun  and  stressed:  Bigan  tho 
druhtin  redinon  den  selben  zuelif  theganon,  I  then  thar  umbi  inan  sa^un  I'ib.  IV'.  10.  1)  Then  the  Lord  began  to  speak 
to  the  twelve  disciples  u'ho  sal  there  about  Him,  lit.  to  those  [lhe\^  sal  there  about  Him.  The  then  is  a  dative  plural  as 
it  is  governed  by  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposition.  Often  in  Otfrid's  language  under  Latin  influence  the  re- 
peated determinative  assumes  the  case  form  required  by  the  verb  of  the  subordinate  clause  and  thus  passes  from 
the  principal  proposition  to  the  subordinate  clause,  i.e.  the  determinative  becomes  a  relative  pointing  backward  and 
asyndetic  hypotaxis  is  replaced  by  formal  hypotaxis  (267.  4),  the  inwardly  or  logically  subordinate  clause  receiving 
in  the  relative  pronoun  an  outward  sign  of  subordination. 

The  primitive  asyndetic  relative  construction  disappeared  in  German  for  the  most  part  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  form  without  the  repeated  demonstrative  is  sometimes  preserved  after  the  determinative  der  when  it  refers  to 
persons:  Der  mid)  ItcDt  'asvndetic  relative  clause),  ist  in  der  Weite  He  who  loves  me  is  far  away.  Du  bist  nicht, 
der  bii  irficinit  You  are  not  'the  one  or  the  man  you  seem  to  be.  Die  id)  meine,  heißt  Frau  Findeklee  (Hauptmann's 
Versunkene  Glocke,  1.  1047)  The  woman  I  mean  is  called  Mrs.  F.  It  is  used  here  in  German  where  the  omitted  pro- 
noun is  in  the  subject,  predicate,  or  object  relation,  while  in  English  it  is  only  freely  used  where  the  omitted  pronoun 
is  predicate  or  object.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  used  in  English  after  nouns  as  well  as  the  determinative  the  one  and 
i«  used  with  reference  to  things  as  well  as  persons.  Moreover,  it  is  much  more  common  in  English,  for  in  German 
the  der  is  usually  repeated,  i.e.  the  asvndetic  construction  is  replaced  by  formal  hypotaxis  with  the  relative  pronoun: 
Die,  die  ich  meine,  heiI5t  Frau  Findeklee.  In  early  X.H.G.  the  asyndetic  construction  was  also  used  with  reference 
to  tilings-   Vnd  wer  nicht  hat  [  von  dem  wird  man  nemen  auch  das  (now  was)  er  hat  (Mark  iv.  2.5). 

Just  lis  the  determinative  der  used  to  stand  before  and  after  a  noun  pointing  to  a  following  modifying  asyndetic 
relative  clause  so  the  determinative  so  used  to  stand  before  and  after  the  indefinite  pronouns  wer  (145.  e)  and  was 
(145  /)  pointing  to  a  following  asvndetic  relative  clause,  originally  in  the  form  "so  wer  for  wa?)  so",  later  "swer 
"swaz"  now  wer  anybody,  was  anvthing:  So  will  ich  mich  verheben  in  wen  ihr  vorschlagt  (J.  Paul's  Hesp.,  118) 
I'll  fall' in  love  with  anvbody  you  propose.  Ich  mach'  ihn  zu  was  (acc.  for  dat.;  see  147.  I .  C.  a)  ich  will  (Laube,  1,  124) 
I'll  develop  him  into  anything  I  wish.  The  original  asvndetic  construction  with  wer  and  was  in  the  principal  propo- 
sition is  here  preserved,"but  usuallv  wer  and  was  are  now  felt  as  relatives  with  the  force  of  whoso-ever,  who-ever  what'so)- 
ever  and  stand  in  the  subordinate  clause:  Wer  einmal  lügt,  dem  glaubt  man  nicht.  Was  Hanschen  mcht  lernt,  lernt 
Hans  nimmermehr.  In  English  the  older  form  with  so,  whoso-ej'er,  etc.,  is  preserved  but  no  longer  understood,  hence 
is  now  felt  as  a  relative.  The  asyndetic  construction  is  also  found  in  German  after  the  indefinite  and  general  de- 
terminative welcher  (130.3). ,,       ,  ,  .  .         ,.       .J     ._       -J 

Somewhat  different  from  asvndetic  hvpotaxis  is  parataxis  (267.  4),  where  the  two  propositions  lie  side  by  side 
without  anv  outward  or  marked  inward  sign  of  subordination:  Gegen  Frankfurt  hegt  ein  Dmg  über,  [es]  heißt  Sach- 
senhausen'(Goethe's  Götz,  1.  4).  Ein  Herr  —  [erl  sieht  aus  wie  ein  Fürst  —  und  em  Fraulem  wie  eine  Prmzessm. 
Das  sind  ihre  Bedienten  (Sudermann's  Heitnal,  .3,  1).  This  construction  is  also  found  in  English:  There  is  a  man 
at  the  door  [,  he]  wants  to  see  you.  In  both  English  and  German  it  lingers  on  in  colloquial  speech,  while  m  more 
formal  language  it  is  replaced  by  the  hypotactic  relative  construction. 

155.  General  and  Indefinite  Relatives:   Wer,  Was. 

1.  Wer  who,  whoever,  somebody  who  and  was  what,  which,  whatever,  that 
which  are  inflected  exactly  as  the  interrogatives  wer  and  was.     See  147.  1. 

a  The  old  gen.  wes  is  sometimes  still  used  instead  of  wessen  in  poetry  and  biblical  language: 
Wes  das  Hertz  vol  ist  |  des  gehet  der  Mund  vber  (Matth.  xii.  .34).  The  neut.  gen.  wes  is  still 
common  also  in  prose  in  the  compounds  weshalb,  weswegen.  See  151.  1.  b.  The  masc.  and 
neut  gen  wes  is  also  still  occasionallv  found  in  concessive  clauses,  where  it  is  used  seemingly 
as  an  adjective  modifying  a  following  gen.:  Einem  Mädchen,  wes  Standes  (of  whatever  rank) 
es  sei,  ist  die  Frage  über  ihre  Wohlgestalt  ein  wichtiges  Problem.  This  attributive  use  of 
was  has  taken  the  place  of  an  older  partitive  gen.  construction,  as  explained  in  147.  1.  E.  The 
original  partitive  gen.  is  now  only  rarely  found:  Dem  Bischof  gönnen  wir  wiUig,  was  Ehren 
er  Weh  hat  (Freiligrath,  2,  174).  It  is  still  quite  common  in  case  of  adjective-substantives, 
but  is  felt  rather  as  a  nom.  or  acc.  in  apposition  with  the  was:  Es  schien,  als  wollte  jeder  sich 
von  allem  entblößen,  was  er  nur  BewegUches  besaß  (Goethe's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  I,  3). 
It  is  elsewhere  u'^uallv  replaced  bv  the  prepositional  construction  with  von  or  now  more  commonly 
with  an:  So  stürzte  ich  alles,  was  ich  von  (or  an)  Geschirr  erschleppen  konnte,  m  gleiches 
Verderben  (ib.,  I.  1).     The  prep.  phrase  often  precedes  the  was:   Marinja  hatte,  um  sich  mög- 


157. RELATIVES  WER  &  WAS 205 

liehst  rasch  an  Technik  anzueignen,  was  ihr  nach  dieser  Richtung  fehlte,  in  ihrem  Übereifer 
die  rechte  Hand  übermäßig  angestrengt  (Schubin's  Rejugium  peccatorum,  VIII). 

2.  Both  wer  and  was  can  be  used  in  a  general  sense  without  an  antecedent, 
but  was  has  a  wider  range  of  usefulness,  as  it  can  also  have  an  antecedent' 
See  157. 

For  the  development  of  these  general  indefinite  relatives  out  of  the  indefinites 
wer  (145.  e)  and  was  (145.  /)  see  154.  Note. 

156.  Wer  is  always  used  in  an  indefinite  sense  and  may  thus  refer  to  one 
or  more,  but  never  has  an  antecedent  and  never  refers  to  a  definite  person: 
Nur  wer  die  Sehnsucht  kennt,  weiß,  was  ich  leide  Only  he  who  knows  what 
yearning  is  knows  what  I  suffer — a  statement  in  the  singular,  but  with  an  in- 
definite reference  to  many.  Wer  etwas  gelernt,  der  (269.  1.  a)  gilt  etwas. 
Wem  nicht  zu  raten  ist,  dem  (269.  1.  a)  ist  nicht  zu  helfen.  Wer  das  gesagt 
hat,  ist  ein  Lügner  Whoever  (somebody,  but  I  don't  know  who)  said  that  is 
a  liar.  Wer  aber  hereinkam,  das  war  der  Wilhelm  The  one  who  came  in — 
but  I  know  you  don't  know  who  it  was — just  think,  it  was  William.  Es  tut 
doch  wohl,  wen  (somebody  whom)  man  lieb  hat,  einmal  wieder  mit  Augen  zu 
sehen.  In  these  sentences  the  relative  wer  still  contains  something  of  its  orig- 
inal indefinite  nature.     See  145.  e.  Note,  2. 

For  more  definite  reference  or  for  indefinite  reference  with  individualizing 
force,  i.e.  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  an  individual  with  individual  responsibility 
for  his  actions,  with  individual  characteristics,  experiences  or  to  point  to  a 
group  of  fairly  definite  individuals  derjenige  or  der,  followed  by  der  or  welcher, 
is  employed:  Derjenige,  der  dort  unter  dem  Baume  steht,  ist  mein  Bruder. 
Derjenige,  der  sich  mit  Einsicht  für  beschränkt  hält,  ist  der  Vollkommenheit 
am  nächsten  (Goethe).  Ich  lege  dies  Drama  in  die  Hände  derjenigen,  die 
es  gelebt  haben  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen).  In  accordance  with 
older  usage  simple  der  is  still  often  used  here  instead  of  derjenige  der.  See 
130.  2.  b.  Solch  is  also  often  used  with  the  same  general  meaning  as  often  found 
in  derjenige  or  der,  but  it  always  seems  to  be  a  little  more  indefinite  and  hence 
is  largely  confined  to  the  plural :  Es  gibt  immer  solche,  die  nur  an  sich  selbst 
denken.     Compare  131.  3. 

a.  The  double  construction  is  employed  after  wer  as  found  after  jemand  described  in  145. 
b.  Note  1 :  Grüßen  Sie  Lavatem  .  .  .  und  wem  Sie  etwa  Gutes  (or  now  usually  Gutem)  bege- 
gnen (Goethe  an  Karl  August,  I,  3S). 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  wer  could  have  for  an  antecedent  der,  jeder,  or  niemand:  Glück- 
selig der,  wer  Liebe  rein  genießt  (Goethe,  Weimar,  I.  9.  274,  2032).  Das  mag  nun  jeder  be- 
urteilen, wer  ohne  Leidenschaft  die  Sache  betrachtet  (id.  I.  43.  228.  7).  Daß  es  niemand, 
wer  es  falsch  auslegen  könnte,  zu  sehen  kriegte  (id.,  IV.  1.  169.  23).  Weh  dem,  wer  sich  der 
Welt  verdungen  (Lenau's  Werke,  Nat.  Lit.,  2,  246,  945).  Now  der  or  welcher  is  used  here 
instead  of  wer. 

157.  Was  refers  in  a  general  or  indefinite  way  to  a  thing  or  a  thought,  or 
indicates  a  collective  idea,  which  may  be  definite  or  indefinite:  Was  du  heute 
tun  kannst,  das  (272.  Ca)  verschiebe  nicht  auf  morgen.  Was  du  für  recht 
hältst,  dessen  (272.  A,  3rd  par.)  brauchst  du  dich  nicht  zu  schämen.  Was 
mir  unrecht  scheint,  dem  (272.  B.  a)  versage  ich  meine  Beistimmung.  Was 
(referring  to  a  definite  group  of  words,  i.e.  a  definite  statement)  du  da  be- 
hauptet hast,  ist  unrichtig.  Was  (indefinite  collective  idea)  die  Geschichte 
reicht,  das  Leben  gibt,  sein  Busen  nimmt  es  gleich  und  willig  auf  (Goethe). 
Was   (definite  statement)  ich  gesagt  habe,  dabei   (272.   D.  a)  bleibt's. 

Was  can  have  an  antecedent,  if  that  antecedent  be  a  word  expressing  an  in- 
definite general  idea,  such  as  an  indefinite  pronoun,  a  neuter  adjective  used  sub- 
stantively, or  a  thought  contained  in  a  whole  sentence,  but  it  should  never  have 
for  an  antecedent  the  name  of  a  definite  object,  tho  some  good  authors  do  thus 
use  it  instead  of  the  more  correct  welcher  or  der  (see  153.  1.  (4)):  Alles,  was  er 
sagt,  ist  gut.  Das  war  das  Schlimmste,  was  ich  befürchtete.  Mein  Bruder  ist 
reich,  was  (here  also  welches  but  not  now  das;  for  fuller  explanation  see  153. 
1.  (3))  ich  nicht  bin.  Das  Gut,  was  (instead  of  das  or  welches)  der  Vater 
hinterlassen  hat  (Freytag).  For  fuller  treatment  of  the  use  of  was  with  an 
antecedent  see  153.  1  and  the  various  articles  thereunder. 


206 ADVERBS  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  RELATIVES  157. 

After  prepositions  a  prepositional  relative  adverb  is  usually  employed  in- 
stead of  a  form  of  was:  Wovon  das  Herz  voll  ist,  (davon)  läuft  der  Mund  über. 
Wonach  man  eifrigst  strebt,  (das)  bleibt  oft  unerreicht. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  das  could  also  be  used  in  plain  substantive  clauses  in  the  sense  thai  ivhkh, 
where  it  is  now  usually  replaced  by  was:  Vnd  wer  nicht  hat  |  von  dem  wird  man  nemen  |  auch 
das  er  hat  (Mark  iv.  25).  Das  is  most  common  in  such  substantive  clauses  as  are  in  apposition 
with  an  es.     See  153.  1.  (2). 

b.  Was  is  also  used  of  persons  in  a  collective  sense:  Was  von  Offizieren  im  Lager  war,  wurde 
zusammengetrommelt  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XLIX).  Was  hier  gemeinsames  Los 
jedes  Tages  und  jeder  Stunde  teilte,  geht  nun  die  verschiedensten  Wege  (Stilgebauer's  Götz 
Krafft,  I,  p.  5)  All  those  (i.e.  members  of  the  graduating  class)  who  Sec.  Especially  in  a  broad 
sense  to  include  little  and  big,  or  often  males  and  females:  Was  noch  die  Beine  gebrauchen 
kann,  das  geht  an  Feiertagen  aus.  Sometimes  with  the  force  of  wer  in  a  general  indefinite 
sense:  Früh  übt  sich,  was  ein  Meister  werden  will  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,1).  Was  in  this  meaning  is 
often  emploved  contemptuously:    Was  so  herumbummelt,  bringt  es  zu  nichts. 

c.  When  was  denotes  a  collective  idea  the  predicate  appositive  may  be  in  the  singular  in 
accordance  with  the  form  of  was  or  in  the  plural  in  accordance  with  the  meaning:  So  viel  als 
möglich  werde  ich  im  folgenden  nach  diesem  Beurteilungsgrunde  das,  was  sich  als  bloßer 
Gräzismus  verdächtig  macht,  von  dem  zu  sondern  versuchen,  was  wir  als  echt  deutsche  Eigen- 
tümlichkeit der  alten  Sprache  mögen  gelten  lassen  (Ribbeck's  Syntax  des  Ulfila).  Manches, 
was  als  Gräzismen  in  der  Übersetzung  erscheinen  könnte,  ist  doch  im  Geiste  der  Sprache 
gewesen  (W.  Krafft's  Die  Kirchengeschichte  der  germanischen  Völker,  I.  p.  260). 

158.     Adverbs  in  Connection  with  Relatives. 

1.  The  adverbs  immer,  auch,  or  combined  auch  immer,  also  auch  nur, 
nur  immer  standing  after  wer  and  was,  or  several  words  removed,  give  gen- 
eralizing force  to  the  relative,  and  are  much  like  our  ever,  soever  in  whoever, 
whatever,  &c.:  Wer  immer  es  gesagt  hat,  er  hat  gelogen.  Von  wem  er  es 
auch  immer  gehört  haben  mag,  es  ist  gelogen. 

2.  The  adverb  da  which  often  earlier  in  the  period  followed  was,  wer, 
or  der  once  had  a  concrete  meaning,  as  described  in  the  Note  below,  but  now 
as  we  feel  was,  wer,  and  der  as  relative  pronouns  it  has  become  meaningless 
and  hence  is  usually  suppressed :  Komme  was  da  will.  Vnd  wer  da  suchet  |  der 
findet  ]  Vnd  wer  da  anklopfft  |  dem  wird  auffgethan  (Matth.  vii.  8).  Wie 
nämlich  jedes  Ding  sich  putzt,  |  vor's  andern  Auge  pfauisch  stutzt,  |  dran 
da  sich  zeigt  eines  jeden  Gab'  (Goethe,  Weimar,  I.  4.  20G,  21).  This  use  of  da 
is  still  occasionally  found.  Sie  harrten  der  Dinge,  die  da  kommen  sollten 
(Keller).  Sie  schritten  vor  dem  Vater  und  der  Mutter  her,  mit  einer  gewissen 
Feierhchkeit,  wie  Menschen,  die  da  wissen,  daß  ihnen  eine  große  und  bedeut- 
same Aufgabe  zu  teil  geworden  ist  (Wildenbruch). 

Noie.  The  da  here  was  originally  a  determinative  (154.  Note)  strengthening  the  preceding  determinative  der 
(154.  Note)  and  explaining  the  preceding  indefinite  wer  anybody  or  was  anything  by  pointing  forward  to  the  following 
explanatory  asyndetic  (154.  Note)  clause. 

3.  Earlier  in  the  period  an  als  often  preceded  the  relative  pronoun  or  adverb,  originally 
for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the  following  descriptive  clause  as  an  appositive,  i.e.  as  a  loose 
explanatory  clause  bearing  upon  a  preceding  noun  or  the  preceding  statement  as  a  whole:  Er 
wollte  von  den  hohen,  hohlgeschliffenen  Schrittschuhen  nichts  wissen,  sondern  empfahl  die 
niedrigen,  flachgeschliffenen,  friesländischen,  als  welche  zum  Schneilaufen  die  dienlichsten 
seien  (Goethe).  This  als  has  become  rare  in  our  time:  [Er]  sagte  laut  und  feierlich-grimmig: 
„Es  lebe  Alexius  der  Dreizehnte"  —  als  worauf  sich  etwas  Kurioses  ereignete  (Raabe's  Eulen- 
pfingsten, chap.  XVI).     We  feel  the  simple  relative  now  as  sufficient. 

4.  The  demonstrative  adv.  so  is  placed  after  was  to  denote  the  general  idea 
of  quality,  so  that  both  words  together  convey  the  idea  of  such  things  as:  Was 
mag  wohl  darin  sein?  Allerhand  Krimskrams:  Kleider,  Schürzen,  Bänder, 
Flittertand,  was  so  Frauenzimmer  brauchen. 

Conditional  Relative. 

159.  Wer  for  anybody  who,  if  any  one  has  the  same  declension  as  the  relative 
and  interrogative  wer.  It  has  the  force  of  wenn  man,  wenn  einer,  and  the  clause 
in  which  it  is  found  is  treated  as  if  it  were  a  conditional  clause,  the  verb  standing 
at  the  end  of  the  clause:  Freiheit?  Ein  schönes  Wort,  wer's  recht  verstände 
(Goethe's  Egmont,  Act  4).  Fragen  ist  keine  Schande,  wer  ein  Ding  nicht 
weiß   (Grimm).     Das   (Selbstbeherrschung)   ist  eine   schöne  Errungenschaft, 


160.  2.  h. CORRELATIVE   PRONOUNS 207 

wer  etwas  davon  hat  (Bismarck  to  his  betrothed,  Feb.  23,  1847).  Wer's  könnte, 
wie  er!  (Boßhart's  Barettlitochter,  p.  136)  //  one  (or  here  if  I)  could  only  do  as 
he  did!  In  early  N.H.G.  and  as  late  as  Goethe's  day,  der  was  also  used  in  the 
same  way. 

Correlative  Pronouns. 

160.     1.     A.     Referring  to  a  def.  person  or  object: 

He  (she,  that  one  (of  a  thing),  the  man,  the  woman,  those,  icho  {which),  are 
represented  in  German  by  the  following  correlatives: 

a.     Der  (die,  das)  jenige,  welcher  (welche,  welches)  or  der  (die,  das). 
h.     Der  (die,  das),  welcher  (welche,  welches). 

c.  Der  (die,  das),  der,  &c. 

d.  Er  (sie),  der  (die);  see  2.  a  below. 

e.  Without  antecedent  (see  130.  2.  h  and  154.  Note):  Der  (not  welcher) 
mich  liebt,  ist  in  der  Weite;   or  der,  er  (see  2.  c  below). 

/.  Solcher,  der  (welcher)  one  which,  of  such  a  nature  that,  such  as:  solche, 
die  würdig  sind  such  as  are  worthy.  We  often  find  wie  or  als  instead  of  der 
or  welcher,  and  derartig,  derlei,  so,  ein  instead  of  solch.     See  153.  3.  D. 

g.  Derselbe,  der  the  same  one  who:  Er  ist  eben  derselbe,  den  wir  gestern 
sahen. 

h.     Der,  so  (early  N.H.G. ;  see  153.  5)  =  der,  welcher. 

i.  The  first  member  in  all  the  above  cases  can  also,  except  in  d  and  e,  be 
used  adjectively. 

B.     Referring  indefinitely  or  in  a  general  way  to  persons  or  to  some  thing: 

a.  Wer,  der:   Wer  das  sagt,  der  lügt.     See  156,  and  2.  b  below. 

b.  Das  (or  dasjenige,  eins,  etwas,  nichts,  alles,  manches,  vieles,  das  Beste, 
or  any  adjective-substantive),  was  (not  now  usually  das  or  welches)  as  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  period):  Das  (jenige),  was  er  sagt,  ist  wahr.  Es  gibt  im 
Leben  so  manches,  was  uns  rätselhaft  erscheint.     See  also  153.  1.  (1). 

2.  a.  The  form  er,  der  (1.  A.  d  above)  is  different  from  the  other  forms 
in  A.  The  determinative  derjenige  or  der  in  a,  b,  c  is  of  itself  indefinite,  and 
its  meaning  is  only  determined  by  the  clause  that  always  follows  it.  Hence 
the  determinative  forms  a,  b,  c  are  used  when  the  identity  of  the  person  in 
question  is  yet  to  be  established.  When  the  subject  is  a  person  already  men- 
tioned and  thus  known  and  some  particular  statement  with  regard  to  him 
follows  in  the  relative  clause,  er,  der  are  used:  Er  (Arneth,  the  Austrian  his- 
torian, who  is  the  subject  of  the  sketch  from  which  this  sentence  is  taken  and 
who  has  just  been  presented  to  the  attention  of  the  reader),  der  im  ganzen  eines 
der  glücklichsten  Menschenleben  hinter  sich  hat,  genoß  auch  das  große  Glück, 
eine  Mutter  zu  haben,  die  zu  den  herrHchsten  deutschen  Frauen  gerechnet 
werden  muß. 

Note.  Occasionally  er  is  used  determinatively  with  the  force  of  derCjenige)  in  accordance  with  an  older  usage, 
once  quite  common:  Für  mich  steht  sie  i.e.  die  Musik)  auf  der  untersten  Stufe:  gut  für  Kinder  und  Träumer,  aber 
nicht  für  sie,  die  sich  zu  handelnden  Menschen  ausgewachsen  haben  (Spielhagen's  Freigeboren,  p.  176). 

In  English  the  development  is  in  the  same  direction.  We  still  say  in  a  de- 
terminative sense  he  who,  but  more  commonly  in  the  plural  those  who  instead 
of  the  older  and  once  common  they  who.  On  the  other  hand,  we  still  use  they 
who  corresponding  to  German  sie  die  when  the  reference  is  to  persons  who  have 
just  been  mentioned,  so  that  the  dilTerentiation  of  form  that  has  resulted  in 
German  is  also  found  in  English  in  the  plural.  There  is  also  a  strong  tendency 
to  differentiate  in  the  singular  by  using  he  %vho  for  pointing  to  a  person  already 
mentioned  and  the  man  who,  or  the  one  who  in  a  determinative  sense.  He  who, 
however,  is  also  much  used  in  a  general  indefinite  sense  =  wer,  so  that  dif- 
ferentiation here  is  not  so  close  as  in  German. 

b.  The  der  in  1.  B.  a  is  not  an  antecedent  of  wer,  but  only  the  repetition  of 
the  subject  wer,  and  not  being  necessary  can  be  dropped.  However,  if  wer 
and  its  seeming  antecedent  do  not  stand  in  the  same  case,  it  is  not  usually 
omitted:  Wer  einmal  lügt,  dem  glaubt  man  nicht  und  wenn  er  auch  die 
Wahrheit  spricht. 


208 STEREOTYPED    PRONOMINAL    FORMS 160.  2.  c. 

c.  The  definite  subject  der  can  be  repeated  by  a  following  er  in  the  same 
manner  as  indefinite  wer  is  repeated  by  der,  as  described  in  h:  Der  meinen 
alten  Gliedern  Mut  verlieh,  |  in  eure  Höhle  mich  hinauf  zu  wagen,  |  er  steht 
mir  bei,  ich  fühl's  (Hauptmann's    Versunkene  Glocke,  Act  3,  11.  1382-4). 

Stereotyped  Pronominal  Forms. 

161.  There  are  a  number  of  compound  pronominal  forms  which  are  now 
treated  as  indeclinables  and  are  written  with  a  small  letter,  altho  some  of  them 
are  in  fact  substantives. 

1.  'meines  ('deines,  'seines,  'ihres,  'unseres,  &c.)  'gleichen  one  of  my  (your, 
his,  her,  our)  stamp,  one  tvho  is  my  (your,  his,  her,  our)  equal,  fossilized  genitives 
(see  a)  used  substantively  without  change  of  form  for  any  case  sing,  or  pi.: 
Seinesgleichen  (nom.  sing.)  läßt  sich  kaum  wieder  finden.  Seinesgleichen 
(nom.  pl.)  lassen  sich  kaum  wieder  finden.  Er  erkannte  ihn  für  seines- 
gleichen (acc.  sing.).  Ich  habe  nie  ihresgleichen  (acc.  sing,  or  pl.)  gesehen 
I  have  never  seen  the  like  of  her  (them).  Leute  ihresgleichen  (gen.  pl.)  finden 
sich  selten.  Er  geht  mit  ihnen  wie  mit  seinesgleichen  (dat.  pl.)  um.  For 
stress  see  47.  3.  A.  b.  cc. 

a.  Such  forms  as  meinesgleichen,  tho  used  with  unchanged  forms  for  all  cases,  are  in  fact 
fossilized  genitives  of  the  wk.  masc.  adjective-substantive  Gleiche  equal,  one  who  -is  like.  This 
gen.  was  once  a  real  partitive  genitive.  It  became  fossilized  in  negative  sentences:  Er  findet 
nicht  seinesgleichen  (partitive  gen.  depending  upon  nicht;  see  145.  g.  Note  2),  literally  He  -ivill 
find  nothing  of  one  equal  to  himself.  Later  this  original  construction  was  forgotten  and  the 
gen.  was  used  for  any  case,  sing,  or  pl.,  masc.  or  fern.  The  fossilized  acc.  sing.  masc.  is  also 
used  in  ohnegleichen,  sondergleichen  without  a  parallel:  Sie  erlauben  sich  Kühnheiten  ohne- 
gleichen (in  form  a  masc.  acc.  sing.,  but  refers  here  to  an  abstract  fem.  noun  in  the  pl.).  The 
fossilized  acc.  form  is  also  still  found  in  dessen  Gleichen  and  deren  Gleichen.     See  2. 

In  Luther's  time  gleich  was  still  feit  as  a  wk.  masc.  noun:  Denn  er  ist  nicht  mein  Gleiche 
(Job  ix.  32).     Compare  Ich  bin's,  bin  Faust,  bin  deinesgleichen!  (Goethe's  Faust,  Nacht). 

2.  Des'gleichen  (for  the  sing.)  and  much  more  commonly  der'gleichen 
(for  sing,  or  pl.,  masc,  fem.,  or  neut.)  of  such  a  ?iafure,  such,  the  like,  of  the  {that) 
kind,  of  the  same  kind,  such  as,  used  adjectively  and  substantively,  demonstra- 
tively or  relatively.  Demonstratively:  Vnd  dis  gleichen  Reuchwerg  solt  jr 
euch  nicht  machen  (Ex.  xxx.  37).  Sie  scheinen  sich  auf  dergleichen  Handel 
zu  verstehen  They  seem  to  understand  trade  of  such  a  nature.  Eine  der- 
gleichen (now  more  commonly  derartige,  as  dergleichen  does  not  now  usually 
tolerate  an  indefinite  article  before  it)  Lobrede  (Lessing),  dergleichen  Scherze, 
dergleichen  Leute.  Bei  dergleichen  ist  aber  das  Weib  dem  Mann  über  (Roseg- 
ger)  In  such  things  a  woman  is  ahead  of  a  man.  Ja,  ganz  unverhofft;  vor 
acht  Tagen  haben  wir  uns  nichts  dergleichen  träumen  lassen.  Auf  einem 
Tische  hatte  er  die  Gewinne  ausgelegt:  lauter  Kleinigkeiten,  Bonbons,  Bild- 
chen, Bleistifte  und  dergleichen.  Der  neugebackene  Sextaner  stand  wie 
ein  armer  Sünder  da  und  erwartete  einen  tüchtigen  Rüffel;  doch  nichts  der- 
gleichen (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XIH)  but  nothing  of  the  kind  happened. 

Relatively:  wil  wunder  thun  |  der  gleichen  nicht  geschaffen  sind  (Ex.  xxxiv. 
10).  Und  hat  solche  grosse  straffe  vber  vns  gehen  lassen  |  Des  gleichen 
vnter  allem  Himel  nicht  geschehen  ist  (Baruch  ii.  2).  Einen  überlegenden 
Schurken,  dergleichen  Franz  ist  (Schiller).  Er  ging  im  Sonnenschein  auf 
der  Wiese,  wo  allerlei  merkwürdige  und  unbekannte  Blumen  blühten,  um- 
flogen von  Schmetterlingen,  dergleichen  er  nie  gesehen  hatte  (H.  Seidel's 
Der  Schatz,  III). 

The  above  forms  are  fossilized  genitives  (see  1.  a),  but  also  the  acc.  is  simi- 
larly used  in  connection  with  a  gen.  of  a  relative:  dessen  Gleichen  with  reference 
to  a  masc.  or  neut.  sing,  and  deren  Gleichen  with  reference  to  a  fern.  sing,  or 
any  noun  in  the  pl.  Exs.:  Den  merkwürdigsten  Platz,  dessen  Gleichen  in  der 
Welt  vielleicht  nicht  wieder  zu  sehen  ist  (Goethe).  Immer  war  ihr  Antlitz 
von  leuchtender  Heiterkeit  und  all  ihr  Gebaren  von  einer  leichten  Anmut  über- 
gössen, deren  Gleichen  er  noch  nicht  gesehen  hatte  (H.  Hoffmann's  Die  Toten- 
hochzeit, p.  159). 


163.  3.  b. CLASSIFICATIOX    OF    X'ERBS 209 

a.  Dergleichen  is  also  used  advcrbialh-:  Die  Hofrätin  wußte,  wo  das  hinaus  wollte,  tat 
aber  nicht  dergleichen  (Berlepsch's  Fortunats  Roman,  p.  IG)  but  she  didn't  let  on,  i.e.  pretended 
not  to  know.  Also  nichts  instead  of  nicht:  Und  die  Bewegung,  die  kurze,  stolze,  mit  der  sie 
die  Blume  zum  Fenster  hinauswarf,  weil  Edith  sie  welk  gefunden  —  und  ich  nichts  dergleichen 
getan  hatte  (Schubin's  Refugium  peccatonini,  II,  (j )  because  I  had  pretended  not  to  notice  (that  she 
wore  the  flower  to  show  her  love  for  mei.  Sometimes  desgleichen:  Es  schien  unmöglich,  daß 
Frau  Uelzen  nichts  bemerkt  haben  sollte,  wenn  diese  auch  keineswegs  desgleichen  tat  (Spiel- 
hagen's  Das  Skelett  im  Hause,  II). 

3.  'Der'lei  (=  der'gleichen)  of  such  a  nature,  used  as  a  demonstrative, 
both  adjectively  and  substantively:  aus  allen  derlei  Betrachtungen.  Derlei 
waren  damals  die  Ideale  junger  Leute  Such  things  were  at  that  time  the  ideals 
of  young  people.  Thus  also  a  number  of  compounds  with  lei:  allerlei  all  kinds 
of,  beiderlei  both,  both  kinds  of,  einerlei  of  one  kind,  all  the  same  (Das  ist 
mir  einerlei),  mancherlei  many  kinds  of,  solcherlei  such  kinds  of,  «S:c.  See 
126.  1.  a.     For  stress  see  47.  3.  A.  b.  cc. 

4.  'Aller'hand  (=  allerlei^  all  kinds  of,  used  adjectively  and  substantively: 
allerhand  Blumen  all  kinds  of  fiowers.  Es  ist  die  Rede  gewesen  von  allerhand 
The  conversation  was  about  all  sorts  of  things.  Allerhand  Gutes  all  sorts  of 
good  things.     See  139.  I.  a.  Note.     For  stress  see  47.  3.  A.  b.  cc. 

5.  Unsereins  (=  unsereiner  one  of  our  stamp),  tho  usually  inflected  like  a 
strong  neuter  adjective  with  contraction  to  -eins  in  the  nom.  and  ace,  is  some- 
times invariable  thruout:  Mit  unsereins  (instead  of  unsereinem)  machen  sie 
nicht  viel  Umstände.  These  modern  compounds  are  formed  by  writing  to- 
gether two  distinct  words  unser  (gen.  pi.  of  the  personal  pronoun)  and  einer 
or  eins,  substantive  forms  of  the  numeral  ein.  For  the  double  gender  here 
see  263.  I.  6.  b.     See  also  263.  II.  4.  /. 

Unsereiner  is  now  also  often  used  with  the  force  of  ich:  Unsereiner  hat's 
nicht  so  gut. 

THE  VERB. 

162.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  predicates  action  or  being. 

Classification. 

163.  Verbs  are  divided  into  two  classes:    transitive  and  intransitive. 

1.  A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  requires  a  complement  in  the  ace.  case: 
Ich  liebe  den  Vater. 

2.  An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  either  requires  no  complement,  as  ich 
knie,  or  takes  a  complement  in  the  gen.,  dat.,  or  in  some  case  governed  by 
a  preposition:  Ich  bedarf  des  Trostes.  Ich  begegne  einem  Freunde.  Er 
trachtet  nach  dem  Gelde. 

a.  The  following  verbs  can  be  used  transitively  or  intransitively,  sometimes 
however  with  a  little  different  meaning  in  the  tw^o  functions,  in  a  few  cases  also 
with  different  principal  parts  according  to  the  function:  anfangen,  anheben, 
beginnen,  backen,  baden,  biegen,  braten,  brechen,  brennen,  enden,  flüchten, 
gleichen,  hängen,  heilen,  irren,  kleben,  lehnen,  kochen,  quellen,  rauchen, 
reifen,  reißen,  schlagen,  schießen,  schHeßen,  schmelzen,  speisen,  spritzen,  spiü- 
hen,  stecken,  stoßen,  stürzen,  treiben,  trocknen,  verderben,  weiden.  Exs. :  Er 
hat  das  Glas  gebrochen  and  Das  Glas  ist  gebrochen.  Er  hängte  den  Hut 
an  den  Nagel  and  Der  Hut  hing  an  dem  Nagel.  Compare  257.  1.  a,  b.  Ger- 
mans verv  often  employ  a  reflexive  verb  where  in  English  an  intransitive  is 
used.     See'218.  3.  B. 

3.  Under  the  above  classes  are  distinguished: 

a.  Reflexive  verbs  which  take  an  object  designating  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  their  subject:  Er  lobt  sich  (ace.  i.  Er  schadet  sich  (dat.).  For  the 
use  of  reflexive  verbs  see  218. 

b.  Impersonal  verbs  used  only  in  the  3rd  person  sing,  with  the  formal  sub- 
ject es,  expressed  or  understood:  Es  schneit.  Mir  graut  davor,  or  Es  graut 
mir  davor.     For  the  use  of  impersonal  verbs  see  219. 


210 ASPECT 164. 

Grammatical  Forms  of  the  Verb. 
Aspect. 

164.  The  verb  distinguishes  by  its  forms  person,  number,  tense,  mood, 
voice,  and  aspect.  The  terms  persons,  number,  voice  need  no  especial  explana- 
tion here  as  they  are  in  general  used  as  in  English.  Tense  and  mood  are  treated 
at  considerable  length  below. 

At  this  point  it  is  desired  to  say  a  few  words  about  aspect:  Aspect  indicates 
the  aspect,  the  type  of  the  action.  It  often  shows:  (1)  that  the  activity  con- 
tinues for  some  time  in  unbroken  course,  the  durative  aspect,  as  in  essen, 
schlafen,  wachen  and  in  English  to  eat,  to  sleep,  to  be  aivake,  or  with  an  especial 
form  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  continuation,  to  he  eating,  to  he  sleeping.  (2) 
That  the  activity  represents  only  one  point  of  time,  the  point-action  or  per- 
fective aspect,  as  in  eirischlafen,  aufwachen,  erscheinen  and  in  English  to  fall 
asleep,  to  aivake,  to  arise,  the  ingressive  perfective  aspect  calling  attention  to 
the  first  point,  the  beginning  of  the  action  or  state,  the  moment  when  one 
enters  into  sleep,  or  comes  into  the  waking  state,  or  the  moment  when  the  sun 
appears;  or  on  the  other  hand,  as  in  abblühen  to  cease  blooming,  verblühen  to 
lose  one's  beauty,  lit.  to  cease  blossoming,  aufessen  to  eat  up,  the  effective  perfec- 
tive aspect,  calling  attention  to  the  final  point  in  the  activity,  the  moment 
when  the  blooming,  blossoming  ceases  and  the  apple  disappears  in  the  throat. 
The  durative  aspect  is  usually  expressed  by  the  simple  verb,  the  point-action 
or  perfective  aspect  often  by  a  verb  with  a  dependent  infinitive:  Es  fängt  an 
zu  regnen.  Es  hört  auf  zu  regnen.  In  case  of  many  very  common  \'erbs  the 
ingressive  perfective  idea  is  expressed  by  giving  a  transitive  verb  reflexive  form: 
(durative)  Er  sitzt  auf  dem  Stuhl,  but  with  ingressive  force:  Er  setzt  sich  auf 
den  Stuhl.  Similarly  Er  liegt  auf  dem  Bette,  Ijut  Er  legt  sich  auf  das  Bett. 
Er  steht  auf  den  eigenen  Füßen,  but  Er  stellt  sich  auf  die  eigenen  Füße.  Per- 
fective force  is  in  most  cases  expressed  by  the  use  of  a  prefix  or  particle.  The 
particle  or  prefix  originally  had  in  every  verb  a  concrete  meaning,  but  it  is 
often  not  felt  to-day,  as  in  erscheinen  and  English  arise,  and  yet  it  usually  has 
an  appreciable  meaning,  for  altho  it  has  lost  its  concrete  sense  it  has  frequently 
developed  point-action  or  perfective  force.  In  aufessen  and  in  to  eat  up  it  is 
quite  evident  that  auf  and  up  do  not  now  have  the  original  meaning  of  upward, 
for  the  apple  in  fact  goes  down.  The  particle  here  has  become  a  mere  gram- 
matical form  to  indicate  the  final  point  in  the  activity.  Sometimes  a  simple 
verb  has  by  virtue  of  its  meaning  alone  perfective  force,  as  in  kommen  and 
in  English  to  come.  As  the  usual  German  way  to  indicate  point-action  or 
perfectivity  is  by  the  use  of  prefixes  this  question  is  treated  under  prefixes  in 
246.  II.  3.  b,  4.  a,  5.  D.  a,  b,  c;  223.  I.  7.  E.  b,  c,  G.  d;  191.  I.  4.  In  older 
German  werden  with  the  present  participle  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated  was 
much  used  with  ingressive  perfective  force,  which  has  left  traces  behind  in  the 
literary  language  and  the  dialects,  as  described  in  190.  1.  C.  a.  Note  1.  The 
different  forms  of  the  durative  aspect  are  discussed  in  175.  Note.  Besides 
these  formal  characteristics  of  aspect  there  is  an  other  which  plays  an  important 
role  in  the  spoken  language — accent.  Both  transitive  and  intransitive  dura- 
tives, when  spoken  somewhat  more  forcibly  and  rapidly  than  usual  in  con- 
nection with  a  strong  rising  intonation  of  the  voice,  become  ingressive  perfec- 
tives  indicating  the  moment  of  a  sudden  change  in  the  situation.  This  form 
of  the  ingressive  aspect  is  most  commonly  found  in  joyful  exclamations  expressing 
satisfaction  over  the  attainment  of  some  end  or  over  a  pleasant  discovery: 
Ich  hab's!  or  Ich  seh's!  fPollak  in  Paul  and  Braune's  Beiträge,  1920,  p.  414), 
an  exclamation  uttered  upon  finding  a  point  in  the  landscape  after  a  long  search. 
Likewise  in  Ich  kann's!,  an  exclamation  spoken  upon  discovering  that  one  can 
do  something  that  one  has  been  trying  to  do.  It  is  also  common  in  lively  nar- 
rative to  indicate  a  sudden  turn  in  the  development  of  the  events:  Da  wallt 
dem  Deutschen  auch  sein  Blut  (Uhland's  Schwäbische  Kunde,  1.  29)  Then  also 
the  blood  of  the  German  begins  to  boil. 


165.  1.  d. TENSE 211 

There  are  also  other  aspects.  The  iterative  aspect  expresses  the  idea  of  the 
frequent  occurrence  and  repetition  of  an  activity,  as  in  streicheln  to  stroke. 
For  fuller  discussion  see  245.  III.  2  and  3.  The  diminutive  aspect  indicates 
an  activity  of  diminutive  proportions,  as  in  lächeln  to  smile.  See  245.  III.  2.  h. 
The  intensive  aspect  indicates  intensification  of  the  activity:  hören  to  hear, 
but  horchen  (intensive)  to  listen.  See  245.  III.  5.  The  desiderative  aspect 
represents  an  activity  as  threatening,  indicating  that  there  is  a  strong  and 
persistent  impulse  present  to  perform  it:  Mich  schläfert  I  feel  sleepy.  See 
245.  III.  3.  h.     For  the  terminate  aspect  see  175.  Note,  last  par. 

Tense  (for  formation  see  177.  I,  II,  III  and  190). 

165.  There  are  three  absolute  tenses  (present,  pres.  perfect,  and  future), 
which  express  time  from  the  standpoint  of  the  moment  in  which  the  speaker 
is  speaking  without  reference  to  some  other  act;  and  three  relative  tenses 
(past,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect),  which  express  time  relatively  to  the 
preceding  absolute  tenses.  The  following  articles  on  tense  apply  principally 
to  the  tenses  of  the  indicative.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  treated  under 
the  head  of  the  subjunctive  mood. 

1.  Present  Tense.  The  present  tense  represents  an  action  as  now  taking 
place,  or  a  state  as  now  existing:  Der  Baum  blüht.  Er  ist  sehr  krank.  It 
often  represents  the  act  as  something  habitual,  customary,  characteristic:  Er 
wohnt  im  Winter  in  der  Stadt.     Er  schreibt  schön. 

It  is  also  used: 

a.     To  express  a  general  truth:   Zweimal  zwei  ist  vier. 

h.  In  narration,  especially  in  lively  style,  to  make  more  vivid  past  events 
and  bring  them  nearer  the  hearer.  This  usage  of  the  present,  common  also 
in  English,  is  called  the  historical  present.  In  German  it  frequently  in  narra- 
tion relieves  the  past  tense  and  thus  furnishes  a  means  to  vary  the  style.  Some 
authors  are  very  fond  of  it,  while  others  use  it  little  or  not  at  all.  In  Goethe's 
Hermann  und  Dorothea  it  is  conspicuously  absent,  and  is  in  general  uncommon 
in  epic  poetry,  where  there  is  a  calm  and  dignified  movement. 

Note.  The  historical  present  is  most  frequent  in  the  language  of  the  common  people  and  familiar  language  generally, 
alternating  often  with  the  present  perfect.  See  2.  b.  It  is,  however,  not  only  thus  common  in  vivid,  lively  colloquial 
and  popular  speech  but  is  also  very  common  in  the  dry,  learned  style  of  annalists,  historical  grammarians,  etc.,  who 
from  time  to  time  enter  into  their  record  items  of  historical  importance:  Zürnen  regiert  im  Mittelhochdeutschen  den 
Akkusativ,  wofür  im  Neuhochdeutschen  der  Dativ  eingetreten  ist  (Paul's  Deutsche  Syntax,  p.  3S.5,  where  there  are 
other  examples).  Altho  this  form  has  always  been  characteristic  of  popular  and  colloquial  speech  and  occurs  a  few 
times  even  in  oldest  German,  it  is  not  found  in  extended  passages  in  the  literary  language  before  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. In  both  English  and  German  it  came  into  the  literary  language  late  along  with  a  freer  and  wider  sway  of  im- 
agination and  feeling  which  made  it  possible. 

c.  As  the  English  present  perfect  to  express  that  an  action  or  state  that 
was  begun  in  the  past  is  still  continuing  at  the  present  time,  usually  accom- 
panied by  the  adverbs  bereits,  schon  already,  erst  only,  lange  long,  or  the  prep. 
seit  since:  Wie  lange  lernen  Sie  schon  deutsch?  Ich  lerne  es  erst  seit  sechs 
Monaten  How  long  have  you  been  studying  German?  I  have  been  studying 
it  for  only  six  months.  Wir  warten  bereits  seit  einer  Stunde  auf  ihn.  Wie 
lange  sind  Sie  hier?     How  long  have  you  been  here? 

Note.  Thus  also  the  perfect  infinitive  after  modal  auxiliaries  must  be  rendered  into  German  by  the  present  in- 
finitive, to  show  that  something  miglit  have  taken  place  and  might  now  be  continuing  in  existence:  Wenn  du  ver- 
nünftig gewesen  wärest,  du  körmtest,  so  jung  du  bist,  längst  Hüttenmeister  sein  If  you  had  been  reasonable,  you 
might,  as  young  as  you  are,  have  been  serving  now  for  a  long  while  as  superintendent  of  the  foundry. 

d.  Usually  instead  of  the  future  in  the  subordinate  clauses  of  purpose  and 
condition  and  often  elsewhere  in  both  principal  and  subordinate  propositions 
where  an  adverb  of  time  or  the  context  makes  clear  the  thought,  for  this  the 
oldest  future  form,  long  deeply  rooted  in  German  feeling,  is  still  a  favorite 
where  there  is  no  ambiguity:  Ich  wünsche,  daß  du  zu  ihm  gehst.  Laß  uns 
eilen,  daß  wir  ihn  noch  erreichen.  Wenn  du  dich  beeilst,  or  beeilst  du  dich, 
so  wirst  du  ihn  noch  einholen.  Morgen  kommt  er.  Wann  kommt  er?  Ich 
weiß  nicht,  wann  er  kommt.  As  in  English  the  present  is  used  after  a  future 
when  both  actions  are  contemporaneous:  Ich  werde  ihn  gut  empfangen,  wenn 
er  kommt.     The  present  by  reason  of  its  pithy  terseness  is  felt  as  more  forceful 


212 USES   OF   THE    PRESENT    PERFECT 165.  l.d. 

than  the  longer  and  more  accurate  but  weaker  future,  hence  is  much  used  to 
express  something  confidently  expected:  Kommt  er?  Er  kommt  Will  he  come? 
He  surely  will. 

e.  Instead  of  the  imperative  (see  177.  I.  B.  b). 

f.  The  present  is  often  used  where  the  reference  is  to  a  past  act  and  a  present 
perfect  might  be  used.  The  speaker  uses  the  present  tense  as  tho  the  words 
had  just  been  spoken  as  he  feels  the  matter  as  one  of  present  interest:  Ich  höre, 
or  Man  sagt  mir,  daß  er  noch  sehr  krank  ist.  The  present  is  also  used  in  quot- 
ing from  a  book  still  read  and  studied  even  tho  the  author  belongs  to  the  past: 
Goethe  meint,  daß  usw. 

2.  Present  Perfect.  The  present  perfect  is  used  to  represent  that  something 
is  finished  at  the  time  of  speaking,  or  that  the  results  of  a  past  act  still  continue 
in  the  present  (see  also  3,  A.  a  below):  Ich  habe  den  Brief  schon  geschrieben. 
Ich  bin  eben  von  der  Stadt  gekommen.  Kolumbus  hat  Amerika  entdeckt. 
Die  Kirche  ist  im  14ten  Jahrhundert  erbaut  worden. 

The  present  perfect  is  also  used : 

a.  Instead  of  the  future  perfect:  Wenn  du  angekommen  bist,  werde  ich 
dich  besuchen  (instead  of  Wenn  du  angekommen  sein  wirst,  &c). 

b.  Often  in  dialect  and  colloquial  speech  instead  of  the  past  tense  in  nar- 
rative: ,,Wir  haben  gezittert  am  ganzen  Leib,"  fuhr  der  braune  Schmied 
fort,  ,,wir  haben  ein  Vaterunser  beten  wollen,  aber  die  Zunge  ist  wie  gelähmt 
gewesen  vor  Schreck"  (Rosegger).  Ja,  wie  wir  nu  in  seinem  Zelt  gekommen 
sind,  da  ist  er  erst  eine  janze  Weile  so  uf  und  abjegangen  und  hat  nischt  nich 
geredt  (Finke  in  Wildenbruch's  Die  Oiiitzoivs,  1,  8).  Darauf  hat  Tante  Ida 
mich  angesehen  und  gefragt,  ,na  also  —  wer  war's?'  Weil  ich  aber  doch  ge- 
wußt habe,  daß  du's  nicht  haben  wolltest,  habe  ich  nichts  gesagt.  Da  hat 
Tante  Ida  rote  Flecke  auf  den  Backen  bekommen  und  gemeint,  &c.  (Young 
Georg  von  Drebkau  in  Wildenbruch's  Vize- Mania).  The  use  of  the  present 
perfect  here  seems  to  result  from  the  desire  of  the  speaker  to  attach  importance 
to  each  individual  utterance  by  representing  it  as  an  independent  fact  worthy 
of  attention,  as  explained  in  3.  A.  a  and  c  below.  The  common  people  are  very 
fond  of  this  form  of  exaggeration.  This  usage  first  appeared  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  In  the  dialects  of  the  South  from  this  time  on  the  present  perfect 
gradually  within  two  centuries  supplanted  the  simple  past  indicative,  not  only 
on  account  of  a  natural  fondness  there  for  the  present  perfect  but  also  largely 
because  of  a  mere  formal  factor,  namely  certain  forms  of  the  past  indie,  had 
by  the  suppression  of  final  e  become  identical  with  those  of  the  present  tense, 
as  in  er  spielt  (3rd  pers.  present  or  past  indie).  Thus  the  Swabian  writer 
Berthold  Auerbach  in  his  beautiful  story  ,,Brigitta"  in  keeping  with  the  dia- 
lectic setting  lets  the  heroine  use  thruout  the  entire  book  the  present  perfect 
in  narrative  instead  of  the  literary  past  tense. 

3.  A.  Past  Tense.  The  past  tense  usually  represents  a  past  act  or  condition 
not  in  its  completeness,  but  as  being  performed  or  continuing  at  the  same  time 
as  some  other  act  or  condition,  or  it  represents  the  act  as  completed  in  past 
time  in  connection  with  some  other  event.  Hence  the  past  tense  has  for  its 
leading  idea  that  of  the  simultaneity  of  two  or  more  related  past  acts  or  con- 
ditions. It  accordingly  represents  single  acts  or  facts  as  links  in  a  chain  of  facts, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  the  usual  tense  for  the  description  and  narration  of  all 
related  events  and  conditions  in  the  past,  and  is  therefore  the  prevailing  tense 
of  narrative,  history,  and  the  novel.  The  past  tense,  however,  is  not  confined 
to  lengthy  description,  but  is  used  even  in  a  single  sentence  if  it  describes  some- 
thing as  it  once  was  without  relation  to  the  present:  Die  deutschen  Kaiser 
wurden  in  Frankfurt  gekrönt.  Thus  the  past  tense  cuts  us  off  from  the  present 
entirely,  and  leads  us  into  the  midst  of  past  events  and  conditions  which  are 
developing  at  the  same  time  with  close  relations  to  each  other,  but  with  no 
relations  whatever  to  the  present,  and  thus  this  tense  differs  rather  sharply 
from  the  present  perfect,  which  represents  the  act  as  now  completed,  the  oc- 
currence as  now  an  accomplished  fact.     The  past  tense  does  not,  however, 


165.  3.  C. USES   OF   THE   PAST   TENSE 213 

imply  necessarily  time  very  remote,  but  is  used  for  time  past,  whether  it  refers 
to  remote  acts  or  to  those  of  a  few  moments  ago,  if  it  turns  the  mind  from  the 
present  to  two  past  acts  or  events,  or  to  a  series  of  past  events  in  their  relations 
to  each  other:  Als  die  Bäume  in  vollster  Blüte  standen,  trat  heftiger  Frost 
ein.  Ich  sang,  indem  er  Klavier  spielte.  Ich  sang  beim  Ankleiden.  See  246. 
II.  4.  a  for  the  force  which  brought  about  the  differentiation  between  the  past 
and  the  present  perfect. 

a.  Past  Tense  Compared  with  the  Present  Perfect.  The  past  tense  is  often  confounded  with 
the  present  perfect.  The  latter  is  used  when  the  results  of  a  past  act  still  exist  in  the  present, 
or  to  represent  a  past  event  as  an  independent  fact,  not  as  a  link  in  a  chain  of  related  events, 
and  emphasizes  the  bearing  of  this  past  event  upon  the  present.  Thus  the  present  perfect  looks 
at  the  past  from  the  standpoint  of  the  present  or  of  stern  fact,  while  the  past  tense  takes  us  into 
the  past  and  enlists  our  interest  in  the  events  then  taking  place.  Hence  in  the  midst  of  a  nar- 
rative where  the  past  tense  or  past  perfect  has  been  uniformly  used,  the  speaker  changes  to 
the  pres.  perf.  at  once,  when  he  desires  (1)  to  represent  a  past  act  not  as  a  link  in  the  chain  of 
events,  but  according  to  his  judgment  as  an  important  independent  fact,  or  (2)  to  represent 
that  the  result  of  a  past  act  still  exists  at  the  time  of  the  narrative:  (1)  Luther  tat  zu  Worms 
einen  Gang,  dergleichen  mancher  Kriegsoberst  in  der  schwersten  Schlacht  nicht  getan  hat. 
(2)  In  dem  seiner  Wohnung  gegenüber  liegenden  Hause,  wo  sein  Freund  Wilhelm  wohnte, 
war  das  Scharlachfieber  ausgebrochen  und,  da  Fritz  allen  Warnungen  zuwider  doch  noch  zu 
seinem  dort  wohnenden  Freunde  ging,  so  ist  er  ebenfalls  erkrankt  und  liegt  nun  schwer  da- 
nieder, 

b.  Past  Tense  Used  by  Eye-witness.  Thus  also  an  eye-witness  of  events  naturally  uses  the 
past  tense  in  narrating  these  events  as  he  has  seen  them  take  place  in  their  relations  to  each 
other,  and  may  use  this  tense  even  in  giving  a  single  sentence,  as  there  is  in  his  mind  a  complete 
picture  of  the  whole  occurrence:  Gestern  ertrank  ein  Kind.  Sie  waren  gestern  in  der  Oper. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  these  things  are  communicated  to  a  third  party  by  the  one  who  has 
only  heard  them,  he  uses  the  pres.  perf.,  because  they  are  to  the  speaker  only  independent  facts: 
Gestern  ist  ein  Kind  ertrunken.     Sie  sind  gestern  in  der  Oper  gewesen. 

c.  English  and  German  Past  Compared.  In  both  languages  the  past  tense  once  performed 
the  functions  of  four  tenses,  the  past,  present  perfect,  past  perfect  and  future  perfect.  Examples 
of  the  use  of  the  German  past  for  the  past  perfect  and  the  future  perfect  are  given  in  C  and  6 
below.  It  is  still  often  used  where  we  should  expect  the  present  perfect,  so  that  it  seems  to 
correspond  to  English  usage:  Noch  nie  in  der  Geschichte  war  ein  so  gewaltiger  Kampf  (König 
von  Bayern,  Aug.  19,  1915).  While  older  usage  thus  often  still  appears,  English  and  German 
now  usually  differ.  In  statements  of  independent  facts  conceived  as  having  taken  place  recently 
English  usually  employs  the  past  tense  where  there  is  reference  to  a  definite  time  or  place  pro- 
vided the  time  in  question  is  now  felt  as  absolutely  past  so  that  it  cannot  be  considered  as  a  part 
of  the  present  moment,  while  German  of  course  uses  the  present  perfect  as  the  reference  is  to 
an  independent  past  act:  My  brother  bought  two  hats  last  year  or  this  morning,  but  Äfy  brother 
has  bought  two  hats  this  week,  as  the  speaker  feels  that  the  period  in  question  is  not  yet  closed, 
passed,  while  in  German  the  present  perfect  must  be  used  in  both  cases:  Mein  Bruder  hat  voriges 
Jahr,  heute  Morgen,  diese  Woche  zwei  Hüte  gekauft.  Wherever  the  idea  of  past  time  is  not 
prominent,  i.e.  where  the  reference  is  general  or  indefinite  the  present  perfect  is  used  in  English: 
My  brother  has  often  bought  two  hats  at  a  time  Mein  Bruder  hat  oft  zwei  Hüte  auf  einmal 
gekauft.  My  brother  has  bought  two  new  hats  Mein  Bruder  hat  zwei  neue  Hüte  gekauft. 
When  statements  of  independent  facts  refer  to  a  time  more  remote  English  usually  employs 
the  past  tense,  while  German  inclines  here  to  the  use  of  the  present  perfect:  Das  eigentliche 
Bayern  ist  etwa  um  500  von  den  Deutschen  besetzt  worden.  Romanen  haben  sich  aber  am 
Gebirge  länger  gehalten  (Behaghel's  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Sprache,  p.  13)  Bavaria  proper 
was  occupied  by  Germans  about  500,  but  in  the  mountains  the  Romance  population  maintained 
itself  somewhat  longer.  In  German  as  a  survival  of  older  usage,  however,  the  past  tense  is 
still  often  found  here. 

In  German  the  present  perfect  always  represents  the  act  or  state  as  absolutely  completed, 
while  in  English  it  can  be  used  of  an  act  or  state  begun  in  the  past  but  still  continuing,  where 
in  German  the  present  tense  must  be  used  as  illustrated  in  1.  c  above. 

Thus  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  altho  originally  in  both  English  and  German  the  present  perfect 
tense  form  was  in  reality  a  present  tense,  as  explained  in  191.  I.  1  and  4,  it  has  in  German  ac- 
quired power  to  point  to  the  past,  even  the  remote  past,  while  in  English  it  still  always  has 
close  relations  with  the  present. 

B.  The  past  is  also  used  as  the  past  perfect  in  English  (just  as  the  present 
in  German  is  used  for  the  present  perf.  in  English,  as  described  in  1.  c  above) 
to  describe  an  action  as  begun  at  some  previous  time,  but  as  still  continuing 
up  to  the  time  spoken  of  in  the  past:  Ich  wartete  schon  zwei  Stunden  auf 
ihn,  als  er  kam  I  had  been  waiting  two  hours  for  him  when  he  came. 

C.  In  accordance  with  usage  in  older  periods  when  there  was  no  past  perfect 
tense  the  past  is  often  used  for  the  past  perfect:   Wir  waren  mit  Uechtritz  auf 


214 USES   OF   PAST   PERFECT   &   FUTURE 165.  3.  C. 

der  Richards-Höhe,   die   meine   Frau  noch   nicht   sah    (Hebbel's    Tagebücher, 
Aug.  3,  1854).     See  also  4  a  below  and  A.  c  above. 

D.     The  past  is  also  used  for  the  future  perfect.     See  6  below. 

4.  Past  Perfect.  The  past  perfect  tense  represents  a  past  action  or  event 
as  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  past  time:  Als  er  das  gehört  hatte,  erschrak 
er  When  he  had  heard  that,  he  became  frightened. 

a.  The  past  perf,  is  often  replaced  by  the  past:  Als  er  das  hörte,  erschrak 
er.     See  also  3.  A.  c. 

5.  Future  Tense.  The  future  tense  represents  an  action  or  event  as  yet  to 
take  place:    Mein  Herz  wird  sich  freuen,  wenn  ich  dich  wiedersehe. 

The  future  is  also  used  of  an  action  or  event  in  past  time  that  was  yet  to 
take  place:  Die  Dirne  ging  mit  bloßem  Kopfe,  sie  wird  also  den  Holzschnitzer 
nur  eine  Strecke  und  nicht  allzuweit  begleiten  (Anzengruber's  Sternsteinhof , 
p.  69). 

The  present  tense  often  takes  the  place  of  the  future.     See  1.  d  above. 

a.  The  future  is  also  used  instead  of  the  imperative  (177.  I.  B.  c). 

b.  It  is  often,  especially  in  colloquial  speech,  used  to  express  a  probability 
or  supposition,  often  accompanied  by  wohl,  usually  with  the  force  of  a  present 
tense:  Karl  wird  [wohl]  krank  sein  =  Karl  ist  wohl  krank.  Der  Hund  wird 
[wohl]  sechs  Jahre  alt  sein  =  Der  Hund  ist  wohl  sechs  Jahre  alt.  The  wohl 
is  not  necessary  with  werden  but  must  be  used  with  the  simple  present.  The 
werden  here  contains  strong  modal  force  and  can  often  be  replaced  by  a  modal 
auxiliary:   Der  Hund  kann  sechs  Jahre  alt  sein. 

Often  in  interrogative  form,  especially  to  question  someone  on  some  well- 
known  fact  or  truth  in  such  a  way  as  to  encourage  him  to  essay  an  answer: 
Hans,  wie  wird  der  Mann  heißen,  der  Amerika  entdeckt  hat?  Johnny,  you  can 
tell  me,  can't  you,  the  name  of  the  man  who  discovered  America?  Hans,  wie 
wirst  du  den  Zinsfuß  aus  Kapital  und  Zeit  und  Zins  berechnen?  Now,  Johnny, 
you  can  tell  me,  can't  you,  how  to  ascertain  the  rate  of  interest,  &c.?  The 
question  form  is  also  often  employed  to  indicate  surprise  at  a  preceding  question 
which  inquires  after  something  that  ought  to  be  self-evident:  A.  Bist  du  zu- 
frieden? B.  Wo  werde  ich  denn  zufrieden  sein?  =  Wie  kann  ich  denn  zu- 
frieden sein? 

On  the  other  hand,  in  connection  with  schon  it  is  used  with  a  peculiar  modal 
force  to  indicate  emphatically  a  certainty  of  a  certain  condition  of  things  at 
the  present  time:  A.  Ich  habe  es  nicht.  B.  Sie  werden  es  schon  haben  A.  I 
haven't  it.  B.  But  I  know  you  do  have  it.  Bäcker,  's  Bluttgericht  meenen 
Se  (meinen  Sie)  woll?  Dreißiger.  Er  wird  (for  Sie  werden)  schon  wissen, 
welches  ich  meine  (Hauptmann's  Die  Weber,  Act  1).  This  peculiar  construc- 
tion must  not  be  confounded  with  another  having  the  same  form,  which  however 
points  with  emphasis  to  a  future  act:  Ich  werde  es  schon  tun  I'll  do  it,  you  can 
count  on  it. 

Note.  Scholars  generally  regard  this  form  as  the  usual  future  tense,  the  thought  being  that  the  future  will  in  the 
case  at  issue  show  that  the  assumption  is  true.  As  this  form  is  common  witli  this  meaning  in  dialects  where  it  is  not 
used  as  a  future  proper  it  seems  more  probable  to  the  author  that  it  is  tlie  old  periphrastic  present  tense  described  in 
190.  1.  C.  a.  Note  1.  For  centuries  it  had  the  same  force  as  the  simple  present  tense  but  finally  differentiated  itself 
from  the  terse  forceful  simple  form  by  becoming  less  positive,  so  that  werden  came  to  be  felt  more  as  a  tnodal  than 
a  tense  auxiliary,  and  after  the  analogy  of  modal  auxiliaries  forms  its  present  perfect  tense  in  the  same  peculiar  way 
that  modal  auxiliaries  do  when  used  in  this  sense,  as  explained  in  212.  2.  e:  Damals  wird  der  Hund  sechs  Jahre  alt 
gewesen  sein  after  the  analogy  of  Damals  kann  or  muß  der  Hund  sechs  Jahre  alt  gewesen  sein.  Botli  the  present 
and  tlie  present  perfect  tenses  of  the  periphrasis  are  already  common  in  Luther's  language:  Da  werden  on  zweyffel 
die  heiligen  Engel  gewest  sein  Denn  wo  der  Vatter,  Son,  unnd  heiliger  Geist  sich  lassen  sehen  da  wirdt  das  gantze 
himlische  heer  müssen  sein'  (Luther's  Werke,  Lll,  p.  101)  See  G.  a.  Note  below.  Tlie  old  periphrastic  present  with 
schon  naturally  developed  a  different  force  in  accordance  with  the  meaning  of  schon. 

c.  In  North  German  popular  and  colloquial  language  there  is  often  used  in  lively  narrative 
a  form  which  is  exactly  like  the  future  but  seems  in  fact  to  rest  upon  the  dialectic  periphrasis  for 
the  present  tense  described  in  190.  1.  C.  a.  Note  1,  usually  alternating  with  a  simple  historical 
present  or  some  other  tense  that  points  to  the  past.  As  this  form  uniformly  refers  to  the  past 
it  is  evidently  a  historical  present,  if  it  is  in  fact  a  present:  Der  Herr  Schmidt  hatte  ja  wohl 
so  ein  zwanzig  oder  dreißig  letzten  Donnerstag  weggeschickt,  weil  sie  Sozialisten  waren,  und 
das  werden  sich  ja  die  andern  zu  Nutzen  machen  und  von  dem  Herrn  Schmidt  einen  ganz 
erschrecklichen  Lohn  fordern.  Na,  gnädige  Fräuleins,  der  Herr  Schmidt  wird  ja  wohl  die 
Rädelsführer  zur  Tür  hinauswerfen,  und  die  werden  mit  den  andern  in  hellen  Haufen  wieder- 
kommen, imi  den  Herrn  Schmidt  totzuschlagen,  als  der  Herr  Kapitän  in  der  Tür  steht  imd 


166. USES   OF  THE   FUTURE   PERFECT 215 

ein  paar  Pistolen  herauszieht;  und  da  werden  sie  ja  wohl  Fersengeld  geben!  Auf  dem  ganzen 
Hof  ist  seit  gestern  keine  Katze  nicht  mehr  (Spielhagen 's  Sturmflut,  p.  239).  Sometimes  even 
in  choice  prose  in  lively  narrative:  Dann  greift  er  den  Kleinen  am  Halse  und  nun  werden  die 
beiden  anfangen,  sich 'mitten  in  der  Stunde  regelrecht  zu  hauen  (Wildenbruch's  Das  edle  Blut, 
Sämtliche  Werke,  VI,  p.  100). 

6.  Future  Perfect.  The  future  perfect  tense  represents  that  an  action  or 
event  will  be  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  time  yet  future.  This  clumsy- 
form  has  not  yet  become  thoroly  established  in  common  usage,  where,  as  in 
older  periods,  the  present  perfect  is  still  much  used :  Wenn  er  diese  Bedingung 
nicht  vor  Morgen  erfüllt  haben  wird  (or  more  commonly  erfüllt  hat),  so  ist  der 
Vertrag  nichtig.  We  also  find  the  past  tense  instead  of  the  future  perfect, 
as  the  past  is  here  as  often  elsew^here  used  instead  of  the  present  perfect:  Hil- 
debrant:  Wie  lange  soll  der  Jammer  denn  noch  dauern?  Dietrich:  So  lange, 
furcht'  ich,  bis  der  letzte  fiel  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  III,  5.  1).  Es  ist  nicht 
das  letzte  Mal,  daß  ich  mich  hier  befand  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome,  chap.  vii). 
Das  Trudehen  war  da  ganz  gut  aufgehoben,  bis  wir  es  abholen  (id.,  Meister 
Autor,  chap.  vii).  Viel  gibt  es  nicht;  doch  nimm  damit  vorheb;  |  wir  hauen 
ein,  bis  nichts  mehr  übrig  blieb  (Fulda's  Talisman,  1,  5).  Wenn  der  Nebel 
verzog  und  die  Hörner  der  Sachsen  zum  Kampf  laden,  so  ruft  mich  (Lienhard's 
König  Arthur,  5).  Du  wirst  glücklicher  sein,  als  du  es  seit  Jahren  warst 
CHermann  Hesse's  Roßhalde). 

When  the  idea  of  completion  is  not  prominent  the  future  perfect  can  be  re- 
placed, as  in  oldest  German,  by  the  present,  which  here  as  in  older  periods  still 
often  has  future  force,  or  it  may  be  replaced  by  the  modern  future  tense:  So- 
bald  du  etwas  erfährst  or  erfahren  wirst,  telegraphiere. 

a.  Future  Perfect  for  Reference  to  the  Past.  Tho  not  common  in  the.  sense 
of  a  future  perfect,  the  future  perfect  form  is  often,  on  the  other  hand,  used  to 
express  probability  or  supposition,  to  represent  an  action  as  probably  finished, 
or  to  state  a  supposition  concerning  some  past  act,  often  accompanied  by  wohl: 
Er  wird  jetzt  wohl  geschrieben  haben  He  has  probably  written  by  this  time. 
Er  wird  wohl  der  Täter  gewesen  sein  He  was  probably  the  perpetrator.  Often 
in  interrogative  form,  especially  to  question  someone  on  some  well-known  past 
event  in  such  a  way  as  to  encourage  him  to  essay  an  answer:  Jakob  sah,  daß 
Getreide  in  Ägypten  feü  war.  Was  wird  er  da  zu  seinen  Söhnen  gesagt  haben? 
Hans,  in  welchem  Fluß  wird  Friedrich  Rotbart  den  Tod  gefunden  haben? 
In  the  interrogative  form  it  also  expresses  wonder:  Wo  wird  er  die  Nacht  zu- 
gebracht haben?  (Lessing's  Minna,  1,  1)  I  wonder  where  he  has  passed  the 
night.  Often  to  indicate  surprise  at  a  preceding  question  which  inquires  about 
something  that  ought  to  be  self-evident:  „Wo  bist  du  gestern  auf  einmal  hinge- 
kommen?" ,,Wo  werde  ich  hingekommen  sein?  Nach  Haus  gegangen  bin  ich, 
ausschlafen."     (Ertl's  Freiheit,  p.  324). 

Note  on  the  Origin  of  the  Future  Perfect.  Grammarians  generally  regard  the  tense  form  employed  in  these  sup- 
positions as  the  future  perfect,  but  to  the  author  this  theory  seems  untenable,  as  the  form  is  much  used  in  dialects 
where  the  future  perfect  is  unknown.  Moreover,  the  oldest  examples  of  the  form,  which  first  appear  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  almost  uniformly  point  to  the  past,  not  to  the  future,  just  as  in  colloquial  speech  of  to-day.  Luther,  whose 
expression  was  close  to  the  language  of  the  common  people,  is  very  fond  of  this  colloquial  form:  Es  ist  blut  |  die  Könige 
haben  sich  mit  dem  Schwert  verderbet  |  vnd  einer  wird  den  andern  geschlagen  haben  (2  Kings,  III.  23).  Thus 
the  form  seems  to  be  the  present  perfect  tense  corresponding  to  the  periphrastic  present  tense  used  in  suppositions, 
as  explained  in  5.  6.  Note  above.  Just  as  in  colloquial  speech  of  to-day  Luther  sometimes  used  the  same  form  with 
exactly  the  same  force  with  reference  to  the  future,  which,  however,  is  not  the  future  perfective  tense  of  our  gram- 
mars: Wenn  du  es  da  hyn  wilt  sparen  und  solchen  glawben  so  unversehens  und  schwind  überkommen,  so  wirstu 
zu  lang  geharret  haben  {Werke.  XIV,  p.  24)  If  you  desire  to  put  it  fi.e.  acquiring  of  faith)  off  until  then  (i.e.  until 
death)  and  then  all  at  once  assume  such  fi.e.  a  little  bit  of)  faith,  you  have  probably  waited  too  long,  not  you  will  have 
waited  too  long.  Just  as  in  the  colloquial  language  of  our  time  Luther  uses  the  regular  present  perfect  to  express 
the  usual  future  perfect  idea:  Und  [ich]  bitt'  euch  gar  freundhch,  wenn  ihr  mich  getödtet  habt,  das  yhr  mich  ya 
nicht  Widder  auff  wecket  (ib.  XV,  p.  2.54).  Grammarians  usually  regard  the  future  perfect  form  with  werden 
as  a  real  future  perfect  with  the  literal  value  of  each  word  of  the  compound  as  used  to-day  in  the  literary  language: 
In  einer  halben  Stunde  werde  ich  die  Arbeit  getan  haben  In  half  an  hour  I  shall  have  completed  the  work,  lit.  shall 
have  the  work  completed.  In  M.H.G.  in  the  few  cases  where  a  real  future  perfect  occurs  we  find  sollen  instead  of 
werden.  Sollen  may  have  been  replaced  here  by  werden  just  as  in  the  future  tense,  as  explained  in  190.  1.  Ca.  Note  2. 
Such  examples  as  the  last  one  are  probably  real  future  perfects,  but  they  rarely  occur  except  in  learned  speech  and 
have  nothing  in  common  with  expressions  of  the  same  form  so  common  in  colloquial  and  popular  speech. 

Mood. 

166.  Mood  is  a  grammatical  form  denoting  the  style  or  manner  of  predica- 
tion.    There  are  three  moods  in  German,  the  indicative,  subjunctive,  and  im- 


216 GENERAL  MEANING  OF  IXDIC.  &  SUBJUNCT. 166. 

perative.  These  moods  are  used  much  as  they  are  in  EngHsh.  In  German 
as  in  EngHsh  the  indicative  represents  something  as  a  fact  or  as  in  close  rela- 
tions to  reahty:  A  fact:  Die  Sonne  geht  jeden  Morgen  auf  The  sun  rises  every 
morning.  In  close  relations  to  reality:  Ich  gehe  nicht,  wenn  es  regnet  /  shall 
not  go  if  it  rains.  The  indicative  here  in  both  English  and  German  does  not 
state  that  it  is  raining  but  indicates  that  the  idea  of  rain  is  not  a  mere  con- 
ception but  something  close  to  reality,  for  the  speaker  feels  it  as  an  actual 
problem  in  his  day's  program  with  which  he  must  reckon  and  is  reckoning. 
Jn  English  we  sometimes  use  the  present  subjunctive  here,  if  it  rain,  which 
however  marks  the  idea  of  rain  as  a  mere  conception,  as  something  not  felt 
as  close  to  us.  In  both  English  and  German  we  can  by  the  use  of  the  past 
subjunctive  indicate  that  the  idea  of  rain  seems  far  off  and  quite  unreal,  so  that 
we  are  not  reckoning  with  it  at  all:  Ich  ginge  nicht,  wenn  es  regnete  /  shouldn't 
oo  if  it  rained.  Compare  169.  2.  K.Note  2  and  171.  2.  B./.  Grammarians  are 
wont  to  talk  about  the  sloven  use  of  the  indicative  and  the  slighting  of  the 
subjunctive  in  current  English  and  German,  while  in  fact  the  increasing  use 
of  the  indicative  doesn't  indicate  carelessness  but  rather  a  change  in  our  way 
of  thinking.  To-day  we  decidedly  prefer  to  look  at  many  things  not  as  mere 
conceptions  but  as  things  near  to  us,  as  actual  problems  with  which  we  must 
deal.  The  indicative  is  never  a  substitute  for  the  subjunctive  but  is  always 
felt  as  an  indicative.  Even  when  used  as  an  imperative  (177.  I.  B.  c)  it  does 
not  lose  its  old  indicative  character,  for  it  represents  the  command  as  executed, 
the  desired  act  as  an  actuality. 

The  imperative  is  discussed  in  177.  I.  A  and  B,  the  subjunctive  in  the  fol- 
lowing articles. 

Subjunctive. 

167.  The  original  idea  of  the  Germanic  subjunctive  may  have  been  optative, 
as  explained  in  169.  2.  K.Note  5.  The  basal  idea  of  the  German  subjunctive 
as  employed  in  the  historic  period  is  to  represent  something  as  not  actually 
belonging  to  the  domain  of  fact  or  reality  but  as  merely  existent  in  the  mind 
of  the  speaker  as  a  desire,  wish,  volition,  plan,  conception,  thought,  statement 
of  another,  sometimes  with  more  or  less  hope  of  realization  or  in  case  of  a  state- 
ment with  more  or  less  belief,  sometimes  with  little  or  no  hope  or  faith.  The 
different  uses  of  the  subjunctive  may  for  practical  reasons  be  classified  under 
two  general  heads,  which  are  here  only  briefly  outlined,  but  which  will  be  treated 
at  considerable  length  in  the  following  articles:  (1)  the  optative  subjunctive, 
which  represents  the  utterance  as  something  which  is  desired  or  planned,  a 
present  tense  form  indicating  hope  of  fulfilment,  a  past  tense  form  indicating 
little  or  no  hope  of  fulfilment.  By  using  a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive 
and  thus  indicating  that  one  does  not  count  upon  the  fulfilment  of  one's  wish 
one  can  avoid  a  blunt  expression  of  will,  so  that  the  past  tense  subjunctive 
forms  often  lose  in  large  measure  the  element  of  unreality  and  are  used  to 
express  modestly  an  earnest  wish  or  appeal,  where  it  may  be  called  the  sub- 
junctive of  modest  wish.  (2)  The  potential  subjunctive,  which  represents  the 
statement  not  as  an  actual  fact  but  only  as  a  conception  of  the  mind,  a  present 
tense  form  indicating  that  the  speaker  or  writer  feels  the  conception  as  prob- 
ably conforming  to  fact  or  reality,  or  regards  the  occurrence  of  the  act  in  ques- 
tion as  probable,  sometimes  however  indicating  doubt  as  to  the  matter  of  fact 
or  the  occurrence  of  the  act,  a  past  tense  form  indicating  decided  doubt  as  to  the 
matter  of  fact  and  pronounced  improbability  as  to  the  occurrence  of  the  act. 
By  clothing  one's  thoughts  in  the  language  of  doubt  and  uncertainty  one  can 
avoid  a  blunt  expression  of  one's  opinion,  so  that  the  past  tense  forms  of  the 
potential  subjunctive  often  lose  in  large  measure  the  element  of  doubt  and 
uncertainty  and  are  much  used  to  state  an  opinion  or  seek  information  modestly, 
politely,  or  cautiously  in  a  less  positive  and  abrupt  way  than  in  the  indicative. 
This  is  the  polite  subjunctive  or  the  subjunctive  of  modest  or  cautious  statement. 
Out  of  the  potential  subjunctive  there  has  also  developed  more  or  less  clearly 


168.  I.  1.  B.  PRESENT   TENSE   OPTATIVE    FORMS 2r7 

the  subjunctive  of  indirect  statement,  which  is  employed  not  to  represent  the 
statement  as  merely  conceived,  but  to  indicate  indirectness  of  statement.  For 
illustrative  examples  see  168.  II.  F.  c.  (2)  and  G.  a.  (2),  2nd  par.  and  h;  169. 
2.  _G.  a.  (2),  3rd  par.;  171.  1,  2nd  and  3rd  par.  In  the  following  discussion 
this  subjunctive  is  treated  under  the  head  of  the  potential  with  which  it  is 
closely  connected.  This  subjunctive  of  indirect  statement  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse  treated  in  170  and  171,  which 
is  a  broader  category  including  also  the  optative  and  potential  ideas. 

The  tense  employed  is  often  a  point  of  vital  importance  to  the  meaning, 
and  hence  instead  of  grouping  the  different  uses  of  the  subjunctive  under  these 
two  leading  heads  the  different  heads  are  treated  under  the  different  tenses. 
The  two  following  groups  stand  out  in  general  quite  distinctly  from  each  other: 
1.  Present  tense  forms,  namely  the  present,  present  perfect,  future  perfect,  i.e.  the 
simple  present  subjunctive  or  a  compound  form  containing  an  auxiliary  in  the 
present  subjunctive.  2.  Past  tense  forms,  namely  the  past,  past  perfect,  past 
periphrastic  (würde  loben),  and  past  perfect  periphrastic  (würde  gelobt  haben), 
i.e.  the  simple  past  subjunctive  or  a  compound  form  containing  an  auxiliary 
in  the  past  subjunctive.  The  different  tenses  within  each  group  mark  different 
distinctions  of  time,  but  the  tenses  of  one  group  as  compared  with  those  of  the 
other  group  do  not  mark  different  distinctions  of  time  but  differ  only  in  the 
manner  in  which  they  represent  the  statement.  Thus  the  present  and  the  past 
subjunctive  both  denote  present  time,  but  they  usually  differ  in  the  manner  of 
the  statement.  Likewise  the  present  perfect  and  the  past  perfect  subjunctive 
both  denote  past  time  but  differ  in  the  manner  of  the  statement.  The  dis- 
tinctions of  manner  are  indicated  briefly  above  and  are  explained  at  considerable 
length  in  the  following  articles. 

The  Subjunctive  of  Present  Tense  Forms. 

168.  The  subjunctive  of  present  tense  forms  (see  167.  2nd  par.)  represents 
the  statement  not  as  an  actual  fact,  but  yet  as  a  desire  so  reasonable  that  it  is 
entertained  with  hopes  of  realization,  or  it  represents  the  statement  as  a  mere 
conception  of  the  mind  but  yet  indicating  that  the  speaker  or  writer  feels  it  as 
probably  conforming  to  fact  or  reality  or  regards  the  occurrence  of  the  act  in 
question  as  probable.  The  special  cases  under  these  general  heads  are  the 
following: 

I.  Optative  Subjunctive.  A  present  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  Is  used 
in  the  following  expressions  of  will: 

1.     In  principal  propositions: 

A.  Volitive  Subjunctive.  The  present  subjunctive  is  much  used  in  decided 
expressions  of  will — the  volitive  subjunctive.  In  principal  propositions  it  is 
often  employed  to  complete  the  wanting  forms  of  the  imperative.  See  177. 
I.A. 

B.  Sangtiine  Subjunctive  of  Wish.  A  present  subjunctive  is  often  used  to 
express  a  wish  which  in  all  probability  may  be  realized:  Lange  lebe  der  König 
Long  may  the  king  live.  Gebe  Gott  may  God  grant.  So  sei  es  Let  it  be  thus. 
Das  walte  Gott  May  God  see  to  it.  Geh'  es  Ihnen  gut!  (Wilbrandt's  Die 
Tochter  des  Fabricius,  1,  10).  This  wish,  however,  is  more  commonly,  except 
in  a  few  set  expressions  as  the  foregoing,  expressed  by  the  subjunctive  of  mögen 
or  more  modestly  wollen  with  a  dependent  infinitive:  Möge  es  mir  nun  vergönnt 
sein,  das  Begonnene  zu  Ende  zu  führen  (Wilmanns's  Deutsche  Grammatik, 
Vorrede).  O  teure  Herrin,  eher  mög'  ich  sterben,  eh'  sich  in  meinen  Busen 
I  solch  ein  Gedanke  dränge  (Wilamowitz-Moellendorff's  Griechische  Tragödien, 
I.  p.  144).  Gottes  Gnade  wolle  mit  Euch  sein  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Oct.  1, 
1850).  Wollen  is  often  used  to  one's  readers  or  listeners  as  a  polite  admonition 
to  pay  especial  attention  to  some  particular  point:  Auch  wolle  man  nicht  über- 
sehen, daß  usw.  I  also  beg  that  you  may  not  overlook  the  fact  that,  &c.     Earlier 


218 PRESENT  TENSE  OPTATIVE  FORMS 168.  I.  1.  B. 

in  the  period  müssen  was  used  where  mögen  is  now  employed  and  in  a  narrower 
sense  it  is  still  found  in  wishes  as  described  in  213.  4.  c. 

a.  In  A  and  B  normal,  or  more  commonly  question  or  inverted  order  may  stand:  Er  lebe 
hoch!  (used  in  toasts  and  cries  of  approval).  Hoi'  ihn  der  Teufel!  May  the  devil  take  him! 
Es  lebe  die  Freiheit!  Er  möge  or  möge  er  voUkoroinen  glücklich  werden!  Of  course  the 
sentence  has  inverted  order  if  it  begins  with  an  adverb:  Lange  lebe  der  König!  When  the  force 
of  the  utterance  becomes  a  little  more  vigorous  and  approaches  a  i)olite  request  with  \-olitive 
force  the  normal  order  is  usually  employed:  Das  möge  nicht  dahin  mißverstanden  werden, 
als  sei  eine  bloße  Hypothese  von  Haeckel  (name)  in  unwissenschaftlicher  Weise  als  richtig 
angenommen  worden  (Adolf  Koelsch  in  Frankfurt.  Zeit.,  Feb.  15,  1914). 

b.  Sometimes,  tho  much  more  rarely  than  the  pres.  tense,  the  present  perfect  is  used  in 
wishes.  It  is  employed  to  express  the  wish  that  some  desired  result  may  be  accomplished  in 
the  future:  Doch  er  habe  |  umsonst  sich  der  Verdammnis  übergeben!  (Schiller's  Jungfrau, 
2,  2)  May  he  in  vain  have  given  himself  over  to  perdition !  "Was  hier  geschehn,  es  sei  in  Traum 
zerfallen!  (Grillparzer's  Libussa,  Act  1)  May  that  which  has  happened  here  soon  have  become 
nothing  but  a  dream! 

C.  The  Subjunctive  of  Logical  Reasoning.  The  present  subjunctive  is  much 
used  in  logical  reasoning  in  laying  down  one  or  more  desired  propositions,  from 
which  conclusions  are  to  be  drawn:  Die  Figur  a  b  c  sei  ein  gleichschenkliges 
Dreieck;  b  d  sei  ein  Lot  auf  der  Grundlinie  Let  the  figure  a  b  c  be  an  isosceles 
triangle  and  b  d  a  perpendicular  line  on  the  base,  &c. 

2.     In  subordinate  clauses: 

A.  Concessive  Subjunctive.  The  present  subjunctive  is  used  in  subordinate 
clauses  with  the  force  of  a  weakened  volitive  to  concede,  .grant,  admit  that 
something  may  be  true,  but  the  indicative  in  the  main  clause,  on  the  other  hand 
afifirms  that  the  assertion  of  the  main  clause  is,  in  spite  of  this  admission,  to  be 
maintained  and  defended:  Der  Berg  sei. auch  noch  so  hoch,  or  Sei  der  Berg 
auch  noch  so  hoch  (or  quite  commonly  Ist  der  Berg  auch  noch  so  hoch,  or 
Mag  der  Berg  auch  noch  so  hoch  sein,  or  Der  Berg  mag  auch  noch  so  hoch  sein), 
ich  ersteige  ihn  Be  the  mountain  (or  Altho  the  mountain  be,  or  Let  the  moun- 
tain be)  ever  so  high,  I  will  climb  it.  Nein,  es  gibt  kein  Wiederfinden,  heiße 
es  Himmel  oder  Hölle  (Wiesner's  Die  schwarze  Daine).  Wo  der  Berg  auch 
hege  (or  quite  commonly  liegen  mag,  or  liegt),  ich  ersteige  ihn.  Man  kann 
es  ihm  nicht  recht  machen,  was  man  auch  tue,  tun  mag,  or  tut.  Welche  Ent- 
scheidung auch  hier  gefaßt  werde  (also  gefaßt  werden  mag,  or  gefaßt  wird), 
sie  wird  niemals  eine  Schande  sein  für  die  Versammlung  (v.  Gagern,  Frankfurter 
Nationalversammlung).  Was  immer  du  seist,  ich  glaube,  wir  werden  heut 
nicht  spielen  (Schnitzler's  Der  grüne  Kakadu,  p.  118).  Er  komme  oder  komme 
nicht,  mir  ist  es  (or  es  ist  mir)  gleichgültig,  or  Komme  er  nun  oder  komme  er 
nicht,  mir  ist  es  (or  es  ist  mir)  gleichgültig  Whether  he  comes  or  not,  it's  all  the 
same  to  me.  The  auxiliary  können  is  also  used,  but  is  not  so  common  as  mögen: 
Das  mag  or  (here  and  in  similar  expressions,  but  not  freely)  kann  wohl  wahr 
sein,  es  ändert  doch  nichts  an  der  Sache.  The  imperative  of  lassen  is  some- 
times used  here:  Es  hat's  niemand  gesagt,  aber  laß  es  jemand  gesagt  haben, 
or  laß  es  gesagt  [worden]  sein,  was  kümmert's  mich? 

o.  Note  that  the  word-order  in  the  concessive  clause  is  either  normal  or  question  order, 
if  not  introduced  by  a  conjunction,  relative  pronoun,  or  relative  adverb,  in  which  cases  the 
transposed  order  is  of  course  used.  However,  if  the  auxiliary-  köimen  is  used  instead  of  mögen, 
normal  or  inverted  order  is  usually  employed.  The  use  of  the  normal  or  question  order  indi- 
cates clearly  that  the  clause  was  originally  an  independent  proposition.  It  has  retained  its 
original  form,  altho  it  has  become  logically  subordinate. 

After  a  conjunction,  as  obgleich,  <S:c.,  the  mood  is  usually  indicative:  Obgleich  ich  ihn  seit 
langem  nicht  gesehen  hatte,  erkannte  ich  ihn  doch  augenblicklich.  Occasionally  the  sub- 
junctive appears  here  in  accordance  with  older  usage:  Und  ob  die  Wolke  sie  verhülle,  die  Soime 
bleibt  am  Himmelszelt  (Weber's  Freisclnltz,  III,  2).  In  rather  choice  language  the  subjunctive 
of  mögen  is  found  instead  of  the  indicative  when  the  normal  or  question  order  is  used:  Er  will 
unter  allen  Umständen  die  Wahrheit  wissen,  möge  sie  lauten  wie  sie  wolle  (Bellermann 's 
ScJiillers  Dramen,  p.  226). 

B.  Sanguine  Subjunctive  of  Purpose.  This  subjunctive  of  purpose  represents 
the  statement  only  as  desired  or  planned,  but  implies  the  expectation  that  the 
desire  or  plan  will  be  realized.  It  expresses  various  shades  of  the  volitive 
subjunctive  and  the  sanguine  subjunctive  of  wish  described  in  1.  A  and  B. 
It  is  found: 


168.  I.  2.  B.  (3).  b.      PRESENT  TENSE  OPTATIVE  FORMS 219 

(1)  In  object  clauses  after  verbs  of  advising,  beseeching,  warning,  wish- 
ing, willing,  demanding,  taking  care,  seeing  to,  &c.,  which  of  themselves 
indicate  a  purpose  or  design:  Sie  verlangt,  daß  er  komme  (or  more  commonly 
kommt),  or  kommen  solle  (or  more  commonly  soll),  but  Sie  verlangte,  daß  er 
käme  or  kommen  sollte.  Sie  bittet,  daß  er  kommen  möge,  but  Sie  bat,  daß 
er  kommen  möchte.  Ich  wünsche,  daß  ich  in  diesem  ernsten  Streben  zur 
Förderung  dieser  Aufgabe  nach  meinem  Teile  etwas  beigetragen  haben  möge 
(Bornhak's  Grammatik  der  deutschen  Sprache,  Vorwort).  For  use  of  tenses  and 
auxiliaries  here  see  171.  4.  a.  Compare  h  below.  The  idea  of  willing,  &c.  is 
often  not  expressed  at  all,  but  implied  in  the  governing  verb:  Und  außerdem 
schreibst  du  ihm,  daß  er  mir  seine  Photographie  und  die  deiner  Schwestern 
schicke  (Raabe's  Horn  von  Wanza,  chap.  viii).  Often  in  subject  and  attribu- 
tive Substantive  clauses,  especially  where  the  idea  of  willing,  &c.  is  contained 
in  a  noun:  Es  ist  mein  Wunsch,  daß  er  gleich  komme.  Meister  Richwin  hatte 
zu  Hause  den  strengsten  Befehl  gegeben,  daß  man  den  Hund  wohl  eingesperrt 
halte  (Riehl's  Der  stumme  Ratsherr,  II). 

(2)  In  adverbial  clauses  after  other  verbs,  if  the  subordinate  clause  itself 
expresses  the  purpose  of  the  action  of  the  principal  verb:  Er  bindet  den  Baum 
an,  damit  er  gerade  wachse  (in  choice  language),  or  more  commonly  wächst, 
but  Er  band  den  Baum  an,  damit  er  gerade  wüchse.     Compare  b  below. 

(3)  In  choice  language  also  in  relative  clauses  expressing  a  purpose,  and  in 
early  N.H.G.  after  the  temporal  conjunctions  bis  and  ehe:  Schickt  einen 
sichern  Boten  ihm  entgegen,  der  auf  geheimem  Weg  ihn  zu  mir  führe  (Schil- 
ler). Und  nun  male  einen  Pfeil,  der  hinüberweise  nach  der  andern  Seite 
(H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap,  xxxvi)  And  now  draw  an  arrow 
which  will  point  to  the  other  side.  Vmb  Zion  willen  so  will  ich  nicht  schweigen 
I  vnd  vmb  Jerusalem  willen  so  will  ich  nicht  inne  halten  |  Bis  das  jre  Gerechtig- 
keit aufgehe  wie  ein  glantz  |  vnd  jr  Heil  entbrenne  wie  eine  Fackel  (Isa.  Ixii.  1). 
For  ehe  see  Psalm  xxxix.  14.  Sometimes  still  in  choice  language  after  bis, 
provided  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposition  is  in  a  past  tense,  or  the  prin- 
cipal proposition  is  in  negative  or  interrogative  form:  Das  junge  Brautpaar 
machte  heut'  gewissermaßen  die  Honneurs  des  Hauses  und  stand  wartend, 
bis  alles  Platz  genommen  habe  (Jensen's  Jenseits  des  Wassers,  V).  O  Gott! 
Du  willst  nicht  warten,  bis  die  Zeit  mich  schuldlos  spreche?  (Wilamowitz- 
Moellendorff's  Griechische  Tragödien,  I,  p.  170).  Sometimes  also  after  ehe, 
if  it  follows  a  proposition  containing  another  optative:  O  teure  Herrin,  eher 
mög'  ich  sterben,  eh'  sich  in  meinen  Busen  |  solch  ein  Gedanke  dränge    (ib. 

1,  p.  144).  Sometimes  when  dependent  upon  an  imperative:  Teile  ihm  deinen 
Wunsch  mit,  ehe  er  ihn  durchs  Gerücht  erfahre  (K.  G.  Andresen's  Sprach- 
gebrauch, p.  127).  Eh'  sich  dies  Land  dem  Sieger  unterwerfe  (in  rime  with 
Schärfe),  |  stehet  uns  Rede,  wer  ihr  seid!  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern, 

2,  11). 

a.  This  subjunctive  is  much  used  in  indirect  discourse  after  the  verbs  in  (1),  but  it  must 
be  noticed  that  after  a  past  tense  it  is  itself  often  attracted  into  a  past  tense  (see  169.  1.  C.  a). 
Thus  Hke  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  in  general  its  form  fluctuates  after  a  past  tense 
between  that  of  a  present  tense  and  that  of  a  past  tense,  but  without  any  difference  in  meaning. 

b.  After  the  verbs  and  nouns  in  (1)  the  indicative  is  now  in  lively  language,  especially  in  the 
North,  often  employed  after  a  present  tense  to  indicate  that  the  expression  of  will  is  not  felt 
as  a  mere  wish  or  intention,  but  as  an  actual  factor  in  the  situation  on  which  the  subject  is  count- 
ing, or  the  indicative  is  used  because  a  wish  or  intention  is  so  vividly  conceived  that  it  is  felt 
more  as  an  actuality,  as  realized,  than  as  a  mere  idea:  Ich  muß  denn  durchaus  darauf  bestehen, 
daß  nichts  dergleichen  geschieht  (O.  Ernst's  Die  Kunstreise  nach  Hümpeldorf,  p.  25).  Ich 
wünsche  allen  von  Herzen,  daß  jeder  mit  den  ihm  zu  Gebote  stehenden  Mitteln  geistiger  und 
materieller  Art  sein  Ziel  erreicht  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Krafß,  I.  1).  If  the  principal  verb  refers 
to  past  time,  the  dependent  verb  which  has  a  force  that  is  future  to  the  subject  of  the  main  verb 
often  in  the  tone  of  lively  narrative  assumes  the  form  of  the  past  tense:  Und  diese  Furcht  vor 
den  Menschen  erschien  ihr  so  natürlich,  so  notwendig — so  zugehörig  zu  ihrem  Schicksal.  Wie 
konnte  er  verlangen,  daß  sie  frei  davon  war  (H.  Böhlau).  Aber  dein  Vater  und  deine  Groß- 
mutter wollten  nun  doch  einmal  nicht,  daß  Darnekow  verkauft  wurde  (Enking's  Die  Darnekower, 

^  p.  52).     Nachdem  wir  einmal  auf  die  mitteleuropäische  Karte  den  Krieg  gewagt  hatten,  hätte 
es  unsere  vornehmste  Sorge  sein  müssen,  daß  das  Problem  „Österreich"  gelöst  wurde  (Dr.  W. 


220 PRESENT  TENSE  OPTATIVE  FORMS      168.  I.  2.  B.  (3).  h. 

Schotte  in  Preußische  Jahrbücher,  1921,  p.  1).  Instead  of  war  and  wurde  we  more  commonly 
find  the  subjunctive  here,  which  is  well  preserved  after  a  past  tense,  usually  a  past  tense  form 
according  to  the  old  sequence  (171.  2.  A),  i.e.  wäre  in  the  first  example  and  würde  in  the  second 
and  third  examples,  but  often  also  a  present  tense  form  according  to  the  new  sequence  (171. 
2.  B),  i.e.  here  sei  and  werde.     Compare  171.  4.  a  and  169  1.  C.  a. 

The  subjunctive  in  (2)  has  been  gradually  declining.  At  present  the  indicative  is  very  often 
used  instead  of  the  subjunctive,  especially  colloquially  in  the  North  after  a  present  tense,  as  the 
present  tendency  is  to  look  forward  and  imagine  the  design  as  accomplished  rather  than  to 
regard  the  statement  as  merely  planned:  Soil  ich  den  Gemeinen  Heiderieter  (name)  zurück- 
schicken, daß  er  die  Alarmkanone  löst?  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  chap.  i).  Sie  möchte 
etwas  recht  Hübsches  sagen,  damit  man  freundlich  mit  ihr  ist  (H.  Böhlau).  Es  war'  doch 
gut,  wenn  er  es  bald  erfährt,  damit  ihm  der  Mund  gestopft  ist  (Hirschfeld's  Agnes  Jordan,  5). 
If  the  principal  verb  refers  to  past  time,  the  dependent  verb  which  has  a  force  that  is  future  to 
the  subject  of  the  main  verb  often  in  the  tone  of  lively  narrative  assumes  the  form  of  the  past 
tense:  Da  begannen  die  Menschen  des  Ackers  zu  warten,  damit  er  ihnen  im  Herbst  ihre  Nahrung 
und  Notdurft  gab  (Enking's  Die  Darnekoiver,  p.  162)  (instead  of  gäbe).  Die  Rambergs,  deine 
lieben  Vettern  und  Vormünder,  haben  die  Traute  an  Grobitzsch  verkuppelt.  Einfach  ver- 
kuppelt —  nach  allen  Regeln  der  Kunst  —  jawohl!  —  damit  du  frei  wurdest  und  dich  verloben 
konntest  (Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  2,  7).  Instead  of  wurdest  and  konntest  we  more  commonly 
find  the  subjunctive  here,  which  is  well  preserved  after  a  past  tense,  usually  a  past  tense  form 
according  to  the  old  sequence  (171.  2.  A),  i.e.  here  würdest  and  könntest,  but  often  also  a  present 
tense  form  according  to  the  new  sequence  (171.  2.  B),  i.e.  here  werdest  and  könnest.  Com- 
pare 169.  1.  C.  a. 

The  subjunctive  in  (3)  is  now  largely  replaced  by  the  indicative  in  colloquial  language,  as 
the  things  in  question  are  now  not  felt  as  mere  conceptions  of  the  mind  but  as  actual  factors  in 
the  situation  which  must  be  considered  and  dealt  with. 

C.  Optative  in  Conditions.  The  optative  subjunctive  occurs  here  in  two 
forms : 

a.  Instead  of  a  subordinate  clause  with  wenn  we  may  use  a  clause  with  a 
volitive  subjunctive,  which  has  normal  order  and  was  originally  independent, 
but  has  become  logically  subordinate:  Einer  trage  des  andern  Last  |  so  werdet 
jr  das  gesetz  Christi  erfüllen  (Gal.  vi.  2).  Bald,  es  kenne  nur  jeder  den  eigenen, 
gönne  dem  andern  |  seinen  Vorteil,  so  ist  ewiger  Friede  gemacht  (Goethe's 
Vier  Jahreszeiten,  74). 

b.  A  volitive  subjunctive  often  stands  in  a  proviso  after  nur  daß  hut  let  it  he, 
on  condition  that :  Ich  seh'  es  gern,  das  steht  dir  frei,  nur  daß  die  Kunst  gefällig 
sei  (Goethe's  Faust,  Studierzimmer). 

D.  Optative  in  Relative  Clauses.  This  subjunctive  is  found  in  the  following 
groups : 

a.  Volitive  Subjunctive.  A  relative  clause  often  contains  a  volitive  sub- 
junctive, which  is  translated  into  English  by  we  wish,  it  is  desired,  &c.  Von 
dem  Erbeschen  Heftchen:  „Verdeutschung  der  Kunstausdrücke  in  der 
Schule"  ist  ein  Neudruck  notwendig  geworden  und  wird  demnächst  ausge- 
geben, worauf  alle  Mitglieder  und  Freunde  des  Allgemeinen  deutschen  Sprach- 
vereins aufmerksam  gemacht  seien  to  ivhich  we  especially  desire  to  call  the  at- 
tention of  all  the  members,  &c. 

b.  A  sanguine  subjunctive  of  wish  is  also  used  here  to  express  a  wish:  miser 
König,  den  Gott  erhalte  our  king,  whom,  we  pray,  God  may  keep.  Also  in  clauses 
with  reference  to  the  thought  in  another  clause:  Was  würden  wir  tun,  wenn  — 
was  Gott  verhüte  (or  verhüten  möge) — ein  Unglück  geschehen  sollte?  If 
some  misfortune  should  occur — which,  however,  I  hope  God  may  prevent — 
what  should  we  do?  More  modestly  with  wollen:  So  vertrauen  wir  der  ewigen 
Allmacht,  die  unsere  Abwehr  stärken  und  zu  gutem  Ende  lenken  wolle  (Em- 
peror William  II  to  the  Reichstag  Aug.  4,  1914). 

c.  For  a  subjunctive  of  purpose  in  relative  clauses  see  B.  (3)  above. 

E.  Optative  in  Substantive  Clauses: 

a.  The  volitive  subjunctive  not  infrequently  occurs  in  substantive  clauses 
as  already  described  in  part  in  B.  (1)  above: 

(1)  In  subject  clauses:  Es  ist  billig,  daß  man  ihn  unterstütze  (=  man  unter- 
stütze ihn  let  the  people  help  him)  It  is  fair  that  the  people  help  him.  Es  geziemt 
dem  Manne,  daß  er  auch  das  Schwerste  willig  tue  ( =  er  tue  auch  das  Schwerste 
willig).  Das  Geringste  ist,  daß  der  Rechtsunterricht  von  dieser  Fessel  befreit 
werde  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Jan,  19,  1905)  The  least  that  should  be  done 


168.  H.A.  PRESENT  TENSE  POTENTIAL  FORMS 221 

is  that,  &c.  The  indicative  to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  fulfilment:  Das 
Wichtigste  ist,  daß  das  Vertrauen  zu  uns  wieder  hergestellt  wird  (Kurt  Eisner, 
speech  Nov.  30,  1918). 

(2)  In  object  clauses:  Er  verdient  es,  daß  man  ihn  unterstütze,  but  to  ex- 
press a  simple  fact:  daß  man  ihn  unterstützt. 

b.     Sanguine  Subjunctive  of  wish: 

(1)  In  subject  clauses:  Daß  du  an  unserer  Freude  teilnehmest,  ist  unser 
inniger  Wunsch.  Mein  letzter  Wunsch  aber  ist:  möge  das  ungemein  reiche 
Buch  recht  eifrig  benutzt  werden!  (Otto  Weidenmüller  in  Die  Negieren  Sprachen, 
1916,  p.  186). 

(2)  In  object  clauses:  Seine  Persönlichkeit  und  seine  Vergangenheit  ver- 
dienen es,  daß  sein  Gedächtnis  lebendig  bleibe  (Hamb.  Nachr.,  Nov.  10,  1904). 

F.  Optative  in  Adverbial  Clauses.  This  subjunctive  is  occasionally  used 
here  in  categories  other  than  those  previously  described,  especially  after  so 
wahr  and  so  (=  wenn):  In  meinen  Armen  will  ich  dich  durch  das  Leben  tra- 
gen, so  wahr  Gott  mir  helfe  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus  dem  Walde,  chap.  x).  Nein, 
nein,  so  Gott  mir  helfe  (Storm's  Chronik  von  Grieshiius,  p.  110). 

IL     Potential  Subjunctive. 

The  potential  subjunctive  of  present  tense  forms  represents  the  statement 
as  a  mere  conception,  but  yet  as  something  which  is  quite  probable,  plausible, 
supposable,  or  as  credible,  but  yet  as  only  resting  upon  the  testimony  of  others, 
or  upon  the  subjective  view  of  the  speaker.  This  potential  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  unreal  potential  (see  169.  2)  of  past  tense  forms,  which  repre- 
sents on  the  other  hand  the  statement  as  barely  possible,  quite  doubtful,  or  even 
as  in  conflict  with  fact  or  impossible.  In  the  present  period  of  the  language 
the  tendency  is  to  observe  this  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  of  present 
tense  forms  and  that  of  past  tense  forms;  but,  as  will  be  seen  below,  there 
are  still  many  survivals  of  an  earlier  usage,  which  always,  irrespective  of  the 
meaning,  required,  as  at  present  in  English,  a  past  tense  form  of  the  subordinate 
verb,  whenever  it  depended  upon  a  past  tense  form:  Er  sagte,  er  sei  krank, 
or  often  placing  the  tense  of  the  subordinate  clause  in  accord  with  that  of 
the  principal  clause:  Er  sagte,  er  wäre  krank.  The  thought  in  both  of  these 
sentences  is  exactly  the  same,  but  in  other  sentences  a  sharp  distinction  is  often 
made  between  present  and  past  of  the  subjunctive,  the  former  expressing  a 
probability,  the  latter  an  improbability  of  the  truth  of  the  statement.  The 
tendency  to  distinguish  between  present  and  past  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive 
is  stronger  than  the  tendency  to  place  the  tense  of  the  subordinate  verb  in 
accord  with  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb,  but  as  this  growing  tendency  has 
not  yet  gained  a  complete  victory,  there  is  some  confusion. 

The  potential  subjunctive  of  present  tense  forms  is  now  only  employed  in  sub- 
ordinate clauses,  but  it  has  nevertheless  a  wide  field  of  usefulness,  as  will  be 
seen  in  the  following  detailed  statement  of  its  uses: 

A.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse.  The  potential  subjunctive  of  present 
tense  forms  is  used  in  indirect  discourse  after  verbs  of  saying,  thinking,  feeling, 
&c.,  to  represent  the  indirect  statement  in  the  subordinate  clause  not  as  an  actual 
fact,  but  only  as  a  conception,  as  something  conceived  as  probable  or  plausible 
by  the  speaker  or  writer,  thus  sometimes  indicating  his  own  individual  opinion 
or  feeling,  sometimes,  however,  suggesting  a  doubt  in  his  mind:  Titus  pflegte 
zu  sagen,  der  Tag,  an  welchem  er  nichts  Gutes  tue,  sei  für  ihn  verloren.  Ich 
zweifle  noch,  ob  er  der  rechte  Mann  hierfür  sei. 

This  subjunctive  often  differs  markedly  from  other  forms  of  the  potential, 
as  it  is  frequently  no  longer  a  potential  pure  and  simple,  but  is  often  merely 
a  grammatical  form  to  express  indirectness  of  statement.  See  G.  a.  (2),  2nd 
par.,  and  b  below.  The  subjunctive  in  this  use  has  a  broad  field,  not  being 
confined  to  one  grammatical  category,  and  hence  may  reappear  in  a  number  of 
the  following  groups.  It  should,  however,  be  carefully  noticed  that  this  sub- 
junctive may  not  only  differ  in  each  category  from  the  other  potential  in  the 
same  category  in  its  lack  of  real  potential  character,  but  also  in  its  much  greater 


222 PRESENT   TENSE    POTENTIAL    FORMS  168.  II.  A. 

frequency  of  use,  as  it  has  become  very  productive  in  its  employment  as  a  formal 
indication  of  indirect  statement. 

This  use  of  the  subjunctive  and  the  similar  use  in  indirect  questions  are  the 
most  common  in  the  language,  and  are  treated  at  considerable  length  in  171-173. 

B.  Clauses  of  Manner.  The  potential  subjunctive  is  very  much  used  in 
these  clauses  to  indicate  that  the  comparison  rests  upon  plausible  grounds,  or 
is  the  subjective  view  of  the  speaker:  Es  scheint  mir,  als  ob  er  früher  nicht 
fleißig  gewesen  sei,  als  ob  er  jetzt  aber  recht  fleißig  sei.  Es  war  ihm,  als 
höre  er  noch  einmal  durch  den  Regen  und  Wind  den  Nachtwächter  von  Wanza 
in  der  Ferne  die  Stunde  rufen  (Raabe's  Horn  von  Wanza,  chap.  xi).  Mir  war 
zuweilen,  als  sei  ich  von  unserm  lieben  Gott  geschieden  (Freytag's  Rittmeister, 
chap,  ix)  It  seemed  to  me  sometimes  as  if  I  were  separated  from  God  and  his 
goodness.  As  according  to  276.  A  (2nd  par.)  such  clauses  are  now  felt  as  in- 
direct discourse  the  conjunction  als  here  is  often  omitted  after  the  analogy  of 
dropping  daß  in  indirect  discourse:  Ihm  war,  er  höre  einen  zarten  Engel  weinen 
(E.  von  Handel-Mazzetti's  ^S/e^Aawa  Schivertner,  II,  chap.  IV). 

a.  This  use  of  the  subjunctive  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  unreal  potential  of  a  past 
tense  form,  which  impHes  that  the  comparison  is  unreal  and  contrary  to  fact.     See  169.  2.  B. 

b.  As  in  indirect  discourse,  as  explained  in  171.  2.  B.  a,  a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive 
is  usually  employed  here  if  the  present  tense  form  is  not  distinguished  from  the  indicative.  Thus 
if  the  subjunctive  in  the  sentence  from  Raabe  were  in  the  first  person  we  should  have  to  say: 
Es  war  mir,  als  hörte  ich  usw.  Writers  from  the  Southwest,  however,  employ  also  here  present 
tense  forms:  Er  sah  mich  verwundert  an,  als  ob  ich  irre  rede  und  Fabeln  erzähle  (K.  F.  Meyer's 
Novellen,  I.  p.  199).     Compare  171.  2.  B.  a.  Note. 

C.  Plausible  Subjunctive  of  Result  in  Attributive  Relative  Clauses.  The  in- 
dicative denotes  an  actual  result,  represents  an  act  as  actually  taking  place. 
The  subjunctive  of  result  represents  the  result  or  act  as  conceived  by  the 
speaker  or  writer  rather  than  as  actually  taking  place.  In  the  attributive 
relative  clause  there  are  two  categories: 

a.  The  present  subjunctive  indicates  a  result  that  naturally  follows  from 
the  character  of  a  person  or  thing,  so  that  the  relative  pronoun  may  be  replaced 
by  von  der  Art  daß  er  (sie,  es),  but  it  represents  this  result  not  as  actually 
taking  place,  but  as  only  conceived,  i.e.  as  something  which  may  or  can  take 
place,  in  English  usually  rendered  by  may  or  can:  Nichts  ist,  das  die  Gewaltigen 
hemme  (Schiller).  Nimmer  findet  er  den  Heil'gen,  der  an  ihm  ein  Wunder 
tu'  (Uhland).  The  subjunctive  here  is  most  common  after  a  negative  but  it 
also  occurs  after  a  positive  statement:  Ich  will  Auskunft  erteilen,  wie  man  ein 
Deutsch  reden  und  schreiben  soll,  das  vor  dem  Urteil  der  Sprachkundigen  als 
richtig  und  gut  bestehe  (E.  Engel's  Gtites  Deutsch,  p.  10,  1918).  The  present 
subjunctive  here,  tho  a  little  earlier  in  the  period  quite  common  and  still  found 
in  choice  prose,  is  now  usually  replaced,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  indicative  to 
represent  the  result  confidently  as  taking  place,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  by  a 
past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  to  indicate  modestly  that  the  result  might 
possibly  take  place,  implying  that  it  does  take  place.     Compare  169.  2.  C. 

b.  The  present  subjunctive  indicates  a  result  that  follows  from  a  free  act  or 
a  combination  of  circumstances,  but  represents  it  not  as  actually  taking  place 
but  as  only  conceived :  Keiner  ist,  der  noch  aufrecht  stehe,  als  ich  ganz  allein 
(Hans  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  II,  p.  203).  Mir  ist  kein  Volk  bekannt,  das 
die  Sprachreinigung  so  entschieden  und  entschlossen  verteidige,  das  dem 
Fremd worttaumel  so  unentwegt  und  mit  so  großem  Erfolge  zu  Leibe  gehe, 
wie  das  dänische  (E.  Mogk  in  Sprachentwickelung  und  Sprachbewegung  bei  den 
nordgermanischen  Völkern,  1897).  So  denkt  der  junge  Mann  und  im  Über- 
schwang des  Glücks  suchte  er  jemand,  der  ihm  helfe  seine  Gedanken  tragen 
(Heer's  Der  König  der  Bernina,  VII).  Und  alles,  was  kommen  mag,  nehm' 
ich  auf  mich  —  alles,  was  daraus  erwachse,  Segen  oder  Unsegen!  (Frida 
Schanz's  Letzte  Botschaft).  The  present  subjunctive  here,  tho  still  used  in 
choice  language,  is  now  largely  replaced,  as  in  a,  by  the  present  indicative  or 
a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive. 


168.  II.  E.  a.        PRESENT   TENSE    POTENTIAL   FORMS 223 

D.  Plausible  Suhjiinctive  of  Result  in  Adverbial  Clauses.  The  usual  mood 
in  clauses  of  result  is  the  indicative  as  the  statement  is  felt  as  a  fact,  but  in  choice 
language  a  present  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  is  often  chosen  to  indicate 
that  the  result  is  in  an  accurate  sense  conceived  rather  than  actually  attained: 
Und  will  meine  Erfahrungen  so  stellen,  daß  meine  Arbeit  andern  nicht  ganz 
unnütz  bleibe  (Goethe's  Briefe,  13,  18,  6).  The  most  common  categories  in 
which  this  subjunctive  occurs  are  here  briefly  described : 

a.  After  als  daß  preceded  by  zu  +  the  positive  of  an  adjective  or  adverb: 
Die  Erklärung  ist  viel  zu  weitläuftig,  als  daß  sie  bei  Entscheidung  der  vor- 
habenden Streitsache  im  geringsten  zu  brauchen  sei  (Lessing).  The  present 
subjunctive  is  now  usually  replaced  here  by  the  indicative  or  a  past  tense  form 
of  the  subjunctive:  Er  ist  zu  reich,  als  daß  er  Sold  nimmt  or  nähme  (Wilmanns). 
Er  war  zu  reich,  als  daß  er  Sold  nahm  or  genommen  hätte,  or  Er  ist  or  war 
zu  reich,  um  Sold  zu  nehmen. 

b.  After  als  daß  preceded  by  the  comparative  of  an  adjective  or  adverb: 
Der  ungeduldige  Genius  unsres  Zeitalters  bricht  lieber  herbe  Früchte,  als 
daß  er  ihre  Reife  abwarte  (Herder).  Wir  alle  wissen,  daß  in  gegebener  Lage 
der  Offizier,  der  Soldat  lieber  blindlings  kühn  den  ersten  Schritt  tun  soll  und 
muß,  als  daß  er  hin  und  her  erwäge:  soll  ich  oder  soll  ich  nicht?  (Liliencron's 
Krieg  und  Frieden).  In  general,  the  indicative  or  a  past  tense  form  of  the 
subjunctive  is  more  common  here. 

c.  After  daß  nicht,  ohne  daß  (subjunctive  more  common  after  a  negative 
than  after  an  affirmative  statement),  earlier  in  the  period  also  geschweige  daß 
(238.  o.  C  d):  Er  kehret  nie  |  von  einer  Reise  wieder,  daß  ihm  nicht  |  ein  Dritt- 
teü  seiner  Sachen  fehle  (Goethe's  Tasso,  3,  4).  Die  Alte  hatte,  um  sich  nach 
dem  Tode  des  Mannes,  ohne  daß  sie  dem  Dorf  zur  Last  falle,  durchzubringen, 
einen  kleinen  Kramhandel  angelegt  (Wilhelm  Jensen's  Auf  Fanö  und  Manö,  I). 
Aber  eine  Kultur  von  solcher  Größe  bricht  nicht  zusammen,  ohne  daß  aus 
ihren  Trümmern  neues  Leben  erblühe  (Eduard  Norden's  Die  lateinische  Literatiir 
im  Übergang  zum  Mittelalter,  Einleitung).  Er  sagt  weder,  wie  es  heißt,  noch 
wer  der  Verfasser  desselben  sei,  geschweige  daß  er  es  für  das  rührendste  von 
allen  Stücken  des  Euripides  erkläre  (Lessing).  The  present  indicative  or  a 
past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  is  now  more  common  here. 

d.  After  verbs  modified  by  so.  The  sentence  from  Goethe  in  D  above  is 
a  good  example.  The  present  indicative  is  now  more  common  here,  but  a  past 
tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  is  also  used. 

e.  After  so  or  solch  +  adjective  or  adverb:  Ich  bitte  Ew.  Gnaden,  es  auf 
eine  so  behutsame  Art  zu  tun,  daß  er  nicht  merken  könne,  daß  ich  ihn  ver- 
raten habe  (Wieland).  Hältst  du  mich  für  so  schwach,  daß  solch  ein  Fall 
mich  gleich  zerrütten  könne?  (Goethe).  The  present  indicative  or  a  past  tense 
form  of  the  subjunctive  is  now  more  common  here. 

/.  Earlier  in  the  period  a  present  subjunctive  could  be  used  in  a  clause  of  pure  result  (276. 
D):    So  wird  mirs  gehen  |  das  mich  todschlage  wer  mich  findet  (Gen.  IV.  1-4). 

E.  Probable  Cojiditions.  In  most  conditions  that  are  represented  as  prob- 
able the  indicative  is  now  used  as  in  English,  as  the  conceptions  that  are  busying 
the  mind  of  the  speaker  or  writer,  tho  mere  conceptions,  are  nevertheless  felt 
by  him  as  real  factors  in  life  with  which  he  must  reckon :  Ich  gehe  nicht,  wenn 
es  regnet  I  shall  not  go  if  it  rains. 

The  subjunctive  is  used  in  probable  conditions  in  the  following  categories: 
a.  Subjunctive  in  Exceptions  after  a  Negative  Proposition.  In  early  N.H.G. 
a  present  subjunctive  was  much  used  in  clauses  introducing  an  exception  to  a 
preceding  or  following  negative  statement:  Vnd  so  jemand  auch  kempffet  | 
wird  er  doch  nicht  gekrönet  |  er  kempffe  denn  recht  (2  Tim.  IL  5).  The  sub- 
junctive is  usually  accompanied  by  the  adverb  denn,  which  in  earlier  periods 
when  the  clause  was  negative  in  form  was  not  absolutely  necessary  but  which 
now  is  the  distinctive  mark  of  this  old  construction,  altho  it  need  not  be  ren- 
dered into  English.  The  clause  is  now  positive  in  form  in  German  but  is  neg- 
ative in  English,  where  it  is  introduced  by  if  not,  unless.     This  clause  of  excep- 


224 PRESENT   TENSE    POTENTIAL   FORMS        168.  II.  E.  a. 

tion  with  positive  form  was  not  infrequent  in  the  classical  period  and  still  oc- 
casionally occurs  in  poetry  or  choice  prose:  Und  kommt  man  hin,  um  etwas  zu 
erhalten,  |  erhält  man  nichts,  man  bringe  denn  was  hin  (Goethe's  Tasso,  1,  4). 
Wohin  er  (i.e.  Gott )  uns  stellt,  da  müssen  wir  ausharren,  er  rufe  uns  denn  selber 
ab  (Spielhagen's  Freigeboren,  p.  176).  Einmütig  erklärte  man  von  selten  der 
Städte,  keine  Reichssteuern  bewilligen  zu  wollen,  es  sei  denn  die  Aachener 
Beschwerde  vorher  erledigt  (Lamprecht's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  V,  p.  661). 
Es  ist,  als  trügen  sie  tief  im  Herzen  eine  goldene  Saite,  die  nicht  kUngen  kann, 
es  rühre  sie  denn  der  Finger  der  Schwesterseele  (H.  von  Krause's  Sein  Ge- 
heimnis in  Westermanns  Monatshefte,  March  1905,  p.  804).  The  present  sub- 
junctive is  replaced  here  by  the  past  to  convey  the  idea  of  unreality,  improba- 
bility: Die  Nürenberger  henken  (in  the  North  hängen)  keinen,  |  sie  hätten 
ihn  denn  vor  (Schiller's  Räuber,  2,  3). 

This  old  construction  is  not  now  common  in  plain  prose  except  in  es  sei  denn 
or  es  wäre  denn  unless  and  in  case  of  müssen  with  a  dependent  infinitive.  The 
two  expressions  es  sei  denn  and  es  wäre  denn  difTer  from  each  other  just  as 
in  general  the  present  subjunctive  differs  from  the  past  subjunctive.  The 
former  expresses  more  assurance:  Ich  werde  es  nicht  tun,  es  sei  denn,  daß  er 
mich  darum  bitte  (or  bittet)  I  shall  not  do  it  unless  he  begs  me  to  [do  it],  but 
Ich  werde  es  nicht  tun,  es  wäre  denn,  daß  er  mich  darum  bitten  sollte  I  shall 
not  do  it  unless  he  should  beg  me  to  [do  it].  The  expression  es  wäre  denn 
daß  is  often  replaced  by  the  subjunctive  of  müssen  with  a  dependent  infinitive, 
the  past  subjunctive  of  müssen  for  present  or  future  time  and  the  past  perfect 
for  past  time :  Das  werde  ich  nie  von  ihm  glauben,  er  müßte  es  mir  denn  selbst 
sagen.  Sie  hing  süßen  Fragen  und  Vorstellungen  nach,  denn  Ehmar  hatte 
beim  BHndekuh,  als  er  sie  haschte,  Worte  fallen  lassen,  die  nicht  mißdeutet 
werden  konnten,  er  hätte  denn  ein  schändlicher  und  zweizüngiger  Lügner 
sein  müssen  (Fontane's  U  Adulter  a ,  chap.  VIII).  The  construction  es  sei 
(or  wäre)  denn  daß  arose  in  this  category  but  it  now  belongs  to  c  below.  The 
forms  are  now  little  more  than  a  subordinating  conjunction  like  English  unless. 
The  original  construction  was  an  independent  proposition  and  hence  was  para- 
tactic  (267.  4),  while  the  new  form  introduces  a  subordinate  clause.  The  new 
construction  is  now  more  common,  as  the  sei  and  wäre  are  always  clear  sub- 
junctives, while  the  old  construction  often  does  not  have  distinctive  forms: 
Ich  werde  es  nicht  tun,  es  sei  denn  daß  sie  mich  darum  bitten,  not  Ich  werde 
es  nicht  tun,  sie  bitten  mich  denn  darum.  The  construction  with  müssen  is 
the  old  paratactic  construction,  but  it  is  still  widely  used  when  there  is  need 
of  a  past  tense  form  as  its  form  is  distinctive,  but  it  can't  be  used  at  all  in  the 
present  tense. 

The  subjunctive  of  the  simple  verb  as  found  in  the  first  examples  given  above 
represents  the  utterance  not  as  an  actuality,  but  as  a  mere  conception  of  the 
mind,  but  the  positive  form  and  meaning  of  the  clause  sometimes  leads  to  the 
use  of  the  indicative  instead  of  the  subjunctive,  especially  in  lively  language 
where  the  action  is  represented  as  having  actually  taken  place:  Ich  laß  nicht 
ab,  ihr  gebt  den  Gefangenen  denn  heraus  (Grillparzer).  „Ich  lasse  dich 
nicht  fort,  Ansas,"  rief  sie,  „du  sagst  mir  denn,  was  du  im  Sinn  hast"  (Wiehert's 
Ansas  und  Grita).  Even  in  case  of  the  verb  sein  we  find  the  indicative  for  the 
expression  of  reality:  Der  Arzt  hatte  nie  in  ihrem  Hause  zu  schaffen,  es  war 
denn,  daß  er  bei  der  Ankunft  eines  neuen  Weltbürgers  zugegen  war  (Telmann). 

The  positive  form  here  is  explained  in  Note  below. 

Note  In  O.H.G.  and  usually  in  the  classical  period  of  M.H.G.  the  clause  here  has  negative  form:  Des  sint  ir  iemer 
ungenesen  ■  got  enwelle  der  arzat  wesen  (Armer  Heinrich,  Heidelberg  manuscript)  You  cannot  be  cured  unless  God 
be  the  physician.  The  second  proposition  liere  is  an  independent  utterance  joined  to  tlie  preceding  independent 
statement  to  add  a  qualification  to  it.  jXs  it  is  not  a  statement  of  fact  but  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind  the  sub- 
junctive is  used.  .4s  the  two  negative  statements  indicate  a  positive  issue,  the  actual  performance  of  the  act  men- 
tioned in  the  second  proposition,  the  old  negative  en  or  ne  began  in  the  classical  period  of  M.H.G.  to  drop  out  and 
later  entirely  disappeared.  Sometimes  the  subjunctive  is  in  lively  style  replaced  by  the  indicative  to  indicate  actual 
realization,  as  illustrated  above.  Exactly  the  same  development  has  taken  place  in  negative  clauses  of  result  follow- 
ing a  negative  proposition,  both  in  clauses  of  degree  expressing  a  result  i277.  2  )  and  those  of  manner  (276.  D,  4th  par. ): 
Nieman  lebt  so  starker,  ern  (  =  er  en)  mue^e  ligen  tot  (  Nihelungejilinl)  Niemand  ist  so  stark,  daß  er  nicht  sterben 
muß.  The  result  here  is  represented  as  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind,  hence  the  subjunctive  is  used.  The  clause 
of  result  is  an  independent  proposition  added  to  the  preceding  negative  statement  to  explain  it  more  definitely:  No 
one  is  so  strong,  i.e.  he  doesn't  die.    To-day  such  clauses  of  result  are  usually  dependent  clauses  introduced  by  a  sub- 


168.  II.  F.  b.        PRESENT   TENSE    POTENTIAL   FORMS 225 

ordinating  conjunction  with  negative  force,  daß  nicht,  ohne  daß,  etc.,  but  in  lively  poetic  style  the  old  paratactic 
(267.  4)  construction  without  a  conjunction  still  lives  on  in  somewhat  modified  form.  The  subjunctive  has  been 
replaced  by  the  indicative  and  the  negative  has  disappeared  as  the  result  is  felt  as  positive  and  as  realized:  Es  ist 
kein  Mensch  so  arg,  Er  hat  etwas  gutts  an  sich  (Luther's  Vom  Krieg  wider  die  Tiirken,  vol.  XXX,  Section  II,  p. 
127,  Weimar  ed.).  Kein  Becher  ward  geleert,  du  hattest  ihn  j  gefüllt,  kein  Brot  gebrochen  und  verteilt,  |  es  kam 
aus  deinem  Korb  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  III,  5.  9).  The  dropping  of  the  negative  in  exceptions  after  a  negative 
spread  to  unreal  conditions  in  the  peculiar  expression  täte  er,  or  wenn  er  täte  =  wenn  er  nicht  wäre,  which  was  once 
widely  used  in  Low  German  and  for  a  time  established  itself  in  the  literary  language:  Was  were  fur  ein  Königreich 
in  Israel  wenn  du  thetest?  (1.  Kings,  XXI.  7)  =  wenn  du  nicht  wärest.  The  conditions  in  this  category,  however, 
are  quite  different  from  those  described  above,  hence  the  feeling  for  the  negative  idea  present  here  revived  the  use 
of  the  negative,  wenn  er  nicht  täte,  which  maintained  itself  until  it  disappeared  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

b.  Subjunctive  in  Exceptions  after  a  Positive  Proposition.  This  usage,  once 
common,  is  now  restricted  to  the  form  sei  in  es  sei  denn  daß  unless:  Meine 
Untersuchung  hat  dargetan,  daß  .  .  .  die  Stämme,  die  derselben  Mundart 
zugetan  sind,  auch  seit  uralter  Zeit  unmittelbar  nebeneinander  wohnen,  es 
sei  denn,  daß  besondere  Anlässe  einen  Strahl  des  Volkes  voraussprengten 
(Grimm's  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Sprache,  II.  609).  The  form  is  here  positive, 
but  it  is  negative  in  force  as  the  form  has  retained  the  meaning  of  its  older 
negative  form.  It  is  now  a  mere  set  expression,  a  conjunction  with  negative 
force.     The  positive  form  has  arisen  under  the  influence  of  the  sei  in  a. 

c.  Hypotactic  Form  of  a.  The  old  paratactic  construction  in  a  is  now  usually, 
also  not  infrequently  in  M.H.G.,  replaced  by  a  hypotactic  (267.  4)  form  of 
expression,  i.e.  by  a  present  subjunctive  in  a  subordinate  clause  introduced 
by  es  sei  denn  daß  unless:  ODer  |  wie  kan  jemand  in  eines  starcken  haus 
gehen  |  vnd  jm  seinen  Hausrat  rauben  |  Es  sey  denn  |  das  er  zuuor  den  Starcken 
binde  (Matth.  xii.  29).  Direkt  einzugreifen  hat  es  kaum  eine  Veran- 
lassung, es  sei  denn,  daß  es  sich  darum  handle,  die  mit  Bezug  auf  Korea  vor- 
handenen Handelsrechte  zu  wahren  {Deutsche  Rundschau,  1894,  p.  273).  The 
indicative  might  be  used  here  but  it  would  suggest  a  greater  probability  of 
realization.  See  also  a  (2nd  par.).  Instead  of  a  subordinate  clause  here  we 
often  find  a  principal  proposition,  i.e.  paratactic  form:  es  sei  denn,  es  handle 
(or  handelt)  sich  darum,  die  usw. 

d.  Present  subjunctive  after  außer  unless,  except  that,  als  daß  except  that  in 
clauses  following  a  negative  proposition:  Ich  tue  es  nicht,  außer  er  bitte  (act 
only  conceived)  mich  darum,  or  außer  er  bittet  (actual  performance)  mich 
darum.  So  bleibt  wohl  nichts  übrig,  als  daß  man  seine  Kräfte  zusammen- 
nehme (Goethe),  or  now  more  commonly  zusammennimmt  or  zusammen- 
nähme. 

F.     Plausible  Subjunctive  in  Relative  and  Interrogative  Clauses: 

a.  In  attributive  relative  and  interrogative  clauses.  Usage  in  attributive 
relative  clauses  is  described  in  C.  a,  b.  A  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive, 
tho  quite  common  here  a  little  earlier  in  the  period,  is  now  rare  and  only  found 
in  choice  language.  It  is,  however,  still  the  rule,  if  the  relative  clause  is  part 
of  an  indirect  statement,  even  tho  the  governing  substantive  itself  does  not 
stand  in  a  subjunctive  clause  with  the  outward  form  of  indirect  discourse:  Die 
Regierung  der  Vereinigten  Staaten  beschwerte  sich  über  die  Landung  so- 
vieler  Armen,  welche  manche  europäische  Regierung  fortschicke. 

Interrogative  clauses  are  introduced  by  ob  whether,  or  some  interrogative 
adjective  or  adverb:  Die  Frage,  wie  er  zu  dieser  Auffassung  komme,  ver- 
blüffte ihn.     The  subjunctive  here,  i.e.  in  indirect  questions,  is  quite  common. 

b.  In  substantive  relative  clauses: 

(1)  As  subject  or  predicate.  As  subject:  Komme,  wer  wolle,  ich  bin  nicht 
zu  Hause.  As  predicate :  Und  wer  der  Dichtkunst  Stimme  nicht  vernimmt,  |  ist 
ein  Barbar,  er  sei  auch,  wer  er  sei.  This  subjunctive  is  only  found  in  a  few 
set  expressions  where  the  governing  verb  is  in  the  optative  (especially  the  con- 
cessive) subjunctive. 

(2)  As  object:  in  a  few  set  expressions  after  a  concessive  subjunctive:  er 
sage,  was  er  wolle.  Es  koste,  was  es  wolle.  Also  occasionally  elsewhere: 
der  aufkeimende  Trieb  der  Liebe  findet,  was  er  ergreife  (Schiller's  Menschen- 
feind, scene  8)  love  springing  up  like  a  shoot  finds  something  to  which  it  may 
cling.  Except  after  the  concessive  subjunctive  the  past  subjunctive  is  more 
common  here. 


226 PRESENT   TENSE    POTENTIAL    FORMS         168.  II.  F.  c. 

c.  In  substantive  interrogative  clauses.  This  subjunctive  is  very  common 
in  clauses  introduced  by  ob  whether,  or  some  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb: 

(1)  As  subject:  Wer  den  Brief  abgesandt  habe,  ist  noch  nicht  ermittelt 
worden. 

(2)  As  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition:  Ich  habe  gezweifelt,  ob  man  dem 
Herrn  Cramer  ein  poetisches  Genie  zugestehen  könne  (Lessing). 

The  subjunctive  in  (1)  and  (2)  is  often  not  the  pure  potential,  but  a  mere 
grammatical  form  for  the  expression  of  an  indirect  question,  and  hence  may 
stand  after  such  words  as  sehen  to  see,  vernehmen  to  learn,  wissen  to  know,  &c., 
the  meanings  of  which  naturally  preclude  the  idea  of  doubt:  Du  siehst,  wie 
ungeschickt  in  diesem  Augenbück  ich  sei  (Goethe).  Wenigstens  würden  sie 
dort  wissen,  wohin  er  sich  gewendet  habe  (P.  Heyse).  Als  er  in  wenigen 
vorläufigen  Worten  vernahm,  worum  es  sich  handle  (ivhat  the  business  was 
about,  a  matter  of  fact,  but  subjunctive  on  account  of  the  indirectness  of  the 
form),  ordnete  er  an,  daß,  &c.  (G.  Keller's  Kleider  machen  Leute).  See  also 
G.  a.  (2),  2nd  par. 

G.  Plausible  Subjunctive  in  Substantive  Daß-  Clauses.  This  subjunctive  is 
not  infrequently  used,  especially  in  choice  language,  to  represent  something 
as  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind  but  yet  as  something  which  is  probably  true, 
or  to  indicate  that  the  event  or  result  in  question  is  not  altogether  unlikely. 
The  daß  here  may  sometimes  be  suppressed.  This  subjunctive  is  often  re- 
placed by  the  past  as  described  in  169.  2.  G.  a.  (1),  (2).  Of  course  the  in- 
dicative is  used  if  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a  fact.  This  sub- 
junctive is  used  in  the  following  relations: 

a.     In  subject  and  object  clauses: 

(1)  As  subject:  Denn  es  ist  vnmüglich  [  das  Gott  liege  (199,  2.  Division,  4) 
(Heb.  vi.  18).  Denn  es  geschieht,  daß  vor  Gott  ein  Ackersmann  besser  tue 
mit  seinem  Pflügen,  denn  eine  Nonne  mit  ihrer  Keuschheit  (Luther).  Es  ist 
fast  unmöglich,  daß  er  die  Abgeschmacktheit  ganzer  Seiten  und  Bogen  nicht 
einsehe  (G.  Keller).  Unter  solchen  Umständen  war  es  ausgeschlossen,  daß 
Friedrich  den  Dienst  verlasse  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder!,  III).  Aber  daß 
ein  siegreiches  Japan  den  Spruch  ,, Asien  den  Asiaten"  auf  die  Fahnen  schrei- 
ben werde,  das  ist  sicherlich  zu  gewärtigen  (  Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Dec.  13,  1904). 
Eine  seiner  fixen  Ideen  war,  daß  sein  Sohn  ihn  unterdrücke  (Sudermann 's 
Frau  Sorge,  chap.  xix).  A  subjective  view  is  often  introduced  by  als  or 
als  ob :  Leicht  könnte  der  Schlußeindruck  der  sein,  als  bestehe  die  vielver- 
breitete Meinung  von  Nietzsches  lediglich  negativem  Wirken  zu  recht  (Richard 
M.  Meyer  in  Zeitschrift  für  deutsche  Wortforschung,  XV,  p.  144).  The  sub- 
junctive is  common  where  it  is  felt  as  logically  dependent  upon  some  verb  of 
believing,  expecting,  &c.  as  in  the  example  from  the  "Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.",  or 
wherever  the  subject  clause  explains  a  preceding  noun,  as  in  case  of  fixe  Ideen 
in  the  next  to  the  last  sentence  and  Schlußeindruck  in  the  last  example,  for 
the  statement  is  felt  as  a  form  of  indirect  discourse.  Elsewhere  the  present 
subjunctive,  tho  not  infrequent  in  choice  language,  is  now  usually  replaced  in 
colloquial  speech  by  the  indicative,  as  the  statement  is  felt  as  a  fact,  or  if  not 
as  a  fact  at  least  a  general  truth,  or  where  the  act  is  not  even  certain  is  felt  as 
a  practical  factor  in  daily  life  with  which  one  must  reckon  rather  than  as  a 
mere  conception,  as  in  Es  ist  möglich,  daß  es  morgen  regnet,  or  Besser  [ist]  du 
läßt  es.  On  the  other  hand,  a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  is  quite  com- 
mon here  to  indicate  modestly  or  cautiously  that  the  statement  is  at  least  con- 
ceivable and  is  probably  true.     See  169.  2.  G.  a.  (1). 

(2)  Object  clauses.  As  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition:  Wenige  Men- 
schen können  leiden,  daß  man  sie  auf  ihre  Fehler  aufmerksam  mache  (not  a 
definite  case  but  merely  a  general  conception).  Er  billigt  es  nicht,  daß  Marie 
allein  geht  (a  fact,  a  fixed  plan),  but  Er  billigt  es  nicht,  daß  Marie  allein  gehe 
(a  mere  conception  which  has  not  crystalized  into  a  fixed  plan).  Where  a 
prepositional  object  clause  explains  a  preceding  anticipative  prepositional 
adverb  the  subjunctive  is  often  used,  as  the  statement  is  in  a  certain  sense  felt 


169. PRESENT   TENSE    POTENTIAL   FORMS 227 

as  a  kind  of  indirect  discourse,  the  clause  explaining  a  preceding  word  as  in 
the  very  common  type  of  indirect  discourse  in  b  below:  Mein  Glück  hängt 
davon  ab,  daß  dein  Unternehmen  gut  vonstatten  gehe  (or  geht  to  indicate  that 
the  speaker  is  actually  reckoning  with  this  issue  as  a  factor  in  his  life  rather 
than  regarding  it  as  a  mere  conception).  Similarly  in  an  adverbial  clause  of 
degree  that  explains  a  preceding  anticipative  demonstrative  adverb:  Zunächst 
einigte  man  sich  wenigstens  so  weit,  daß  an  der  vierjährigen  Dauer  der  Grund- 
schule unbedingt  festgehalten  werden  solle  (Berliner  Tageblatt,  June  14,  1921). 
Sometimes  as  the  object  of  an  adjective:  Es  ist  wert,  daß  man  einige  Be- 
merkungen darüber  mache  (Goethe,  to  whom  the  statement  was  a  conception), 
or  now  more  commonly  macht,  as  the  statement  is  felt  as  a  fact. 

The  subjunctive  in  (1)  and  (2)  is  often  not  the  pure  potential,  but  a  mere 
grammatical  form  for  the  expression  of  indirect  statement,  and  hence  may 
stand  after  such  verbs  as  beweisen  to  prove,  melden,  verkündigen  to  a^inotince, 
sehen,  ansehen  to  see,  überzeugen  to  convince,  versichern  to  assure,  wissen  to 
knoiu,  zeigen  to  show,  &c.,  likewise  after  such  adjectives  as  sicher,  &c.,  the 
meanings  of  which  naturally  preclude  the  idea  of  doubt:  Also  hab  ich  mit 
unsern  alten  Liedern  bewiesen,  daß  allein  der  Glaub'  an  Jesum  Christum 
selig  mach'  (Alberus,  1539).  Verkündet  ihr,  daß  ich  gerettet  sei  (Schiller's 
Wilhelm  Teil,  4,  3).  Die  junge  Frau  war  überzeugt,  daß  alles  den  Krebs- 
gang gehe,  solange  sie  hier  liege  und  sich  pflege  (Anna  Schieber's  Alle  guten 
Geister,  p.  28).  Er  wußte  wohl,  daß  sein  Werk  getan  sei  (ib.,  p.  272).  Man 
ist  sicher,  daß  Rußland  infolge  der  überaus  großen  Schärfe  der  österreichischen 
Note  einem  bewaffneten  Eingreifen  Österreichs  nicht  untätig  zusehen  werde 
(  Vonvärts,  July  2."),  1914).  Ich  war  zugleich  erheitert  und  entzückt,  zumal 
der  Vogel  nach  kurzer  Pause  zeigte,  daß  sein  Reichtum  noch  lange  nicht  er- 
schöpft sei  (H.  Seidel 's  Der  Neuntöter). 

b.  In  attributive  clauses:  Meine  Herren,  wir  müssen  uns  den  Fall  verge- 
genwärtigen, daß  die  eine  oder  die  andere  Regierung  nicht  auf  alle  Bedin- 
gungen eingehe  (  Vorparlament,  p.  63).  In  one  form  of  this  clause  this  sub- 
junctive is  now  very  common — in  indirect  discourse:  ein  eigenes  Gefühl:  er 
müsse  den  Ort  kennen  lernen  (Hirschfeld's  Dämon  Kleist).  Sie  glaubten 
mich  mit  der  Nachricht  zu  überraschen,  daß  ich  schwindsüchtig  sei  (ib.). 
Similarly  in  attributive  clauses  explaining  a  preceding  prepositional  adverb: 
Sein  Verzicht  darauf,  daß  er  zuerst  rede,  hat  allgemein  befriedigt.  The  po- 
tential idea  often  disappears,  the  subjunctive  not  implying  uncertainty,  but 
merely  indicating  indirectness  of  statement:  Mein  ganzer  Feldzugsplan  .  .  . 
fiel  in  sich  zusammen  vor  der  süßen  Gewißheit,  daß  sie  mich  liebe  (Paul  Kel- 
ler's Waldwinter,  XIV). 

To  express  the  idea  of  mere  subjectivity  or  plausibility  als  (with  question  order) 
or  als  ob  or  als  wenn  (with  transposed  order)  is  often  used  instead  of  daß:  Die 
(die  Rede)  macht  ganz  den  Eindruck,  als  ob  es  sich  um  ein  abgekartetes  Spiel 
handle  {Hambitrgischer  Correspondent,  April  23,  1905).  Compare  169.  2.  G.  b 
(2nd  par.)  Where  the  comparison  is  made  in  quite  a  positive  tone  the  indicative 
is  also  used  here:  Trotzdem  gewinnt  es  den  Anschein,  als  ob  die  auswärtige 
Politik  Englands  auch  nach  dem  Rücktritte  Lord  SaHsburys  von  Fehlschlägen 
heimgesucht  wird  {Deutsche  Rundschau).     See  also  238.  2.  d.  Note. 

Note.  Sometimes  falls  ;/,  in  case  that  is  used  with  a  present  subjunctive  in  a  conditional  clause:  Ordnen  Sie  an  — 
falls  jemand  komme  —  daß  er  nicht  vorgelassen  werde  fSuttner's  Im  Berghause,  p.  47).  The  conjunction  falls 
is  derived  from  the  noun  Fall  case  and  can  be  replaced  by  im  Falle  daß  or  für  den  Fall  daß.  The  subjunctive  here 
is  thus  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse,  as  it  originated  in  attributive  substantive  clauses  after  Fall. 

The  Subjunctive  of  Past  Tense  Forms. 

169.  The  subjunctive  of  past  tense  forms  (see  167,  2nd  par.)  is  used  to 
represent  that  which  is  wished  for  without  much  hope  of  realization,  also  that 
which  is  conceived  as  quite  doubtful,  contrary  to  fact,  or  that  which  merely 
exists  in  the  imagination,  or  rests  upon  appearances  without  foundation  in  facts. 
This  subjunctive  is  used  both  in   principal  and  subordinate  clauses.     It  has 


228 PAST   TENSE   OPTATIVE    FORMS 169. 

only  two  tenses — the  past  to  express  present  time,  the  past  perf.  to  express 
past  time:  (pres.  time)  Er  sieht  aus,  als  ob  er  krank  wäre  He  looks  as  if  he  were 
sick;  (past  time)  Er  sieht  aus,  als  ob  er  krank  gewesen  wäre  He  looks  as  if 
he  had  been  sick.  The  past  subjunctive  often  points  also  to  the  future,  as  is 
usually  made  clear  by  the  context:  Wenn  ich  so  einen  Mann  haben  sollte, 
der  sich  immer  Gefahren  aussetzte,  ich  stürbe  im  ersten  Jahr  (Goethe's  Götz, 
1,  3).  In  conditional  sentences  (see  2.  E  below)  in  principal  propositions, 
the  simple  past  subjunctive  can  be  replaced  by  the  periphrastic  past  (würde 
loben),  and  the  past  perf.  by  the  periphrastic  past  perfect  (würde  gelobt  haben). 
In  S.G.  and  with  increasing  frequency  elsewhere  the  simple  past  subjunctive 
is  thus  also  in  subordinate  clauses  replaced  by  the  periphrastic  form,  altho 
the  practice  is  frequently  condemned  by  grammarians.  The  case  mentioned 
in  2.  E.  Note  3  below  will  serve  in  general  as  an  illustration  and  partial  justifica- 
tion of  this  forbidden  construction,  which  is  now  often  found  not  only  in  con- 
ditional, but  also  in  optative  and  concessive  clauses  and  clauses  of  manner  and 
elsewhere,  as  indicated  below.  See  1.  A.  a;  1.  B.  a;  1.  C.  b;  2.  B.  a  and  D.  a 
below,  and  190.  1.  E.  a. 

This  subjunctive  often  loses  the  element  of  unreality  and  is  used  merely  to 
make  a  statement  in  a  less  positive  tone  than  is  expressed  by  the  indicative, 
and  hence  is  often  called  the  subjunctive  of  modest  or  cautious  statement. 
The  especial  cases  are  mentioned  below  under  the  different  categories. 

The  following  are  the  principal  groups  of  this  subjunctive: 

1.     The  Unreal  Optative: 

A.  The  unreal  subjunctive  of  wish  is  used  in  principal  propositions  to  express 
a  wish  of  the  heart  but  one  which  under  the  circumstances  the  speaker  scarcely 
hopes  to  see  realized.  In  these  wishes  the  question  order  is  the  rule,  and  the 
subjunctive  is  often  accompanied  by  the  adverb  doch:  Käme  er  doch!  If  he 
would  only  come!  Past  time:  Wäre  er  doch  gekommen!  If  he  had  only  come! 
It  is  also  common  to  put  such  optative  sentences  in  the  transposed  order  in 
the  form  of  a  subordinate  clause  introduced  by  daß,  wenn,  and  the  conditional 
relative  wer  (159),  as  explained  in  284. 1.  3.  a:  O  daf?  ich  das  Glück  hätte,  einen 
von  euch  bei  mir  zu  haben!  Wenn  er  doch  noch  lebte!  Eilende  Wolken! 
Segler  der  Lüfte !  Wer  mit  euch  wanderte,  mit  euch  schiffte !  (Schiller's  Maria, 
2098). 

The  subjunctive  of  the  simple  verb  is  often  replaced  by  the  subjunctive  of 
wollen,  mögen,  or  können  with  a  dependent  infinitive:  Möchte  er  doch 
endlich  zur  Besinnung  kommen!  Ach,  könnte  ich  euch  doch  nur  einmal 
besuchen! 

By  using  a  past  tense  of  the  subjunctive  and  thus  indicating  that  one  does 
not  count  upon  the  fulfilment  of  one's  wish  one  can  avoid  a  blunt  expression 
of  will,  so  that  the  past  tense  subjunctive  forms  often  lose  in  large  measure  the 
element  of  unreality,  and  are  employed  to  express  modestly  an  earnest  wish  or 
appeal,  where  it  may  be  called  the  subjunctive  of  modest  ivish:  Wollte  (modest 
wish)  Gott  sich  deiner  erbarmen,  mein  armes  Herz,  daß  du  nicht  immer  Schmer- 
zen ausstehen  dürftest  (modest  wish)!  (Bismarck  an  seine  Frau,  March  3,  1851). 
Möchte  diese  kurze  Charakteristik  zu  weiteren  Forschungen  Anlaß  geben! 
(Richard  M.  Meyer  in  Zeitschrift  für  deutsche  Wortforschung,  II,  p.  291).  In 
subject  clause:  Daß  du  an  unserer  Freude  teilnehmen  möchtest,  ist  unser 
inniger  Wunsch.  In  clause  of  exception:  Es  fehlt  nichts,  als  daß  du  da  wärst. 
Dem  Weine  fehlt  nichts,  als  daß  er  vöUig  geklärt  wäre.  Likewise  the  modest 
or  polite  volitive:  Herr  Flemming  möchte  kommen!  (Otto  Ernst's  Flachsmann 
als  Erzieher,  3,  10)  Bid  Mr.  Flemming  kindly  step  in. 

a.  The  past  periphrastic  subjunctive  is  frequently,  especially  thruout  the  South,  used  here 
instead  of  the  simple  subjunctive  of  the  verb,  altho  this  usage  is  quite  generally  condemned  by 
grammarians:  Justinus  Kerner  schreibt:  Würdest  du  ihn  nur  auch  kennen!  (K.  Mayer  über 
Uhland,  2,  IS)}).  O,  wenn  doch  der  Herr  Assessor  mal  kommen  würde!  (Raabe's  Akten  des 
Vogelsangs,  p.  184).  Wenn  sie  [die  Rosen]  doch  nicht  welken  würden!  (H.  Böhlau's  Adam 
und  Eva,  chap.  vi).  The  clumsy  periphrasis  here  has  justly  incurred  the  disfavor  of  gram- 
marians, but  their  censure  is  often  indiscriminate.     The  use  of  the  periphrasis  in  the  sentence 


169.  1.  C.6. PAST   TENSE   OPTATIVE    FORMS 229 

from  H.  Böhlau  is  beautiful  and  is  in  harmony  with  a  tendency  that  also  appears  elsewhere 
See  190.  1.  E.  o. 

b.  In  the  colloquial  and  popular  language  of  the  North  the  indicative  often  replaces  the 
subjunctive  here  as  elsewhere:  Wenn  wir  man  (=  nurj  erst  draußen  waren!  (Halbe's  Das  tau- 
sendjährige Reich,  p.  73).  With  reference  to  past  time  the  past  indicative  is  sometimes  found 
also  in  the  literary  language,  as  the  wish  originally  was  the  subordinate  clause  of  the  conditional 
sentence  described  in  K.  Note  2:  O,  betrat  ich  doch  nie  sein  Haus!  (Wagner's  Meisters.,  1,  1), 
originally  Betrat  ich  nie  sein  Haus,  es  kam  nicht  dahin. 

B.  The  unreal  concessive  subjunctive  which  stands  in  the  subordinate  clause 
impHes  that  the  conceded  proposition  upon  which  the  conclusion  is  based  is 
not  a  very  probable  one.  Sentences  in  which  this  subjunctive  thus  stands  in 
the  subordinate  clause  are  in  respect  to  mood  and  tense  in  both  principal  and 
subordinate  clause  exactly  like  unreal  conditional  sentences  (see  2.  E  below): 
Und  wenn  Sie  mir  goldene  Berge  gäben,  das  würde  ich  nicht  tun  Even  if  you 
should  give  me  mountains  of  gold  I  should  not  do  it. 

a.  The  past  periphrastic  subjunctive  is  frequently  used  here  in  the  subordinate  clause,  altho 
this  usage  is  quite  general!}'  condemned  by  grammarians.  Thus  a  prominent  German  educator 
writes:  Wenn  wir  nun  auch  in  Deutschland  jene  Einrichtung  nachahmenswerter  finden  würden 
(instead  of  fänden ),  so  würden  uns  doch  alle  übrigen  Bedingungen  fehlen.  See  also  2.  E.  Note  3 
below,  also  190.  1.  E.  a. 

C.  Unreal  subjunctive  of  purpose.  In  the  three  categories  enumerated  in 
168.  I.  2.  B,  the  unreal  subjunctive  of  purpose  is  used  to  represent  the  thing 
desired  or  planned  as  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind  not  resting  upon  any 
expectation  of  realization,  or  on  the  other  hand  by  thus  using  here  a  past  tense 
form  of  the  subjunctive  and  thus  indicating  that  one  is  not  counting  upon  a 
realization  of  one's  expectations  one  can  often  modestly  express  earnest  wishes 
and  plans  which  one  inwardly  hopes  to  see  realized:  (1)  Ich  wollte,  er  wäre  nicht 
gestorben.  Ich  wünschte,  er  käme.  The  subjunctive  here  often  loses  the 
dement  of  unreality  and  is  used  to  express  modestly  a  wish  that  may  be  fulfilled: 
Darum  bet'  ich  zu  unserm  Herrgott,  er  möcht'  mir  meine  höchste  Freud* 
geben  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap.  xii).  Und  das  hat  damals  einen  so 
großen  Eindruck  auf  mich  gemacht,  daß  ich  dich  bitten  möchte,  du  machtest 
es  auch  so  und  ließest  auch  zwei  Kuppen  aufsteigen  und  auf  der  zweiten  Kuppe 
stände  die  Kirche  von  Adamsdorf  (Fontane's  Pog'^enpiüüs,  chap.  xii).  (2) 
Könnt'  ich  als  Leiche  vor  dir  niedersinken,  damit  du  blühend  stündest  und 
verjüngt  (Uhland).  Es  ist  nur  zur  Nachfrage,  wenn  mir  einmal  der  Einfall 
käme,  daß  ich  gleich  vor  die  rechte  Schmiede  ginge  (Goethe's  Götz,  2,  4).  (3  )  So 
beschloß  man,  einen  patriotisch-dramatischen  Abend  zu  veranstalten,  der 
zugleich  Gelegenheit  böte,  die  fünf  Schauspieler  der  höheren  Gesellschaft 
Frankenfelds  vorzuführen  (Riehl).  Ich  wartete,  bis  das  Haus  verkauft  wäre 
(Wilmanns).  Ich  habe  gewartet,  bis  ich  Sie  'mal  allein  träfe  (Frenssen's 
Jörn  Ulli,  chap.  vii).  Es  blieb  ihm  nichts  übrig  als  abzuwarten,  bis  diese 
wehevolle  Orgie  sich  erschöpft  hätte  'Ertl's  Die  Stadt  der  Heiligen).  Und 
ehe  denn  die  Abendmette  von  den  fernen  Klostertürmen  klänge,  sollte  aufge- 
packt werden  (Alexis's  Die  Hosen  des  Herrn  von  Bredoiv,  I).  Papa  hat  nicht 
wieder  aufbauen  lassen  wollen,  ehe  du  nicht  deine  Anordnungen  getroffen 
hättest  (Sudermann's  Frau  Sorge,  chap.  XXIII).  Thus  the  subjunctive  in 
(3)  is  not  at  all  infrequent,  while  the  sanguine  subjunctive  of  purpose  is  here 
almost  confined  to  relative  clauses  in  choice  language,  being  elsewhere  usually 
replaced  by  the  indicative. 

a.  After  a  past  tense  this  subjunctive  cannot  be  distinguished  in  form  from  the  sanguine 
subjunctive  of  purpose  (168.  I.  2.  B),  as  the  latter  subjunctive  is  often  attracted  into  a  past  tense 
following  the  model  of  the  principal  verb:  Er  befahl,  daß  es  geschähe  (also  geschehe).  Here 
geschähe  is  evidently  the  sanguine  subjunctive  of  purpose,  attracted  into  this  tense  by  the  past 
form  befahl.  This,  the  old  sequence  (171.  2.  A),  is  fairty  well  preserv^ed  in  (1),  as  in  this  example, 
and  even  still  better  in  (2),  as  in  Er  band  den  Baum  an,  damit  er  grade  wüchse,  but  Er  bindet 
den  Baum  an,  damit  er  grade  wachse  or  more  commonly  wächst.  The  present  subjunctive, 
however,  is  often  found  here  also  after  a  past  tense  as  the  new  sequence  (171.  2.  B)  asserts  itself 
here  as  elsewhere:  Allabendlich  begoß  sie  den  Kaiserbaum,  daß  er  stattlich  heranwachse  (Hil- 
lern's  Hotter  als  die  Kirche,  III).     Compare  171.  4.  a  and  168.  I.  2.  B.  b. 

b.  The  periphrastic  subjunctive  is  sometimes  found  here  instead  of  the  older  simpler  forms: 
Röhrings  und  Benneckes  (names)  harrten  in  ihrer  Loge  aus,  bis  der  Strom  sich  einigermaßen 


230 PAST   TENSE    POTENTIAL   FORMS 169.  1.  C.b. 

verlaufen  haben  würde  (Wildenbruch's  Schwester-Seele,  II,  chap.  XI)  instead  of  bis  der  Strom 
sich  verlaufen  hätte. 

2.     The  Unreal  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used: 

A.     In  statements  and  questions  direct  and  indirect: 

(1)  In  direct  statements  and  questions.  In  earlier  periods  the  unreal  potential 
subjunctive  was  established  most  firmly  in  indirect  discourse  and  in  other 
subordinate  clauses.  It  is  forcing  its  way  more  and  more  into  independent 
propositions.  Its  use  in  subordinate  clauses  is  treated  at  length  in  the  difTerent 
categories  described  below.  It  is  employed  in  the  principal  proposition  in  the 
following  cases : 

a.  In  the  principal  clause  of  unreal  conditional  sentences.  This  use  is 
discussed  in  E  below. 

b.  In  questions  to  express  that  some  claim  that  has  just  been  made  is  con- 
trary to  fact:  Wann  hätten  wir  Euch  je  gehuldigt?  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Qtiitzows, 
3,  12)  When,  pray,  did  we  ever  do  homage  to  you?  In  doubting  inquiries  or 
exclamations  of  surprise:  Sollte  Karl  das  getan  haben?  Can  it  be  that  Charles 
has  done  that?  War's  möglich?  Könnt'  ich  nicht  mehr,  wie  ich  wollte? 
(Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  1,4).  Er  hätte  jedes  Hindernis  besiegt,  |  und  in 
dem  eignen  Willen  seiner  Tochter  |  sollt'  (past  subj.)  ihm  der  neue  Streit  ent- 
stehn?  (id..  Die  Piccolomini,  3,  8)  Can  it  be  that  he  has  overcome  every  obstacle 
only  to  find  in  the  wilfulness  of  his  own  daughter  a  new  source  of  opposition? 
Du  wärst  I  so  falsch  gewesen?  (ib.,  5,  1)  Can  it  be  that  you  were  so  false?  Dies 
wäre  Ihre  Schwester !  Well !  this  is  your  sister,  is  it?  Das  wäre !  or  Ei!  das  wäre ! 
Indeed!,  or  You  don't  say  so!  Wo  wäre  der?  Where  in  the  world  can  he  be? 
Wäre  diese  Sprache  keine  Täuschung?  Is  it  really  true  or  not  that  these  ut- 
terances are  no  delusion?  Noch  eins.  —  Das  wäre?  I  have  another  thing  to 
say  yet. — What  is  it?  It  is  in  a  similar  manner  often  used  to  express  joy, 
satisfaction  over  the  attainment  of  some  end  whose  successful  issue  has  seemed 
doubtful  or  over  a  final  resolution  after  an  inner  debate  or  struggle,  or  to  express 
surprise  or  regret  over  some  unexpected  result:  Gottlob,  wir  wären  am  Ziel! 
God  be  praised  we  are  there  at  last!  So  hätte  ich  denn  alles  getan,  was  mir 
zu  tun  obüegt!  And  so  I  have  actually  done  all  that  is  incumbent  upon  me  to  do! 
Das  wäre  nun  in  Ordnung!  That's  in  good  shape  now,  I  hope!  Nun  machte 
sie  als  energische  Frau  einen  Strich  unter  die  ganze  Episode  und  sagte  sich: 
Damit  wären  wir  fertig!  Now,  as  an  energetic  woman,  she  inwardly  decided  to 
put  an  end  to  the  whole  (love)  affair,  and  said  to  herself:  'Well!  I  guess  that's 
ended!'  Und  so  war'  ich  für  dies  Jahr  Meister  (Goethe's  Egmont,  1,  1)  And  so 
I'm  master-marksman  for  this  year.  So  hätten  wir  doch  wenigstens  etwas 
zu  Stande  gebracht.  Bis  dahin  ist  blutwenig  geschehen  {Frankfurter  Natio- 
nalvers., p.  841 ).  So  wären  wir  am  Ende,  Herr  Professor  (Freytag's  Journalisten, 
2,  1)  So  I  suppose,  Professor,  we  are  thru  with  each  other  (i.e.  all  friendship 
^tween  us  is  past). 

c.  By  clothing  one's  thoughts  in  the  language  of  doubt  and  uncertainty 
one  can  avoid  a  blunt  expression  of  one's  opinion  or  desire,  so  that  the  past 
subjunctive  often  loses  in  large  measure  the  element  of  doubt  and  unreality, 
and  is  much  used  to  state  an  opinion  or  seek  information  modestly,  politely, 
or  cautiously,  in  a  less  positive  and  abrupt  way  than  in  the  indicative:  Sie 
dürften  sich  geirrt  haben  You  may  possibly  have  made  a  mistake.  Das  dürfte 
das  Richtige  sein  That  is  probably  correct.  Ich  wüßte  wohl,  was  zu  tun  wäre 
I  think  I  know  what  would  be  best  to  do.  Nicht  gut!  Ich  dächte  doch!  (Les- 
sing's  Nathan,  2,  1)  You  think  I  am  not  playing  well?  I  rather  think  I  am! 
Ich  müßte  nun  gehen  I  think  I  must  go  now.  Es  wäre  Zeit,  daß  du  gingest 
I  tiiink  it  is  about  time  for  you  to  go.  Ausstellungen  im  einzelnen  hätte  ich 
kaum  zu  machen  I  scarce  think  I  have,  &c.  Das  Verhältnis  dieser  flexivischen 
Verschiedenheit  zu  der  Wortstellungsentwicklung  in  beiden  Sprachen  wäre 
zu  untersuchen  (G.  Hübener  in  Paul  and  Braune's  Beiträ'ie,  1920,  p.  95)  The 
relation  .  .  .  ought,  I  think,  to  be  investigated.      Möchtest  du  in  den  großen 


169.  2.  A.  (2).         PAST  TENSE   POTENTIAL   FORMS 231 

Ferien  an  die  Nordsee  gehen?  (R.  Blümel  in  Germanisch-Romanische  Monats- 
schrift, 1914,  p.  386),  indicating  that  the  father  has  not  yet  formed  a  definite 
plan,  hence  is  only  cautiously  seeking  the  desire  of  his  daughter,  not  extending 
to  her  a  definite  promise,  while  the  present  indicative  magst  du?  here  indicates 
a  definite  plan  and  amounts  to  a  definite  promise.  A  modest  inquiry  often 
amounts  to  a  polite  request:  Dürfte  ich  bitten,  mir  Bescheid  sagen  zu  lassen? 
Might  I  ask  you  to  send  me  word?  Möchten  Sie  die  Güte  haben,  mir  zu 
folgen?  Would  you  be  so  kind  as  to  follow  me?  Wie  wäre  es  mit  einer  Partie 
Billard?  How  should  you  like  a  game  of  billiards?  Könnten  Sie  mir  sagen, 
ob  ich  auf  dem  Weg  nach  K.  bin?  politely  indicates  that  the  speaker  desires 
but  is  not  demanding  a  reply,  but  the  indicative  können  Sie  here  implies  that 
the  speaker  is  expecting  an  answer.  Wollten  Sie  mir  erlauben  —  ich  hätte 
ein  Wort  mit  Ihnen —  (Wildenbruch's  Schwester-Seele,  chap.  XII)  Would  you 
be  so  kind  —  I  should  like  to  speak  a  few  words  with  you.  Similarly  the  de- 
clarative form  is  very  common  in  introducing  a  wish:  Ich  wünschte  (the  present 
indie,  ich  wünsche  has  more  of  the  bluntness  of  a  command),  Sie  schenkten 
mir  Gehör  I  wish  you  would  be  so  kind  as  to  grant  me  a  hearing, 

(2)  In  indirect  discourse,  to  indicate  that  the  statement  in  the  subordinate 
clause  is  contrary  to  fact:  Was?  [Sagen  Sie,]  Räuber  wären  es  gewesen,  die 
uns  anfielen? — -Mörder  waren  es,  erkaufte  Mörder!  (Lessing's  Emilia,  3,  8). 
Unterworfen  hätt'  ich  mich  |  dem  Richterspruch  der  Zweiundvierzig,  sagt  ihr?  | 
Ich  habe  keineswegs  mich  unterworfen  (Schiller's  Maria  Stuart,  1,  7).  Die 
Leute  lügen,  die  da  unten  schreien,  |  Ihr  wärt  ein  andrer  als  Ihr  wäret  (Haupt- 
mann's  Die  versunkene  Glocke,  3,  p.  96).  Wenn  freilich  ein  italienischer  Abge- 
ordneter behauptet  hat,  es  bestünde  eine  permanente  Gefahr  für  das  Leben 
und  das  Eigentum  seiner  Landsleute,  so  ist  das,  gelinde  gesprochen,  eine 
Übertreibung  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Nov.  9,  1904).  Leider  können  wir 
nicht  sagen,  daß  sie  (i.e.  die  Anklagen)  unbegründet  wären  (ib.,  March  23, 
1906).  Deshalb  bildet  sich  der  gute  Deutsche  in  einer  gewissen  Entfernung 
von  den  Tälern  der  Warta  allen  Ernstes  ein,  es  gäbe  keine  polnische  Nation 
mehr,  weil  man  sie  auf  deutschen  Kathedern  für  Staatsrecht  und  Geschichte 
theoretisch  und  wissenschaftlich  totgemacht  hat  (W.  von  Massow  in  Deutsche 
Monatsschrift,  Dec.  1906,  p.  402). 

This  subjunctive  is  also  used  to  indicate  that  the  statement  is  a  mere  fancy, 
not  an  actual  fact:  Dann  machte  er  Experimente  in  der  Chemie,  daß  ich  manch- 
mal heimlich  die  größte  Angst  ausgestanden  habe,  das  Haus  flöge  auf  mit  uns 
allen  (S.  Junghans). 

It  is  often  used  as  in  (1)  c  above  to  state  an  opinion  modestly  or  cautiously: 
Auf  die  Lexikographie  angewendet,  will  das  besagen,  daß  die  Behandlung 
jeder  einzelnen  Terminologie  oder  einer  beschränkten  Anzahl  solcher  je  einem 
anderen  Philologen  anzuvertrauen  wäre,  der  in  den  betreffenden  Fächern 
heimisch  ist   (Dr.   H.   Tiktin  in   Germanisch- Romanische  Monatsschrift,   1910, 

We  cannot  always  distinguish  the  unreal  subjunctive  from  the  plausible 
subjunctive  which  has  been  attracted  into  a  past  tense  after  a  past  tense.  Even 
after  a  present  tense  we  are  not  absolutely  sure  that  the  past  tense  forms  denote 
unreality,  as  they  often,  under  the  influence  of  dialect  or  to  get  a  clear  subjunctive 
form,  are  used  to  report  indirectly  simple  statements  made  by  others.  See 
171.  2.  A.  h.  Note  and  B.  a  (near  end  of  1st  par).  Thus  a  past  tense  of  the 
subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  is  often  not  a  genuine  unreal  potential  at  all. 
See  also  G.  a.  (2),  3rd  par.,  below. 

The  past  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive  are  not  now  so  widely  used  in  indirect 
discourse  as  the  present  tense  forms,  but  they  nevertheless  have  a  broad  field 
of  usefulness  here,  both  as  a  pure  potential  and  with  less  reason  also  as  a  gram- 
matical form,  to  express  merely  indirectness  of  statement.  This  subjunctive 
of  indirect  discourse  not  being  confined  to  one  grammatical  category,  but  as- 
suming different  grammatical  forms,  will  reappear  in  a  number  of  the  following 
groups.     It  is  discussed  still  more  fully  in  171-173. 


232 PAST   TENSE    POTENTIAL    FORMS 169.  2.  B. 

B.  Clauses  of  Manner.  The  unreal  potential  is  used  to  indicate  that  there 
is  little  foundation  of  fact  for  the  comparisons  made,  or  to  suggest  a  vague 
semblance  or  mere  surmise:  Ich  halte  Egmont  hier,  als  ob  ich  ihm  noch  was 
zu  sagen  hätte  (Goethe's  Egmont,  Act  4).  Nettchen  lehnte  sich  so  zufrieden 
an  ihn,  als  ob  er  eine  Kirchensäule  wäre  (G.  Keller's  Kleider  machen  Leute). 
Der  Braune  griff  so  tapfer  aus,  als  wäre  er  stolz  auf  seinen  sichern  Herrscher 
The  bay  struck  a  brisk  pace  as  if  he  were  proud  of  his  firm  master.  A  present 
tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  here  has  another  meaning.     See  168.  II.  B. 

The  past  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive  are  also  often  used  here  as  elsewhere 
to  make  a  statement  cautiously:  Ich  bin  nur  eine  alte  Frau  und  kann  mich 
also  täuschen;  aber  —  Kind,  Kind,  scheinen  tut  es  mir  doch  so,  als  ob  die 
Welt  schriller  würde  {-n'ere  becoming,  might  he  becoming,  subj.  of  cautious  state- 
ment) (Rae.be's  Horn  von  Wanza,  chap.  xiv). 

a.  The  past  periphrastic  subjunctive  is  frequently,  especially  thruout  the  South,  used  here 
instead  of  the  simple  past  subjunctive,  altho  this  usage  is  quite  generally  condemned  by  gram- 
marians: Sie  ließen  sich  gar  nicht  bei  uns  sehen,  wie  wenn  sie  das  Elternhaus  geflissentlich 
fliehen  würden  (for  flöhen)  (G.  Keller).  Jetzt  fängt  er  verdrießlich  wieder  an  zu  graben; 
aber  es  war,  als  wenn  er  in  einen  Steinboden  einhauen  würde,  alles  iimsonst  (Wilhelm  Fischer's 
Die  Freude  am  Licht,  II.  p.  75).     See  190.  I.E.  a. 

b.  We  often  find  the  ideas  of  unreality,  vague  semblance,  expressed  by  a  past  indicative  both 
in  poetry  and  common  prose,  most  frequently  in  the  language  of  the  Korth,  where  there  is  a 
general  trend  toward  the  indicative:  Du  hast  genannt  mich  einen  Vogelsteller,  |  als  ob  du  selber 
keine  Garne  zogst  (Freiligrath).  Es  war,  als  ob  sich  unter  der  Haut  pulsierende  Strähne 
hinzogen  (Auerbach's  Waldfried).  Mir  war,  als  ob  er  mich  plötzlich  anders  ansah  als  sonst, 
als  ob  er  mir  nicht  mehr  frei  die  Hand  geben  konnte  (Hirschfeld's  Agties  Jordan,  1,  p.  42). 
Es  war  alles  wie  verhext  und  verwunschen.  Als  wenn  das  nicht  wirkliche  Häuser  waren  (Frens- 
sen's  Jörn  Ulli,  chap,  v,  p.  83).  Sieh',  mir  ist,  |  als  waren  lauter  Puppen  sonst  um  mich  |  die 
Menschen  alle  (Schnitzler's  Der  Schleier  der  Beatrice,  1,  p.  31).  This  use  of  the  past  indicative 
indicates  that  the  statement  is  vividly  felt  as  narrative,  a  tale  of  things  once  felt  as  actual  facts. 

Also  the  present  indicative  is  frequently  used  here,  when  the  reference  is  to  present  time  as 
the  speaker  feels  the  utterance  as  an  actual  fact,  of  course  with  the  opposite  meaning  when 
spoken  in  a  sarcastic  tone:  Dummes  Zeug!  Als  wenn  du  überhaupt  'n  Liebsten  hast!  (Halbe's 
Das  tausendjährige  Reich,  p.  41),  in  sarcastic  tone  =  Du  hast  keinen  Liebsten!  "Wie  kommen 
Sie  hierher?  Answer:  Als  ob  man  im  Examen  ist!  (Carl  Busse),  in  sarcastic  tone  =  Ich  bin 
nicht  im  Examen!  Als  ob  ich  nie  allein  fertig  werd'!  (C.  Busse's  Kleinstadtliebe),  in  sarcastic 
tone  =  Ich  werde  immer  allein  fertig!  Feit  as  an  actual  fact:  Ich  weiß  nicht,  was  das  ist,  daß 
ich  nicht  ordentlich  lachen  kann.  Es  ist,  als  wenn  mein  Gesicht  gefroren  ist  (Frenssen's  Jörn 
Ulli,  chap.  xij.  Er  ist  den  ganzen  Tag  in  Unruh  und  kaim  doch  nachts  nicht  schlafen  ...  als 
wenn  .  .  .  ich  weiß  nicht  ...  als  wenn  er  ein  schweres  Gewissen  hat  (id.,  Das  He-iniatsfest,  2,  3). 
Es  scheint,  als  weim  die  Richter  seiner  Sache  ziemlich  günstig  sind  (Otto  Ernst's  Die  Kunst- 
reise nach  Hümpeldorf,  p.  60).  Aside  from  narrative  as  in  the  preceding  paragraph  the  cor- 
responding tense  here  for  past  time  is  the  present  perfect:  Die  Mutter  sieht  ein  bißchen  ge- 
drückt aus,  als  wenn  sie  früher  mal  was  Nobleres  vorgestellt  hat  (ib..  p.  55).  Sie  haben  so 
etwas  Finsteres  im  BUck,  als  ob  nie  die  Sonne  in  ihr  Herz  geschienen  hat  (Halbe). 

C.  Unreal  Subjunctive  of  Result  in  Attributive  Relative  Clauses.  Altho  the 
present  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive  are  not  so  common  as  formerly  in  attribu- 
tive relative  clauses,  as  described  in  168.  II.  C,  the  past  tense  forms  are  still 
quite  common  here.  The  present  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive  are  now 
usually  replaced  here,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  indicative  as  in  English  in  order 
to  represent  the  statement  confidently  as  a  fact,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  often 
by  a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  to  indicate  modestly  or  cautiously  that 
the  statement  is  at  least  conceivable  and  is  probably  true.  Thus  the  idea  of 
unreality  which  usually  attaches  to  a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  is  in 
most  cases  overshadowed  here  by  the  derived  meaning  of  modest  or  cautious 
statement:  Haben  Sie  nicht  stärkeres  Papier?  Answer:  Ich  habe  etwas,  das 
stärker  ist,  aber  nichts  in  der  gewünschten  Farbe,  das  stärker  wäre.  Die 
Geschichte  kennt  keinen  Staatsmann,  der  sich  größere  Verdienste  um  Öster- 
reich erworben  hätte  als  Prinz  Eugen.  Ich  kenne  niemand,  der  genauere 
Kenntnis  der  Sache  besäße.  Doch  wie  es  selten  nur  eine  unerfreuliche  Sache 
gibt,  die  nicht  auch  wenigstens  eine  gute  Seite  hätte,  so  war  es  auch  hier 
{Hamburger  Nachrichten,  March  23,  1905).  Noch  nie  ist  eine  Unwahrheit 
gesprochen  worden,  die  nicht  früher  oder  später  nachteilige  Folgen  gehabt 
hätte.     Wo  ist  ein  Berg  im  ganzen  Lande,  den  er  nicht  bestiegen  hätte? 


189.  2.  E.^. PAST   TENSE    POTENTIAL   FORMS 233 

The  old  idea  of  unreality,  doubt  is  also  found  here:  Aber  wo  ist  einer,  der 
das  tun  könnte,  wollte? 

D.  Unreal  Subjunctive  of  Result  in  Adverbial  Clauses.  In  all  the  categories 
of  result  described  in  168.  II.  D  the  present  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive  are 
now  usually  replaced,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  indicative  in  order  to  represent 
the  statement  confidently  as  a  fact,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  often  by  a  past  tense 
form  of  the  subjunctive  to  indicate  modestly  or  cautiously  that  the  statement 
is  at  least  conceivable  and  is  probably  true.  A  few  examples  will  sufifice:  Er 
denkt  zu  edel,  als  daß  er  nicht  die  Wahrheit  sagte.  Sie  ist  viel  zu  gescheit, 
als  daß  sie  hineinfiele  or  hineinfällt  (Burckhard's  Theater,  p.  22).  Ariostens 
Lob  aus  seinem  Munde  hat  mich  mehr  ergeizt,  |  als  daß  es  mich  beleidigt 
hätte  (Goethe's  Tasso,  2,  1).  Ich  bin  nie  in  London,  daß  ich  nicht  das  Museum 
besuchte  I  never  go  to  London  without  visiting  the  museum.  Er  sprach  nie, 
ohne  daß  er  gefragt  worden  wäre,  or  gefragt  wurde.  Serlo  (name)  hatte  sie 
nicht  ein'mal  zu  Gastrollen  gelassen,  geschweige  daß  er  ihnen  Hoffnung  zum 
Engagement  gemacht  hätte  (Goethe).  Und  die  Mutter  schaffte  ihnen  noch 
braunlederne  feine  Halbschuhe  an,  statt  daß  sie  sich  selbst  ein  Sommer- 
mäntelchen  gekauft  hätte  (H.  Böhlau's  Adam  und  Eva,  chap.  II).  Jetzt 
ging  alles  wieder  seinen  alten  Weg,  kaum  daß  einer  mehr  des  Abwesenden 
gedacht  hätte.  Weit  entfernt,  daß  man  den  Feldherrn  unterstützt  hätte, 
ward  sogar  der  Sold  der  Truppen  verschwendet.  Er  ist  nicht  so  weise,  daß 
er  alles  wüßte.     Other  examples  in  H.  c. 

a.  The  periphrastic  past  perfect  subjunctive  is  frequently  used  here  in  the  subordinate  clause 
instead  of  the  regular  past  perfect  subjunctive:  Ihm  hätte  es  häufig,  selbst  durch  den  ärgsten 
giftigsten  Schnupfen  hindurch,  dreist  nach  moderigem  Stroh  riechen  können,  ohne  daß  er  sich 
darob  gewundert  haben  würde  (Raabe's  Wunnigel,  chap.  VII).     See  also  190.  1.  E.  a. 

E,  Unreal  Conditions.  The  unreal  potential  is  also  used  in  conditional 
sentences  in  which  the  conclusion  rests  upon  a  condition  that  is  not  likely  to 
be  fulfilled,  or  upon  one  which  is  contrary  to  the  facts  in  the  case.  The  prin- 
cipal clause  has  the  periphrasis  or  the  regular  subjunctive,  the  subordinate 
clause  the  regular  subjunctive  only,  as  illustrated  in  the  following  sentences: 

Present  Time. 
a.     Ich  würde  den  Brief  schreiben,  wenn  ich  Zeit  hätte  /  should  ivrüe  the 
letter  if  I  had  time,  or 

h.  Ich  schriebe  den  Brief,  wenn  ich  Zeit  hätte  (about  equal  in  meaning  to 
a;  see  Note  1). 

Past  Time. 

c.  Ich  würde  den  Brief  geschrieben  haben,  wenn  ich  Zeit  gehabt  hätte 
I  should  have  written  the  letter  if  I  had  had  time,  or 

d.  Ich  hätte  den  Brief  geschrieben,  wenn  ich  Zeit  gehabt  hätte  (equal  in 
meaning  to  c). 

Note  1.  In  the  principal  proposition  the  regular  subjunctive  is  much  more  common  than  the  periphrastic  form 
in  case  of  modal  auxiliaries  and  the  passive  of  all  verbs  in  both  present  and  past  time.  Elsewhere,  however,  the 
two  forms  may  be  considered  as  equally  good  and  common  with  the  exception  that  the  periphrastic  is  more  common 
in  the  principal  proposition  than  the  simple  past,  at  least  so  in  ordinary  prose.     See  Note  3. 

Note  2.  In  the  description  of  a  crisis  or  a  stirring  event  in  our  past  life  or  the  life  of  another  the  past  indie,  some- 
times takes  the  place  of  the  past  perf.  subjunctive,  either  in  the  main  or  the  subordinate  clause,  as  the  past  acts  de- 
scribed do  not  seem  to  us  mere  conceptions  but  things  so  close  to  us  that  we  feel  them  as  realities  which  we  relate: 
Mit  diesem  zweiten  Pfeil  durchschoß  ich  Euch,  1  wenn  ich  mein  liebes  Kind  getroffen  hätte  ( Schiller's  Tell.  3,  3) . 
Warf  er  (i.e.  CiEsar)  das  Schwert  von  sich,  er  war  verloren  (id.,  Wallensteins  Tod,  2,  2).  Und  kamst  du  nicht,  ich 
tat  es  (Grillpar.^er's  Ein  treuer  Diener  seines  Herrn,  2).  Mit  einer  einzigen  mühelosen  Bewegung  hätte  ich,  frei 
zugreifend,  Liebe,  Reichtum,  Glanz,  Ehre,  alles  zugleich  gewinnen  können,  wenn  ich  das  furchtsam  grübelnde 
Gewissensbedenken  nur  eine  Sekunde  lang  fahren  ließ;  allein  dann  war  auch  mein  innerstes  Wesen  verwandelt, 
dann  war  ich  nicht  mehr  ich,  ich  war  tot,  ich  war  nicht  mehr  eins  mit  dem  Schicksal,  nicht  mehr  der  lenkende  Gott 
auf  dem  rollenden  Lebenswagen,  sondern  ich  war  der  willenlose  Sklave  eines  Glückes,  das  von  außen  zwmgend 
wie  ein  goldenes  Netz  über  mich  geworfen  war.  War  ich  dann  glücklich?  (Hans  Hoffmann's  Iwan  der  Schreildiche, 
chap.  V). 

Note  3.  From  Luther's  day  up  to  the  present,  especially  thruout  the  South,  the  periphrasis  is  found  with  increasing 
frequency  even  in  good  authors  also  in  the  subordinate  clause  as  well  as  in  the  principal,  usually  without  difference 
of  meanint!  from  the  roKular  subjunctive:  Wo  aber  jemand  würde  zu  euch  sagen  (1  Cor.  x.  28).  Mit  Vergnügen, 
wenn  es  etwas  helfen  würde  (  Raabe's  lloraeker,  chap.  vi).  Wenn  nun  der  Pastor  von  Gansewinckel,  Herr  Christian 
Winckler,  alles  dies  und  zwar  in  einem  ähnlichen  Tone  wie  sein  Eheweib  vorgetragen  haben  würde,  so  würden  wir 
uns  ganz  gehorsamst  dafür  bedanken,  irgend  eine  Bürgschaft  für  den  Erfolg  der  Rede  zu  übernehmen  (ib.  chap, 
viii).  Würde  der  Donnersberg  so  hoch  unmittelbar  von  der  Rheinebene  aus  sich  erheben,  so  würde  jedermann 
erstaunen  (  K.  Maver  über  Uhland,  I,  lOi).  Wenn  man  die  Werke  nach  der  Weltanschauung,  die  ihre  Künstler 
aussprechen,  bestimmen  würde,  so  würde  keiner  der  österreichischen  Sezessionisten  in  die  Gruppe  von  Zorn 
kommen  können  (Hermann  Bahr's  Gesammelte  Aufsätze  über  die  Sezession,  p.  96).     Ich  würde  mich  nicht  wundem. 


234 PAST   TENSE   POTENTIAL   FORMS 169.  2.  E.  d. 

wenn  ich  in  einer  Zeitung  lesen  würde,  daß  usw.  (Eb.  Nestle  from  Maulbronn  in  Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Un- 
terricht 1902,  p.  132).  Grammarians,  however,  quite  generally  condemn  the  use  of  the  periphrasis  here  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause  and  insist  upon  the  usage  given  above.  The  evident  explanation  of  this  opposition  is  that  the  clumsy 
periphrasis  robs  the  statement  of  its  terseness  of  expression.  The  periphrasis,  however,  lias  an  inner  strength  of  its 
own  for  it  is  gradually  supplanting  the  regular  subjunctive  in  the  principal  proposition  without  meeting  with  any 
opposition  from  the  grammarians.  The  reason  seems  to  be  that  it  has  more  future  force  than  the  regular  subjunc- 
tive and  hence  is  felt  as  more  appropriate  for  use  in  the  principal  proposition,  which  usually  has  stronger  future  force 
than  the  subordinate  clause.  This  distinct  future  force  which  lies  in  the  periphrasis  often  leads  to  its  use  also  in  the 
subordinate  clause  to  bring  out  more  clearly  the  idea  of  futurity  which  is  otten  found  there.  Thus  there  seems  to  be 
a  tendency  to  differentiate  the  two  forms  in  the  subordinate  clause,  as  illustrated  in  190.  1.  E.  o.  Usage  at  present, 
however,  is  ver>'  unsettled  at  this  point,  especially  in  the  South,  where  the  periphrasis  is  often  used  without  any  jus- 

Note  4  Many' sentences  containing  a  subjunctive  will  upon  study  reveal  themselves  as  a  conditional  sentence 
with  a  prepositional  phrase  instead  of  a  conditional  clause:  Unter  anderen  Umständen  hätte  ich  zugestimmt.  .\ 
part  of  the  sentence  is  often  suppressed:  Ja  wenn  wir  nicht  wären,  sagte  die  Laterne  zimi  Mond.  Da  ging  sie  aus 
fWhat  woufd  the  world  do)  If  we  were  not,  said  the  street-lamp  to  the  moon.  Thereupon  it  went  out.  Wer  ein 
Narr  wäre  und  redete  mit  fremden  Leuten!  [der  würde  das  tun]  If  one  were  a  fool  he  might  do  it!,  or  Only  a  fool  would 
do  that'  Daß  ich  ein  Narr  wäre!  =  Wenn  ich  das  täte,  was  mir  zugemutet  wird,  so  wäre  das  Ergebnis,  daß  ich  ein 
Narr  wäre.  Sometimes  there  is  a  mingling  of  two  constructions:  Ich  wäre  beinahe  gefallen  /  came  very  near  falling 
is  a  blending  of  Es  ist  Ijeinahe  so  weit  gekommen,  daß  ich  gefallen  bin  and  Ich  wäre  gefallen,  wenn  ich  mich  nicht 
an  das  Geländer  gehalten  hätte.     Compare  1  below. 

Note  5.     Tlie  unreal  conditional  sentence  is  now  usually  felt  as  a  potential  categorj',  but  it  was  originally  optative 

in  character  in  both  the  principal  proposition  and  the  subordinate  clause,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  occasional  sentences: 

Kämest  du  (originally  Kämest  du!  O  that  you  would  come'),  ich  gäbe  dir  gern  etwas  (  =  ich  möchte  dir  etwas  geben) 

(Sommer's    Vergleichende  Syntax,  p.  S7).     It  is  possible  that  the  potential  idea  in  general  has  developed  out  of  the 

ill    aptntive. 

1.  The  subjunctive  of  modest  or  cautious  statement,  which  is  a  weakened 
potential  with  a  suppressed  conditional  clause,  is  used  quite  frequently  to  make 
the  statement  of  a  truth  modestly  or  cautiously,  in  a  less  positive  and  definite 
way  than  in  the  indicative:  Ich  könnte  noch  manches  sagen  fwenn  ich  wollte, 
or  wenn  es  verstattet  wäre).     See  also  A.  (1).  c  above. 

2.  We  have  other  unreal  conditional  sentences  than  the  ones  described  in 
the  preceding  articles.  The  conditional  conjunctions  given  in  238.  3.  F  are 
often  used  with  the  past  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive  to  represent  the  state- 
ment as  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind,  with  various  shades  of  meaning.  See 
examples  in  279.     See  also  168.  II.  E.  a,  c?. 

3.  In  conditions  the  indicative  competes  with  the  subjunctive,  as  explained 
in  166. 

F.  Unreal  Subjunctive  in  Relative  and  Interrogative  Clauses.  This  subjunc- 
■  tive  is  much  used  to  represent  the  statement  as  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind 
without  a  basis  in  reality,  on  the  other  hand,  however,  often  indicating  that 
the  speaker  or  writer  regards  the  occurrence  or  performance  of  the  act  in  ques- 
tion as  possible  or  feels  the  conception  as  possibly  conforming  to  fact  or  reality, 
hence  often  employed  to  state  an  opinion  modestly  or  cautiously, 

a.  Attributive  relative  or  interrogative  clauses.  Relative  clauses:  Ich 
möchte  gern  einen  Geldbeutel  haben,  der  nie  leer  würde  (Grimm's  Märchen). 
Da  ist  der  Kahn,  der  mich  hinübertrüge  (Schiller's  Tell,  1,  1).  Die  Welt  kann 
dir  nichts  darbieten,  was  sie  von  dir  nicht  empfinge  (Schiller's  Menschenfeind, 
Act  8)  which  it  does  not  receive  from  you,  subj.  of  cautious  statement.  Other 
examples  in  C  above. 

The  subjunctive  in  relative  clauses  also  occurs  in  unreal  conditional  sen- 
tences :  Er  wäre  der  letzte,  den  ich  um  Rat  fragte  [,  wenn  ich  in  Verlegenheit 
kommen  sollte]. 

Interrogative  clauses  are  introduced  by  ob  whether,  or  some  interrogative 
adjective  or  adverb:  Jetzt  warf  man  die  Frage  auf,  ob  man  das  Werk  zu  Ende 
führen  könnte. 

b.  In  substantive  relative  clauses.  It  is  very  common  in  the  following 
relations : 

(1)  As  subject  or  predicate.  As  subject:  Wer  sie  nicht  kennte,  |  die  Ele- 
mente, I  ihre  Kraft  |  und  Eigenschaft,  |  wäre  kein  Meister  |  über  die  Geister 
(Goethe's  Faust,  Studierzimmer).  Wer  mir  vorausgesagt  hätte,  daß  die  Arme 
meines  Geistes  so  bald  zerschmettert  werden  sollten,  mit  denen  ich  ins  Un- 
endliche griff,  und  mit  denen  ich  doch  gewiß  ein  Großes  zu  umfassen  hoffte, 
wer  mir  das  vorausgesagt  hätte,  würde  mich  zur  Verzweiflung  gebracht  haben 
(id.).     As  predicate:    Die  Menschen  sind  nicht  immer,  was  sie  sein  könnten. 

(2)  As  object:   Kaufe  dir,  was  du  gern  hättest  (Lessing's  Minna,  2,  3). 

c.  In  substantive  interrogative  clauses.  This  subjunctive  is  common  in 
clauses  introduced  by  ob  whether,  or  some  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb. 


169.  2.  G.  g.  PAST   TENSE   POTENTIAL   FORMS 235 

(1)  As  subject:   Es  fiel  ihm  nicht  ein,  wieviel  davon  sich  sagen  ließe. 

(2)  As  object:   Ich  brütete,  wie  ich  dich  retten  könnte  (A.  Hausrath). 
The  subjunctive  in  (1)  and  (2)  is  often  not  a  pure  unreal  potential,  but,  as 

in  168.  II.  F.  c.  (2),  3rd  line,  only  a  grammatical  form  for' the  expression  of  an 
indirect  question,  the  tense  having  been  attracted  into  the  form  of  a  historical 
tense  after  a  historical  tense:  Was  mit  dem  Andree  geschehen  würde  [or 
werde],  kümmerte  ihn  nicht  im  geringsten  (P.  Heyse).  In  such  indirect  ques- 
tions a  past  tense  form  is  not  now  in  choice  language  so  common  as  a  present 
tense  form. 

G.  Unreal  Potential  Subjunctive  in  Substantive  Daß-  Clauses.  This  sub- 
junctive is  very  common  to  indicate  a  possibility,  or  to  express  a  statement 
modestly  or  cautiously.  The  daß  may  be  suppressed.  This  subjunctive  is 
often  used  instead  of  the  plausible  subjunctive  described  in  168.  II.  G.  Of 
course  the  indicative  is  used  if  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a  fact. 

This  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  following  relations: 

a.     In  subject  and  object  clauses: 

(1)  As  subject.  The  subjunctive  of  modest  or  cautious  statement  is  very 
common  here :  Es  scheint  uns,  daß  mit  einer  solchen  Zusage  nicht  viel  gewon- 
nen wäre.  Es  fehlte  nur  wenig  or  nicht  viel,  daß  es  ihm  ebenso  ergangen 
wäre  or  erging.  Es  konnte  nicht  fehlen  or  ausbleiben,  daß  sie  sich  nicht  zu- 
weilen getroffen  hätten,  or  daß  sie  sich  (nicht)  zuweilen  trafen  (Wilmanns's 
Deutsche  Grammatik,  III,  p.  284).  Es  täte  not,  ich  ginge  selbst  hin.  See  also 
Matth.  xviii.  6. 

(2)  As  object.  Here  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  use  the  past  subiunctive 
of  an  auxiliary  with  a  dependent  infinitive  rather  than  the  past  subjunctive  of 
the  simple  verb:  Ich  rechnete  darauf,  daß  er  ausbleiben  könnte  (instead  of 
ausbliebe).  Ich  fürchtete,  daß  mir  die  ganze  Ernte  verderben  würde  (instead 
of  verdürbe).  The  subjunctive  of  modest  statement  is  very  common  in  this 
category:  Ich  glaube,  meine  Herren,  damit  wäre  in  starken  großen  Umrissen 
genug  von  unserem  Aufenthalt  in  Wien  gesagt  {Frankfurter  Nationalvers., 
p.  841).  Ich  finde,  der  Verfasser  müßte  diese  (i.e.  die  Ergebnisse)  doch  noch 
gesondert,  in  Zusammenfassungen,  Tabellen,  Karten  oder  wie  sonst  darbieten 
(Baesecke's  Deutsche  Philologie,  p.  41)  I  think  the  author  ought  by  all  means 
to  present  his  results  separately  in  the  form  of  summaries,  tables,  &c. 

There  are  also  numerous  traces  of  a  tendency  to  give  the  subjunctive  here  the 
idea  of  unreality,  especially  to  indicate  a  conflict  with  reality:  Da  behaupten 
die  Leute,  Freunde  in  der  Not  wären  selten  And  now  people  say  that  friends 
in  time  of  need  are  scarce  (which  is  not  my  experience).  Ja,  Knoten — ,  das 
sind  sie,  die  Menschen,  alle,  wie  sie  gebacken  sind,  Beamtenknoten,  Geld- 
knoten, Berufsknoten!  Und  am  knotigsten,  wenn  sie  sich  Lackstiefel  an- 
ziehen, einen  Frack  darüber  hängen  und  womöglich  ein  paar  Orden  dran 
stecken  und  sich  einbilden,  jetzt  wären  sie  fein  (Wildenbruch 's  Neid,  p.  80). 
See  also  A.  (2)  above,  and  171.  2.  B.  c.  The  speaker  often,  however,  employs 
a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive,  not  to  call  attention  to  a  conflict  with 
reality  but  to  withdraw  the  question  entirely  from  the  domain  of  reality  and 
present  it  as  a  mere  conception,  as  a  supposed  or  imaginary  case:  Ich  will  mir 
einbilden,  meine  Pferde  dort  unten  wären  Schafe  usw.  (Kleist's  Käthchen, 
2,  1). 

The  subjunctive  in  (1)  and  (2)  is  often  not  a  pure  potential,  but,  as  in  168. 
II.  G.  a.  (2),  2nd  par.,  a  mere  grammatical  form  for  the  expression  of  indirect 
statement  or  discourse,  the  tense  having  been  attracted  into  a  past  tense  form 
after  a  past  tense :  Er  faßte  es  nicht,  daß  diese  Lippen  erkaltet  wären  (here  of 
a  fact),  die  so  oft,  noch  gestern  mit  ihm  über  alle  Fragen  der  Menschen  ge- 
redet (Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  viii).  Ich  wußte  wohl,  daß  es  ohne  Lärm 
nicht  abgehen  würde  (instead  of  werde)  (P.  Heyse).  Als  er  vernommen,  daß 
es  Deutsche  wären  (here  of  a  fact),  sagte  er  zu  seiner  Begleitung  usw.  (Gurt 
Gebauer  in  Archiv  für  Kulturgeschichte,  vol.  V,  p.  462).  In  such  indirect  discourse 
past  tense  forms  are  in  general  not  now  in  choice  language  so  common  as  present 


236 PAST   TENSE   POTENTIAL  FORMS 169.  2.  G.  a. 

tense  forms.  It  would  be  a  gain  for  the  language  if  they  should  disappear 
entirely  except  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  171.  2.  B.  a.  This  would  leave  room 
for  the  clearer  development  of  the  idea  of  possibility,  unreality,  and  caution 
here.     See  also  171.  2.  B.  c. 

b.  In  attributive  clauses.  To  express  possibility:  Das  hat  ihn  so  furchtbar 
gequält,  Marie.  Die  Angst,  er  könnte  nie  etwas  erreichen  (Hirschfeld's 
Mütter,  Act  4),  or  die  Angst,  daß  er  nie  etwas  erreichen  könnte.  The  sub- 
junctive of  modest  or  cautious  statement  is  common  here:  Es  wäre  höchste 
Zeit,  daß  du  gingest.     Es  ist  Zeit,  daß  ich  ginge. 

To  express  the  idea  of  unreality  als  (with  question  order)  or  als  ob  or  als 
wenn  (with  transposed  order)  may  be  used  instead  of  daß:  Ebenso  habe  ich 
mich  bemüht,  meinen  Urteilen  über  mundartUche  Färbungen  der  Schriftsprache 
eine  Form  zu  geben,  durch  die  ich  dem  Mißverständnisse,  dem  sie  früher 
ausgesetzt  gewesen  sind,  vorbeugen  möchte,  dem  Mißverständnisse,  als 
beurteilte  ich  das  Verhältnis  usw.  (Matthias's  Sprachleben  und  Sprachschäden, 
Vorwort).  The  past  subjunctive  here  is  often  the  subjunctive  of  modest  or 
cautious  statement:  Auch  bei  Wassermann  (name)  wird  man  das  Gefühl 
nicht  los,  als  ob  doch  manche  Stoffe  wenig  zu  novellistischer  Behandlung 
geeignet  wären  (Richard  Dohse  in  Die  schöne  Literatur,  Dec.  1,  190G,  p.  490). 

Sometimes  as  in  2.  B.  b  above  the  present  indicative  is  used  here  instead  of 
the  past  subjunctive  as  the  person  in  question  feels  the  utterance  as  an  actual 
fact:  Wenn  man  mit  der  Eisenbahn  von  Weltevreden  nach  Buitenzorg  reist, 
so  hat  man  zunächst  den  Eindruck,  als  ob  man  fast  ununterbrochen  im  Walde 
fährt  ...  in  Wirklichkeit  ist  es  ausnahmslos  Kulturgelände,  welches  den 
Schienenstrang  begleitet  (K.  Giesenhagen's  Auf  Java  und  Sumatra,  p.  23). 
Gegenüber  all  den  Darstellungen,  als  ob  es  sich  dort  um  eine  wild  gewordene 
Soldateska  handelt,  ist  die  Armee  tadellos  hervorgegangen  (Graf  Westarp  in  the 
Reichstag,  Jan.  24,  1914).     See  also  238.  2.  d.  Note. 

H.      Unreal  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Degree  (see  238.  3.  D): 

a.  In  clauses  expressing  a  comparison  (see  238.  3.  D.  1.  A.  a).  This  sub- 
junctive is  common  here  to  express  a  possibility,  or  to  make  a  statement  modestly 
or  cautiously :  Er  ist  so  bescheiden,  wie  ein  Mann  sein  könnte. 

h.  In  clauses  expressing  a  restriction  (238.  3.  D.  1.  A.  c).  This  subjunctive 
is  used  here  to  express  a  possibility:  Ich  bin  nicht  abergläubisch,  versetzte 
Charlotte,  und  gebe  nichts  auf  diese  dunklen  Anregungen,  insofern  sie  nur 
solche  wären  (Goethe's  Wahlverwandtschaften,  chap.  i).  Angesichts  der  Ge- 
fahr, die  von  neuen  Erfindungen  und  um  sich  greifenden  Beschäftigungen 
und  Vergnügen  droht,  ist  es  daher  erfreulich,  daß  auch  in  unserer  Zeit  Vereine 
das  Sprachgewissen  schärfen  und  Behörden  für  die  überflüssigen  fremden 
Ausdrücke  vernünftige  deutsche  einführen,  soweit  also  nicht  Verarmung  des 
Sprachinhalts  oder  Mangel  an  Deutlichkeit  zu  befürchten  wäre  (Sütterlin  and 
Waag's  Deutsche  Sprachlehre,  p.  15). 

c.  In  clauses  expressing  a  result  (see  238.  3.  D.  2).  This  subjunctive  is 
common  here  to  express  a  possibility,  or  to  make  a  statement  modestly  or 
cautiously:  Die  Luft  ist  so  still,  daß  wir  sie  kommen  hören  könnten.  Es 
(Frenssen's  Jörn  Uhl)  ist,  von  seinem  Kunstwert  ganz  abgesehen,  dabei  so 
deutsch,  daß  keine  andere  Nation  der  Erde  es  hätte  hervorbringen  können. 
Es  ist  speziell  so  norddeutsch,  daß  kein  Süddeutscher  an  seine  innerste  Kraft 
herankönnte  (Carl  Busse  im  Tag,  Nr.  11  vom  8.  Januar  1902).  Sie  war  so 
ergriffen,  daß  sie  fast  einen  Weinkrampf  bekommen  hätte  (Ompteda's  Eysen, 
chap,  xxviii)  that  she  almost  fell  into  hysterics.  Of  course  the  indicative  is  used 
here  to  state  an  actual  result.  A  more  detailed  statement  of  the  uses  of  the 
subjunctive  here  is  given  in  D. 

I.  Unreal  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Time  and  Place.  The  past  tense  forms 
of  the  subjunctix'e  are  used  in  adverbial  clauses  of  time  and  place  to  denote 
possibility:  Die  Totengräber  hatten  über  dem  Sarge  eine  Art  Gewölbe  aus 
Brettern  hergestellt,  um  ihn  später  wieder  leichter  ausgraben  zu  können, 
wenn   die   Gruft  fertig  gemauert   wäre    (Ompteda's    Eysen,   chap.   ix).     Von 


171.  1. INDIRECT   DISCOURSE 237 

meinen  Schülern  aber  werde  ich  niemals  weichen,  wo  eine  Gefahr  sie  bedrohen 
könnte  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurjürslen,  chap.  xlii).  See  also  274.  h; 
275.  b. 

].  Unreal  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Cause.  The  past  tense  forms  of  the 
subjunctive  are  used  here  to  denote  possibility:  Ich  tue  es  gleich,  weil  es  heute 
noch  regnen  könnte.  A  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  is  often  used  after 
weil  preceded  by  a  negative  or  a  word  with  negative  force  to  indicate  modestly 
that  a  suggested  explanation  is  not  the  right  one:  Zum  ersten  Male,  solange 
ich  denken  konnte,  griff  der  Urgroßvater  diese  Herausforderung  nicht  auf, 
weniger  wohl,  weil  er  durchaus  nichts  zu  entgegnen  gewußt  hätte,  als  aus 
allgemeiner  Betrübnis  und  Müdigkeit  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap,  xxiii). 

Indirect  Discourse. 

170.  Indirect  discourse  is  the  indirect  statement  of  the  substance  of  the 
words,  thoughts,  suppositions,  wishes,  &c.,  of  another,  or  is  the  speaker's  re- 
port of  the  substance  of  his  own  words,  thoughts,  suppositions,  wishes,  &c. 
In  German  such  indirect  communications  assume  two  general  forms — the 
Indirect  Form  and  the  Independent  Form. 

Indirect  Form  of  Indirect  Discourse. 

171.  1.  Mood.  In  reporting  the  thought  of  another  the  speaker  uses  the 
indicative  if  he  positively  wishes  to  endorse  the  report,  or  represent  it  as  evi- 
dently supported  by  facts;  but  if  he  desires  to  represent  the  report  as  doubtful, 
or  wishes  simply  to  submit  to  the  judgment  of  the  hearer  the  subjective  views 
of  himself  or  others,  or  to  state  his  or  their  wishes,  hopes,  fears,  intentions,  &c., 
which  are  by  their  very  nature  not  entirely  certain  of  realization,  he  usually 
employs  the  subjunctive:  Der  Arzt  glaubt,  daß  ich  krank  bin  The  doctor  believes 
me  to  be  sick  (and  I  agree  with  him),  but  Der  Arzt  glaubt,  daß  ich  krank  sei 
The  doctor  believes  me  to  be  sick  (but  I  don't  agree  with  him).  Er  sagt,  daß  er 
schon  zwei  Kapitel  gelesen  hat  He  says  that  he  has  already  read  two  chapters 
(and  of  course  his  word  is  good),  but  Da  sage  einer,  daß  ich  kein  feiner  Diplo- 
mat sei  Now  let  someone  say  that  I  am  not  a  shreivd  diplomat!  (Who  could  now 
hold  such  a  view,  as  I  have  already  shown  that  I  am  one?).  Ludwig  Salomon 
meint,  man  dürfe  Wilbrandts  „Maler"  neben  Freytags  „JournaHsten"  stellen 
Louis  Salomon  believes  that  Wilbrandt's  play  'Die  Maler'  compares  favorably 
with  Freytag's  'Die  Journalisten'  (the  subjective  view  of  Salomon).  Mein 
Vater  glaubt,  es  sei  (the  subjunctive  here  contains  nothing  doubtful  or  dis- 
respectful to  the  father,  but  simply  indicates  that  the  view  expressed  is  his) 
besser,  diesen  Weg  einzuschlagen  My  father  thinks  it  is  better  to  pursue  this 
course.     Er  wünscht  nicht,  daß  sie  es  höre  He  does  not  want  her  to  hear  it. 

There  is  considerable  fluctuation  in  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  here  according 
to  the  standpoint  and  feeling  of  the  speaker  or  writer,  but  in  general  it  is  at 
present  true  that  it  is  much  more  common  after  the  second  or  third  person 
than  after  the  first,  and  more  common  after  a  past  than  a  present  tense,  hence 
least  frequent  after  the  first  person  present:  Ich  fürchte,  daß  es  schon  zu  spät  ist 
Ifear  it  is  already  too  late,  but  Er  fürchtet,  daß  es  schon  zu  spät  sei.  Ich  zweifle, 
daß  er  lesen  wird  (O.  Weise)  /  doubt  whether  he  ivill  read,  but  Ich  zweifelte,  daß 
er  lesen  werde  (id.).  The  subjunctive  after  a  first  person  present,  however, 
is  common  in  case  of  verbs  expressing  will,  command:  Ich  will  nicht,  daß  auch 
nur  ein  einziger  schlaff  werde  durch  Weibertränen  und  Weibergeschrei  (Su- 
dermann's  Teja,  1,  5)  I  do  not  desire  that  a  single  man  should  become  enervated 
thru  the  tears  and  cries  of  women.  The  subjunctive  after  the  first  person  is 
necessary  to  indicate  that  something  is  merely  conceived  or  represented  as  true 
without  however  an  actual  basis  in  fact:  Ich  kann  doch  nicht  sagen,  daß  ich 
krank  bin  /  hesitate  to  announce  the  fact  of  my  sickness,  but  Ich  kann  doch  nicht 
sagen,  daß  ich  krank  sei  (Hermann  Auer's  Schulgrammatik,  p.  145)  /  hesitate  to 


238 INDIRECT   DISCOURSE 171.  1. 

pretend  to  he  sick.  The  subjunctive  is  also  common  after  the  first  person  when 
it  is  not  a  question  of  the  truth  or  falseness  of  the  utterance,  but  rather  of  the 
indirectness  of  the  statement:  Ich  erzählte  ihm,  daß  ich  am  heihgen  Abend 
immer  ein  wenig  betrübt  sei,  denn  so  schön  wie  im  Kloster  könne  für  mich 
Weihnachten  nie  wieder  werden  (Hermine  Villinger's  Simpliciias,  34).  Like- 
wise after  the  first  person  of  the  present  tense:  Ich  weiß  nicht,  ob  die  Frage 
damals  weiter  erörtert  worden  ist,  und  meine,  es  sei  unter  allen  Umständen 
der  Mühe  wert  zu  untersuchen,  ob  wirklich  der  Dativ  (in  the  expression  Da 
kannst  du  dir  am  besten  Rats  erholen)  bei  jedermann  Anstoß  erregt  (J.  Ernst 
Wülfino;  in  Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unterricht,  1903,  p.  730).  So  glaube 
ich,  daß  auch  mein  Auge  durch  die  lange  Beschäftigung  mit  dem  Gegenstand 
nicht  verblendet,  sondern  dank  der  damit  zusammenhängenden  reichen  Er- 
fahrung vielmehr  eigentümlich  geschärft  sei  (Günther  Jacoby  in  Journal  of 
English  and  Germanic  Philology,  191-4,  p.  379).  Ich  vermute  stark,  es  handele 
sich  um  usw.  (F.  Krüger  in  Literaturblatt  für  germanische  -und  romanische  Phi- 
lologie, XXXIX.  Jahrg.,  p.  12(3).  All  three  writers  are  here  quite  sure  of  their 
statements,  but  they  use  the  subjunctive  because  they  feel  that  they  are  stating 
their  views  indirectly.  Indirectness  here  in  connection  with  a  present  tense 
form  of  the  subjunctive  expresses  quiet  confidence  in  the  truth  of  the  statement. 
If  these  writers  had  employed  the  indicative  here  instead  of  the  subjunctive 
the  statement  would  have  been  more  personal  and  subjective,  not  at  all,  hovr- 
ever,  more  suggestive  of  certainty.  The  frequent  use  of  the  indicative  after 
the  first  person  of  the  present  tense  results  from  the  circumstance  that  we 
usually  feel  the  words  ich  glaube,  ich  weiß,  &c.  as  not  so  essential  a  part  of 
the  utterance  as  what  follows  and  hence  feel  the  utterance  as  a  whole  more  as 
a  declaration  of  fact  than  as  an  indirect  statement:  Ich  weiß,  daß  sie  morgen 
kommen.  After  a  past  tense  the  subjunctive  is  in  general  more  common  than 
after  the  present  for  the  simple  reason  that  when  we  speak  of  past  events  that 
have  been  told  us  we  involuntarily  fall  into  a  narrative  mood  and  hence  feel 
all  that  we  say  as  a  report,  an  indirect  statement  and  employ  the  subjunctive. 
Here  the  feeling  of  indirectness  is  more  prominent  than  the  desire  to  represent 
the  utterance  as  a  declaration  of  fact.  We  feel  that  we  are  narrating,  not 
declaring.  After  a  past  tense,  however,  the  subjunctive  is  naturally  more 
common  with  reference  to  the  future  than  to  the  past  as  we  may  report  past 
events  in  the  indicative  as  facts:  Es  war  gewiß,  daß  er  log,  gelogen  hatte,  lügen 
werde  (or  würde). 

As  can  be  seen  from  the  preceding  sentences,  the  subjunctive  employed  in 
indirect  discourse  has  not  one  distinct  meaning,  but  is  either  optative  or  poten- 
tial or  both,  as  the  statement  may  be  represented  as  the  will  of  someone,  or  as 
something  that  is  possible,  or  it  may  be  represented  as  both  at  the  same  time. 
Moreover,  the  subjunctive  is  often  used  merely  because  of  the  element  of  in- 
directness which  lies  in  the  statement,  even  tho  the  optative  and  potential  ideas 
may  be  entirely  absent:  Ich  wußte  wohl,  daß  der  Hund  von  edler  Art  sei  (Riehl's 
Der  stumme  Ratsherr,  III).  See  also  168.  II.  G.  a  (2),  2nd  par.;  169.  2.  G.  a. 
(2),  3rd  par;   3  (next  to  the  last  par.)  below. 

a.  The  indirect  statement  often  depends  upon  a  noun:  Den  Vorwurf,  daß 
er  dich  habe  täuschen  wollen,  hat  er  nicht  verdient.  Die  Behauptung,  daß 
die  Erde  sich  drehe,  setzte  Galilei  mannigfachen  Verfolgungen  aus. 

b.  The  report  of  the  speaker  in  the  subjunctive  may  be  interrupted  by 
explanatory  remarks  of  his  own  in  the  indie,  but  all  remarks,  explanatory  or 
otherwise,  which  are  a  part  of  the  original  direct  statement  are  put  in  the  sub- 
junctive when  transposed  into  the  indirect:  Karl  erzählte,  daß  er  das  Haus, 
welches  er  von  seinem  Vater  geerbt  hat,  verkaufen  wolle.  Seit  Jahren  (sagte 
sie)  sei  sie  mit  einem  Standesgenossen  verlobt  gewesen,  der  gleich  ihr  arm 
gewesen  sei. 

c.  Often  a  subordinate  clause  is  in  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  statement, 
altho  it  has  not  the  outward  form  of  an  indirect  statement,  which  is  easily 
explained  by  supplying  some  omission:    Die  Athener  (Athenians)  verurteilten 


171.  2.  A.  a. OLD   LAW   OF  SEQUENCE 239 

Sokrates  zum  Tode,  weil  [sie  sagten,  daß]  er  die  Jugend  verderbe.  Mendel 
(name)  sollte  dabei  behülflich  sein,  wich  aber  aus.  [Er  sagte,]  Er  habe  drei 
Wochen  zu  Bett  gelegen,  fühle  sich  noch  sehr  matt  und  sollte  nach  des  Arztes 
Anweisung  jede  Aufregung  vermeiden. 

In  long  continued  indirect  discourse  it  is  not  necessary  in  German  to  be 
continually  intercalating  such  clauses  as  'she  said,'  'he  continued,'  &c.,  for  the 
subjunctive,  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  indicates  clearly  that  the  speech 
is  indirectly  reported. 

d.  The  unreal  optative  and  potential  subjunctives  of  the  direct  change  in 
the  indirect  their  person  but  not  their  mood  and  tense:  Er  sagt  for  sagte),  er 
möchte  Sie  sprechen.  Direct:  Ich  möchte  ihn  sprechen.  Er  sagt  for  sagte), 
er  würde  gehen,  wenn  er  Zeit  hätte.  Direct:  Ich  würde  gehen,  wenn  ich  Zeit 
hätte.  Er  sagt  (or  sagte\  das  könnten  Sie  am  besten  wissen.  Direct:  Das 
könnte  er  am  besten  wissen.  Past  time:  Er  sagt  (or  sagte),  er  hätte  Sie  spre- 
chen mögen.     Direct:   Ich  hätte  ihn  sprechen  mögen. 

e.  In  N.G.  dialect  and  colloquial  language  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  dis- 
course is  very  largely  replaced  by  the  indicative:  So,  also  das  sagst  du  und 
meinst,  ich  bin  solch  ein  Mensch?  (Halbe's  Jugend,  p,  87).  For  other  examples 
see  2.  B.  /  below.  The  indicative  is  here  used  also  in  case  of  unreality,  as  the 
person  in  question  is  represented  as  feeling  the  statement  as  true:  Die  Krüppel 
glaubten,  nu  haben  sie  mich  (E.  von  Keyserling's  Ein  Frühlingsopfer,  p.  120). 
In  South  German  the  subjunctive  is  better  preserved  here:  Und  sie  hat  mir 
g'sagt,  sie  hätt'  mich  nie  mög'n,  'zwungen  war'  s'  worden  (Anzengruber's 
Das  vierte  Gebot,  2,  11).  The  indicative,  however,  is  not  infrequent  in  the 
South :  Alle  sagen,  daß  du  mich  verlassen  wirst !  Nicht  wahr,  du  tust  es  nicht 
.  .  .  (Schnitzler's  Liebelei,  p.  100).  Mizi:  Er  spielt  ja  nicht  Baßgeigen,  Violin 
spielt  er.     Theodor:   Ach  so,  ich  hab'  gemeint,  er  spielt  Baßgeige  (ib.,  p.  23). 

2.  Tense.  The  tense  required  in  indirect  discourse  may  as  in  English  de- 
pend upon  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb.  Thus  a  present,  present  perfect, 
future,  or  future  perfect  follows  a  present,  as  illustrated  in  A.  a  below,  while 
a  simple  past,  past  perfect,  periphrastic  past  subjunctive  (würde  loben),  or 
periphrastic  past  perfect  subjunctive  (würde  gelobt  haben)  follows  a  past, 
as  illustrated  in  A.  b  below.  Differing  from  English,  the  German  may  also, 
without  regard  to  the  tense  of  the  verb  in  the  principal  proposition,  use  the 
same  tense  in  the  indirect  as  stood  in  the  direct,  so  that  the  present,  present 
perfect,  future,  and  future  perfect  usually  stand  in  the  subordinate  clause,  as 
explained  in  B  below.  The  former  construction  is  the  older,  but  the  latter  is 
steadily  gaining  upon  it  in  the  literary  language.  In  the  dialects,  which  often 
influence  the  literary  language,  the  old  historic  usage  has  been  entirely  aban- 
doned and  new  and  different  constructions  have  arisen.  In  the  South,  especially 
however  in  the  Southwest,  the  present,  present  perfect,  future,  future  perfect 
in  the  subordinate  clause  are  the  rule,  whether  they  follow  a  present  or  a  past, 
as  illustrated  in  B  below,  while  in  the  Southeast  and  the  North  the  simple  past, 
past  perfect,  periphrastic  past  subjunctive  (würde  loben),  and  periphrastic 
past  perfect  subjunctive  (würde  gelobt  haben)  prevail  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, as  illustrated  in  A.  b.  Note  below.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  new  literary 
sequence  has  developed  under  the  influence  of  Southwest  dialect,  but  it  differs 
from  it  in  one  essential  feature  —  it  abandons  the  new  sequence  and  retains  the 
old  historic  construction,  if  in  any  case  the  subjunctive  of  the  present,  present 
perfect,  future,  and  future  perfect  would  not  be  clearly  distinguished  in  form 
from  the  corresponding  indicative  tenses,  as  explained  in  B.  a  below.  For  a 
history  of  the  younger  construction  and  present  literary  usage  see  5  below. 

The  following  points  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  form  and  use  of  these  con- 
structions: 

A.      The  old  law  of  sequence: 

a.  A  present,  present  perfect,  future,  or  future  perfect  follows  a  present: 
Er  sagt,  er  sei  krank,  er  habe  es  schon  getan,  er  werde  morgen  kommen, 
er  werde  es  innerhalb  einer  Woche  getan  haben. 


240 NEW   LAW   OF  SEQUENCE 171.  2  A.  h. 

h.  A  simple  past,  past  perfect,  periphrastic  past  subjunctive,  or  periphrastic 
past  perfect  subjunctive  follows  a  past  or  past  perfect:  Er  sagte,  er  wäre  krank, 
er  hätte  es  schon  getan,  er  würde  (would)  morgen  kommen,  er  würde  es  inner- 
halb einer  Woche  getan  haben. 

Note.  Sometimes  a  past  or  past  perfect  subjunctive  seemingly  depends  upon  a  present  tense.  Such  constructions 
are  elliptical,  some  verb  in  a  past  tense  form  being  understood:  Und  sag'  Er  (140.  a.  Note)  ihr  f,  daß  ich  sagte!,  sie 
sollte  sich  in  Acht  nehmen,  der  Laharpe  (name)  — das  wäre  ein  Spitzbube  (Gutzkow's  Zopf  und  Schwert,  I,  7). 
Bringe  Wendelin  meine  Grüße  und  [sage  ihm,  ich  sagte,]  es  wäre  hübsch  von  ihm  gewesen,  daß  er  dir  diese  Reise 
gegönnt  iFontane's  Poggenpuhls,  chap.  viü).  Likewise  in  indirect  questions:  Ein  Kompliment  an  den  Konrektor 
Eckerbusch,  und  [sagen  Sie  ihm,  ich  ließ  fragen,]  ob  es  morgen  regnete  (Raabes  Horaciter,  chap.  I).  The  past 
tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive  are  nowhere  in  indirect  discourse  so  generally  used  as  in  these  elliptical  constructions. 
We  often,  however,  find  in  the  Southeast  and  the  North  a  past  tense  form  after  a  real  present  tense,  as  the  speaker 
or  writer  desires  to  give  a  dialectic  coloring  to  the  language,  or  is  unconsciously  influenced  by  dialect:  Sie  dürfen 
nicht  Theater  spielen  und  keine  Bälle  abhalten;  der  Hofer  (name)  sagt,  für  so  etwas  wäre  jetzt  kein  Wetter  (Roseg- 
ger).  This  is  especially  common  in  naturalistic  authors:  Sie  sagt,  du  wärst  krank.  Das  hab'  ich  doch  immer 
jesagt,  Robert  (G.  Hirschfeld's  Mütter,  Act  4).  Dein  Onkel  Gottfried  sagt,  das  wären  die  Folgen  der  Kadetten- 
hauserziehung.     Ob  er  recht  hat,  weiß  ich  nicht  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  LIX).     See  2  above. 

c.  The  unreal  optative  and  potential  subjunctives  of  the  direct  discourse 
do  not  change  their  tenses  when  transposed  into  the  indirect  statement,  present 
time  being  always  expressed  by  a  past  tense  form,  and  past  time  by  the  past 
perfect  tense,  a  preceding  present  or  past  tense  not  influencing  the  construction. 
For  examples  see  1.  d  above.  Thus  after  a  past  tense  the  unreal  optative  and 
potential  subjunctives  cannot  be  distinguished  by  their  form  from  the  sanguine 
optative  and  the  plausible  potential  which  have  been  attracted  into  a  past 
tense  under  the  influence  of  a  preceding  past  tense.  For  examples  see  169.  1. 
C.  a,  169.  2.  A.  (2),  4th  par.,  171.  4.  a  (2nd  par.).  It  will  therefore  be  a  real 
gain  for  the  language  if  the  old  sequence  be  still  further  restricted  in  its  use. 

B.  The  new  law  of  sequence.  The  same  tense  may  stand  in  the  indirect 
discourse  as  stood  in  the  direct  with  the  exception  of  the  past  and  past  perfect. 
The  past  and  past  perfect  of  the  direct  discourse  are  both  rendered  by  the  present 
perfect  in  the  indirect,  or  the  past  perfect  may  be  rendered  by  the  special  form 
described  and  illustrated  in  e  below.  The  past  and  past  perfect  subjunctive 
are  avoided  in  indirect  discourse,  as  they  can  easily  be  misunderstood.  The 
past  subjunctive  is  used  so  much  after  a  past  tense  to  express  present  time  that 
it  is  now  no  longer  as  in  former  periods  felt  as  having  a  past  force.  The  past 
perfect  subjunctive  might  be  mistaken  for  an  unreal  potential  as  found  in 
unreal  conditions  for  past  time.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  employed  in 
indirect  discourse  according  to  the  new  law  are  therefore  the  present,  present 
perfect,  future,  and  future  perfect,  and  the  special  forms  described  in  e  below, 
a  preceding  present  or  past  tense  having  no  influence  whatever  upon  the  fol- 
lowing tenses: 

Direct.  Indirect. 

(1)  Ich  bin  krank  Er  sagt  or  sagte,  er  sei  krank 
f  (a)  Ich  tat  es                  1 

(2)  \  (b)  Ich  habe  es  getan    i  „     „  „       er  habe  es  getan 
[  (c)   Ich  hatte  es  getan    J 

(2)  (c)    Nachdem  ich  gelesen  hatte,      „     „  „       nachdem    er    gelesen 

schrieb    ich    einen    Brief  [habe],  habe    er  ei- 

(an  additional  illustration  nen  Brief  geschrie- 

of  the  preceding  point)  ben    (another    indi- 

rect form  for  (2)  (c) 
is  given  in  e  below). 

(3)  Ich  werde  kommen  „      „  „       er  werde  kommen 

(4)  Ich   werde    es    innerhalb    einer      ,,      ,,  „       er  werde  es  innerhalb 

Woche  getan  haben  einer  Woche   getan 

haben. 

a.  Modified  new  law.  Altho  the  new  sequence  may  be  followed  as  stated 
above,  it  is  more  common  to  employ  it  only  where  its  subjunctive  forms  are 
clearly  distinguished  from  the  corresponding  indicative  forms,  and  elsewhere 
to  use  the  old  historic  sequence.  Thus  as  the  past  tense  distinguishes  the  sub- 
junctive more  clearly  than  the  present  tense  a  present  tense  form  (a  present, 
a  present  perfect,  a  future)  is  regularly  replaced  after  a  past  tense  by  a  past 


171.  2.  B.  e. NEW    LAW   OF   SEQUENCE 241 

tense  form  (a  past,  a  past  perfect,  a  periphrastic  past  subjunctive)  wherever 
the  present  is  not  a  clear  subjunctive:  Sokrates  erklärte,  alles,  was  er  wisse, 
sei,  daß  er  nichts  wisse;  viele  wüßten  (the  present  subjunctive  would  be  like 
the  indicative)  aber  auch  dieses  nicht.  Sie  sagten,  sie  hätten  (a  past  tense 
form  instead  of  the  present  tense  form  haben)  es  nicht  getan.  Sie  sagten,  sie 
würden  (a  past  tense  form  instead  of  the  present  tense  form  werden)  morgen 
kommen.  So  strong  is  the  feeling  that  a  clear  subjunctive  form  should  be 
used  that  a  past  tense  form  is  used  instead  of  a  present  tense  form  even  after  a 
present  tense,  if  a  clear  subjunctive  form  is  thus  secured:  Sie  sagen,  sie  hätten 
es  nicht  gesehen,  &c.     Sagen  Sie  ihm,  ich  käme  schon. 

In  case  of  unclear  forms  the  past  tense  forms  are  preferred  even  tho  they 
themselves  are  not  clear  subjunctive  forms:  Die  Bildhauerei,  sagen  sie,  könne 
keine  Stoffe  nachmachen;  dicke  Falten  machten  eine  üble  Wirkung  (Lessing). 
The  very  fact  of  choosing  a  past  tense  form  here  is  felt  as  indicating  a  desire  to 
express  the  subjunctive. 

Thus  the  tense  form  used  to-da^^  in  the  subordinate  clause  does  not  depend 
upon  the  tense  employed  in  the  principal  proposition,  but  results  from  a  desire 
to  secure  a  clear  subjunctive  form. 

Note.  Opposed  to  this  change  from  a  present  to  a  past  tense  is  the  usage  in  the  Southwest  which  employs  present 
tense  forms  thruout  in  order  that  the  tenses  of  indirect  discourse  may  be  conformed  to  those  used  in  the  direct:  Der 
äußerste  [,  sagte  mir  mein  Führer,  ].  .  .  sei  der  Saturnus;  der  mit  dem  roten  Schein  ...  sei  der  Mars,  imd  beide 
bringen  instead  of  brächten)  wenig  Glück  den  Menschen  Schiller's  Piccolomini,  3.  4).  ,,Als  ich  damals  mit  dem 
Messer  nach  Ihrer  Sohle  stach,"  sagte  sie,  ,, dachte  ich  nicht,  daß  ich  einst  so  Ihnen  gegenüber  sitzen  werde" 
(for  würde)  G.  Kelleri.  Ich  merkte  bald,  daß  ich  einem  Gegner  gegenüberstehe  i  K.  F.  Meyer).  Ich  ließ  merken, 
daß  ich  zur  Not  sie  alle  miteinander  zu  zwingen  denke  (Hermann  Hes=e's  Pelcr  Camenzind,  p.  59).  This  uniform 
use  of  the  present  tense  forms  often  leaves  us  in  doubt  whether  the  forms  are  subjunctive  or,  as  in  /  below,  indica- 
tive, but  the  Germans  in  this  section  are  not  guided  by  the  mere  formal  principle  of  always  seeking  a  clear  subjunc- 
tive form  without  regard  to  the  tense,  as  they  still  have  a  lively  feeling  for  the  original  principle  employed  in  the 
new  sequence,  i.e.  the  retention  in  indirect  discourse  of  the  tenses  of  the  direct,  as  explained  in  5  below.  See  2 
above,  also  168.  II.  B.  b. 

b.  Sometimes  both  constructions,  the  old  and  the  new,  alternate  in  the 
same  sentence  without  any  shade  of  difference  or  without  any  necessity  at 
hand  of  resorting  to  the  old  rule  as  mentioned  in  a  above:  Er  sagte,  Marie  wäre 
wohl  verschlossen,  aber  sie  sei  tief  von  Gemüt.  This  is  quite  natural.  The 
old  and  the  new  construction  are  both  felt  and  will  continue  to  exist  side  by  side 
until  the  new  construction  has  gained  a  complete  victory.  In  the  Southeast 
and  North  there  is  a  natural  tendency  to  use  past  tense  forms  more  than  is 
necessary,  as  these  tenses  are  alone  used  in  indirect  discourse  in  the  dialects 
of  these  sections.  For  examples  of  this  usage  see  A.  b.  Note  above,  towards 
end. 

c.  The  existence  of  the  present  and  past  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive 
side  by  side  in  indirect  discourse  without  a  shade  of  meaning  is  contrary  to  the 
development  of  these  groups  elsewhere,  where  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to| 
use  the  present  tense  forms  to  express  something  as  desired,  probable,  or  as  a 
subjective  view,  and  to  employ  the  past  tense  forms  to  express  unreality  or 
possibility.  There  are  numerous  traces  of  the  idea  of  unreality  also  in  indirect 
discourse:  Und  wenn  die  alten  Gelehrten  da  noch  immer  behaupten,  Sie  wären 
urgriechisch,  wir  beide  wissen  es  viel  besser  (IMeinhardt's  AUerleiraiih,  p.  177). 
Es  ist  das  Testament,  von  dem  wir  glaubten,  daß  es  vernichtet  worden  wäre 
It  is  the  will  which  we  erroneously  believed  to  be  destroyed.  For  additional 
examples  see  169.  2.  A.  (2)  and  G.  a.  (2),  2nd  par.  For  the  idea  of  pos.sibility 
or  cautious  statement  see  d  below  and  the  reference  there  given.  These  ideas 
of  unreality  and  cautious  statement  cannot  develop  strongly  in  the  past  tense 
forms  in  indirect  discourse  until  the  old  sequence  disappears,  and  even  then 
will  be  limited  by  the  cases  where  the  new  sequence  cannot  well  be  usec^, 
where  the  old  sequence  will  consequently  remain. 

d.  For  the  use  of  the  cautious  or  modest  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse 
see  169.  2.  G.  a  (2).     See  also  c  above. 

e.  Past  Perfect  of  the  Direct  Sometimes  Represented  by  a  Special  Form  in  the 
Indirect.  The  present  perfect  of  the  indirect  discourse  stands  for  the  past, 
present  perfect,  and  past  perfect  of  the  direct,  and  hence  there  is  a  lack  of  clear- 
ness sometimes  in  the  indirect.     There  is  a  tendency  to  represent  the  past  perfect 


242 INDICATIVE  IN  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE         171.  2.  B.  e. 

of  the  direct  in  the  indirect  by  a  special  form  made  by  adding  gehabt  in  case  of 
transitives  and  gewesen  in  case  of  intransitives  to  the  regular  present  perfect: 
Er  sagt  (or  sagte),  er  habe  die  Straße  verlassen  gehabt  und  sei  schon  in  das 
Haus  getreten  gewesen,  als  der  Schuß  fiel  He  says  (or  said)  that  he  had  left 
the  street  and  had  already  entered  the  house  when  the  shot  was  fired.  This 
form  is  borrowed  from  dialect  where  it  is  the  usual  form  for  the  past  perfect. 
See  190.  1.  B.  a.  Likewise  in  the  passive  there  is  a  tendency  to  represent  the 
past  perfect  of  the  direct  discourse  in  the  indirect  by  a  special  form.  The 
regular  present  perfect  tense  of  the  actional  passive  (194.  4)  is  here  replaced 
by  the  regular  present  perfect  of  the  statal  passive  (194.  4),  which  as  explained 
in  194.  '4.  Note  2  (2nd  par.)  often  has  the  force  of  an  actional  past  perfect  and 
is  so  used  where  there  is  a  desire  of  avoiding  the  past  tense  forms  as  here  in  the 
new  sequence:  Er  sei  als  wie  von  einem  bösen  Geist  verfolgt  gewesen,  bis 
er  eines  Tages,  als  er  sie  in  einer  obem  Kammer  gewußt,  ihr  nachgegangen, 
ja  vielmehr  ihr  nachgezogen  worden  sei  (Goethe's  Werther,  Am  4.  September). 
Die  Ansicht,  daß  in  Helsingland  die  göthische  Herrschaft  sich  erhalten  habe, 
nachdem  sie  im  eigentlichen  Schwedenlande  bereits  gebrochen  gewesen  sei 
(Konrad  Maurer  in  Ger.  18,  23).  Sie  gingen  auf  eine  Droschke  zu,  als  Renard 
sich  erinnerte,  daß  Lori  ihm  mitgeteilt  habe:  ihr  Vater  sei  heute  zum  Reichs- 
kanzler geladen  gewesen  (Wolzogen's  Die  kühle  Blonde,  I,  45). 

/.  The  Indicative  in  Indirect  Discourse.  The  use  of  the  subjunctive  in  in- 
direct discourse  is  one  of  the  finest  means  of  expression  that  the  Germans 
have  developed,  for  in  exact  thinking  and  in  lively  feeling  it  is  often  very  desir- 
able to  represent  things  thought  or  spoken  as  mere  subjective  expression,  or 
as  the  thoughts  and  words  of  others  which  we  present  with  reserve,  or  to  rein- 
force our  own  views,  or  which  we  brand  as  false.  Moreover,  one  often  uses 
the  subjunctive  here  to  clothe  one's  own  thought  and  feeling  in  modest  form. 
In  every-day  life,  however,  the  subjunctive  here  is  often  replaced  by  the  indica- 
tive, as  the  things  thought  and  spoken  are  felt,  not  as  mere  conceptions,  but 
as  actualities  with  which  one  must  deal,  be  they  true  or  false.  After  a  long 
struggle  this  practical  way  of  looking  at  all  that  is  thought  and  spoken  as  ac- 
tuality has  in  English  driven  the  subjunctive  entirely  out  of  indirect  discourse. 
Between  the  English  and  the  every-day  German  use  of  the  indicative  in  indirect 
discourse  there  is,  however,  one  important  difference — in  German  the  new 
sequence  is  often  used,  i.e.  the  same  tense  may  be  used  as  would  stand  in  the 
direct  statement:  Ich  dachte,  er  arbeitet  immer  (Hirschfeld's  Mütter,  Act  4). 
Da  tastete  ich  an  den  Riegeln  und  schlich  hierher,  denn  ich  wußte,  du  bist 
(present  time  to  the  subject  of  the  main  verb)  hier,  Meister!  (Sudermann's 
Johannes,  2,  8).  Wußte  ja  nicht,  ob  ich  erwünscht  bin  (Halbe's  Die  Heimat- 
losen, p.  77).  Ich  erfuhr,  daß  meine  Schwester  schon  seit  Beginn  des  Krieges 
als  freiwillige  Pflegerin  in  einem  Rotenkreuz-Spital  in  Kiew  tätig  ist  (aus 
einem  Feldpostbrief  eines  Wiener  Gymnasiallehrers,  1914)  (in  the  direct  dis- 
course: Sie  ist  seit  Beginn  des  Krieges  ...  in  Kiew  tätig).  Haben  die  Leut' 
nicht  erzählt,  der  Deichhauptmann  ist  vorbeigeritten  auf'n  Schimmel,  Mama? 
(Halbe's  Eisgang,  p.  80).  Ich  fühlte  mich  glücklich,  daß  mir  nichts  geschehen 
ist  (Aus  dem  Feldpostbrief  eines  Steirers  in  Grazer  ArbeitenviUe,  1914).  Ich 
schaute  schon,  ob  du  den  Schirm  nicht  vergessen  hast  (Adele  Gerhard's  Die 
Geschichte  der  Antonie  van  Hcese,  I).  Ich  hab'  schon  gewußt,  es  wird  (future 
time  to  the  subject  of  the  main  verb)  du:  recht  sein  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  p.  89). 
Ich  hab'  nicht  gewußt,  daß  der  Herr  Ölten  kommt  (Hermine  Villinger's  Das 
letzte  Wort)  (the  form  kommt  a  present  tense  with  the  force  of  the  future;  future 
to  the  subject  of  the  main  verb  at  the  moment  in  question,  but  past  at  the  time 
of  utterance) ;  's  ist  gut,  aber  ich  hätt'  nicht  geglaubt,  daß  du  dies  Jahr  noch 
fertig  wirst  (Hermann  Hesse's  Peter  Camenzind,  p.  254)  (wirst  used  with  the 
same  temporal  force  as  kommt  in  preceding  sentence).  Sie  wissen  doch  —  er 
hatte  mir  doch  geschrieben  (Hirschfeld's  Mütter,  Act  4). 

If  the  principal  verb  refers  to  the  past,  the  dependent  verb  which  has  a  force 
that  is  future  to  the  subject  of  the  main  verb  often  in  the  tone  of  lively  nar- 


171.  3.  MOOD  &  TENSE  IN  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS 243 

rative  assumes  the  form  of  the  past  tense  instead  of  the  present  or  future: 
Und  diese  Furcht  vor  den  Menschen  erschien  ihr  so  natürhch,  so  notwendig, 
so  zugehörig  zu  ihrem  Schicksal.  Wie  konnte  er  verlangen,  daß  sie  frei  davon 
war  (H.  Böhlau)  (instead  of  ist  or  much  more  commonly  wäre).  Man  hätte 
befürchten  müssen,  daß  man  sich  Nase  und  Gesicht  an  den  metallenen  Zacken 
zerriß  (Wildenbruch 's  Vize-Mama)  (instead  of  zerreißen  wird  or  werde). 
Sie  wissen,  daß  Frankreich,  so  oft  es  die  russische  Geldnot  befriedigte,  sich 
ausbedang,  daß  immer  der  größte  Teil  der  Anleihe  zum  Zwecke  der  Kriegs- 
ausrüstung verwendet  wurde  (Reichskanzler  Bethmann  Hollweg  an  den  Reichs- 
tag, Aug.  19,  1915)  (instead  of  verwendet  werde). 

A  very  common  feature  of  indirect  statement  in  the  indicative  mood  is  the 
use  of  the  past  tense  instead  of  the  present  perfect,  which  would  usually  be 
employed.  This  shows  that  the  speaker  or  writer  is  inclined  to  be  influenced 
in  his  indirect  statements  by  the  form  of  lively  narrative:  Sie  telegraphierten 
über  die  neuesten  Ereignisse,  daß  am  30.  Oktober  einige  junge  Armenier  in 
das  Regierungsgebäude  drangen  und  dort  auf  den  Kommandanten  der  Gen- 
darmerie schössen  {Kölnische  Zeitung).  Man  sagt,  er  war  früher  katholischer 
Theolog  (Wilbrandt).  Ich  erfuhr  von  dem  Gastwirt,  die  Herrschaften  kamen 
grade  aus  hiesigem  Ort  (Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  p.  97).  This  usage  is  espe- 
cially frequent  in  a  clause  subordinate  to  a  subordinate  clause:  Er  erzählte, 
schon  in  der  Jugend,  da  sie  noch  auf  derselben  Schulbank  saßen,  seien  sie 
gute  Kameraden  gewesen. 

3.  Mood  and  Tense  in  Indirect  Questions.  Indirect  questions  (see  Note 
below),  which  are  a  form  of  indirect  discourse,  have  the  same  rules  for  mood 
and  tense  as  are  described  above  with  the  limitation  that  the  subjunctive  in 
the  subordinate  clause  is  now  less  common  after  a  present  tense  in  the  main 
proposition :  Erzähle  mir,  was  geschehen  ist.  Kein  Mensch  vermag  zu  sagen, 
ob  er  nicht  |  des  Helmes  braucht  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  Prolog,  3).  The  sub- 
junctive after  a  present  tense  can  still  be  used  if  the  attention  is  not  called  to 
a  known  fact  or  result  so  much  as  to  the  condition  of  doubt,  inquiry,  or  anxiety 
in  the  mind  of  the  person  or  persons  in  question  as  to  the  result  or  proper  course 
to  pursue:  Wie  es  bei  der  Medizin  zu  halten  sei,  weiß  ich  nicht  (Hermann 
Grimm's  Fragmente,  I,  p.  3G3)  What  the  procedure  may  be  in  case  of  (admitting 
women  to)  the  study  of  medicine,  &c.  Überlegen  wir  verständig  und  mit 
Bedacht,  was  zu  tun  sei  (Raal)e's  Horacker,  chap.  iv).  Im  Vordergrunde  steht 
die  Frage  nach  der  inneren  Eignung,  d.  h.,  welche  Sprache  dem  Zwecke  der 
Mitteilung  am  besten  und  einfachsten  diene,  welche  also  zugleich  für  die 
Fremden  am  leichtesten  zu  erlernen  sei  (H.  Schuchardt  in  Beilage  zur  Allge- 
meinen Zeitung,  No.  230,  1901).  Und  wenn  du  die  junge  Dame  kommen 
siehst,  gehst  du  auf  sie  zu,  nimmst  deinen  Deckel  ab  und  fragst  sie  höflich, 
ob  sie  vielleicht  zu  Herrn  Leutnant  Rudorff  wolle  (Hartleben's  Rosenmontag, 
3,1). 

After  a  past  tense  form  the  subjunctive  here  is  the  rule:  Ich  wartete,  ob  er 
käme.  Er  erzählte  mir,  was  er  gesehen  habe,  wie  es  in  der  belagerten  Stadt 
aussehe.     Auch  sah  er  sich  nicht  ein  einzig  Mal  danach  um,  ob  man  ihm  folge. 

The  subjunctive  may  be  used  here  as  elsewhere  in  indirect  discourse  merely 
to  give  expression  to  the  idea  of  indirectness  of  statement,  even  tho  there  is  no 
doubt  implied:  Der  Vorsitzende  Rev.  J.  L.  Weldon,  headmaster  von  Harrow, 
kein  Neuphilologe  von  Fach,  betonte  in  seiner  Ansprache,  ein  wie  großes 
Interesse  er  dem  neusprachlichen  Unterricht  entgegenbringe  (W.  Victor  in 
Die   Neueren  Sprachen,  1898,  p.  572). 

In  the  dialect  of  the  Southeast  and  the  North  a  past  tense  form  of  the  sub- 
junctive is  here  as  in  2.  A.  b.  Note  above  quite  commonly  used  even  after  a 
present:  Der  Strobel-Hies  hat  seinem  Weib  im  Jähzorn  einmal  einen  Streich 
gegeben,  seitdem  hat  er  die  Höll'  auf  Erden,  und  seine  bessere  Hälfte  schreit's 
um,  was  er  für  ein  Büffel  war'  (Rosegger)  The  individual  known  as  Strobel-Hies 
once  gave  his  wife  a  blow  in  anger,  since  that  time  he  has  had  in  his  home  a  hell 
on  earth,  and  his  better  half  is  noising  it  about  what  kind  of  rude  fellow  he  is. 


244 INDIRECT   COMMANDS 171.  3. 

Note.  An  indirect  question  is  one  that  forms  a  subordinate  clause  and  thus  differs  from  the  direct  question,  which 
always  forms  a  principal  proposition:  Warm  kommst  du?  (direct).  Sage  mir,  wann  du  kommst  (indirect).  In- 
direct questions  are  introduced  by  the  conjunction  ob  7vhether,  an  interrogative  pronoun  or  adjective,  as  wer,  was, 
ein  wie  (example  given  above),  or  by  interrogative  adverbs,  simple  or  compound,  as  warm  when,  wo  where,  wie  how, 
womit  with  what,  woher  whence,  wohin  whither,  &c. 

4.  Indirect  Commands.  Imperative  sentences  when  put  into  indirect  dis- 
course are  in  general  governed  by  the  same  rules  for  mood  and  tense  as  declara- 
tive and  interrogative  sentences.  The  subjunctive  of  the  simple  forms  of  the 
verb  is  not  usually  employed  here  as  elsewhere  in  indirect  discourse.  Instead 
of  the  subjunctive  of  the  simple  verb  the  following  constructions  occur: 

a.  The  subjunctive  of  the  auxiliaries  sollen  and  mögen,  the  former  with 
stronger  imperative  force:  Direct:  Gehe  schnell!  Indirect:  Sage  dem  Jungen, 
er  solle  schnell  gehen.  Direct:  Kommen  Sie  morgen  wieder.  Indirect: 
Bitten  Sie  ihn,  er  möge  morgen  wieder  kommen.  Father  to  son :  Hole  deinen 
Freund!  In  approaching  his  friend  the  boy  says:  Der  Vater  schickt  mich, 
daß  ich  dich  holen  möge.  After  a  verb  denoting  a  strong  expression  of 
will  we  sometimes  have  here  a  subjunctive  of  a  simple  form  of  the  verb  as 
elsewhere  in  indirect  discourse:  Sie  verlangte,  daß  die  Kerle  schwiegen,  or 
schweigen  sollten.  After  all  other  verbs  the  simple  subjunctive  is  avoided 
here  as  the  form  may  be  taken  for  an  indirect  statement  instead  of  an  indirect 
command  or  request:  Sie  läßt  ihm  sagen,  daß  er  kommen  solle  or  möge,  or 
in  the  former  case  more  commonly  soll,  but  in  Sie  läßt  ihm  sagen,  daß  sie 
komme  or  kommt  the  clause  is  an  indirect  statement.  Sie  ließ  ihm  sagen, 
daß  er  kommen  sollte  or  möchte  (indirect  command  or  request),  but  Sie  ließ 
ihm  sagen,  daß  sie  komme  (indirect  statement). 

As  in  older  German,  the  past  subjunctive  is  still  usually  found  after  a  past 
tense,  i.e.  the  old  sequence  (2.  A  above)  is  still  fairly  well  preserved  here:  Sie 
bat,  er  möchte  nichts  sagen.  The  old  sequence  is  better  preserved  here  after 
verbs  of  commanding,  requesting,  &c.,  than  after  verbs  of  saying,  reporting, 
&c.,  as  the  time  relations  are  much  simpler,  the  verb  of  the  dependent  clause 
always  representing  a  present  tense  of  the  direct  statement,  while  after  verbs 
of  saying,  &c.,  the  complicated  time  relations — the  verb  of  the  dependent 
clause  representing  a  present,  past,  present  perfect,  past  perfect,  future,  or 
future  perfect  of  the  direct  statement — -have  gradually  led  to  the  use  of  the 
new  sequence  (2.  B  above)  with  its  clearer  expression  of  the  time  relations 
and  its  fine  differentiation  (167,  169.  1.  A)  of  meaning  between  the  present 
and  past  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive.  As  a  natural  result  of  its  advantages 
the  new  sequence  is  now  also  often  used  here  after  verbs  indicating  an  expression 
of  will:  Der  Furchenbauer  (name)  befahl  jetzt,  daß  alles  wieder  aufgeladen 
werde  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  p.  48).  Käpt'n  (Kapitän)  Krautsch  schrieb 
nach  zweijähriger  Fahrt  an  der  indischen  Küste,  daß  er  Fracht  nach  Amsterdam 
habe  (indirect  statement).  Mutter  Krautsch  solle  (indirect  command)  sich 
auf  die  Bahn  setzen  usw.  (Gustav  Falke's  Die  Kinder  aus  OJilsens  Gang,  p.  25). 
Vom  Reichsfinanzminister  forderte  er,  daß  er  so  rasch  wie  möglich  die  Fehl- 
beträge in  den  Betriebsverwaltungen  des  Reiches  beseitige  (Frankfurter  Zeit., 
Nov.  10,  1920).  Er  wollte,  es  ginge  (unreal  subjunctive  of  wish)  immer  so 
fort.  Sie  ließ  ihm  sagen,  er  möge  (request)  kommen.  Sie  ließ  ihm  sagen, 
er  möchte  (modest  or  polite  request)  kommen.  Compare  2.  A.  c  above,  also 
168.  I.  2.  B.  h  and  169.  1.  C.  a.  The  new  sequence  has  long  been  in  use  in  the 
Southwest.     See  5  below. 

b.  In  case  of  complex  sentences  the  verb  of  the  subordinate  proposition 
may  in  the  indirect  discourse  be  put  into  the  subjunctive,  while  the  principal 
clause  is  abridged  to  the  infinitive  construction,  provided  its  subject  is  identical 
with  the  subject  or  object  of  the  governing  verb:  Anton  befahl  dem  Führer, 
im  Hause  Wache  zu  halten  (=  daß  er  im  Hause  Wache  halte),  bis  er  zurück- 
kehre. 

c.  The  indicative  of  the  simple  verb  or  the  auxiliary  sollen,  to  express  con- 
fidence that  a  command  will  be  complied  with:  Ich  gebiete  dir  aber,  daß  du 
pünktlich  zurück  bist.  Es  ist  verboten,  daß  dieser  Weg  von  fremdem  Fuhrwerk 
befahren  wird.     Sage  ihm,  er  soll  gleich  kommen. 


172.  a. INDEPENDENT   DIRECT   DISCOURSE 245 

The  indicative,  however,  especially  in  the  North,  is  often  used  without  such 
emphasis  but  yet  with  the  implication  that  the  speaker  is  counting  on  the 
performance  of  the  act:  Bitte,  Kniehase,  sagen  Sie  dem  Rittmeister,  daß 
er  mich  draußen  auf  der  Chaussee  erwartet  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  iv.  17). 
Sag'  ihr,  daß  sie  ihn  verbrennt  (id.,  Efß,  chap.  xxiv).  Sagen  Sie  dem  Zim- 
mermädchen, daß  sie  meine  Tasche  und  mein  Plaid  wieder  hereinbringt 
(Stern's  Der  Pate  des  Todes,  I).  The  indicative  of  the  simple  verb  is  here  quite 
common  after  the  imperative  of  sagen,  as  the  imperative  of  itself  makes  it 
clear  that  the  following  clause  is  an  indirect  command,  but  elsewhere  after 
such  verbs  as  sagen  an  auxiliary  must  usually  be  employed  to  indicate  that 
the  clause  is  an  indirect  command,  as  otherwise  this  clause  would  be  taken  for 
an  indirect  statement,  as  illustrated  in  a.  Sometimes,  however,  the  simple 
indicative  is  used  also  here  if  the  context  renders  it  clear  that  the  clause  is  an 
indirect  command:  Ich  sag's  dir,  daß  du  den  Schimmel  nimmst  (Spielhagen's 
HoMs  und  Grete,  p.  63). 

5.  Historical  Development  of  the  New  Sequence.  In  older  German  a  thought,  feeling,  or  command  was  much 
more  commonly  than  now  reported  directly  instead  of  indirectly.  The  person,  tense,  mood  of  the  direct  statement 
placed  the  whole  situation  vividly  before  the  mind  as  if  it  were  just  taking  place.  The  indirect  form  was  used  in  the 
more  objective,  matter-of-fact  reports.  Here  the  first  and  second  persons  became  third  person,  the  mood  became 
subjunctive,  the  tense  after  a  past  tense  in  accordance  with  the  rigid  Germanic  sequence  became  past.  Even  in 
oldest  German,  however,  attempts  were  made  to  break  thru  this  fixed  sequence.  The  present  tense,  which  brought 
so  vividly  the  whole  situation  before  the  mind  began  to  be  used  in  indirect  discourse  after  a  past  tense.  This  present 
tense  arose  from  the  analogy  of  the  present  tense  so  commonly  used  in  direct  discourse,  which  in  older  German  fre- 
quently alternated  with  the  indirect  form,  just  as  in  modern  German  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  use  the  one  form  or 
the  other:  Ganz  unerwartet  kam  uns  die  Kunde:  Gustav  Falke  ist  nicht  mehr!  (Richard  Dohse  in  Die  schöne  Literatur, 
March  4,  1916),  or  indirectly  Gustav  Falke  sei  nicht  mehr.  Er  antwortete:  Ich  weiß  es  schon  lange!,  or  indirectly 
er  wisse  es  schon  lange.  The  influence  of  the  direct  discourse  explains  the  occasional  use  of  the  present  tense  after 
a  past  tense  in  indirect  discourse  in  the  O.H.G.  period,  altho  in  general  the  old  sequence  was  rigidly  observed:  Quadun 
I  zele  ouh  in  giwissi,  tha?  er  selbo  krist  si  (Otfrid  IV.  20.  18-19)  Sie  sagten,  er  behaupte  sogar,  daß  er  der  Ge- 
salbte sei.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  new  sequence.  Otfrid  employed  it  repeatedly  and  even  tho  he  was  usually 
influenced  by  the  consideration  of  rime  it  seems  quite  clear  that  the  form  was  suggested  to  him  by  its  use  in  colloquial 
speech.  It  did  not,  of  course,  occur  in  the  learned  literature  of  the  period  or  in  the  M.H.G.  court  epics,  but  we  find 
it  again  in  the  plain  simple  sermons  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries:  Do  er  horte,  da?  er  so  großen  zeichen 
bege  (Predigtstücke  in  Zeitschrift  für  das  deutsche  Altertum,  XIX,  p.  183)  Als  er  (Johannes)  hörte,  daß  er  (Jesus) 
so  große  Wunder  tue.  [Er]  bat,  da?  er  sich  erbarme  über  den  armen  mennisch  (Menschen)  (ib.,  p.  193).  ...  er 
da?  lerte,  da?  man  elliv  dinch  la?e  vfi  ime  ufi  sinen  gebottin  nah  sol  uolgen  allaine  {Der  sogenannte  St.  Georgener  Pre- 
diger, p.  296,  G,  about  1300  A.  D.)  Er  lehrte,  daß  man  alles  verlassen  und  ihm  und  seinen  Geboten  allein  nachfolgen 
solle.  In  the  language  of  this  period  the  use  of  a  present  subjunctive  after  a  past  tense  has  spread  to  pure  purpose 
clauses  introduced  by  daß:  Die  spise  die  hie?  im  unser  herre  ze  saemene  cluben,  da?  diu  iht  verloren  werde  (Schön- 
bach's  Altdeutsche  Predigten,  111,  p.  61,  thirteenth  century)  Der  Herr  hieß  die  Brocken  sammeln,  daß  nichts  um- 
komme. Earlier  examples  are  found  in  Otfrid.  As  the  Southwest  is  at  present  the  stronghold  of  the  new  sequence 
and  as  all  the  old  manuscripts  mentioned  above  as  containing  old  examples  show  traces  of  the  language  of  the  South- 
west it  seems  quite  probable  that  this  construction  originated  in  this  section.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  new  sequence 
became  more  and  more  common  in  the  literary  language  supported  in  large  measure  by  the  dialects  of  the  South- 
west. As  the  dialects  of  the  North  and  the  Southeast  do  not  show  this  development  the  literary  language  of  these 
sections  has  more  traces  of  the  old  sequence. 

Independent  Form  of  Indirect  Discourse. 

172.  In  a  lively  style  the  author  or  speaker  often  strips  off  all  formal  signs 
of  subordination,  and  reproduces  the  thoughts,  feelings,  dreams,  impressions, 
fears,  &c.,  of  another  in  grammatically  independent  form.  The  words  are  not 
represented  as  a  free  report  of  the  author  or  speaker,  but  as  a  close  tho  indirect 
reproduction  of  the  thoughts  musings,  reveries,  &c.,  of  another.  The  fol- 
lowing two  groups  occur: 

a.  The  tenses  used  are,  just  as  in  English,  those  usually  employed  in  nar- 
rative: the  past  indicative  to  correspond  to  the  present  indicative  of  the  direct 
discourse,  whether  used  as  a  present  or  a  future;  the  past  perfect  indicative 
to  correspond  to  the  present  perfect  or  past  indicative  of  the  direct;  the  past 
perfect  subjunctive  to  correspond  to  the  past  subjunctive  of  the  direct;  the  peri- 
phrastic past  subjunctive,  i.e.  würde  with  the  infinitive,  to  correspond  to  the 
future  indicative  of  the  direct.  The  last  form,  i.e.  würde  with  the  infinitive, 
deserves  especial  attention.  There  is  no  tense  in  narrative  corresponding  to 
the  future  tense  of  the  direct  discourse.  Narrative  proper  can  only  relate 
past  events  and  hence  can  only  use  past  tense  forms.  If  in  a  narrative  of  past 
events  there  is  a  reference  to  the  future  it  must  be  the  thoughts  and  plans  of 
someone,  not  actual  events.  We  may  report  these  thoughts  and  plans  for  the 
future  in  the  subjunctive,  thus  indicating  that  we  are  reporting  thoughts  and 
plans  not  actual  facts.  The  words  he  thought,  she  thought  are  never  expressed 
here  as  the  subjunctive  alone  indicates  that  the  words  do  not  relate  events 


246 INDEPENDENT   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE 172.  a. 

but  merely  report  someone's  thoughts,  hence  are  indirect  discourse.  We  may- 
use  here  würde  with  dependent  infinitive,  but  never  werde  with  a  dependent 
infinitive,  hence  employ  a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive,  i.e.  the  old  sequence 
in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  of  using  the  old  sequence  in  elliptical  language, 
as  described  in  171.  2.  A.  b.  Note.  In  English  we  similarly  use  would  or  should 
with  a  dependent  infinitive.  In  German,  on  the  other  hand,  the  past  indicative 
is  much  used  here  instead  of  würde  with  a  dependent  infinitive,  for  in  direct 
discourse  the  German  often  uses  instead  of  the  future  the  present  tense  in 
speaking  of  his  plans  for  the  future,  thus  vividly  conceiving  them  as  actual 
events.  Thus  we  can  relate  these  thoughts  and  plans  for  the  future  in  the 
past  indicative  as  if  we  were  relating  actual  events.  The  question  form  of 
direct  discourse  is  uniformly  retained  in  this  independent  form  of  indirect 
discourse,  but  the  tenses  here  follow  the  general  rules  stated  above.  The 
present  infinitive  used  as  an  imperative  (177.  I.  B.  e)  in  direct  discourse  in 
admonitions  to  one's  self  is  here  retained  without  change  of  form,  as  illustrated 
in  the  last  German  example  below.  Examples:  Sie  hörte  plötzlich  auf  (zu 
weinen),  ließ  die  Hände  in  den  Schoß  sinken  und  starrte  ins  Leere.  Ja, 
warum  denn  eigentlich?  Es  wax.  doch  nichts  Unrechtes  gefcficO^u.  Das 
füiuite  ihr  Marianne  und  jedermann  bezeugen.  Und  ganz  gewiß,  sie  liatte 
nicht  mit  einer  Miene,  nicht  mit  einem  Wort  Herrn  Bodmann  Gründe  c\C' 
geben,  sich  in  sie  zu  verlieben.  SBor  er  denn  überhaupt  in  sie  verliebt?  Nein, 
er  empfanb  nur  eine  schöne,  warme  selbstlose  Freundschaft  für  sie.  Günther 
mürbe  sich  darüber  freuen,  daß  ein  so  ausgezeichneter  Mann  sie  einer  edlen 
Freundschaft  würdige  She  suddenly  ceased  crying,  allowed  her  hands  to  fall 
into  her  lap,  and  then  stared  blankly  before  her.  Why,  indeed,  should  she  cry? 
Surely  nothing  wrong  had  happened.  Marianna  and  everybody  else  could 
testify  as  to  that.  And  surely  she  had  never  by  a  glance  or  a  word  given  Mr. 
Bodmann  reason  to  fall  in  love  with  her.  Was  he  after  all  in  love  with  her? 
No,  he  only  had  a  beautiful,  warm,  unselfish  friendship  for  her.  Günther  (her 
husband)  would  surely  be  glad  that  such  an  excellent  man  deemed  her  worthy 
of  a  noble  friendship.  „Vielleicht  kommt  der  Vater,"  sagte  sie  hinausgehend. 
Er  schien  es  aber  nicht  zu  sein,  denn  sie  zog  nachher  die  Stubentür  zu  und 
sprach  geraume  Weile  draußen.  Eine  männliche  Stimme  war  zu  vernehmen. 
Fortunat  spitzte  die  Ohren,  während  er  zerstreut  sein  [von  Leni  gemachtes] 
Marterl  betrachtete,  den  Jäger  im  Schnee,  den  winzigen  Christus  am  Kreuz, 
kaum  so  groß  wie  ein  Fingerglied,  und  das  Stückchen  Strauchwerk  und  Hecke, 
alles  einfach  mit  kindlicher  Phantasie  und  doch  geschickt  gemacht.  Aus 
dieser  Leni  lf)ätte  etwas  werden  fönnen!  Warm  fam  sie  nur  wieder  herein? 
(Berlepsch's  Fortunats  Roman,  pp.  80-81).  Allerhand  Gedanken  gingen  ihm 
durch  den  Kopf.  Sein  Ämtlein  freilich  üerlor  er,  wenn  die  Zensur  abgefdiafft 
lunrbe  —  was  tat  es?  Dann  mürbe  er  eine  Zeitung  grünben  (Ertl's  Freiheit, 
p.  191).  Er  freute  sich  auf  den  Tag.  Die  Stunde  mar  sein.  In  dieser  Stunde 
miirbe  er  sie  alle,  die  Verwandten  und  Bekannten,  die  Lehrer  und  Schüler, 
das  ganze  Gymnasium  und  viele  Fremde  ...  in  seinen  Händen  halten  (Stilge- 
bauer's  Götz  Krafft,  I,  3,  p.  93).  Ewald  Wiskotten  las  den  hohen  Gesamt- 
betrag. Wie  tarn  der  zusammen?  Aber  jetzt  nur  nicht  fragen,  nur  nicht 
fei(fd)en!  Er  unterschrieb.  (Rud.  Herzog's  Die  Wiskottens,  II,  chap.  2).  In 
the  quotations  from  Berlepsch  and  Ertl  the  past  tenses  kam,  verlor,  wurde 
abgeschafft,  tat,  correspond  to  a  present  tense  of  the  direct  used  as  a  future. 
English  cannot  usually  thus  employ  a  past  tense  pointing  to  the  future.  We 
can  only  use  here  the  past  of  the  auxiliary  to  be  going  with  a  dependent  infinitive 
and  even  that  in  only  a  limited  way:  We  might  translate  the  simple  past  in 
the  last  sentence  of  the  quotation  from  Berlepsch  by  the  past  of  to  be  going 
with  a  dependent  infinitive:  When  ivas  she  going  to  come  in  again?  In  all  these 
cases  the  simple  past  tense  might  have  been  replaced  by  the  past  subjunctive 
würde  with  a  dependent  infinitive.  In  German  the  too  frequent  use  of  this 
clumsy  form  would  be  felt  as  inappropriate  in  this  lively  narrative  form.  The 
simple  past  tense  here  adds  much  to  the  liveliness  of  the  style. 


175. 


FORMS   OF   CONJUGATION 


247 


In  the  quotation  from  Berlepsch  hätte  etwas  werden  können  corresponds 
to  könnte  etwas  werden  of  direct  discourse. 

This  independent  form  of  indirect  discourse  has  become  very  common  in  the 
novels  of  our  time. 

h.  Instead  of  the  tenses  employed  in  a  we  also  find  the  same  tenses  and 
moods  as  used  in  the  direct  discourse:  Und  wie  der  Friedl  nun  so  mit  sich  allein 
war,  da  versank  er  in  ein  Träumen,  wie  sonst  noch  nie.  —  Aus  der  Hosen- 
tasche zog  er  eine  kleine  goldene  Uhr  und  schaute  sie  an  und  hob  schon  die 
Hand,  um  sie  ins  Gestein  zu  schleudern,  tat's  aber  nicht.  —  Ob  nicht  die 
Rosel  so  was  mödjte?  Ei  natürlich,  die  )oIl  sich's  nur  selber  kaufen.  Er 
tnirb  überhaupt  nicht  mehr  viel  rebeu  mit  dem  Geiß-Mädl,  er  hat  ganz  andere 
Aussichten,  wenn  er  xmii.  Manchmal  einen  Gefallen,  wenn's  drauf  anfommt, 
fonn  man  einer  ja  wohl  erweisen.  Aber  ungut  tntrb  ihm  schier,  wenn  er  an 
diese  — ■  diese  Stadtleute  benft.  Es  ift  halt  doch  wahr,  was  man  von  ihnen 
fagt.     So  dachte  er  und  schüttelte  den  Kopf  (Rosegger's  Durch!  p.  67). 


Conjugation. 

173.  The  infinitive.  The  form  of  the  verb  usuall}^  given  in  the  dictionary 
is  the  infinitive,  which  ends  in  en  except  after  -el  and  -er,  where  the  e  of  the  en 
is  dropped,  as  also  in  the  two  isolated  verbs  tun  to  do,  sein  to  be:  loben  to 
praise,  wandern  to  wander,  wandeln  to  saunter. 

174.  The  stem.  By  cutting  off  en  from  the  infinitive,  or  n  after  -el  and 
-er,  the  simple  stem  of  the  verb  is  found,  out  of  which  grow  all  the  varied  forms 
of  conjugation. 

175.  Forms  of  conjugation.  Like  the  English,  the  German  verb  has  a 
common  and  an  interrogative  form,  and  has  besides  in  the  second  person  a  form 
for  familiar  language  and  another  for  polite  intercourse,  but  lacks  the  emphatic 
and  progressive  forms  of  the  English,  the  common  form  serving  usually  for  the 
English  common,  emphatic,  and  progressive.  The  German  has  an  emphatic 
form  that  corresponds  in  part  to  the  English,  See  185.  B.  I.  2.  e.  (2).  See 
Note  below  for  the  German  methods  of  expressing  the  idea  of  progression  or 
duration.  The  polite  form  is  the  same  as  the  third  person  pi.,  and  is  distinguished 
from  it  by  writing  its  subject,  the  pronoun  sie,  with  a  capital:  sie  loben  they 
praise,  Sie  loben  you  praise.  This  polite  form  is  the  same  in  the  sing,  and 
pi.  The  familiar  form,  which  is  also  used  in  solemn  style,  has  du  for  its  subject 
in  the  sing,  and  ihr  in  the  pi.  The  personal  endings  of  the  verb  are  added  to 
the  stem : 


Present  Tense  Declarative. 

Singular 
ich    lobe    I    praise,    am    praising, 

do  praise 
(familiar  form) 
du  lobst  you  praise,  are  praising, 

do  praise 
(polite  form) 
.  Sie  loben 
er,  sie,  es  lobt  he,  she,  it  praises, 

is  praising,  does  praise 


Plural. 


wir  loben  we  praise,  &c. 

(familiar  form) 

ihr  lobt 

(polite  form) 

Sie  loben 

sie  loben  they  praise,  &c. 


-  you  praise,  &c. 


Present  Tense  Interrogative. 
lobe  ich?  do  I  praise? 

lobst  du? 

>  do  you  praise? 

loben  Sie?    J 

lobt   er,   sie,   es?  does   he,   she,   it 
praise? 

loben  wir?  do  we  praise? 

lobt  ihr?       ] 

>  do  you  praise? 
loben  Sie?   ] 
loben  sie?  do  they  praise? 


248 SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB 175. 

Hereafter  the  polite  form  will  be  omitted  in  the  conjugation,  as  it  is  exactly 
the  same  as  the  third  person  pi.,  except  that  its  subject  Sie  is  written  with  a 
capital  letter. 

Note.  Different  Forms  of  the  Durative  Aspect.  The  durative  aspect  (see  1641  is  in  both  German  and  English 
usually  expressed  by  the  simple  verb:  Er  schreibt  oft  den  ganzen  Tag  He  often  writes  the  whole  day.  To  emphasise 
the  idea  of  duration  indicating  that  the  activity  is  progressing  at  a  given  time  we  have  in  English  an  especial  durative 
form  called  the  progressive  form:  He  is  now  writing  a  letter  Er  schreibt  jetzt  einen  Brief.  Thus  the  English  pro- 
gressive form  often  corresponds  to  the  simple  verb  in  German.  To  emphasize  especially  the  idea  of  progression, 
the  German  employs  in  connection  with  the  verb  the  adverb  gerade  or  eben  or  instead  of  the  adverb  a  prepositional 
object,  usually  an  +  dative  of  the  substantive,  or  these  constructions  may  be  replaced  by  a  prepositional  phrase 
consisting  usually  of  the  preposition  bei,  In,  or  an  and  the  infinitive  substantive  of  the  verb:  Ich  schreibe  gerade 
(or  eben,  both  adverbs  unstressed )  I  am  writing.  Sie  tanzten  gerade,  als  ich  eintrat  They  were  dancing  when  I  entered. 
Er  schrieb  an  einem  Briefe  He  was  writing  a  letter.  Sie  ist  beim  Anziehen  She  is  dressing.  Die  Kurse  sind  im 
Steige  1,  im  Fallen  The  value  of  stocks  is  rising,  falling.  Sie  hatte  es  grade  mit  einem  Kinde  zu  tun,  das  am  Kar- 
toffelschälen war  She  was  just  tlien  occupied  with  a  child  who  was  peeling  potatoes.  It  should  be  noticed  that  in 
this  progressive  form  the  object  must  assume  the  form  of  a  prepositional  object  after  the  preposition  an,  as  in  the 
third  from  the  last  example,  or  it  must  form  a  compound  with  the  infinitive-substantive  as  in  the  last  example.  In- 
stead of  the  infinitive-substantive  it  is  quite  common  to  employ  the  prepositional  infinitive  in  connection  with  dabei: 
Ich  bin  dabei  or  gerade  dabei,  einen  Brief  an  meinen  Vater  zu  schreiben.  This  form  is  especially  common,  as  here, 
where  there  are  objects  and  adverbial  modifiers  which  would  be  difficult  to  unite  with  the  infinitive-substantive. 
The  progressive  idea  is  also  expressed  by  means  of  the  participles  begriffen  and  beschäftigt  in  connection  with  a 
prep,  phrase:  Die  Truppen  sind  im  Anmarsch  begriffen  The  troops  are  advancing.  Ich  bin  gerade  mit  Schreiben 
beschäftigt.  Die  japanischen  Matrosen  sind  beim  Aufräumen  der  Minen  im  Hafen  beschäftigt  {Hamburger  Nach- 
richten, Jan.  7,  1905).  .\s  in  the  last  sentence  the  object  often  assumes  the  form  of  an  attributive  objective  genitive 
dependent  upon  an  infinitive-substantive.  The  infinitive-substantive  is  often  replaced  here  by  the  prepositional 
infinitive  in  connection  with  damit,  especially  where  there  are  objects  and  adverbial  modifiers  which  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  unite  with  an  infinitive-substantive:  Ich  bin  (gerade)  damit  beschäftigt,  einen  langen  Brief  an  meinen  Vater 
zu  schreiben. 

To  indicate  that  an  activity  is  sustained  thruout  a  period  we  use  in  English  keep  or  keep  on  in  connection  with  the 
present  participle,  while  in  German  the  verb  is  compounded  with  the  separable  prefix  fort  and  is  often  modified  by 
the  prepositional  phrase  in  einem:  He  kept  on  laughing  Er  lachte  in  einem  fort.  Das  regnet  ja  heut  in  einem  fort! 
Der  Regen  dauert  fort.  Er  arbeitet  unermüdlich  fort.  To  indicate  a  continuation  of  a  condition  of  things  remain 
with  the  present  participle  is  used  in  English,  bleiben  with  the  infinitive  in  German:  He  remained  standing,  sitting 
Er  blieb  stehen,  sitzen.  Etwas  blieb  hängen,  an  der  Pfanne  kleben.  Die  Uhr  fiel  hin,  aber  sie  blieb  gehen.  Die 
Zigarre  bUeb  brennen. 

Terminates,  i.  e.  verbs  in  which  the  duration  of  the  action  is  short,  the  action  beginning  and  ending  within  a  limited 
period,  are  closely  related  to  duratives  and,  like  them,  have  the  simple  form  of  the  verb  and  are  also  often  otherwise 
treated  like  them,  as  illustrated  in  191.  I.  3,  but  they  differ  from  them  in  that  -they  indicate  an  action  asawhole  ratlicr 
than  as  continuing:  Er  winkte  mir.  Er  hat  mit  keiner  Wimper  gezuckt.  Er  schoß  ihn  tot.  Sie  wiegte  ihr  Kind  in 
den  Schlaf.  Er  lachte  sich  halb  zu  Tode.  In  many  terminates  the  fiyial  poi7ü,  as  in  the  last  e.xample,  or  the  begin- 
ning, as  in  the  next  to  the  last  example,  is  quite  prominent,  so  that  the  terminate  aspect  is  often  closely  related  to  the 
point-action  aspect  (164),  often  merging  into  it,  as  indeed  the  point-action  aspect  has  itself  largely  developed  out  of  it. 
The  point-action  idea  is  present  when  the  conception  of  a  point  becomes  more  prominent  than  t!iat  of  the  action.  See 
246.  II.  3.  b. 

Regular  Conjugation. 

176.  There  are  two  regular  conjugations,  the  weak  and  the  strong. 

1,  The  weak  forms  its  past  tense  by  adding  te  to  the  stem,  and  its  perf. 
participle  by  prefixing  ge  and  adding  t  to  the  stem:  loben  to  praise,  past  lobte 
praised,  perf.  participle  gelobt  praised.  This  is  by  far  the  largest  class  of  verbs 
and  is  growing  at  the  expense  of  the  strong  as  from  time  to  time  a  few  strong 
verbs  have  left  their  old  class  and  joined  this  class.  Moreover  new  formations, 
such  as  radeln  to  ride  on  a  bicycle,  telephonieren  to  telephone,  are  almost  in- 
variably weak. 

2.  The  strong  forms  its  past  tense  by  a  change  of  vowel  within  the  stem 
of  the  verb,  and  its  perf.  participle  by  prefixing  ge,  usually  changing  the  vowel 
of  the  stem,  and  by  adding  en  to  the  stem:  singen  to  sing,  past  sang  sang, 
perf.  participle  gesungen  sung.  This  class  is  not  so  large  as  formerly.  Altho 
a  few  words  have  from  time  to  time  joined  it,  there  has  in  general  been  a  steady 
decrease.  Altho  it  is  comparatively  small  it  subdivides  into  classes  and  divisions. 
The  full  description  of  these  classes  and  divisions  and  the  lists  of  verbs  belonging 
to  each  are  given  in  198-205. 

The  Simple  Forms  of  the   Verb. 

177.  The  simple  forms  of  the  verb  are  all  active  except  the  perf.  part,  and 
the  modal  verbals  (180),  which  are  passive.  In  the  following  paradigms  all 
the  simple  forms  of  the  verb  are  given,  and  besides  a  few  common  compound 
forms  which  supply  the  place  of  the  wanting  simple  forms.  The  words  inclosed 
in  parentheses  are  under  certain  circumstances  a  regular  part  of  the  verbal 
form,  while  under  other  circumstances  they  are  omitted.  The  accompanying 
reference  will  usually  explain  in  full  this  point. 


177.  I.  A. 


SIMPLE   WEAK   FORMS  —  IMPERATIVE 


249 


I.      The  simple  forms  of  the  weak  verb : 

Present.  Past. 

I  praise,  &c.  I  praised,  &c. 


Indie. 

Subj. 

Indic.  &  Subj, 

ich  lobe 

lobe 

lobte 

du  lobst 

lobest 

lobtest 

er  lobt 

lobe 

lobte 

wir  loben 

loben 

lobten 

ihr  lobt 

lobet 

lobtet 

sie  loben 

loben 

Infinitive. 

lobten 

Present. 


Imperative 


lobe  ich 


Pres,   (zu)  loben  to  praise  (185.  A 
and  B) 


(familiar)  (polite) 

lobe,  loben  Sie  praise 

er  lobe  let  him  praise,  or  er  soll  loben 

loben  wir  let  us  praise 

(familiar)  (polite) 

lob(e)t,       loben  Sie  praise 
sie  sollen  loben  let  them  praise 

Participle. 

Pres,  lobend  praising 

Perf.  Passive  ge'lobt  praised 


The  Modal  Verbals. 

Predicate  Form:   zu  loben  fl80.  A). 

Attributive  Form:   der  (,  die,  das)  zu  lobende  (180.  B) 

A.  Imperative  Forms. 

The  imperative  of  both  strong  and  weak  verbs  has  forms  only  for  the  2nd 
person  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  famiUar  form:  Reiche  mir  das  Buch!  Vergeßt  es 
ja  nicht!  Kommt  doch  mit!  (spoken  entreatingly)  Do  come  along!  Komm 
(see  50.  A.  2.  6)  doch  endlich  einmal!  (spoken  in  a  threatening,  impatient  tone) 
Come  this  very  mimtte!  These  imperative  forms  spoken  in  an  ironical  tone  in 
connection  with  the  adverb  doch  or  doch  nur  do  not  have  the  force  of  a  com- 
mand at  all  but  are  prohibitions:  Kommt  doch  nur  mit!  Don't  you  dare  to  come! 

The  other  simple  forms  given  above  are  subjunctive  forms  used  to  replace 
the  wanting  imperative  forms.  The  subjunctive  imperative  of  the  1st  pers. 
sing,  is  only  rarely  found:  Denn,  gesteh'  ich  es  nur,  nicht  ruft  die  nahe  Gefahr 
mich  I  aus  dem  Hause  des  Vaters  (Goethe's  H.  und  D.,  iv.  137).  Ich  sei, 
gewährt  mir  die  Bitte,  |  in  eurem  Bunde  der  Dritte!  (Schiller's  Die  Bürgschaft). 
Allein  zu  Lieb'  und  Ehe  braucht  es  zwei;  |  und  sag'  ich's  nur,  mein  Vater,  euer 
Fürst,  I  war  mir  des  Mannes  ein  so  würdig  Bild,  |  daß  ich  vergebens  seines- 
gleichen suche  (Grillparzer's  Libussa,  2).  For  the  3rd  pers.  sing,  the  sub- 
junctive imperative  has  either  normal  or  question  order:  er  lobe,  or  lobe  er. 
In  the  1st  pers.  pl.  and  in  the  polite  form  of  the  2nd  pers.  sing,  and  pl.  the  ques- 
tion order  is  alone  used :  Doch,  laß  ruhen  die  Toten,  sehen  wir  in  die  Zukunft 
(Bismarck  to  his  betrothed,  June  13,  1847).  If  the  imperative  is  preceded  by 
a  subordinate  clause  the  first  person  plural  subjunctive  form  with  its  question 
order  cannot  be  used,  as  it  would  be  felt  as  an  indicative  with  inverted  order. 
It  must  here  be  replaced  by  an  auxiliary  with  a  dependent  infinitive:  Beten 
wir  für  einander,  solange  wir  hier  auf  Erden  sind,  but  Solange  wir  hier  auf 
Erden  sind,  wollen  wir  für  einander  beten!  Loben  Sie  (polite  form,  sing, 
and  pl.).  The  3rd  pers.  sing,  and  pl.  of  the  simple  verb  is  usually  replaced 
in  colloquial  speech  by  an  auxiliary  with  a  dependent  infinitive.  See  B.  a 
below.  It  is,  however,  still  quite  common  in  commands  which  have  the  in- 
definite man,  einer,  keiner,  niemand,  or  jeder,  ein  jeder  for  a  subject:  Man 
beachte  folgendes  Let  everybody  note  the  following  points.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  in  general  not  infrequent  in  poetry  and  choice  prose:  Dann  zer- 
breche dies  Britannien,  wenn  es  zu  ehrenhaftem  Leben  zu  morsch  ist  (Lien- 
hard's  König  Arthur,  1).  Less  common  in  the  plural,  as  the  form  is  the  same 
as  for  the  indicative,  but  not  entirely  infrequent  even  here  in  commands  or  di- 
rections to  a  definite  group  of  persons:  Alle  stehen  auf!  (Georg  Edward).  Alle 
setzen  sich!  (id.)     Alle  gleichen  Nummern  treten  hervor !  (military  command). 


250 SUBSTITUTES   FOR   THE    IMPERATIVE  177.  I.  A. 

Very  common  in  a  few  formal  expressions  in  polite  language:  Erlauben  mir 
die  Herren,  Sie  mit  einander  bekannt  zu  machen :  Herr  von  Leslie-Gordon, 
Herr  Hofprediger  Dr.  Dörffel  (Fontane's  Cecile,  chap.  18).  Gestatten  die 
Herren,  daß  ich  Ihnen  Herrn  Lothar  Brandt  vorstelle  (Sudermann 's  Die  Ehre, 
2,  6).     Die  Herrschaften  verzeihen,  aber,  &c.,  (ib.). 

a.  The  pronoun  in  the  familiar  form  is  only  expressed  for  especial  emphasis 
or  contrast:  Wartet  ihr,  indem  wir  voranlaufen.  The  pronoun  may  not  only 
follow  the  verb  as  in  the  example  just  given,  but  it  may  also  precede:  Ihr  da! 
seid  aufmerksam!  Du  da!  sei  aufmerksam!  Instead  of  a  pronoun,  a  noun 
can  of  course  be  used:  Karl,  sei  aufmerksam!  If,  however,  du  and  ihr  ac- 
company a  noun  in  direct  address  they  are  not  usually  stressed:  Gehe  hin  zur 
Ameise,  du  Fauler;  siehe  ihre  Weise  an  und  lerne  (Prov.  VI.  6,  rev.  ed.). 

The  Sie  of  the  polite  form  is  usually  expressed  in  the  literary  language,  but 
colloquially  it  is  sometimes  omitted,  especially  if  it  has  been  once  expressed: 
Na,  das  überlegen  (usually  überlegen  Sie)  sich  man  (=  nur)!  (Halbe's  Mutter 
Erde,  p.  L52).  Reiten  Sie  zur  Fabrik  und  bringen  (usually  bringen  Sie)  mir 
■ — ich  bitte  flotte  Gangart  —  Bericht  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen). 

b.  For  the  pres.  perfect  imperative  see  190.  1.  A. 

B.  Substitutes  for  the  Imperative  of  Strong  and  Weak  Verbs. 
The  imperative  is  a  formal  expression  of  will,  but  it  is  not  the  only  form  of 
expression  here,  for  difTerent  circumstances  require  different  procedure,  so  that 
the  will  must  formulate  its  demands  in  many  ways,  which  in  course  of  time  have 
found  a  formal  expression  in  the  language.  The  simple  imperative,  the  oldest 
of  these  forms,  is  still  much  used  in  commands,  requests,  admonitions,  entreaties, 
supplications.  The  one  form  with  its  many  meanings  represents  the  simplicity 
of  primitive  speech.  The  meaning  is  indicated  not  alone  by  the  form  but  as 
in  primitive  speech  in  general  also  by  the  situation,  the  accent,  the  tone  of  the 
voice.  In  course  of  time,  however,  other  forms  of  expression  have  arisen.  Of 
the  different  forms  which  are  here  gathered  together  under  the  general  heading 
of  substitutes  for  the  imperative  some  are  mere  formal  variants  without  a  real 
difference  of  signification,  while  others  have  meanings  more  or  less  differentiated. 
These  different  forms  of  expressions  are  further  differentiated  by  the  modula- 
tion of  the  voice,  which  here  as  in  the  simple  imperative  plays  an  important 
role.     The  following  groups  appear: 

a.  The  modal  auxiliaries,  which  in  connection  with  the  infinitive  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated 
are  much  used  to  replace  the  simple  imperative  and  the  wanting  forms  of  the  imperative.  First 
person  singular:  Möge  ich  ihn  nie  wiedersehen!  First  person  plural:  laß  (sing,  familiar  form), 
laßt  (pl.  familiar  form),  lassen  Sie  (poUte)  uns  loben!  The  imperative  with  lassen  arose  early 
in  the  North  and  spread  southward  in  large  measure  displacing  the  older  simple  form  (loben 
wir).  Even  before  Luther's  day  it  had  become  well  established  in  the  Midland  and  was  widely 
used  in  the  literary  language  of  the  South,  but  later  under  S.G.  influence  the  older  simple  form 
came  into  wide  use  again  as  it  had  remained  firmly  rooted  in  S.G.  feeling.  Wollen,  like  lassen 
a  N.G.  form  that  spread  southward,  competed  earlier  in  the  period  with  lassen  for  the  mastery 
äs  over  against  the  older  simple  form.  It  is  still  widely  used:  Wollen  wir  einen  Wagen  nehmen? 
Nein,  wir  wollen  (indicative)  lieber  zu  Fuße  gehen!  The  question  order  is  also  used  with  wollen, 
altho  not  so  commonly  as  the  normal  order:  Wollen  (subjunctive)  wir  das  annehmen!  (Storm's 
Es  waren  zwei  Königskinder,  p.  2).  Wollen  (subjunctive)  wir  ihn  (Dr.  Georg  W.  A.  Kahlbaum) 
in  unserem  Gedächtnis  bewahren!  (Privatdozent  Franz  Strunz  in  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen 
Zeit.,  Aug.  31,  1905,  p.  415).  Of  course  the  inverted  order  must  be  employed  if  some  modifier 
of  the  verb  is  for  emphasis  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence:  Nun  wollen  (indie.)  wir 
loswandem!  (Hauptmann 's  Und  Pippa  tanzt,  p.  54).  Second  person:  Sechs  Tage  sollst  du 
arbeiten;  am  siebenten  Tage  sollst  du  feiern  (revised  edition,  Ex.  xxxiv.  21).  The  past  sub- 
junctive softens  the  force  and  imparts  to  the  utterance  the  idea  of  advice  offered  modestly: 
Neulich  fragte  sie  noch  nach  dir.  Die  solltest  du  wählen  (Goethe's  H.  und  D.,  2,  241).  Wollen 
has  much  milder  force  here:  Traute,  minnigliche  Frau,  wollest  (subj.)  nimmer  fliehen  (Hölty). 
Imperative  of  wollen:  Wollet  mir,  geliebte  Brüder  im  Herrn,  Aufmerksamkeit  schenken,  daß 
ich  euch  ein  Gleichnis  erzähle  (Ertl's  Die  Stadt  der  Heiligen).  Bitte,  wollen  Sie  Platz  nehmen! 
(Sudermann's  Fritzchen).  Past  subj.  of  mögen  is  ver>^  common  in  polite  language:  Möchten 
Sie  die  Güte  haben,  mir  zu  folgen?  The  auxiliary  dürfen  is  much  used  here  in  prohibitions: 
Ihr  dürft  nicht  laut  schreien!  Children,  you  must  not  scream  out  loud!  Müssen  is  much  used 
here  in  the  positive  form  of  statement,  to  express  the  idea  of  compulsion:  „Geh!"  „Ich  will 
nicht."     „Du  mußt  gehen!"     Third  person:  Er  soll  (indic.)  loben!  Let  him  praise!  (command), 


177.  I.  B.  g.         SUBSTITUTES    FOR   THE    IMPERATIVE 251 

or  more  mildly  er  möge  (or  still  more  mildly  wolle;  both  subj.)  loben,  or  möge  (or  wolle)  er 
loben!  May  he  praise!  (wish).  Plural:  sie  sollen  loben,  or  mögen  sie  loben.  Wollen  sich 
die  Herren  nur  herauf  bemühen!  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Schiuammerl,  p.  14).  When  the  force  becomes 
a  little  more  vigorous  and  approaches  a  polite  request  the  normal  order  is  used  with  mögen: 
Das  möge  nicht  dahin  mißverstanden  werden,  als  sei  eine  bloße  Hypothese  von  Haeckel  (name) 
in  unwissenschaftlicher  Weise  als  richtig  angenommen  worden  (Adolf  Koelsch  in  Frankfurter 
Zeit.,  Feb.  15,  1914).  Sometimes  also  the  indie,  of  mögen  is  used:  1st  er  gesonnen,  ein  Mörike- 
Album  zu  unternehmen,  so  mag  er  es  sagen  (Schwind  an  Mörike,  May  22,  1868).  Often  the 
indicative  of  können:   Du  kannst  gehen.     See  also  213.  2.  D. 

üf  these  auxiliaries  sollen  with  its  dependent  infinitive  in  connection  with  the  adverb  nur, 
doch,  or  doch  nur  is  not,  when  spoken  in  ironical  tone,  an  imperative  at  all  but  a  strong  pro- 
hibition: Wollen  sie  meutern?  Rebellion  machen?  Sie  sollen  nur!  (E.  von  Handel-Mazzetti 's 
Stephana  Schwertner ,  II,  chap.  II)  Just  let  them  dare  to  try  it! 

b.  The  second  person  of  the  present  indicative  to  express  in  a  stern  tone  that  the  command 
must  be  obeyed:  Kuhnert  (trotzig):  Ich  laß  mir  nicht'n  Mund  verbieten!  Die  alte  Kuhnert: 
Still  bist!  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjährige  Reich,  p.  66).  In  mild  hopeful  tone  this  form  indicates 
confidence  that  a  request  will  be  complied  with:  Du  kommst  mit!  Of  course,  you  will  come 
along!  In  deferential  language  the  third  person  is  employed,  usually  with  question  order: 
Regt  sich  darmoch  (deimoch)  der  Herr  Pfarrer  nit  aso  auf!  (E.  von  Handel- Mazzetti's  Jesse 
und  Maria,  p.  15). 

The  first  person  of  the  plural  is  often  used  here  instead  of  the  second  person  singular  when 
spoken  in  a  stern  tone:  Hans,  du  hast  deine  Aufgabe  für  heute  nicht  ins  Reine  geschrieben. 
Wir  tun  so  etwas  nicht  wieder!  (Georg  Edward). 

A  mild  request  is  often  expressed  by  the  second  person  singular  with  the  interrogative  form 
of  statement:  Kommst  du  nicht  mit?  When  spoken  in  stern  tone  this  form  often  has  the  force 
of  a  threat  indicating  considerable  impatience:  Kommst  du  wohl  bald?!  The  stress  is  here 
uniformly  on  the  first  word.  See  50.  A.  2.  b.  If  the  second  person  is  used  in  connection  with 
wenn,  the  transposed  word-order,  and  rising  intonation,  it  indicates  a  threat  of  future  punish- 
ment: Wenn  du  das  noch  einmal  tust'!  In  shopping  the  first  person  sing,  present  indie,  or  past 
subjunc.  is  a  polite  imperative:  Ich  wünsche,  bitte  um,  hätte  gern,  or  möchte  gern  Stahlfedern. 

In  dialect  and  colloquial  language  the  impersonal  passive  (219.  5.  B)  is  often  used  as  an  im- 
perative expressing  assurance  and  expectation  that  the  command  will  be  obeyed:  Jetzt  wird 
mal  aufgepaßt!  Jetzt  wird  sich  (219.  5.  B.  c)  gewaschen!  Words  of  a  physician  to  the  mother 
of  a  sick  child:  Gut,  Sie  werden  der  Tagespflegerin  zur  Hand  gehen,  aber  nachts  wird  geschlafen 
und  der  Schwester  (i.e.  the  nurse)  wird  hübsch  gefolgt!  (Victor  von  Kohlenegg's  Eckerlein). 

c.  The  second  person  of  the  future  indicative  to  express  an  admonition  or  give  advice:  Du 
wirst  hier  bleiben!  You  certainly  will  stay  here.  Du  wirst  es  tun!  You  will  do  it  if  you  follow 
my  advice.  Often  in  a  more  positive  tone:  Du  wirst  den  Apfel  schießen  von  dem  Kopf  |  des 
Knaben  —  ich  begehr's  und  will's  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  3).  Three  lines  further  on  the  present  in- 
dicative is  used  in  still  more  positive  tone.  Often  in  the  second  person  of  the  future  in  the  in- 
terrogative form,  spoken  in  positive  tone:  Wirst  du  still  sein?!  Wirscht  du  glei'  folgen,  oder 
soll  ich  a  Priegel  (=  Prügel)  nehmen?!  (Hauptmann's  Die  Weber,  act  5). 

d.  The  perfect  participle  in  short,  sharp  commands  or  warnings,  or  in  brusquely  urging  a 
course:  Aufgestanden!  Stand  up!  Den  Wagen  angespannt!  Schnell  Hilfe  geholt!  Vorge- 
sehen! Look  out!  Nur  nicht  zu  früh  gefreut,  Lenchen!  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjährige  Reich,  p.  48). 
Nicht  geplaudert!  No  talking!  Aber  reinen  Mund  gehalten!  But  don't  you  tell  a  word  of  it. 
Keinen  verschont!  Spare  nobody!     Atifgehört  mit  dem  Spielen! 

Note.  This  form  is  usually  interpreted  by  grammarians  as  a  perfect  participle,  but  to  the  author  it  seems  to  be 
the  perfect  tense  of  the  infinitive  with  suppressed  auxiUary  of  tense,  as  in  185.  B.  II.  b.  As  described  in  e  the  infinitive 
is  widely  used  as  an  imperative.  The  perfect  tense  of  the  infinitive  is  employed  as  the  speaker  desires  to  emphasize 
the  idea  of  the  completion,  the  immediate  and  thoro  execution  of  the  act.  AH  the  meanings  given  above  can  easily 
be  derived  from  this  one.  Here  as  in  the  present  tense  form  the  reflexive  pronoun  is  often  omitted,  as  explained  in 
e.  Note  1.  (3) :   Vorgesehen!     Nur  nicht  zu  früh  gefreut,  Lenchen! 

e.  The  present  infinitive,  to  express  a  command  or  warning  to  children  and  informal  com- 
mands in  general,  such  as  entreaties,  requests,  kind  admonitions,  directions,  especially  those 
directed  to  the  public:  Maul  halten!  Hold  your  tongue!  Schweigen!  Be  still!  Aber  dich 
nie  wieder  so  dicht  am  Wasser  auf  die  Erde  legen  und  einschlafen!  Verstanden?  (Wilden- 
bruch) But  don't  ever  lie  down  again  so  near  the  water  and  go  to  sleep!  Do  you  under- 
stand? Ruhig,  ruhig!  Nur  ja  nicht  ärgern  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  1)  (see  (3) 
in  Note  below).  Nein,  nein,  bitte,  setzen!  (Sudermann)  No,  no,  please  be  seated.  Bitte, 
mich  auch  fliegen  lassen!  Please  throw  me  up  into  the  air  too!  Ich  bitte,  bitte:  essen!  nur 
einen  Bissen  davon,  aber  essen!  „Nur  nicht  aufregen,"  warnte  der  Arzt,  „dämpfen!  Zer- 
streuung braucht  er  jetzt  nicht,  langweilen  soll  er  sich"  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Rittmeister 
Brand,  XVU).  Dann  rief  ich  dem  Kutscher  zu:  „umkehren."  Briefe  postlagernd  Konstanz 
adressieren  (in  an  advertisement)  Address  letters  to  Constance,  to  be  called  for.  Einsteigen! 
All  aboard!  (to  passengers).  Umsteigen  nach  Hannover!  Change  cars  for  Hanover!  Often 
in  telegrams:  Vater  schwer  krank.  Kommen!  Gottfried  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer, 
LXIII).  The  infinitive  is  especially  common  in  admonitions  to  one's  §elf  as  found  in  the 
novels  of  our  time  where  the  author  reports  in  lively  narrative  style  the  musings  of  his 
characters.  The  last  German  example  in  172.  a  is  an  apt  illustration  of  this  common  usage. 
The  infinitive  here,  however,  is  no  longer  felt  with  its  original  imperative  force  but  is  a  narra- 
tive form  which  relates  the  admonitions  of  someone  to  himself. 

Note  1.  Observe  in  the  above  examples  (1)  that  in  a  negative  command  the  negative  must  precede  the  infinitive, 
(2)  that  the  separable  prefix  is  not  separated,  (3)  that  reflexive  verbs  in  this  imperative   form  sometimes  take  the 


252 


THE  SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  THE  STRONG  VERB 


177.  I.  B.  e. 


reflexive  pronoun  and  sometimes  are  without  it,  especially  so  in  certain  set  expressions,  as  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
examples.  The  omission  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  is  explained  by  the  older  substantive  nature  of  the  infinitive.  Com- 
pare 186.  A.  I.  6.  Note  3. 

Note  2.  Compare  carefully  the  meaning  of  d  and  e.  They  are  both  essentially  N.H.G.  developments  and  aptly 
illustrate  the  modern  tendency  to  differentiate.  They  are  both  fine  contributions  of  colloquial  speech  to  the  literary 
language.     They  have  added  to  German  new  shades  of  meaning  not  contained  in  the  older  simple  imperative. 

Note  3.  Origin  of  the  Infinitive  Imperative.  The  infinitive  here  was  probably  dependent  originally  upon  some 
auxiliary  understood:  [Du  soUst  dein)  Maul  halten! 

/.     A  substantive  or  adverb:    Achtung!  Attention!     Vorwärts!  Forward! 

g.  A  subordinate  clause:  Daß  du  so  fortfährst  und  deinen  lieben  Eltern  viel  Freude  machst! 
Keep  right  on  in  this  way,  and  thus  bring  your  dear  parents  much  joy!  Eduard!  daß  die  Briefe 
noch  vor  8  auf  der  Post  sind  Edward!  see  to  it  that  the  letters  are  at  the  Post  Office  by  eight. 
Ob  (for  strong  accent  here  see  50.  A.  2.  b)  du  hergehst! 

C.    Dialectic  Variations  of  the  Personal  Endings. 

The  personal  endings  of  the  plural  pres.  indie,  vary  in  different  dialects  from  the  above  models. 
There  is  in  some  dialects  a  tendency  to  use  uniformly  the  same  personal  ending  thruout  the 
plural,  one  form  leveling  the  others.  This  is  also  true  of  strong  verbs,  as  they  have  exactly 
the  same  personal  endings  as  the  weak.  Thus  in  most  editions  of  Goethe's  Götz,  1,  1  (not,  how- 
ever, in  the  Weimar  edition)  we  find  in  the  dialectic  language  there  employed  -en,  the  ending 
of  the  1st  and  3rd  pers.  pi.,  also  in  the  2nd  pi. :   Wollen  ihr  Ruh  haben? 

The  old  ending  ent  for  the  3rd  pers.  pi.  is  preserved  in  parts  of  the  Southwest,  especially  in 
the  Swabian  and  the  eastern  Swiss  dialects,  in  many  sections,  however,  in  the  reduced  form 
et,  and  from  the  3rd  pers.  has  spread  to  the  1st  pers.  and  in  many  sections  also  to  the  2nd  person, 
so  that  the  whole  plural  ends  in  ent  or  et.  This  old  3rd  pers.  pi.  ending  in  the  form  of  nd  is  also 
preserved  in  the  literary  language  in  the  one  word  sind,  which  form  has  also  spread  to  the  1st 
pers.  pi.  In  dialect  the  older  1st  pers.  pi.  form  sein  often  occurs  and  has  spread  to  the  3rd  pers.: 
wir  sein,  sie  sein. 

In  some  of  the  western  Swiss  dialects  the  ending  for  the  1st  and  3rd  pers.  pi.  is  e  (older  form 
en)  and  et  for  the  2nd  pers.  In  other  western  dialects  the  whole  plural  may  end  in  e  (older  en), 
or  the  ending  for  the  1st  pers.  pi.  is  e(n),  for  the  2nd  pers.  et,  for  the  3rd  ent. 

In  Bavarian  and  Austrian  dialects  complete  leveling  does  not  take  place  in  the  pi.  The 
ending  for  the  1st  and  3rd  pers.  pi.  is  e(n)  and  for  the  2nd  pers.  pi.  et  or  ts  (regular  2nd  pers.  pi. 
ending  t  +  s,  the  latter  element  of  which  is  the  contracted  form  of  the  old  dual  es;   see  140.  g). 

In  the  literary  language  the  1st  pers.  pi.  in  en  has  leveled  the  old  3rd  pers.  pi.  in  ent.  This 
development  was  greatly  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  the  1st  and  3rd  pers.  pi.  of  the  present 
subjunctive  and  the  past  indicative  and  subjunctive  ended  in  en.  This  leveling  began  in  M.G. 
and  later  spread  to  Bavarian  and  the  literary  language. 


1 1 .     The  simple  forms  of  the  strong  verb : 


A.   singen  to  sing. 


Indie. 

ich  singe 
du  singst 
er  singt 
wir  singen 
ihr  singt 
sie  singen 

Indic. 

ich  sang 
du  sangst 
er  sang 
wir  sangen 
ihr  sangt 
sie  sangen 


1st    singe  ich 

(familiar)  (polite) 

2nd  sing(e),     singen  Sie 
3rd   er  singe 


B.   fallen  to  fall. 


C.   helfen  to  help. 


Present, 

Subj. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

singe 

falle 

falle 

singest 

fällst 

fallest 

singe 

fällt 

falle 

singen 

fallen 

fallen 

singet 

fallt 

fallet 

singen 

fallen 

Past. 

fallen 

Subj. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

sänge 

fiel 

fiele 

säng(e)st 

fielst 

fielest 

sänge 

fiel 

fiele 

sängen 

fielen 

fielen 

säng(e)t 

fielt 

fielet 

sängen 

fielen 

fielen 

Present  Imperative 

Singular 

'. 

falle  ich 

Indic. 

Subj. 

helfe 

helfe 

hilfst 

helfest 

hilft 

helfe 

helfen 

helfen 

helft 

helfet 

helfen 

helfen 

Indic. 

Subj. 

half 

hülfe 

halfst 

hülf(e)st 

half 

hülfe 

halfen 

hülfen 

halft 

hülf(e)t 

halfen 

hülfen 

(familiar)        (polite) 

fall(e),     fallen  Sie 
er  falle 


helfe  ich 

(familiar)         (polite) 

hilf,    helfen  Sie 
er  helfe 


177.  II.  D.d.        THE  SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  THE  STRONG  VERB        253 

Plural, 

singen  wir  fallen  wir  helfen  wir 

sing(e)t,     singen  Sie  fall(e)t,     fallen  Sie  helf  (e)t,     helfen  Sie 

sie  sollen  singen  sie  sollen  fallen  sie  sollen  helfen 

Infinitive.                         Participle.  The  Modal  Verbais.  (180) 

Pres,  (zu)  singen  (185.          Pres,  singend  zu  singen  (predicate  form) 

A  &  B)                     Perf.  ge'sungen  der  (&c.)  zu  singende  (attribu- 
tive form;  see  180.  B) 

Pres,  (zu)  fallen                     Pres,  fallend  lacking  with  intransitive  verbs 

Perf.  ge 'fallen  except  those  in  185.  A.  l.&.  (2). 

Pres,  (zu)  helfen                    Pres,  helfend  zu  helfen  (the  attributive  form 

Perf.  ge'holfen  is  lacking;   see  180  B.  b) 

D.  The  three  models  given  above  represent  the  three  different  forms  of 
inflection  in  the  simple  mood  and  tense  forms  of  strong  verbs,  concerning  which 
the  following  particulars  are  given: 

a.  Those  that  have  an  a  in  the  stem  modify  as  a  rule  that  vowel  in  2nd  and 
3rd  person  sing,  of  the  present  indie,  as  in  B  above.  Laufen  and  saufen  are 
the  only  verbs  in  au  that  mutate  here.  Kommen  to  come  sometimes  mutates. 
For  cause  of  mutation  see  197.  C.  a. 

Note.     In  S.G.  mutation  is  often  suppressed  iiere:    du  schläfst,  er  schlaft  for  du  schläfst,  er  schläft. 

b.  Those  that  have  an  e  in  the  stem  change  it  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  person 
sing,  of  the  present  indie,  to  i,  if  it  stands  before  two  or  more  consonants,  and 
to  ie,  if  it  stands  before  one  consonant  or  silent  h:  ich  treffe  /  hit,  du  triffst, 
er  trifft,  but  ich  lese  /  read,  du  liesest,  er  liest,  and  ich  befehle  /  command,  du 
befiehlst,  er  befiehlt.  Where  the  stem  vowel  is  short,  as  in  the  first  example, 
there  are  few  exceptions,  but  where  it  is  long,  as  in  the  second  and  third  examples, 
the  exceptions  are  more  numerous  than  the  verbs  that  conform  to  the  rule. 
All  exceptions  are  given  in  d  below.  For  explanation  of  the  change  of  vowel 
here  in  the  sing,  see  26.  C,  197.  C.  b,  201.  /. 

Erlöschen  to  become  extinguished,  go  out  changes  ö  to  i:  du  erlischest,  er 
erlischt.     Gebären  to  give  birth  to  changes  ä  to  ie:  du  gebierst,  sie  gebiert. 

Note.  In  earlier  period?;  i  was  also  found  in  the  first  person  sing.,  and  this  old  form  survives  in  S.G.  dialect:  Ich 
vergiß'  ihr  alles  —sie  vergißt  mir  nix  (Ebner-Esclienbach's  Glaubenslos,  chap.  i). 

c.  The  imperative  of  the  class  that  changes  e  to  i  or  ie  in  the  2nd  and  3rd 
pers.  sing,  of  the  present  indie,  also  has  in  the  2nd  pers.  (never  in  the  3rd  pers. 
as  it  is  in  fact  a  subjunctive  form)  sing.,  except  in  case  of  werden  to  become,  the 
same  change  of  vowel,  but  does  not  have  a  personal  ending:  triff,  gib,  befiehl, 
but  werde.  The  exclamatory  imperative  siehe!  behold!  look!  (from  sehen) 
deviates  often  from  the  rule,  in  that  it  not  only  has  change  of  vowel  but  also 
after  the  analogy  of  the  wk.  imperative  may  take  the  personal  ending  e. 

The  imperative  of  all  strong  verbs  not  having  an  interchange  of  e  to  i  or  ie 
in  the  2nd  person  either  remains  without  an  ending  in  the  2nd  sing,  according 
to  long  established  usage,  or  takes  an  e  after  the  analogy  of  wk.  verbs:  fahr  or 
fahre  drive,  sing  or  singe. 

The  imperative  is  often  replaced  by  other  forms  just  as  in  the  wk.  verb. 
See  I.  B  above. 

d.  The  following  exceptions  occur  to  the  rules  given  in  b  and  c  above:  (1)  In 
the  2nd  and  3rd  sing.  pres.  indie,  and  the  sing,  imper.  geben  to  give  changes 
long  e  to  long  or  short  i,  nehmen  to  take  and  treten  to  step  change  long  e  to 
short  i  and  also  double  the  final  consonant  of  the  stem :  ich  gebe,  du  gibst,  er 
gibt,  gib;  ich  nehme,  du  nimmst,  er  nimmt,  nimm;  ich  trete,  du  trittst,  er 
tritt,  tritt.  (2)  Bewegen,  gehen,  genesen,  heben,  pflegen,  stecken,  stehen, 
weben,  and  usually  melken  and  scheren,  do  not  suffer  an  interchange  of  vowel 
at  all  in  the  present  tense  of  either  the  indie,  or  imper.  Now  and  then  in  loose 
colloquial  speech  other  verbs  show  no  interchange  in  the  present:  ich  schelte, 
du  schiltst  or  scheltest,  imper.  schilt  or  schelt(e).  „Jetzt  komm,"  lächelte 
sie,  schon  wieder  zuversichtlich  ihn  an  der  Hand  fortziehend, —  ,,und  scheit 


254     THE  SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  HABEN,  SEIN,  WERDEN      177.  II.  D.  d. 


halt  noch  einmal,  wenn  ich  es  nicht  recht  gemacht  hab'"  (Berlepsch's  Fortunais 
Roman,  p.  18).  In  the  language  of  the  common  people  this  tendency  to  level 
out  the  irregularities  of  form  and  become  regular  is  much  stronger  than  in  the 
literary  language. 

e.  The  subjunctive  never  shows  interchange  of  vowel  in  the  present  tense  but 
in  the  past  tense  regularly  suffers  mutation  where  the  vowel  is  capable  of  it  and 
sometimes  as  in  case  of  hülfe  has  a  vowel  different  from  that  of  the  indicative, 
as  explained  in  200,  2.  Division,  a.  and  3.  Division,  also  in  201.  h. 

f.  All  strong  verbs  not  described  in  a  and  b  follow  the  inflection  of  singen 
in  pres.  tense  indie. 

g.  Mixed  Past  Tense.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  past  tense  indie,  of  strong  verbs  often  added  an 
e  in  the  1st  and  3rd  person  sing.,  after  the  analogy  of  weak  verbs:  Dct.  Faustus  name  (for  nahm) 
jm  (for  ihm  =  sich)  wiederumb  ein  Gespräch  für  (for  vor)  mit  seinem  Geist  zu  halten  (Historia 
von  D.  Johann  Fausten,  1587).  The  oldest  examples  of  this  usage  go  back  to  the 
eleventh  centur^^  It  reached  its  widest  boundaries  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
We  find  these  forms  only  rarely  in  the  classical  period:  ich  litte  (Lessing's  Nathan,  3,  8,  14th 
line).  Es  flöhe  Freund  und  Feind  (Goethe's  Götz,  'S,  13).  To-day  wurde  (for  older  ward)  is 
the  only  surviving  form  of  this  mixed  past  tense. 

III.     The  simple  forms  of  the  irregular  verbs  haben,  sein,  werden: 


a.    haben  to  have. 


Present. 


Past. 


Indie. 

ich  habe 
du  hast 
er  hat 
wir  haben 
ihr  habt 
sie  haben 


Subj. 

habe 

habest 

habe 

haben 

habet 

haben 


Indic. 

hätte 

hättest 

hätte 

hätten 

hättet 

hätten 


Subj. 

hätte 

hätt(e)st 

hätte 

hätten 

hättet 

hätten 


b.    sein  to  be. 
Present.  Past. 

Indic.  Subj.  Indic.  Subj. 

bin       sei  war  wäre 

bist      sei  (e)  st  warst  war  (e)  st 

ist        sei  war  wäre 

sind      seien  waren  wären 

seid      seiet  wart  wär(e)t 

sind     seien  waren  wären 


Imperative. 

Sing. 

1st   habe  ich 

2nd  habe,  haben  Sie 

3rd  er  habe 

Plur. 

1st  haben  wir 

2nd  habt,  haben  Sie 

3rd  sie  sollen  haben 


Infinitive. 

Pres,  (zu)  haben 
(185.  A  &  B) 

Participles. 

Pres,  habend 
Perf.  ge'häbt 


Imperative. 

Sing. 

1st   sei  ich 

2nd  sei,  seien  Sie 

3rd  er  sei 

Plur. 

1st   seien  wir 
2nd  seid,  seien  Sie 
3rd  sie  sollen  sein 


Infinitive. 

Pres,  (zu)  sein 
(185.  A  &B) 

Participles. 


Pres,  seiend 
Perf.  ge'wesen 


The  Modal  Verbais. 


zu  haben  (predicate  form) 


der  (,  die,  das)  zu  habende  (attributive) 


Note.  Instead  of  the  usual  subjunctive  present  singular  of  sein,  we  occasionally  find  the  forms  ich  seie,  du  seiest, 
er  seie:    Da  meint  er,  es  seie  die  Burg  schon  genommen  (Uhland's  Graf  Eberstein). 

Earlier  in  the  period  the  perfect  participle  gewest  wasoiften  used  instead  of  gewesen  by  Middle  German  writers,  as 
Luther,  &c.  and  it  still  survives  in  popular  speech. 

Instead  of  the  2nd  pers.  sing,  imperative  sei  the  old  form  bis  (from  the  same  stem  as  bist)  is  still  found  in  many  dia- 
lects, especially  in  the  Midland  and  Switzerland. 

In  early  N.H.G.  instead  of  the  past  indic.  sing,  war  the  older  form  was  was  used.  Luther  employed  it  in  his  earlier 
writings. 

c.    werden  to  become. 


Present. 


Past. 


Indic. 

Subj. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

Imperative 

ich  werde 

werde 

ward  or  würde 

würde 

werde  ich 

du  wirst 

werdest 

wardst  or  würdest 

würdest 

werde 

er  wird 

werde 

ward  or  würde 

würde 

er  werde 

wir  werden 

werden 

würden 

würden 

werden  wir 

ihr  werdet 

werdet 

würdet 

würdet 

werdet,  werden  Sie 

sie  werden 

werden 

würden 

würden 

sie  sollen  werden 

Infinitive. 
Pres,  (zu)  werden  (185.  A  and  B) 


Participles. 
Pres,  werdend 
Perf.  (ge) 'worden  (178.  2. 


C.) 


178.  \.^.d.   REMARKS  ON  THE  SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB    255 

Note.  Wurde  is  the  more  common  form  in  ordinary  prose,  ward  is  a  favorite  in  poetry  and  choice  prose.  The 
plural  forms  worden  and  warden  occur  earlier  in  the  period:  sie  worden  (Luther).  Die  Lander  ...  warden  Euch 
durch  Margaretens  Hand  (Grillparzer's  König  Ollokar,  1). 

178.     General  Remarks  respecting  the  Simple  Forms  of  the  Verb. 

1.  Sometimes  in  adding  the  various  endings  to  the  stem,  sounds  are  brought 
together  that  are  difficult  to  pronounce,  in  which  case  an  e  is  placed  between 
stem  and  ending  to  facilitate  the  pronunciation:  zeichnen  to  sketch,  draw, 
du  zeichnest  not  zeichnst;  es  regnet  (not  regnt)  it  is  raining,  &c.  This  e, 
once  a  vital  part  of  the  word,  has  so  lost  its  original  force  that  it  can  thus  be 
used  to  facilitate  the  pronunciation  and  dropped  when  it  is  not  needed.  It  is  also 
sometimes  retained  to  distinguish  the  different  inflectional  forms  more  clearly 
from  each  other,  as  for  instance  the  subjunctive  from  the  indie.  It  is  thus 
to-day  sometimes  a  mere  connecting,  sometimes  an  inflectional  vowel,  and  hence 
is  used  or  dropped  according  to  the  requirements  of  euphony  or  grammatical 
clearness.    A  brief  outline  of  its  present  use  is  as  follows: 

A.     The  connecting  vowel  is  usually  retained  in  the  following  cases: 

a.  If  the  stem  ends  in  single  m  or  n  preceded  by  a  consonant  other  than 
1  or  r,  the  connecting  vowel  e  always  stands  between  stem  and  ending:  atmen 
to  breathe,  du  atmest;  begegnen  to  meet,  du  begegnest,  er  begegnete,  &c., 
but  hemmen  to  retain,  check,  du  hemmst;  qualmen,  du  qualmst;  lernen, 
du  lernst,  &c. 

Note.  These  stems  ending  in  single  m  or  n  preceded  by  a  consonant  other  than  1  or  r  are  derived  from  nouns  or 
other  parts  of  speech  in  -em  or  -en.  In  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  the  e  of  the  suffixes  -em  and  -en  is  suppressed 
in  harmony  with  the  contraction  of  adjectives  ending  in  -en  fsee  110):  der  Atem,  des  Atems,  but  atmen;  der  Regen, 
des  Regens,  but  regnen.  In  colloquial  speech,  however,  the  connecting  vowel  e  is  often  suppressed  in  the  verbal 
forms:  segent  or  segnt,  ebent  or  ebnt.  Traces  of  this  usage  occur  in  the  written  language:  Meine  Liebe  tat  zu  viel 
für  dich;  rechen's  ihr  nicht  zum  Fehler  an  (Goethe's  Götz,  1771,  Adelheidens  Vor.nmmer).  Nun  kommt  das 
Schlimmste  noch;  es  regent  (Heine).  In  early  N.H.G.  this  usage  is  quite  common:  Das  es  regent  auffs  Land  (Job 
xxxviii.  26).  In  careless  pronunciation  the  n  is  also  often  assimilated  to  the  preceding  consonant:  ebmt  instead  of 
ebnt.    See  41.  4. 

h.  When  stems  ending  in  d  or  t  would  stand  before  the  ending  t  (and  often 
before  st),  the  connecting  vowel  is  usually  placed  between  stem  and  ending, 
except  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing,  present  tense  of  those  verbs  having  a 
modification  of  vowel  or  interchange  from  e  to  i  or  ie,  which  latter  classes  never 
take  the  connecting  vowel  but  the  regular  endings  st,  t,  or  in  case  of  combina- 
tions difficult  to  pronounce  suffer  contraction:  beten  to  pray,  er  betet,  du 
bet(e)st,  du  betetest,  gebetet,  &c.;  but  laden  to  load,  du  lädst,  er  lädt  (le:t); 
halten  to  hold,  du  hältst,  er  hält;  treten  to  step,  du  trittst,  er  tritt;  fechten 
to  fence,  du  fichtst,  er  ficht,  but  in  the  pl.  according  to  rule:  ihr  ladet,  haltet, 
tretet,  fechtet. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.,  and  still  in  the  language  of  the  youthful  Goethe,  contraction  was  here  common,  not  only 
in  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing,  of  the  strong  verbs  above  mentioned,  but  in  all  verbs  in  any  place  where  a  d  or  t 
would  be  followed  by  a  t  in  the  inflectional  ending:  (Goethe's  Urfaust)  angemäst  for  angemästet,  geknät  for  geknetet, 
zugericht  for  zugerichtet.  A  few  adjective  participles  still  remain  as  survivals  of  this  former  usage:  (der)  Beamte 
(for  Beamtete),  beredt,  durchlaucht,  erlaucht,  getrost  (for  getröstet;  see  208.  1.  a).  On  the  other  hand,  in  early 
N.H.G.  verbs  which  have  a  modification  of  vowel  or  interchange  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  present  tense  indicative 
may  sometimes  have  there  either  an  imcontracted  or  a  contracted  form,  as  haltet  (written  in  early  N.H.G.  heltet) 
and  hält,  fliehtet  and  flicht,  while  to-day  only  the  contracted  form  is  here  used  in  prose,  the  older  usage  continuing 
only  in  poetry. 

c.  When  stems  ending  in  a  sibilant,  as  s,  sp,  ss,  ß,  sch,  z,  x,  would  stand 
before  st  the  connecting  vowel  is  inserted  between  stem  and  ending  except  in 
the  2nd  pers.  sing,  present  tense  of  verbs  having  a  modification  of  vowel  or 
interchange  from  e  to  i  or  ie,  which  latter  classes  may  take  the  connecting  vowel 
in  choice  language,  but  in  ordinary  conversation  add  only  the  regular  ending 
st,  or  in  case  of  combinations  difficult  to  pronounce  suffer  contraction:  fischen 
to  fish,  du  fischest;  but  waschen  to  wash,  du  wäschest  or  wäschst;  wachsen 
to  grow,  du  wächsest  or  wächst;  essen  to  eat,  du  issest  or  ißt;  lesen  to  read, 
du  liesest  or  liest.  In  familiar  conversation  contraction  is  also  quite  common 
here  even  when  there  is  no  interchange  of  vowel:  du  paßt,  ließt  instead  of  passest, 
ließest.  The  choice  language  of  our  time,  however,  is  becoming  ever  more 
unfavorable  to  contracted  forms. 

d.  Use  of  e  to  mark  the  Subjunctive.  The  connecting  vowel  e  besides  serving 
to  facilitate  pronunciation  distinguishes  the  subjunctive  from  the  indicative 
in  the  present  and  also  in  the  past  of  the  strong  conjugation,  but  the  indicative 
and  subjunctive  weak  are  identical  in  form  in  the  past  tense,  and  in  the  strong 


256   REMARKS  ON  THE  SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB    178.  l.A.d. 

conjugation  the  e  may  drop  out  of  the  past  subjunctive  where  the  modification 
of  the  vowel  already  distinguishes  the  subjunctive:  du  tust  (indie),  but  du 
tuest  (subj.);  du  gingst  (past  indie,  of  gehen  to  go),  but  du  gingest  (subj.); 
du  gabst  (past  indie,  of  geben  to  give),  but  du  gäb(e)st  (subj.). 

Verbs  the  stems  of  which  end  in  single  m  or  n  preceded  by  a  consonant  other 
than  1  or  r  cannot  distinguish  between  indicative  and  subjunctive  except  in 
the  3rd  pers.  sing.:  ich  atme  (indie),  ich  atme  (subj.);  du  atmest  (indie), 
du  atmest  (subj.);  er  atmet  (indic),  er  atme  (subj.j. 

e.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  connecting  vowel  was  much  more  used  than  at  present,  being  found 
in  many  cases  where  it  is  not  found  at  all  to-day:  Der  Weisen  zunge  machet  die  Lere  lieblich  | 
Der  Narren  mund  speiet  eitel  narrheit  (Prov.  xv.  2).  The  poet  still  often  uses  these  old  forms, 
either  because  old  forms  are  in  general  well  suited  to  a  poetic  style,  or  because  they  here  and 
there  suit  his  measure:  Ich  bin  der  dunkle  Edelstein,  |  aus  tiefem  Schacht  gewühlet:  |  du  aber 
bist  der  Sonnenschein,  |  darin  er  Farben  spielet  (Geibel). 

/.  In  the  Bavarian  dialects  (including  those  in  Austria)  the  past  subjunctive  usually  retains 
the  connecting  vowel  e  and  suppresses  the  personal  ending,  thus  terminating  in  et  or  at  (repre- 
senting O.H.G.  öti,  eti)  in  weak  and  often  in  strong  verbs,  as  the  latter  have  come  under  the 
influence  of  the  former:  Ich  mag  ihn  ja  nicht,  wenn  er  mir  gefallet  ( =  gefiele),  so  saget  ( =  sagte) 
ich  nichts  (Raimund's  Der  VerscJiwender,  2,  1).  I  möcht'  bitt'n,  daß  i  dös  Beschwerdebuch 
allamal  über'n  Sonntag  g'liehn  kriegat'!  (Karl  Ettlinger's  Das  Bcsclnuerdehuch,  p.  Zo).  Also 
with  vowel-gradation:  Wo  nähmet  denn  unser  Herrgott  d'  Finger  her,  wann  er  auf  jeden  ein- 
schichtigen Bauern  deuten  wollt'  (Anzengruber's  Die  Kreuzelschreiber,  2,  3).  These  dialects 
have  no  past  indic.     See  165.  2.  b. 

In  Alemannic  dialect  we  find  the  same  use  of  the  weak  ending  in  the  past  subjunctive  of  strong 
verbs  but  with  the  suppression  of  the  connecting  vowel  e:    ich  kämt  (Gotthelf)  =  ich  käme. 

B.  On  the  other  hand,  instead  of  inserting  an  e  between  stem  and  inflectional 
ending  we  often  in  loose  colloquial  speech  drop  an  e  of  the  latter:  ich  seh  for 
ich  sehe;  dreh  (imper.  2nd  pers.  sing.)  for  drehe,  &c.  The  dropping  of  -e  in 
indicative  forms  is  most  common  here  before  an  enclitic  pronoun,  where  it  is 
often  suppressed  to  avoid  a  hiatus:  Da  hör'  ich,  da  hört'  ich,  &c.  In  general, 
however,  there  is  elsewhere  little  disposition  in  German  to  avoid  a  hiatus. 
Compare  62.  F.  a.     Mutilations  of  any  kind  are  avoided  in  choice  language. 

a.  Verbs  the  stem  of  which  ends  in  -el  and  -er  in  accordance  with  the  old 
law  described  in  62.  C.  Note  always  drop  the  e  of  the  inflectional  ending  before 
n  in  the  indicative  and  infinitive:  wir  wandeln,  &c.  When  e  constitutes  of 
itself  the  inflectional  ending,  it  can  never  be  dropped,  but  the  e  of  the  sufhx 
may  then  be  suppressed  in  its  stead:  (indic.)  ich  liand(e)le;  (imper.)  hand(e)le 
(du);  (subj.)  ich  hand(e)le.  The  full  form  is  now  more  common:  (indic.  and 
subj.)  ich  handele.  In  dialect  and  loose  colloquial  speech  the  ending  is  some- 
times dropped :   ich  handel,  &c. 

b.  The  infinitives  tun  and  sein  are  regularly  without  e,  and  tun  also  in  the 
plural  of  the  pres.  indic,  and  sein  in  the  1st  and  3rd  pers.  sing.  pres.  subj. :  wir  tun, 
&c.;  ich  sei,  du  sei(e)st,  er  sei.  All  verbs,  both  str.  and  wk.,  may  drop  the  e 
of  the  inflectional  ending  en,  when  the  stem  ends  in  a  vowel  or  a  vowel  followed 
by  h;  schreien  or  schrein;  gesehen  or  gesehn.  This  dropping  of  e  is  very 
common  in  ordinary  conversation,  but  is  not  usually  indicated  in  the  written 
language,  the  full  ending  -en  being  there  preferred.  The  poet  marks  clearly 
the  full  or  contracted  form  in  the  orthography,  so  as  to  make  plain  the  metrical 
scheme.  Even  tho  the  e  drops  out,  the  number  of  syllables  in  the  word  is  not 
in  natural  prose  diminished,  as  the  n  assumes  full  syllabic  function:  blühen  = 
bly:n. 

c.  The  imperative  of  the  2nd  pers.  sing,  of  the  weak  conjugation  has  regu- 
larly an  e,  and  the  strong  in  imitation  of  the  weak  often  takes  an  e,  except  those 
that  have  a  change  of  vowel  from  e  to  i  or  ie  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  sing.,  which 
never  take  it  with  the  one  exception  siehe:  beiße  bite  for  beiß;  wasche  wash 
for  wasch;  singe  sing  for  sing;  but  always,  nimm  take,  hilf  help,  gib  give,  &c. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  wk.  imperative  often  drops  its  e  in  the  2nd  sing.,  but 
those  in  -el,  -en,  and  -er,  usually  retain  it:  reich  reach  for  reiche,  but  usually 
läch(e)le,  öffne,  stolp(e)re.  Those  in  -el  and  -er  drop  sometimes  in  colloquial 
language  the  e  of  the  ending  and  retain  the  e  of  the  suffix:  lächel,  stolper.  Those 
in  -en  always  suppress  the  e  of  the  sufiix  and  retain  the  e  of  the  ending:   öffne. 


178.  2.  B.  a.  PERFECT    PARTICIPLE    WITHOUT   GE- 257 

2.     Ge-  does  not  stand  in  the  perf.  participle  of: — ■ 

A.  Those  verbs  that  have  no  accent  upon  the  first  syllable.  For  the  reason 
of  the  absence  of  ge-  here  see  246.  II.  4.  a.     Such  verbs  are: 

a.  Those  that  have  the  following  prefixes:  be,  ent  (emp  before  f:  empfehlen), 
er,  ge,  miß  (usually;  see  246.  II.  8.  B ),  ver,  wider,  zer;  and  the  following  when 
unaccented:  durch,  hinter,  über,  um,  unter,  voll,  wieder:  verletzt  injured, 
be'schädigt  damaged,  über'setzt  translated,  but  'übergesetzt  transported  across, 
&c.  Also  when  such  verbs  enter  into  other  compounds:  'aner'kannt,  'ab- 
ver'dient. 

Note.  Exceptions  occur  in  words  where  the  prefix  has  been  contracted  and  blended  with  the  verb  so  that  its  force 
as  a  prefbc  is  not  felt:  gefressen  part,  of  fressen  lo  eat  (of  animals),  from  v(e)ressen,  &c. 

b.  Many  foreign  verbs  and  a  few  German  ones: 

(1)  Those  ending  in  'ieren:  stu'diert  studied,  buchsta'biert  spelled,  &c. 
Children  and  uneducated  people,  earlier  in  the  period  also  good  authors,  often 
prefix  ge  here:   gestu'diert. 

(2)  Those  in  'eien:  prophe'zeit  prophesied,  kas'teit  chastised,  mortified,  &c. 
Earlier  in  the  period  ge  is  often  prefixed  here,  and  sometimes  still  in  case  of 
bene'deien  to  bless:  Sie  gebenedeite  unter  den  Frauen  (Spielhagen's  Faustidiis, 
p.  19). 

(3)  A  number  of  other  verbs  which  cannot  be  designated  by  an  outward 
sign:  a'launen  to  alum,  cham'pagnern  to  drink  champagne,  fran'zöseln  to  mix 
French  words  into  one's  speech,  hu'rraen  (also  'hurraen)  to  hurrah,  ka'paunen 
to  capon,  kal'fatern  to  calk,  kar'nüffeln  to  pommel,  kra'keelen  to  kick  up  a 
row,  kre'denzen  to  hand  (a  cup  of  wine  to  someone  to  drink),  ku 'ranzen  to 
drub,  mi'auen  to  mew,  po'saunen  to  trumpet,  sound  forth,  ro'boten  to  do  com- 
pulsory service  for  a  lord,  ru'moren  to  make  a  noise,  rumble,  sal'badern  to 
twaddle,  schar'mützeln  to  skirmish,  schar'wenzeln  or  scher'wenzeln  to  bow 
and  scrape,  be  officious,  schlam'pampen  to  feast,  live  high,  schma'rotzen  to 
sponge  on  others,  spek'takeln  to  make  an  uproar,  sti'bitzen  to  pilfer,  trom'peten 
to  trumpet,  zi'geunern  to  rove  about  like  gypsies,  and  usually  offen'baren  to 
manifest,  reveal,  but  it  is  also  accented  on  the  first  syllable  and  hence  takes 
ge-  in  the  participle  and  usually  so  in  its  special  sense  of  divine  revelation:  ein 
offen'bartes  Geheimnis,  but  Wer  an  keinen  persönlichen  Gott  glaubt,  kann 
sich  zu  keiner  ge'offenbarten  Religion  bekennen  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  142). 
Earlier  in  the  period  usage  fluctuated,  so  that  offen'baren  could  also  be  used 
in  the  sense  of  divine  revelation:  Da  ward  Daniel  solch  verborgen  Ding  durch 
ein  Gesicht  des  nachts  offen'bart  (Dan.  ii.  19).  Usage  is  even  to-day  not 
entirely  fixed. 

In  the  case  of  the  following  compounds  frohlocken  to  rejoice,  liebkosen  to 
caress,  willfahren  to  humor  a  person,  usage  fluctuates  (with  preference  perhaps 
for  first  mentioned  form)  between  ge 'frohlockt  and  froh'lockt,  ge'liebkost 
and  liebgekost,  and  sometimes  lieb'kost,  ge'willfahrt  and  will'fahrt.  Thus 
the  compound  may  be  treated  as  a  simple  verb  taking  accent  on  the  first  syllable 
and  prefixing  ge  in  the  participle,  or  the  first  component  element  of  the  compound 
may  be  treated  as  an  inseparable  prefi.x  taking  no  accent  and  hence  no  ge-  in 
the  participle.     See  also  217.  b. 

For  explanation  of  the  accent  in  German  words  that  take  the  accent  upon 
the  second  element  see  47.  2.  A.  b.  Note. 

In  spite  of  its  accent  the  adj.  participle  gena'turt  (earlier  in  the  period  com- 
mon, now  little  used  except  in  popular  language)  -natiired  prefixes  ge,  after  the 
analog>^  of  geartet:  feiner  gena'turt  als  die  aus  fettem  Ton  geformte  Mensch- 
heit (Musäus). 

B.  Perfect  Participle  with  the  Form  of  an  Infinitive.  The  perfect  participle 
has  the  form  of  an  infinitive  in  case  of  certain  auxiliaries  or  auxiliary-like  verbs, 
when  in  a  compound  tense  they  have  an  infinitive  depending  upon  them. 

a.  When  there  is  a  dependent  infinitive  the  participle  has  the  form  of  the 
infinitive  (for  historical  explanation  see  Note  1):  Er  hat  es  gemußt  He  has  been 
compelled  to,  but  Er  hat  es  tun  müssen  He  has  been  compelled  to  do  it.     These 


258 PERF.    PART.   WITH    FORM    OF   INFIN.         178.2.B.g. 

auxiliaries  comprise  the  following:  dürfen,  können,  mögen,  müssen,  sollen, 
and  wollen;  and  more  or  less  frequently  the  auxiliary-like  verbs  heißen  to  bid, 
helfen  to  help,  hören  to  hear,  lassen  to  let  or  cause,  machen  to  make,  sehen  to  see, 
brauchen  to  need  (to  do  something),  sometimes  fühlen  to  feel,  lernen  to  learn, 
and  rarely  lehren  to  teach,  vermögen  to  be  able,  and  wissen  to  know,  all  eighteen 
of  which  except  brauchen  (185.  B.  I.  2.  a),  vermögen  (see  example  below), 
and  wissen  (212.  2.  c)  take  an  infinitive  depending  upon  them  without  zu: 
Ich  habe  es  gekonnt  /  have  been  able,  but  Ich  habe  es  tun  können  /  have  been  able 
to  do  it.  Wie  viel  traute  Stunden  hatte  mir  der  alte  Bursche  bereiten  helfen! 
(Paul  Keller's  Waldivintcr,  xxi).  Man  fühlte  aus  den  Redewendungen  heraus, 
daß  die  Zeit  doch  ihr  Werk  getan,  daß  neue  Eindrücke  die  alten  verwischt, 
neue  Gesichter  die  Erinnerung  an  die  alten  hatten  verblassen  machen 
(G.  Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  ii).  Ich  hätte  mich  bloß  nicht  einzumischen 
brauchen  (or  einmischen  brauchen,  or  less  commonly,  but  more  correctly 
einzumischen  gebraucht)  /  simply  had  no  need  of  mixing  myself  up  in  the 
matter.  Wir  hätten  diese  Schuld  auch  dann  noch  auf  uns  lasten  fühlen  (Wust- 
mann's  Sprachdummheiten,  p.  60,  3rd  ed.) — now  more  commonly  lasten  gefühlt. 
Hier  tritt  die  Judith  wieder  ein  .  .  .  die  den  Teufel  hat  zähmen  lernen  (G.  Keller 
an  T.  Storm,  June  25,  1878) — now  more  commonly  zähmen  gelernt  [hat]. 
Sie  hat  die  Verhältnisse  vorher  nicht  zu  übersehen  vermögen  (Ida  Boy-Ed's 
Fast  ein  Adler,  YII) — usually  zu  übersehen  vermocht. 

Note  1.  Historical  Development  and  Present  Tendencies.  This  construction  originated  in  the  thirteenth  century 
in  such  sentences  as  Ich  habe  ihn  lassen  kommen.  Here  lassen  is  an  old  perfect  participle,  which  at  this  time  was 
regularly  without  ge-,  hence  was  identical  in  form  with  the  infinitive,  so  that  the  group  seemed  to  consist  of  two  in- 
finitives. As  the  relation  between  the  two  members  of  this  infinitive  group  is  as  close  as  between  the  components 
of  a  compound  the  two  members  of  the  group  were  early  felt  as  a  compound  verbal  element  and  became  fixed  and 
rigid  in  this  form — -the  form  of  two  infinitives,  altho  the  governing  word  was  in  fact  a  perfect  participle.  The  two- 
infinitive  form  was  also  common  elsewhere,  as  in  Er  will  ihn  lassen  kommen,  and  helped  fLx  this  form  here.  Thus 
it  early  became  usual  in  all  close  groups  consisting  of  an  infinitive  and  a  governing  verbal  to  give  the  governing  word 
the  form  of  an  infinitive  whether  it  performed  the  function  of  an  infinitive  or  participle.  This  usage  spread  early 
to  tun,  hören,  heißen,  helfen,  later  to  the  modal  auxiliaries  müssen,  &c..  anfangen,  bitten,  brauchen,  fühlen,  machen, 
lehren,  lernen,  pflegen,  suchen,  türren  or  thüren  (212.  2./.  (2) ),  vermögen,  and  wissen,  whenever  they  had  a  simple 
infinitive  dependent  upon  them:  Von  einem  han  (  =  habe)  ich  hoeren  sagen  (Biterolf,  7746,  thirteenth  century). 
Of  these  verbs  anfangen,  bitten,  pflegen,  suchen,  and  tun  have  abandoned  the  construction  entirely.  There  is  at  pres- 
ent a  growing  tendency  for  other  of  these  verbs  to  discard  this  peculiar  participial  form  and  use  the  form  they  have 
when  there  is  no  dependent  infinitive,  usually  so  in  case  of  fühlen,  lehren,  lernen,  wissen,  and  for  the  most  part  ver- 
mögen, quite  often  in  case  of  brauchen,  helfen,  lassen  {Note  3),  machen,  and  with  great  frequency  in  case  of  hören 
and  sehen.  The  modal  auxiliaries  hold  most  tenaciously  to  the  old  construction,  but  the  true  participial  form  seems 
also  here  to  be  gaining  ground.  Two  forces  are  at  present  active  and  have  long  been  active  in  spreading  the  true 
form.  Firstly,  the  strong  ever  growing  general  tendency  to  place  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the 
subordinate  clause  asserts  itself  also  here,  often  in  colloquial  speech,  less  frequently  in  the  literary  language,  which 
ot  course  makes  it  necessary  to  use  the  true  participle,  as  the  auxiliary  haben  cannot  stand  after  a  simple  infinitive: 
Überdies  ist  jener  Beruf  (i.e.  photography)  ein  Sammler  und  rettender  Einfänger  von  vielen  Geistern,  die  einstmals 
höher  fliegen  gewollt  hätten  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Haindlkinder,  p.  12S).  The  auxiliary  here  as  elsewhere  is  some- 
times suppressed:  Wenn  er  doch  sterben  gedurft!  (G.  Ompteda).  Secondly,  in  the  principal  proposition  the  de- 
pendent infinitive  is  often  for  emphasis  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  so  that  the  participle  at  the  end,  no 
longer  felt  as  standing  as  a  fixed  element  in  a  group  formation,  often  assumes  its  true  form:  Essen  hab'  ich  nicht 
viel  gemocht  (Schulze-Smidt).  From  these  two  categories  the  true  participial  form  spreads  to  others:  Wir  hatten 
es  ja  nicht  besser  haben  gewollt  (Raabe). 

The  infinitive  is  usually  employed  when  the  dependent  infinitive  has  passive  form,  but  the  true  participle  is  some- 
times found  here:  Es  ist  überraschend,  mit  welchem  Erfolg  der  Grundsatz  hat  durchgeführt  werden  können  (  Hamb. 
ISiaclir.,  June  3,  1905).  Den  S-gefügen,  die  Beiheft  I,  Seite  5  als  in  Westfalen  üblich  aufgeführt  worden  sind,  hätten 
noch  Werksführer,  Werksbesitzer  usw.  zugeführt  werden  gekonnt  (Professor  M.  Trautmann  in  Wissenschaflliclie 
Beihefte,  No.  3,  p.  133). 

Note  2.  Lehren,  lernen,  helfen,  and  heißen  may  also  require  a  zu  before  the  dependent  infinitive,  as  described 
in  185.  B.  I.  2.  c.  Note.  In  this  case  their  participles  usually  take  the  regular  participial  form  with  ge-  instead  of 
that  of  the  infinitive:  Früh  schon  hatten  sie  sich  kennen  lernen  (or  more  commonly  gelernt),  but  Er  hat  sich  zu 
beherrschen  gelernt  and  Du  hast  gelernt,  den  Mund  verschlossen  zu  halten.  Brauchen,  however,  quite  commonly 
takes  the  infinitive  form  instead  of  the  participial,  whether  the  dependent  infinitive  has  a  zu  or  is  without  it.  See 
example  in  a.  Sometimes  heißen:  Jesus  hat  die  Armut  und  das  Elend  nie  und  nirgends  konservieren  wollen,  sondern 
er  hat  sie  bekämpft  und  zu  bekämpfen  heißen  (Harnack's  Das  Wesen  des  Christentums.  Secliste  Vorlesung). 

Note  3.  The  participle  of  lassen  may  assume  participial  form  but  only  in  the  meanings  to  let  go,  slip,  to  allow,  never 
in  its  other  meanings  lo  cause,  to  liave  done,  tk.c.:  Die  Mutter  hat  das  Kind  fallen  lassen  (or  gelassen),  but  Die  Mutter 
hat  das  Kind  taufen  lassen. 

b.  Either  Participle  or  Infinitive.  If  the  verb  is  understood,  both  construc- 
tions are  found:  Wir  haben  nicht  weiter  [gehen]  gekonnt,  or  less  commonly 
können.  The  use  of  the  infinitive  here  is  strictly  confined  to  the  modal  auxil- 
iaries. 

c.  Word-order.  The  participle  which  has  the  form  of  the  infinitive,  usually, 
as  in  Er  hat  arbeiten  müssen,  stands  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  as  this  position 
has  become  functional  and  is  employed  without  regard  to  its  logical  force,  but 
it  may  sometimes  in  colloquial  language  in   accordance  with  older  usage  stand 

.before  the  dependent  infinitive:  Er  hat  müssen  arbeiten.  The  new  word- 
order  Er  hat  arbeiten  müssen  has  resulted  from  the  natural  tendency  to  con- 


180.  A.        PERF.  PART.  WITHOUT  GE-  —  MODAL  VERBALS  259 

form  to  the  peculiar  stress  usually  found  elsewhere  at  the  end  of  the  sentence, 
as  described  in  215.  IL  L  A  (3rd  par.)  and  285.  II.  B.  b  aa,  bb,  cc. 

d.  Form  in  the  Passive.  In  the  passive,  however,  the  past  participle  of  the 
auxiliary  assumes  its  regular  participial  form:  Der  Arzt  wurde  kommen  ge- 
lassen. Es  ist  mir  geheißen  worden,  dies  zu  tun.  The  passive,  however,  is 
only  used  in  case  of  lassen,  lehren,  heißen,  and  machen,  and  even  with  these 
verbs  it  cannot  be  used  if  the  dependent  infinitive  has  passive  force:  not  Die 
Brücke  wurde  bauen  gelassen,  but  Man  ließ  die  Brücke  bauen. 

e.  Infinitive  instead  of  Participle  in  Perfect  Infinitive.  In  the  perfect  in- 
finitive made  up  of  the  perf.  participle  of  the  auxiliary  and  the  infinitive  of 
haben  (as  for  example  gekonnt  haben),  the  participle  of  the  auxiliary  usually 
assumes  the  form  of  the  infinitive,  when  an  infinitive  depends  upon  it,  or  may 
here  sometimes  remain  in  participial  form:  Er  muß  es  so  haben  tun  wollen. 
Du  wirst  ihn  so  haben  sägen  hören.  Ich  freue  mich,  ihn  haben  begrüßen  zu 
dürfen  (Wilmanns's  Deutsche  Grammatik,  III,  p.  163).  Where  the  prepositional 
infinitive  must  be  used  as  in  the  last  example  some  prefer  to  use  the  participle 
in  the  perfect  infinitive  instead  of  the  infinitive,  feeling  that  zu  ought  not  to 
stand  before  a  form  which  is  an  infinitive  in  appearance  only,  in  reality  however 
a  perfect  participle:  Ich  freue  mich,  ihn  begrüßen  gedürft  zu  haben.  The 
"incorrect"  form,  however,  by  reason  of  its  familiar  end  stress  is  the  more 
common  one. 

C.  When  an  auxiliary  and  not  an  independent  verb,  werden  drops  the 
ge-  of  the  past  part. :  Er  ist  gelobt  worden  He  has  been  praised,  but  Er  ist  krank 
geworden  He  has  become  sick.     See  also  E. 

D.  A  few  adj.  participles  without  ge,  survivals  of  a  period  when  the  part. 
had  no  ge,  are  still  found:  rechtschaffen  upright,  lit.  created  right;  trunken 
drunk;  so'tan  (,  i.e.,  so  getan)  such,  lit.  thus  fashioned,  now  rare;  the  following 
participial  compounds,  which,  however,  also  have  a  regular  form  with  ge: 
'altbacken  or  'altgebacken  stale,  'hausbacken  or  'hausgebacken  home-baked, 
home-made,  'neubacken  or  'neugebacken  new-baked,  'frischbacken  or  'frisch- 
gebacken new-baked,  'halbwachsen  or  'halbgewachsen  half-grown,  'neuwaschen 
or  'neugewaschen  newly-washed,  'hausgewebt  or  'haus weben  home-woven, 
and  occasionally  'hausmachen  (for  'hausgemacht)  home-made,  in  analogy  with 
those  in  -backen. 

E.  A  few  participles  without  ge-  are  found  in  early  N.H.G.  and  less  fre- 
quently still  later  in  the  classical  period,  and  even  to-day  in  S.G.  dialect,  espe- 
cially bringen  to  bring,  finden  to  find,  kommen  to  come,  kriegen  to  get,  werden 
(even  when  an  independent  verb) :  Ich  habe  das  Geld  erst  den  19.  Januar 
kriegt  (Goethe).  Often  still  in  case  of  werden  in  poetic  or  archaic  style:  Der 
ist  ein  Welscher  worden  (F.  Dahn's  Ein  Kampf  um  Rom,  I,  1),  For  further 
treatment  and  explanation  see  246.  II.  4.  a.  (especially  towards  the  end)  and 
c.  (2). 

Verbals. 

179.  Those  simple  verb-forms  which  partake  of  the  nature  of  verbs  and 
have  in  addition  the  function  and  inflection  of  adjectives  or  nouns  are  the 
modal  verbals,  the  participles,  and  the  infinitives. 

The  Modal  Verbals. 

180.  There  are  two  modal  verbals,  one  for  the  predicate  and  one  for  the 
attributive  relation. 

A.  Predicate  Modal  Verbal.  The  infinitive  with  zu  assumes  a  peculiar 
modal  force  in  the  predicate,  here  called  the  predicate  modal  verbal.  Tho 
active  in  form,  it  here  has  passive  force  and  expresses  the  necessity,  possibility, 
or  fitness  of  an  action:  Es  ist  viel  zu  tun  There  is  much  that  must  be  done. 
Luft  ist  überall  zu  haben  Air  can  be  had  everywhere.  Das  steht  nicht  zu 
ändern  That  cannot  be  changed.     Der  Schmerz  ist  kaum  zu  ertragen  The  pain 


260 THE   MODAL   \  ERBALS  180.  A. 

can  scarcely  be  borne.     Dieses  Fleisch  ist  nicht  zu  essen  This  meat  is  not  fit 
to  be  eaten.     Er  ist  zu  loben  He  ought  to  be  praised.     Er  ist  hoch  zu  verehren 
He  is  to  be  (should  be)  highly  respected.     Die  Nachricht  ist  vorsichtig  aufzu- 
nehmen The  news  is  to  be  (should  be)  received  with  caution. 
This  construction  is  found  in  the  following  common  cases: 

a.  As  predicate  complement  of  the  intransitives  bleiben  to  remain,  gehen 
to  be  possible,  can,  harren  to  remain,  wait,  sein  to  be,  stehen  (=  sein,  but  not 
so  common)  to  be,  and  sometimes  scheinen  to  seem,  werden  to  become:  Es 
bleibt  abzuwarten  It  remains  to  be  seen.  Wie  wunderlich,  daß  des  einen  Glück 
hienieden  nur  immer  auf  dem  Unglück  eines  anderen  aufzubauen  geht!  (Hans 
Hopfen's  Stellvertreter,  II,  1 ).  Da  war  so  vieles  zu  sehen  There  was  so  much 
there  to  be  seen.  Es  war  nicht  zu  ertragen  It  was  not  to  be  endured.  Von 
diesem  bin  ich  zu  retten  I  can  be  rescued  by  him.  Und  leises  Getön  ward  zu 
hören  (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Sonnenopfer,  III).  In  English  this  passive  construc- 
tion survives  in  only  a  few  expressions:  The  house  is  to  let.  He  is  to  blame. 
Now  usually  passive  form:  He  is  to  be  censured.  The  older  construction, 
however,  is  still  quite  common  where  the  infinitive  is  used  attributively:  the 
man  to  blame,  the  thing  to  do.  The  passive  form  is  also  often  used  here:  a 
question  to  be  lightly  touched  upon.  In  German  the  attributive  phrase  must 
be  rendered  by  a  relative  clause  of  which  the  modal  verbal  is  the  predicate,  or 
the  form  in  B  may  be  employed:  der  Mann,  der  zu  tadeln  wäre;  or  der  zu 
tadelnde  Mann.  Sometimes  the  infinitive  form  of  the  modal  verbal  is  seem- 
ingly employed  in  German  in  the  attributive  relation,  only,  however,  in  the 
position  after  the  noun  as  in  English:  Er  verübte  sonst  noch  eine  ganze  Menge 
Schandtaten,  gar  nicht  aufzuzählen  (Kröger's  Leute  eigener  Art,  p.  117).  Such 
adjective  elements  like  other  adjectives  that  stand  after  a  noun  are  not  felt  in 
German  as  attributive  but  rather  as  predicate  adjectives  that  stand  in  elliptical 
relative  clauses  with  the  subject  and  the  verb  sein  understood.  Hence  they 
are  regular  predicate  modal  verbals,  only  in  a  little  different  form. 

Note  1.  If  the  predicate  verbal  governs  the  gen.  or  dat.,  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is  always  the  impersonal  es, 
expressed  or  understood:  Einem  Einwurfe  ist  hier  noch  vorzukommen  (Lessing)  Tliere  is  here  still  one  objection 
that  must  be  met.     Compare  219.  5.  A  f2nd  par.). 

Nüle  2.  Corresponding  to  the  peculiar  impersonal  passive  described  in  219.  .5.  B.  c,  which  admits  of  an  object, 
is  the  use  of  a  reflexive  object  with  the  predicate  modal  verbal  in  colloquial  language,  a  usage  which  is  much  censured 
by  grammarians,  tho  occasionally  used  by  good  writers:  Doch  ist  sich  darauf  nicht  zu  verlassen,  instead  of  Doch 
kann  man  sich  darauf  nicht  verlassen. 

Note  3.  After  the  verb  sein  this  infinitive  is  used  with  intransitives  and  reflexives  with  the  modal  force  of  the 
modal  verbal  but  with  active  meaning.     See  185.  I.  1.  b.  (2). 

Note  4.  To  bring  out  clearly  the  passive  force  and  the  idea  of  necessity  we  sometimes  find  the  passive  form  of 
the  infinitive  dependent  upon  the  prepositional  infinitive  of  müssen:  Leider  scheint  diese  Hoffnung  endgültig  aufge- 
geben werden  zu  müssen  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Sept.  27,  1907),  instead  of  Leider  scheint  diese  Hoffntmg  end- 
gültig aufzugeben. 

b.  After  geben  in  its  impersonal  forms,  es  gibt  there  is,  es  gab  there  ivas,  &c. : 
Es  gibt  noch  viel  zu  tun  There  is  still  much  to  be  done.  Also  after  the  imper- 
sonal construction  es  fehlt  an:  Dann  fehlt's  ja  nicht  an  mancherlei  zu  tun 
(Grillparzer's  Des  Meeres  und  der  Liebe  Wellen,  1). 

c.  As  objective  predicate,  or  object-complement,  especially  after  finden, 
haben,  and  sehen:  Ich  fand  an  ihr  vieles  auszusetzen  I  found  in  her  a  good 
deal  to  criticise.     See  185.  A.  I.  6  for  fuller  list  of  such  verbs. 

B.  Attributive  Modal  Verbal.  This  form  is  made  up  of  the  present  par- 
ticiple with  zu  prefixed  and  like  the  participle  has  the  declension  of  descriptive 
adjectives.  It  is  a  N.H.G.  formation  created  in  order  to  express  attributively 
the  same  idea  that  had  already  proved  so  convenient  in  its  predicate  form 
(explained  in  A  above).  It  has  therefore  the  same  force  as  the  predicate  modal 
verbal :  der  zu  tadelnde  Schüler  the  pupil  who  is  to  be  censured :  die  zu  fällenden 
Bäume  the  trees  that  are  to  be  cut  down;  ein  von  dir  zu  verbessernder  Fehler 
an  error  that  must  be  corrected  by  you;  diese  leicht  zu  lösende  Aufgabe  this 
task  that  can  easily  be  performed;  ein  leicht  zu  erreichendes  Ziel  a  goal  that 
can  easily  be  reached;  allmählich  zu  leistende  Zahlungen  payments  that  are 
to  be  gradually  met;  ein  nicht  zu  übersehender  Umstand  a  circumstance  that 
ought  not  to  be  overlooked. 

a.  The  attributive  form  is  sometimes  employed  without  modal  force  to  indicate  the  simple 
idea  of  the  future  passive  tense:    sein  im  Jahre  1873  zu  vollendendes  70.  Lebensjahr.     Gram- 


182.  I.A.  g.        FUNCTIONS   OF   PRESENT    PARTICIPLE 261 

marians  usually  demand  that  the  idea  of  futurity  here  should  be  clearly  expressed  by  a  future 
form  with  simple  future  force,  not  by  a  form  which  usually  has  modal  force:  sein  70.  Lebens- 
jahr, das  er  im  Jahre  1873  vollenden  wird. 

b.  The  attributive  modal  verbal  is  avoided  in  case  of  verbs  which  govern  the  gen.  or  dat.: 
instead  of  der  zu  gedenkende  Vorfall  the  ■incident  that  is  to  be  mentioned  we  can  say:  Der  Vorfall 
dessen  man  gedenken  muß;  instead  of  die  zu  gehorchenden  Gesetze  the  laws  which  are  to  be 
obeyed  we  can  say:  Die  Gesetze,  denen  man  gehorchen  muß.  Or  if  the  short  modal  expression 
is  preferred,  the  verb  can  be  changed  and  a  synonym  selected  which  governs  the  ace.  and  thus 
admits  of  this  construction:   Der  zu  erwähnende  Vorfall  and  die  zu  befolgenden  Gesetze. 

c.  Origin  of  the  Attributive  Modal  Verbal.  This  construction  was  originally  a  substitute 
for  a  relative  clause  containing  a  predicate  modal  verbal:  ein  zu  verbessernder  Fehler  instead 
of  ein  Fehler,  der  zu  verbessern  ist.  The  frequent  use  of  zu  with  modal  force  with  the  infinitive 
and  the  occasional  use  of  the  present  participle  with  passive  force,  once  more  common  than  now 
as  illustrated  in  182.  2.  o,  suggested  combining  the  two  forms  in  order  to  create  a  passive  attribu- 
tive form  with  modal  force  corresponding  to  the  predicate  modal  form.  It  began  to  appear 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century  in  olificial  style  and  by  reason  of  its  conciseness  and  preciseness 
gradually  came  into  use  there.     Later  it  slowly  became  established  in  the  literary  language. 

d.  Since  the  attributive  modal  verbal  is  passive  in  force  we  should  not  naturally  expect 
to  find  it  formed  in  intransitive  verbs,  but  it  is  sometimes  used  by  good  authors  with  active 
meaning  and  the  peculiar  modal  force  of  the  modal  verbal:  Die  voranzugehende  Bedingung 
(Hegel)  the  condition  that  must  precede.  This  construction  is  quite  limited  in  German,  but 
the  corresponding  infinitive  form  is  very  common  in  English:  He  is  the  man  to  go  =  Er  ist 
der  Mann,  der  gehen  sollte  (or  müßte). 

This  form  is  sometimes  used  in  German  without  the  modal  idea  of  necessity,  possibility,  or 
fitness:  Daß  man  das  Geschehene  sich  eher  gefallen  läßt,  als  daß  man  in  ein  noch  zu  Geschehen- 
des {something  that  ivill  happen)  einwilligt  (Goethe),  instead  of  als  daß  man  in  etwas  einwilligt, 
was  erst  geschehen  soll.  Heute  verspätete  sich  der  um  10  Uhr  hier  einzutreffende  Zug  {the 
train  due  here  at  10  o'clock)  {Süddeutsche  Zeit.),  instead  of  Heute  verspätete  sich  der  Zug,  der 
um  10  Uhr  hier  eintreffen  sollte.  Tho  limited  in  German  the  attributive  form  is  very  common 
in  English:  The  man  to  arrive  first  was  John  Der  Mann,  der  zuerst  ankam,  war  Johann.  Ger- 
man grammarians  oppose  the  attributive  form  in  both  these  cases  and  demand  that  a  full  clause 
be  used. 

The  Participles. 

181.  Participles  are  so  called  because  they  participate  in  the  nature  of 
both  the  verb  and  of  the  adjective.  They  sometimes  have  the  force  and  con- 
struction of  verbs,  sometimes  a  force  approaching  nearer  that  of  the  adj.,  but 
they  always  have  the  inflection  of  the  adj.,  except  in  their  adverbial  use  (see  a), 
and  also  when  the  adj.  force  is  stronger  than  the  verbal  they  are  compared  like 
adjectives:  Die  Gefahr  ist  drohend,  die  drohende  Gefahr,  eine  treffendere 
Antwort  an  answer  more  to  the  point,  mein  geliebtester  Freund.  For  points 
concerning  comparison  see  115.  4  and  114.  4. 

a.  Both  participles  can  be  used  as  adverbs  and  then  remain  uninflected: 
siedend  heißes  Wasser  boiling  hot  water,  ein  ausgezeichnet  gelehrter  Mann 
a  very  finely  educated  man,  annähernd  approximately,  umgehend  by  return 
mail,  unverhofft  unexpectedly,  &c.  The  present  part,  often  expresses  manner: 
Er  lernt  spielend  He  learns  as  easily  as  if  it  were  play. 

The  Present  Participle. 

182.  The  leading  points  concerning  the  use  of  the  present  part,  are: 
1.     The  present  participle  can  be  used: 

A.  As  an  adjective:  das  singende  Kind,  die  untergehende  Sonne.  Man 
fand  ihn  schlafend  (objective  predicate).  Du  liegst  hier  träumend  (predicate 
appositive). 

a.  The  present  participle  is  not  only  inflected  as  an  adjective,  but  also 
governs  the  same  case,  or  takes  the  same  construction  as  the  verb  from  which 
it  is  formed.  If  the  part,  has  thus  a  complement  or  adverbial  modifiers,  they 
must  stand  before  it:  der  die  Festung  überraschende  Feind  the  enemy  taking 
the  fortress  by  storm,  die  dem  Fremden  gehörenden  Sachen  the  things  belong- 
ing to  the  stranger,  ein  am  Flusse  stehendes  Haus.  Nun  war  Margarete 
ganz  fremd  im  Vaterhause,  allen  ein  Stein  des  Anstoßes,  alle  hassend,  von 
allen  gehaßt.  While  the  reflexive  sich  is  usually  dropped  with  the  perfect 
participle  it  is  now  more  commonly  retained  with  the  present  participle,  altho 


262 FUNCTIONS   OF   PRESENT   PARTICIPLE        182.  1.  A.  a. 

its  omission  here  was  quite  frequent  a  little  earlier  in  the  period:  alle  sich  ein- 
schleichenden Irrtümer.  It  is  now  most  commonly  omitted  when  used  as  a 
predicate  appositive,  especially  as  it  can  often  here  be  interpreted  as  an  adverb: 
Vor  diesem  Hause  hielt  er  wundernd  an  (Schiller's  Tell,  1.  221),  In  the  at- 
tributive relation  it  is  now  usually  only  suppressed  in  a  few  instances  where 
the  adjective  force  of  the  participle  is  very  pronounced:  ein  herablassender 
Herr,  eine  hingebende  Freundschaft,  «See.  Notice  also  that  in  the  attributive 
relation,  as  in  the  first  three  examples,  the  participle  stands  immediately  before 
the  noun,  not  after  it  as  in  English.  The  position  of  the  participle  after  the 
noun  is  rare  in  the  attributive  relation  except  in  the  cases  described  for  the 
adjective  in  104.  2.  B.  a.  The  predicate  appositive,  however,  as  hassend  in 
the  fourth  example,  is  usually  separated  from  the  noun. 

h.  The  pres.  part,  is  not  used  predicatively,  if  the  verbal  element  becomes 
prominent.  Thus  we  do  not  as  in  English  say  Der  Lehrer  ist  lobend,  but  Der 
Lehrer  lobt  The  teacher  is  praising.  But  when  it  is  felt  as  an  adj.  it  can  like 
any  adj.  stand  in  the  predicate:  Dieses  Bild  ist  reizend  This  picture  is  charm- 
ing. Die  Frage  ist  brennend  The  question  is  one  that  is  exciting  interest. 
Der  Beweis  ist  schlagend  The  proof  is  a  striking  one.  Er  ist  noch  immer  leidend 
He  is  still  sickly.  For  the  earlier  use  of  the  present  participle  in  the  predicate 
with  verbal  force  see  190.  1.  G. 

c.  The  English  present  participle  is  here  ofien  replaced  by  other  construc- 
tions in  German :  The  fog  came  pouring  in  at  the  window  Der  Nebel  kam  zum 
Fenster  hereingeströmt.  He  came  running  Er  kam  gelaufen.  I  cannot  go 
on  doing  nothing  Ich  kann  nicht  fortfahren,  nichts  zu  tun. 

B.  Present  Participle  as  Noun.  As  a  noun  to  denote  persons  engaged  at 
the  time  in  question  in  an  action,  duty,  or  occupation,  or  in  case  of  neuter  sub- 
stantives to  denote  the  characteristic  feature  of  an  act,  or  to  represent  some- 
thing as  continuing  or  acting:  der  Redende  the  speaker,  ein  Geschäftsreisender 
a  commercial  traveler,  der  Vorsitzende  the  chairman,  die  Umstehenden  the 
bystanders,  __das  Demütigende  dieses  Auftritts  the  humiliating  nature  of  this 
scene,  das  Überraschende  dieses  Ereignisses  the  surprising  character  of  this 
event,  alles  Seiende  all  that  exists.  Die  Sprache  ist  kein  fertiges,  ruhendes 
Ding,  sondern  etwas  in  jedem  AugenbHcke  Werdendes  und  Vergehendes. 

a.  English  Gerund  and  the  Corresponding  German  Constructions.  Corresponding  to  the 
English  participle  in  -ing,  the  adjective- verbal,  is  a  noun-verbal  in  -ing,  the  gerund.  There  is 
no  such  correspondence  in  German.  The  English  gerund,  which  is  often  a  parallel  of  the  prepo- 
sitional infinitive,  often  however  employed  where  the  infinitive  cannot  be  used,  is  treated  in 
detail  in  268.  4,  269.  3,  270.  3,  271.  I.  c,  272.  C.  g,  272.  D.  c,  275.  c,  276.  D.  b,  278.  b,  279.  d,  280.  dy 
282.  a.  It  corresponds  to  quite  different  constructions  in  German,  as  can  be  seen  below  where 
it  is  treated  in  general  outline  according  to  its  syntactical  function;  (1)  Subject:  Seeing  is  be- 
lieving Sehen  ist  glauben.  The  least  that  should  be  done  is  the  freeing  of  the  teaching  of  law 
from  this  fetter  Das  Geringste  ist,  daß  der  Rechtsunterricht  von  dieser  Fessel  befreit  werde. 
(2)  Predicate:  Seeing  is  believing  Sehen  ist  glauben.  (3)  Non-prepositional  object:  She  stopped 
writing  Sie  hörte  auf  zu  schreiben.  She  finished  writing  Sie  kam  mit  dem  Schreiben  zu  Ende. 
I  like  getting  up  early  Ich  stehe  gem  früh  auf.  I  don't  like  his  coming  here  so  often  Ich  habe 
es  nicht  gem,  daß  er  so  oft  herkommt.  I  don't  like  being  treated  with  pity  and  indulgence 
Ich  will  nicht  geschont  sein.  Object  of  an  adjective:  I  am  tired  of  dancing  Ich  bin  des  Tanzens 
müde.  I  am  afraid  of  their  seeing  it  Ich  fürchte,  daß  sie  es  sehen.  It  is  worth  considering, 
worthy  of  consideration:  Es  ist  dies  wert,  erwogen  zu  werden.  I  am  against  (=  opposed  to) 
your  going  to  his  house  Ich  bin  dagegen,  daß  du  zu  ihm  gehst.  (4)  Prepositional  object:  This 
led  to  my  getting  transferred  to  another  regiment  Dies  führte  dazu,  daß  ich  zu  einem  anderen 
Regiment  versetzt  wiu-de.  A  dandy  prides  himself  upon  being  well-dressed  Ein  Geck  bildet 
sich  etwas  darauf  ein,  daß  er  wohl  gekleidet  ist.  W'e  got  to  talking  "Wir  kamen  ins  Gespräch. 
Who  told  you  of  your  wife's  being  there?  Wer  sagte  Ihnen,  daß  Ihre  Frau  da  war?  Vou  may 
depend  upon  my  doing  it  Sie  körmen  sich  darauf  verlassen,  daß  ich  es  tue.  He  prefers  starving 
to  working  Er  verhungert  lieber,  als  daß  er  arbeitet.  (5)  Attributi\'e  phrase:  The  idea  of  his 
son's  wanting  to  become  a  business  man  pleased  him  Die  Idee,  daß  sein  Sohn  Geschäftsmaim 
werden  wollte,  gefiel  ihm.  I  see  no  reason  for  your  leaving  us  so  soon  Ich  sehe  keinen  Grund 
dazu  (or  dafür),  daß  du  uns  so  bald  schon  verlassen  willst.  I  make  a  point  of  going  myself 
Ich  lege  besonderen  Wert  darauf,  selbst  zu  gehen.  She  adorned  her  room  with  things  of  her 
own  making  Sie  schmückte  ihr  Zimmer  mit  Sachen,  die  sie  selber  gemacht  hatte.  (6)  An  ad- 
verbial element.  Time:  After  saying  this  he  went  away  Nachdem  er  dies  gesagt  hatte,  ging 
sr  fort.  Vou  must  show  me  the  letter  before  your  uncle's  seeing  it  Du  mußt  mir  den  Brief  zeigen, 
bevor  ihn  dein  Onkel  sieht.     Manner:    I  put  my  money  into  my  pocket  without  looking  at  it 


182.  2.  h.      FUNCTION  &  FORCE  OF  PRESENT  PARTICIPLE  263 

Ich  steckte  das  Geld,  ohne  es  zu  besehen,  in  die  Tasche.  Instead  of  helping  us  he  abandoned  us 
Anstatt  uns  zu  helfen,  verließ  er  uns.  Cause:  I  praise  them  for  being  diligent  Ich  lobe  sie  dafür 
(or  darum),  daß  sie  fleißig  sind,  or  Ich  lobe  sie,  weil  sie  fleißig  sind.  Condition:  I  praise  them 
in  case  of  their  being  diligent  Ich  lobe  sie,  werm  (or  im  Falle  daß)  sie  fleißig  sind.  Concession: 
Notwithstanding  his  being  unwell  he  will  accompany  her  Trotzdem  er  unwohl  ist,  will  er  sie 
begleiten.  Means:  By  practising  daily  upon  the  piano  he  became  a  good  player  Dadurch,  daß 
er  sich  täglich  auf  dem  Klavier  übte,  wurde  er  zuletzt  ein  guter  Spieler.  By  working  too  much 
you  will  hurt  your  health  Indem  Sie  zu  viel  arbeiten,  werden  Sie  Ihrer  Gesundheit  schaden. 

One  of  the  marked  differences  between  German  and  English  appears  here.  In  German  there 
is  a  strong  tendency  to  express  modifying  elements  by  the  use  of  a  full  subordinate  clause  with 
a  nominative  subject  and  a  finite  verb  as  predicate,  while  in  English  there  is  a  tendency  to  avoid 
the  use  of  a  finite  verb  by  employing  a  verbal  noun,  especially  the  gerund  or  the  prepositional 
infinitive,  i.e.  English  is  very  fond  of  the  old  attributive  or  appositional  thing  type  of  sentence 
structure  described  in  250.  a  (2nd  par.)  and  268.  4.     Compare  252.  2.  B.  a.  Note  1. 

C.  As  an  adverb.     See  181.  a. 

D.  As  a  prep,  in  case  of  während  (w.  gen.)  during. 

E.  As  an  appositive  to  a  noun  or  pronoun  where  it  with  its  modifiers  is 
equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause:  Dies  hörend  (=  Als  er  dies  hörte),  brach 
er  in  Tränen  aus.     It  is  also  used  absolutely.     See  265.  B. 

Note.  The  use  of  such  participial  clauses  instead  of  complete  subordinate  clauses  is  more  common  in  poetry  than 
in  prose,  but  in  both  prose  and  poetry  is  much  less  common  than  in  English.  In  German  the  participial  construction 
in  its  adverbial  use  can  generally  only  be  used,  as  in  the  example  given  above,  where  the  subject  of  the  participle  is 
also  the  subject  of  the  principal  verb,  but  also  there  only  sparingly.  Only  in  one  case  is  the  adverbial  participial 
construction  quite  common,  namely,  in  place  of  a  clause  of  manner  to  express  manner  proper  or  an  attendant  cir- 
cumstance: Den  ganzen  Tag  arbeitet  er  mit  einem  alten  Diener  im  Garten,  schneidend,  begießend,  pflanzend,  und 
hegend  (H.  Seidcl's  Eine  Sperlingsiieschichle).  ,,Der  Winter  war  zu  lan?  und  streng  für  dich,"  sagte  ihr  Gatte, 
besorgt  auf  ihre  bleichen  Wangen  blickend.  .\  participle  may  also  sometimes  denote  a  cause,  usually,  however,  only 
when  the  cause  of  the  act  is  represented  as  lying  in  the  state  of  the  mind  of  the  subject  of  the  leading  verb,  other- 
wise a  complete  subordinate  clause  must  usually  be  used:  Einen  Sturm  fürchtend,  kehrten  wir  nach  dem  Lande 
{shore)  zurück,  but  Da  ich  keine  Antwort  erhielt,  wußte  ich  nicht,  wie  ich  handeln  sollte.  The  present  participle 
sometimes  denotes  means:  Mich  an  dem  Stricke  festhaltend,  rettete  ich  mich  ans  Ufer.  Sometimes  also  condition: 
Wissend  nur  kann  ich  dir  raten.  Sometimes  also  concession:  Selbst  des  Trostes  ermangelnd,  will  ich  versuchen, 
dir  Trost  zu  bringen.  The  participle  in  the  last  three  sentences  may  also  be  interpreted  as  denoting  manner  or  at- 
tendant circumstance  and  there  is  in  general  a  lack  of  definiteness  in  this  construction,  as  the  idea  of  manner,  means, 
cause,  &c.,  is  never  formally  expressed,  but  is  only  gathered  from  the  context.  Tho  this  indefinite  construction 
was  once  quite  common  in  German  the  present  tendency  is  to  avoid  it  in  accord  with  the  modern  trend  to  give  a 
clearer  expression  to  the  grammatical  relations  of  the  subordinate  clause.  Hence  the  student  would  do  better  to  ren- 
der English  participial  clauses  used  adverbially  by  complete  subordinate  clauses,  as  in  many  instances  the  participial 
construction  cannot  be  used  at  all:  Als  ich  in  Paris  wohnte,  brachte  ich  viele  Zeit  im  Louvre  zu  While  living  in  Paris 
I  spent  much  time  in  the  Louvre.  Bevor  wir  die  Stelle  erreichten,  &c.  Before  reaching  the  spot,  we,  &c.  It  should 
be  especially  noted  that  participial  clauses  of  cause  formed  with  being  or  having  should  be  rendered  by  complete  sub- 
ordinate clauses:  Da  er  noch  nicht  ausgehen  konnte,  mußte  er  zu  Hause  bleiben  Not  being  yet  able  to  walk  out,  he 
had  to  stay  at  home.  Da  ich  nichts  zu  tun  hatte,  ging  ich  ins  Theater  Having  nothing  eise  to  do,  I  went  to  the  theatre. 
The  adverbial  expressions  generally  speaking,  speaking  in  mild  terms,  &c.  'see  265.  B.  a,  2nd  par.)  are  translated  by 
the  perfect  participle:  Mein  Vater  hatte  sich,  allgemein  gesprochen,  unter  voller  Selbstbeherrschung.  See  268.  4. 
Adjective  clauses,  however,  are  very  often  rendered  by  present  participles,  but  then  the  particii)le  must  usually  be 
inflected  and  stand  before  the  noun,  and  not  after  it  as  in  English:  Die  auf  meinem  Pulte  stehende  Flasche  enthält 
Gift  The  bottle  standing  or  which  stands  upon  my  desk  contains  poison.  It  may  also  sometimes  stand  after  the  noun. 
See  104.  2.  B.  a. 

2.  The  pres.  part,  has  as  a  rule  active  force.  When  it  limits  a  noun,  its 
relation  thereto  is  such  that  the  noun  is  conceived  of  as  the  subject  of  the  action 
contained  in  the  part.:  der  blühende  Baum  the  blooming  tree  =  der  Baum 
blüht. 

a.  The  pres.  part.,  however,  has  also  passive  force,  as  seen  in  a  few  set  expressions,  which 
in  our  own  time  are  reduced  in  number  in  comparison  with  former  periods  and  in  general  are 
censured  by  grammarians:  die  melkende  Kuh  the  cow  that  is  milked,  milch  cow;  sein  in  Mythikon 
habendes  Amt  (K.  F.  Aleyer)  the  (pastoral)  charge  in  Mythikon  filled  by  him;  kraft  seines  tra- 
genden Amtes  (Storm's  Söhne  des  Senators,  p.  301)  by  virtue  of  the  office  held  by  him;  für  die 
Bedürfnisse  vmd  etwaigen  Eventualitäten  Ihres  vorhabenden  Ausfluges  (Spielhagen's  Was  will 
das  iverden^,  II,  10),  &c.  We  do  not  commonly  say  to-day  as  formerly  seine  dabei  hegende 
Absicht  the  intention  that  is  cherished  by  him,  die  in  der  Hand  habende  kleine  Orgel  (Goethe), 
the  little  organ  that  is  being  held  in  his  hand,  &c.  Such  common  expressions,  as  der  betreffende 
Umstand  (i.e.  der  diese  Sache  betreffende  Umstand)  the  circumstance  in  question,  referred  to, 
lit.  the  circumstance  relating  to  this  matter,  do  not  belong  here  as  the  participle  is  active  and  transi- 
tive. 

h.  The  noun  in  connection  with  the  pres.  part,  is  not  always  its  subject,  but  is  sometimes 
associated  with  it  in  a  much  freer  way,  to  express  a  close  relationship  between  the  idea  contained 
in  the  noun  and  the  activity  contained  in  the  participle:  eine  schwindelnde  Höhe  a  height  at 
which  one  becomes  dizzy;  eine  wohlschlafende  Nacht  a  night  favorable  to  sleep;  eine  lächelnde 
Antwort;  es  ist  jetzt  zehn,  also  nachtschlafende  Zeit  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap,  xii)  time  for 
everybody  to  be  asleep;  eine  sitzende  Lebensweise  a  sedentary  life;  mit  spielender  Leichtigkeit, 
ein  reißender  Absatz,  eine  stillschweigende  Bedingung,  &c.  This  is  a  productive  construction 
according  to  which  from  time  to  time  new  and  felicitous  expressions  have  been  created,  but  the 
list  is  limited,  and  we  cannot  at  will  form  kindred  expressions,  such  as  eine  zitternde  Kälte  a 
temperature  at  which  one  trembles  with  cold,  (S:c. 


264 FUNCTIONS   OF   PERFECT   PARTICIPLE 182.  3. 

3.  There  is  a  decided  paucity  of  participles  in  German,  there  being  in  the 
active  only  one  form — the  present.  Hence  the  pres.  part,  is  often  used  for  the 
past  and  future  active  as  well  as  for  the  present:  die  vor  kurzem  noch  blühenden 
Blumen  =  die  Blumen,  welche  vor  kurzem  blühten;  die  jetzt  oder  früher  oder 
künftig  lebenden  Menschen  =  die  Menschen,  welche  jetzt  leben,  oder  welche 
gelebt  haben,  oder  leben  werden;    ein  demnächst  erscheinendes  Werk. 

In  a  relative  sense  the  present  participle  expresses  time  contemporaneous 
with  that  of  some  other  action,  and  hence  it  should  express  the  same  time  as 
that  of  the  principal  verb,  but  the  real  lack  of  different  participles  leads  many 
to  use  the  present  participle  also  for  time  preceding  or  following  that  of  the 
main  proposition:  contemporaneous  action:  Siegend  starb  der  Held.  Ante- 
cedent action:  Den  26.  Oktober  von  Zürich  abreisend,  langten  wir  den  6. 
November  in  Nürnberg  an  (Goethe).  Neben  Marie  tretend,  sang  Ada  (Spiel- 
hagen). vSubsequent  action:  Ada  war  in  die  Gesellschaft  zurückgetreten,  den 
Dank  derselben  entgegennehmend  (id.). 

The  Perfect  Participle. 

183.     The  leading  points  concerning  the  use  of  this  participle  are: 
1.     Grammatical  Function.     The  perfect  participle  can  be  used: 

A.  Adjectively:  der  gebrochene  Stab.  Der  Stab  ist  gebrochen  (predicate). 
Man  fand  ihn  eingeschlafen  (objective  predicate).  Er  focht  mit  Wunden 
bedeckt  (predicate  appositive  with  passive  force).  Karl  mußte  ungegessen 
(predicate  appositive  with  active  force;  see  2.  C.  c  below)  zu  Bette  gehen. 
In  the  conjugation  of  verbs:  Er  ist  gekommen  (predicate).  Er  wird  geschlagen 
(predicate).     Ich  habe  den  Brief  geschrieben  (objective  predicate). 

Note.  The  perf.  part,  is  much  more  used  in  German  in  the  predicate  and  appositive  relation  than  it  is  in  English: 
Ich  weiß  wohl,  was  ihr  mögt,  ihr  alten  Böhmen!  1  gekauert  sitzen  in  verjährtem  Wust  (Grillparzer's  König  Ollokar  1 ). 
Es  klang  ohne  irgendwelchen  Spott  gefragt  (Jensen's  Die  Kinder  vom  Oedacker,  I)  Tliere  was  no  trace  of  sarcasm 
in  the  tone  of  the  question.  Allgemein  schießen  die  Leute  (stehend  oder  knieend)  freihändig  besser  als  aufgelegt. 
For  other  examples  see  2.  C.  c  below.  We  often  translate  the  perfect  participle  by  our  present  participle:  Das  Beil 
war  an  den  Block  gelehnt  The  axe  was  leaning  against  the  block. 

B.  Substantively: 

a.  To  denote  persons  or  things  in  a  state  or  condition  produced  by  the 
action  expressed  in  the  verb  (see  2  below):  der  Getötete  the  man  who  was 
killed,  der  Gelehrte  the  scholar,  die  Angeklagte  the  accused  woman,  defendant, 
das  Übertriebene  dieser  Behauptung  the  exaggerated  character  of  this  state- 
ment, das  Geschehene  that  which  has  happened.  Althergebrachtes  time-honored 
customs. 

b.  As  subject,  always  without  inflection,  to  indicate  in  a  general  way  with- 
out definite  reference  a  thing  or  a  person  briefly  characterized  by  the  participle: 
Unversucht  schmeckt  nicht.  Jung  geheiratet  lebt  lang  =  Was  jung  geheiratet 
hat,  lebt  lang.  For  fuller  discussion  see  111.  7.  h.  (2).  This  use  of  the  participle 
differs  from  the  preceding  in  that  the  participle  here  may  have  active  force, 
while  in  a  it  has  passive  force  in  words  formed  from  transitives  and  active  force 
in  words  formed  from  intransitives  conjugated  with  sein.  See  2.  A  below. 
As  can  be  seen  in  the  second  example  the  tense  auxiliary  haben  is  suppressed 
here  as  in  2.  C.  c  and  d  below.  In  older  usage  when  such  expressions  were 
coined  there  was  a  natural  reluctance  to  add  to  a  substantive  a  tense  form 
which  belongs  only  to  a  verb.  As  illustrated  in  2.  B  below  the  verbal  force 
of  the  participle  is  now  felt  so  vividly  that  a  formal  expression  is  often  given 
to  the  idea  of  tense. 

C.  As  adverbs.     See  181.  a. 

D.  As  a  prep,  in  a  few  cases,  as  in  unbeschadet  (w.  gen.  &  dat.)  without 
detriment  to,  ungeachtet  in  spite  of. 

E.  As  an  imperative.     See  177.  I.  B.  d. 

F.  As  an  appositive  to  a  following  or  preceding  noun  or  pronoun  where  it 
with  its  modifiers  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause:  Allzustraff  gespannt 
(^  wenn    er   allzustraff   gespannt   wird),    zerspringt    der    Bogen.      For   other 


183.  2.  B.        GRAMMATICAL  FORCE  OF  PERFECT  PART. 265 

examples  see  271.  II.  6;  275.  c\  276.  A.  a;  276.  B.  a;  278.  b\  279.  d\  280.  d. 
It  is  also  used  absolutely.     See  265.  B. 

G.  Participles  are  often  used  in  lively  narrative  almost  with  the  force  of 
independent  verbs  indicating  past  time,  as  in  animated  speech  the  auxiliaries, 
the  more  formal  elements  of  language,  are  crowded  out  by  the  perfect  participles 
and  their  modifiers  containing  the  important  thought,  which  presses  forward 
for  immediate  expression:  Ich  bitt  euch,  schreibt  nieder:  Als  Soldat  die  Pflicht 
getan.  Im  Tirolerland  gefallen  auf  dem  Felde.  Im  Frieden  gestorben.  Und 
das,  das  schreibt  ihnen  auch :  Einen  guten  Menschen  zur  Seite  gehabt  (Rosegger 
in  Wirt  an  der  Mahr). 

2.  Grammatical  Force.  A.  The  perf.  participle  used  adjectively  and  sub- 
stantively expresses  usually  a  condition  or  state  of  things  resulting  from  previous 
action  but  at  the  time  in  question  finished  and  completed,  and  hence  with  the 
exception  of  the  case  in  1.  B.  6  above  can  only  be  used  (1)  with  transitive  verbs 
with  passive  force,  and  (2)  with  active  force  with  intransitive  verbs  that  are 
conjugated  with  sein  and  represent  a  state  or  condition  resulting  from  previous 
action.  According  to  the  very  nature  of  this  part.,  which  expresses  a  condition, 
it  cannot  be  used  with  intransitive  verbs  which  are  conjugated  with  haben  and 
express  action,  or  with  reflexive  verbs  which  express  action  of  the  subject 
exerted  upon  itself.  Thus  we  can  say:  Der  gelähmte  Fuß  the  foot  that  has 
been  lamed  and  is  now  in  a  lame  condition;  also  der  umgefallene  Baum  the  tree 
which  has  fallen  and  is  still  prostrate,  for  we  say  Der  Baum  ist  umgefallen, 
the  auxiliary  sein  expressing  state;  also  substantively  der  Gesandte  the  am- 
bassador, i.e.  the  one  who  has  been  sent,  Erwachsene  grown  people.  But 
grammarians  maintain  we  should  not  say  (tho  very  many  do)  die  stattgehabte 
Unterredung  the  interview  which  has  taken  place,  for  the  participle  does  not 
represent  a  condition  resulting  from  previous  action,  but  expresses  only  simple 
action. 

B.  The  lack  of  a  perf.  part,  with  active  force  for  transitives  and  those  in- 
transitives that  are  conjugated  with  haben  leads  some  to  use  the  perf.  part, 
(already  described  as  limited  to  passive  use  with  transitives  and  active  use  with 
such  intransitives  as  are  conjugated  with  sein)  with  active  force,  or  more  com- 
monly to  make  a  special  form  by  adding  habend  to  the  perfect  participle:  von 
seiner  mit  den  Jahren  zugenommenen  Herzenskälte  (Gutzkow's  Söhne  Pesta- 
lozzis, 2,  394),  der  schon  stark  gefrühstückte  Kantorssohn  (Fontane's  Unterm 
Birnbaum,  xi).  Wo  es  den  Anschein  hat,  als  wären  solche  (i.e.  Zusammen- 
setzungen) vorhanden,  handelt  es  sich  entweder  um  bloße  Anlehnungen  zweier 
früher  lose  nebeneinander  gestandener  Wörter  wie  teilnehmen  usw.  (Dr.  A. 
Jeitteles  in  Graz  in  ZeitscJirift  für  den  deutschen  Unterricht,  1899,  p.  205).  Er 
gab  sowohl  dem  geprügelten  Lord  als  auch  dem  geprügelt  habenden  Mitglied 
des  Unterhauses  den  Laufpaß,  womit  der  Friede  wiederhergestellt  war  (Baum- 
bach's  Der  Schwiegersohn,  I).  Das  Wärterhäuschen  trug  überall  die  Spuren 
eines  hier  heftig  getobt  habenden  Kampfes  (Liliencron's  Krieg  und  Frieden, 
Das  Wärterhäuschen).  In  case  of  reflexives  and  transitives  the  reflexive 
pronoun  or  substantive  object  is  used  in  connection  with  these  two  participial 
formations:  an  diesem  nach  und  nach  sich  verbreiteten  Geheimnis  (Goethe); 
die  zur  rechten  Zeit  sich  eingestellten  Erfindungen  (Jacob  Grimm);  das  den 
Grafen  befallene  Unglück  (Goethe);  quite  commonly  in  case  of  stattgehabt 
and  stattgefunden:  stattgehabte,  stattgefundene  Festlichkeiten.  An  die  Stelle 
der  sich  überlebt  habenden  historisch-heroischen  Tragödie  (Litzmann's  Das 
deutsche  Drama  in  den  literarischen  Bewegungen  der  Gegenwart,  3rd  ed.,  p.  31), 
ein  sich  seiner  Selbständigkeit  begeben  habender  Stamm  (S.  Hoechstetter  in 
Beilage  zur  Allgemeineri  Zeit.,  April  10,  1906). 

These  formations  have  resulted  from  two  tendencies  which  at  first  operated 
with  united  strength — the  desire  to  bring  out  clearly  the  force  of  the  present 
perfect  tense  active  and  the  general  fondness  for  the  attributive  form  of  state- 
ment, noticeable  also  elsewhere.  The  short  form,  i.e.  the  one  without  habend, 
is  the  older  one.     See  C.  c  below.      In  a  large  number  of  these  short  forms  the 


266 PERFECT    PARTICIPLE   WITH   ACTIVE  FORCE     183.  2.  B. 

attributive  force  has  become  more  prominent  than  the  verbal,  so  that  they 
now  have  merely  the  force  of  adjectives,  as  in  C.  a  and  b  below.  Grammarians 
now  generally  recommend  the  use  of  only  the  words  with  adjective  meaning, 
but  the  two  original  tendencies  described  above  manifest  themselves  still  and 
produce  formations  with  the  force  of  both  an  adjective  and  a  verb,  as  in  the 
examples  given  above.  The  longer  form,  which  now  seems  to  be  more  common, 
is  probably  due  to  the  desire  to  give  more  emphasis  to  the  verbal  idea.  This 
participle  is  a  verbal  adjective  that  has  been  formed  from  the  present  perfect 
tense  of  the  verb.     Compare  C.  c  below. 

C.  There  are,  however,  to  the  rule  as  stated  in  A  above,  the  following  ex- 
ceptions which  have  been  generally  sanctioned  by  good  usage : 

o.  A  number  of  transitive  verbs  and  intransitives  which  are  conjugated  with  haben  have  a 
perfect  participle  with  active  force,  which  can  be  defended,  as  these  participles  are  in  reality  ielt 
as  adjectives  or  adjective-substantives,  since  they  denote  a  quality,  fixed  habit,  or  state:  abge- 
sagt professed,  open  (ein  abgesagter  Feind),  bewandert  versed,  gedient  (ein  gedienter  Soldat, 
der  nicht  gediente  Landsturm  the  landsturm  that  has  not  seen  service)  veteran,  gelernt  by  trade 
(ein  gelernter  Schuhmacher),  Geschworener  juryman,  studiert  well-read,  educated,  trunken 
drunk(en},  verlogen  mendacious,  verschwiegen  taciturn,   &c. 

b.  The  Perfect  Participle  of  Reflexives  Used  Adjectively  with  Active  Force.  K  large  number 
of  reflexives  have  in  adjective  function  an  active  perfect  participle,  unaccompanied,  however,  by 
reflexive  pronoun  and  tense  auxiliary,  as  there  is  a  reluctance  to  express  a  reflexive  object  or  a 
verbal  form  in  connection  with  an  adjective:  altgedient  (altgediente  Soldaten,  allerlei  altge- 
dientes Hausgerät),  ausgesprochen  (ein  ausgesprochener  Feind),  erhitzt,  erkältet,  erklärt 
(ein  erklärter  Liebhaber),  verirrt,  verliebt,  &c.  Thus  we  can  say:  Das  Kind  hat  sich  erkältet 
and  ein  erkältetes  Kind.  Also  Die  Verhältnisse  haben  sich  verändert,  die  veränderten  Ver- 
hältnisse, and  Die  Verhältnisse  sind  verändert.  The  reason  that  a  perfect  participle  here  can 
thus  be  used  as  an  adjective  is  that  the  reflexive  verb  in  German  often  has  the  force  of  an  m- 
gressive  perfective  (164)  intransitive,  so  that  its  perfect  participle  has  the  force  of  an  adjective 
indicating  a  new  state  as  the  result  of  the  verbal  activity.  While  we  can  often  form  an  adjective 
participle  from  a  reflexive  verb  used  as  an  ingressive  perfective  intransitive,  we  should  remember 
that  by  reason  of  its  frequent  ambiguity  this  usage  is  limited,  so  that  often  recourse  must  be 
taken  to  the  much  censured  construction  of  placing  the  reflexive  pronoun  before  the  past  part., 
or  in  choice  language  to  the  formation  of  a  relative  clause  or  some  other  construction:  Der  sich 
zurückgezogene  or  sich  zurückgezogen  habende  Seidenhändler,  or  in  choice  language  Der 
Seidenhändler,  der  sich  zurückgezogen  hat,  or  Der  in  der  Zurückgezogenheit  lebende  Seiden- 
händler. 

c.  The  Perfect  Participle  Used  as  Predicate  Appositive  with  Active  Force.  A  group  of  reflex- 
ive, transitive,  and  intransitive  verbs  form  a  perfect  participle  with  active  meaning  when  it_  is 
used  as  a  predicate  appositive.  This  perf.  part,  as  a  predicate  appositive  has  relations  with 
the  principal  verb,  hence  has  adverbial  force,  i.e.  the  force  of  an  abridged  adverbial  clause,  but 
as  a  predicate  appositive  it  also  has  relations  with  the  subject,  hence  is  also  a  predicate  adjective 
and  as  an  adjective  in  a  few  set  expressions  still  takes  the  negative  un-  (246.  I.  9.  a,  2nd  par.), 
altho  it  usually  on  account  of  its  strong  verbal  force  takes  nicht:  Er  ging  unpräpariert  (lit.  not 
having  prepared  himself)  zur  Schule.  Karl  mußte  ungegessen  (lit.  not  having  eaten)  zu  Bette 
gehen.  Ich  ritt  ungewaschen  und  ungefrühstückt  (lit.  not  having  washed  or  breakfasted)  gegen 
Sedan  (Bismarck).  Er  zündete  sich  ungefragt  (lit.  not  having  asked  permission)  eine  Zigarre 
an  (Riehl).  Er  kommt  gesprungen,  geeilt,  gegangen  (walking),  gefahren.  Er  kam  mit  dem 
Messer  in  der  Hand  herzugelaufen.  Er  kam  mit  einigen  Freunden  auf  den  Markt  geritten. 
Heulend  kam  der  Sturm  geflogen,  The  perfect  participle  here  in  accordance  with  its  origin 
as  a  present  perfect  active  tense  indicates  a  single  act  or  accompanying  circumstance  as  a  whole 
and  hence  differs  markedly  from  the  present  participle  which  indicates  an  act  as  taking  place 
at  the  same  time  as  another  act:  Er  kam  gelaufen  [habend,  indicating  an  act  as  a  whole,  asin 
older  usage  where  in  this  meaning  laufen  was  used  with  haben]  and  Er  lebt  eingezogen  [=  sich 
eingezogen  habend],  but  Er  kam  in  das  Haus  singend,  See  also  1.  A.  Note  above.  The  ac- 
cusative in  connection  with  the  perfect  participle  of  transitives  indicates  clearly  that  the  participle 
was  originally  active:  Dies  vorausgeschickt  [habend],  fahre  ich  in  meiner  Erzählung  fort, 
The  reflexive  object,  however,  is  regularly  omitted  here:  [sich]  zur  Wirtin  gewendet  [ha  jend] 
sagte  sie  usw.  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  8,  p.  39).  The  use  of  the  accusative  object  here, 
as  in  the  next  to  the  last  example,  has  led  to  the  accusative  absolute  construction  described  in 
265.  B.  a,  b.  (1). 

As  can  be  clearly  seen  by  the  last  two  of  these  examples  habend,  the  auxiliary  of  tense,  ii 
suppressed  in  all  these  expressions.  Originally  the  participle  as  an  appositive  was  felt  as  an 
adjective  so  that  there  was  a  reluctance  to  express  the  auxiliary  of  tense,  which  properly  belorigs 
only  to  a  verb.  The  participle,  true  to  its  name,  participates  in  the  nature  of  both  an  adjective 
and  a  verb.  In  the  examples  given  above  the  verbal  nature  is  much  stronger  than  the  adjective 
force  and  thus  habend  ought  to  be  expressed.  In  English  we  regularly  find  the  auxiliary  here: 
Having  finished  this  work  I  went  to  bed.  In  German  as  the  feeling  for  the  verbal  force  here 
became  strong  the  participial  construction  was  expanded  into  a  full  clause  with  subject  and 
predicate:    Nachdem  ich  diese  Arbeit  vollendet  hatte,  ging  ich  zu  Bette.     The  retention  of  the 


184.  h.  TEMPORAL  FORCE  OF  PERFECT  PARTICIPLE 267 

old  participial  construction  here  in  English  along  with  the  new  feature  of  expressing  the  auxiliary 
is  one  of  the  marked  syntactical  peculiarities  of  the  language  as  compared  with  German.  In 
German,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  curious  bit  of  survival  of  the  old  participial  construction 
in  the  expanded  clause,  as  the  auxiliary  of  tense  is  here  still  occasionally  suppressed  as  in  the 
original  participial  construction:  Nachdem  ich  diese  Arbeit  vollendet  [hatte],  ging  ich  zu  Bette, 
or  still  in  older  form:  Diese  Arbeit  vollendet  [habend],  ging  ich  zu  Bette.  Tho  the  participial 
construction  is  still  very  common  in  English  it  is  in  general  confined  in  German  to  use  in  the 
so-called  absolute  construction  and  the  few  set  expressions  given  above.  In  M.H.G.  the  old 
participial  construction  is  still  used  where  modern  German  requires  another  expression:  Her, 
mir  tuot  immer  we,  |  sol  er's  geno^^en  [habende]  scheiden  hin  (Parzival,  290.  9)  Sir,  it  would 
pain  me  much  if  he  should  get  away  unpunished,  lit.  having  enjoyed  it.  Likewise  in  early  N.H.G.: 
[mich]  Dessen  ungeschewet  [habend],  wage  ich  usw.  (Weckherlin,  1,  293,  31),  now  Da  ich 
mich  nicht  davor  (replacing  older  dessen)  scheue,  wage  ich  usw.     Compare  with  d  (last  par.). 

d.  Use  of  the  Perfect  Participle  with  Intransitives.  A  perfect  participle  cannot  be  formed 
from  all  intransitive  verbs  that  are  conjugated  with  sein,  but  only  from  mutative  perfectives 
(191.  I.  4,  2nd  par.),  i.e.  those  in  which  a  condition  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  verb  is  ex- 
pressed, or  the  final  point  or  the  beginning  of  an  activity  is  indicated.  Thus  we  can  say  ein 
entlaufener  Sklave  an  escaped  slave,  because  the  slave  has  changed  his  condition  by  escaping 
from  bondage,  but  we  cannot  say  ein  gelaufener  Sklave,  altho  we  say  Der  Sklave  ist  gelaufen 
The  slave  has  run,  because  there  is  no  change  of  state  resulting  from  the  action. 

Thus  also  to  indicate  the  final  point  or  the  beginning  of  an  activity  we  can  say:  die  eben  an- 
gekommenen Gäste,  der  vor  einigen  Minuten  abgegangene  Zug.  Usage,  however,  is  capricious 
here  and  the  student  should  be  on  his  guard,  as  the  participle  cannot  be  freely  used  according 
to  rule:  Die  vorhergegangenen  Ereignisse,  but  not  die  nachgefolgten  Ereignisse;  der  ihm 
zugestoßene  Unfall,  but  not  commonly  der  ihm  begegnete  Unfall.  We  must  often  use  a  full 
clause  instead  of  the  participle  or  employ  another  construction:  die  Ereignisse,  welche  nach- 
gefolgt sind,  or  die  nachfolgenden  Ereignisse;  der  Unfall,  der  ihm  begegnet  ist.  In  general, 
however,  the  simple  participle  is  much  more  freely  used  in  German  than  in  English;  ein  auf  den 
Baum  gestiegener  Knabe  a  boy  who  had  climbed  up  the  tree.  In  English  the  participle  can 
often  not  be  used,  as  it  would  be  construed  as  a  past  indicative:  tlie  apples  just  fallen  from  the  tree, 
but  not  the  boys  just  jumped  down  from  the  tree,  where  we  mean  the  boys  who  have  just  jumped 
down  from  the  tree. 

The  simple  perfect  participle  of  mutative  perfectives  is  freely  used  in  the  predicate  appositive 
relation,  where  the  participle  along  with  the  words  which  accompany  it  has  the  force  of  an 
abridged  adverbial  clause:  Einer  Gefahr  kaum  entronnen,  stand  er  nun  vor  einer  noch  größeren 
Having  scarcely  escaped  one  danger  he  now  stood  before  a  greater  one  =  Nachdem  er  einer 
Gefahr  kaum  entronnen  war,  stand  er  usw.  Und  nun  sang  Asmus,  kühner  geworden:  „Horch 
auf  den  Klang  der  Zither"  (O.  Ernst's  Semper  der  Jüngling,  p.  52)  And  now  Asmus,  having 
become  bolder,  sang  &c.  In  modern  German  as  in  the  oldest  period  of  the  language  the  perfect 
participle  is  here  as  in  c  treated  as  an  adjective  in  accordance  with  its  adjective  function  as 
predicate  appositive  altho  it  has  strong  verbal  force.  In  English  the  feeling  for  the  verbal  force 
here  has  led  to  the  use  of  the  auxiliary  having  to  give  clear  expression  to  the  idea  of  tense.  In 
German  this  idea  can  be  clearly  expressed  only  by  expanding  the  words  into  a  full  clause  with 
subject  and  predicate  as  illustrated  above.  A  curious  bit  of  survival  of  the  old  participial  con- 
struction is  sometimes  still  found  in  the  full  clause  in  that  the  tense  auxiliary  is  sometimes  sup- 
pressed as  in  the  abridged  participial  construction:  Nachdem  er  einer  Gefahr  katun  entronnen 
[war],  stand  er  usw. 

3.  Temporal  Relations.  The  past  part,  does  not  necessarily  imply  past 
time,  but  also  often  present  or  future  time,  as  there  is  no  other  participial  form 
with  passive  force.  It  refers  to  the  past  when  the  context  points  to  the  past, 
as  in  Der  am  15.  ds.  (dieses  Monats)  eröffnete  Ausverkauf  wird  noch  bis  Ende 
des  Monats  fortgesetzt,  but  it  also  refers  very  often  to  an  action  that  continues 
in  present  time:  mein  verehrter  Freund,  die  geliebte  Mutter,  &c.  Thus  also 
Er  ist  bemüht,  bestrebt,  &c.  See  also  184.  e.  Future  time:  Das  Gericht 
wollte  sich  auch  nicht  so  ohne  weiteres  mit  einer  vielleicht  nachher  getadelten 
Arbeit  belasten  (Immermann's  Alünchhaiisefi,  2,  321). 

184.  On  account  of  the  paucity  of  participles  attempts  are  being  made  to 
form  additional  ones  to  supply  the  deficiency.  The  following  will  serve  as 
examples  of  such,  most  of  which  are  not  yet  generally  accepted: 

a.  A  present  passive,  formed  with  the  perf.  part,  of  the  verb  and  the  present 
part,  of  werden:  Der  gehofft  werdende  Sprößling  the  offspring  that  is  being 
expected.  Es  gibt  solche  Menschen  in  der  Reihe  der  geboren  wordenen  und 
werdenden  (Rahel,  2,  6). 

b.  A  future  passive  formed  with  the  present  passive  infinitive  of  the  verb 
and  the  pres.  part,  of  werden:  die  in  acht  Tagen  begangen  werden  werdende 
Festfeier  the  celebration  that  will  be  celebrated  in  a  week.     This  construction 


268 THE    INFINITIVE 184.  h. 

is  mentioned  by  Keller  in  his  Antiharhanis ,  p.  66,  but  the  author  of  the  present 
work  has  not  found  it  elsewhere. 

c.  A  perf.  part,  with  active  force.     See  183,  2.  B. 

d.  It  is  now  common  to  use  a  perfect  participle  of  the  statal  passive  (194.  4), 
a  participial  expression  made  up  of  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  and  gewesen, 
which  latter  form  indicates  that  the  state  or  condition  expressed  by  the  participle 
of  the  verb  existed  in  past  time:  der  in  jüngeren  Jahren  vielbegehrt  gewesene 
Arzt  the  physician  who  in  younger  years  was  much  sought  after. 

e.  Usually  the  perf.  passive  has  but  one  participial  form  (gelobt),  and  cannot 
show  here  the  shades  expressed  by  the  two  forms  (the  actional  and  the  statal 
passive;  see  194.  1.  A.  &  4)  of  the  indicative.  To  emphasize,  however,  the 
idea  of  a  state  or  condition  of  things  in  past  time  the  statal  passive  form  in  d 
above  is  often  used.  Since  the  usual  perfect  participle  is  not  only  used  for 
past  time,  but  also  for  present  time,  as  in  das  von  mir  bewohnte  Haus  ( =  das 
Haus,  das  von  mir  bewohnt  wird),  ambiguity  may  arise:  die  von  dem  ver- 
storbnen Rentier  Seh.  bewohnte  Wohnung  ist  zu  Ostern  anderweit  zu  ver- 
mieten. The  writer  of  this  advertisement  intended  the  participial  form  as  a 
perfect,  but,  as  G.  Wustmann  in  his  Allerhand  Sprachdiimmheiten,  p.  162,  3rd 
ed.,  remarks  with  regard  to  it,  the  resultant  impression  is  rather  an  uncanny 
one,  since  the  form  may  be  construed  as  a  present  passive.  The  ambiguity 
can  in  the  present  instance  be  removed  by  using  the  statal  passive  form  which 
calls  attention  to  a  past  state  of  things:  die  von  dem  verstorbnen  Rentier  Sch. 
bewohnt  gewesene  Wohnung,  &c.  In  order  to  call  attention  to  a  past  act,  a 
perfect  passive  part,  corresponding  to  the  regular  actional  perf.  passive  indie, 
is  occasionally  formed  by  adding  worden  to  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb: 
die  zwei  verloren  gegangenen  oder  vielmehr  vergessen  wordenen  Väter  (Raabe's 
Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  x). 

/.  Participles  formed  from  the  modal  auxiliaries  are  now  occasionally  found, 
usually  in  connection  with  a  dependent  infin.:  der  sein  sollende  Witz  the 
utterance  that  was  intended  to  be  witty,  das  nicht  enden  wollende  Gelächter 
the  laughter  that  did  not  seem  to  desire  to  come  to  an  end. 

The  Infinitive. 

185.  The  infinitive  was  in  an  earlier  period  inflected  as  a  noun  and  at  the 
same  time  preserved  its  verbal  nature  by  admitting  of  a  direct  object.  The 
remnant  of  this  older  usage  of  inflecting  the  infinitive  is  the  so-called  infinitive 
with  zu.  This  form  of  the  infinitive  is  in  fact  a  noun  in  the  dat.  governed  by 
the  prep,  zu,  hence  was  originally  an  adverbial  element  modifying  the  verb. 
This  zu,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  many  sentences,  originally  meant  toiuards  and 
pointed  to  that  towards  which  the  activity  of  the  principal  verb  was  directed: 
Wir  zwangen  ihn  zu  dienen  (zum  Dienst)  We  compelled  him  to  serve.  Ent- 
schließe dich  zu  arbeiten  (zur  Arbeit)  Make  up  your  mind  to  work.  Ich  ging 
aus,  einen  Freund  zu  besuchen  I  went  out  to  call  on  a  friend.  This  zu,  how- 
ever, is  now  often  not  felt  as  a  prep,  but  rather  as  a  part  of  the  infinitive  itself, 
and  hence  this  prepositional  infinitive  is  now  no  longer  confined  to  the  dat. 
relation,  but  may  also  indicate  the  nom.  and  ace.  relations,  where  formerly  the 
simple  infinitive  without  zu  could  alone  be  used:  Nachzuahmen  (or  still  as  in 
older  German  nachahmen)  erniedrigt  einen  Mann  von  Kopf.  Sie  fing  an  zu 
weinen,  but  in  M.H.G.:  der  holt  (Held)  dö  (dann)  trüren  (trauern)  began 
(Nibelungenlied).  Thus  the  development  of  the  prepositional  infinitive  is 
much  like  that  of  the  simple  infinitive,  which  was  originally  an  accusative,  used 
adverbially  as  an  accusative  of  goal,  as  seen  in  B.  I.  1.  b.  Note  below,  and  as  a 
direct  object  (B.  I.  2.  a,  b,  c,  d)  but  already  in  oldest  German  had  come  into 
use  in  the  subject  relation.  The  first  beginnings  of  the  use  of  the  prepositional 
infinitive  as  object  go  back  to  the  O.H.G.  period.  It  is  even  to-day  often 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  a  prepositional  phrase  as  an  adverbial  element 
and  as  a  prepositional  object,  as  explained  in  261  (3rd  par.).     The  latter  relation 


185.  A.l.l.b.  (3)     USES  OF  THE  PREP.  INFINITIVE 269 

indicates  a  closer  association  with  the  verb.  As  the  prepositional  infinitive 
often  stood  in  a  close  relation  to  the  verb  it  gradually  came  to  be  felt  as  a  prepo- 
sitional object,  as  a  necessary  complement  of  the  verb  and  hence  sometimes 
after  certain  verbs  took  the  place  of  the  accusative  object.  The  zu  gradually 
lost  its  original  prepositional  force,  so  that  the  infinitive  and  zu  were  felt  as 
one  and  in  M.H.G.  were  sometimes  used  in  the  subject  relation.  The  use  of 
the  infinitive  with  zu  has  greatly  gained  on  that  of  the  simple  infinitive,  and 
for  centuries  it  along  with  its  modifiers  has  been  developing  into  a  distinct 
subordinate  clause  and  in  this  capacity  has  been  crowding  more  and  more  out 
of  common  use  the  older  daß-clause  with  a  finite  verb,  so  that  it  has  acquired 
functions  unknown  to  the  simple  infinitive,  but  as  the  latter  is  still  in  certain 
instances  used  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  relation,  it  is  necessary  to  note  carefully 
the  following  detailed  statements  as  to  when  the  simple  infinitive  and  when 
the  infinitive  with  zu  is  used: 

A.    The  Infinitive  with  zu. 

I.     The  infinitive  with  zu  is  used: 

1.     In  the  following  independent  relations: 

a.  As  the  subject  of  a  verb:  Zu  überlegen  ist  nicht  die  Sache  der  Jugend. 
Sich  mitzuteilen  ist  Natur  To  communicate  one's  thought  and  feeling  is  the 
impulse  of  nature.  Seine  Schuldigkeit  getan  zu  haben  ist  ein  Trost  im  Un- 
glück. The  infinitive  without  zu  is  also  used  here.  See  B.  I.  1.  a.  The  form 
with  zu,  however,  is  always  employed,  when  its  object  is  a  relative  pronoun: 
Sie  (die  bei  Jena  geschlagene  Armee)  erlag  einem  Verhängnis,  das  abzuwenden 
nicht  in  ihren  Kräften  stand  (C.  Freiherr  v.  d.  Goltz  in  Deutsche  Rundschau, 
March  1906,  p.  23).  Daß  er  (W.  Victor)  ihnen  (i.e.  den  Studenten)  durch 
seine  unbeirrbare  Sachlichkeit,  Treue  und  Wahrhaftigkeit  ein  Vorbild  wurde, 
dem  nachzueifern  wahrlich  lohnte  (F.  Dörr  in  Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  Band 
XXVI,  p.  297). 

b.  In  the  predicate: 

(1)  After  certain  verbs  (180.  A.  a)  the  prepositional  infinitive  of  transitives 
is  used  as  a  modal  verbal,  i.e.  contains  the  idea  of  the  necessity,  possibility, 
or  fitness  of  an  action,  and  has  passive  force:  Viel  bleibt  noch  zu  tun  Much 
remains  to  be  done.      More  examples  are  given  in  180.  A.  a. 

(2)  After  sein  it  often  contains  also  in  case  of  intransitives  and  reflexives 
the  idea  of  necessity,  possibility,  or  fitness,  but  of  course  has  active  force:  Es 
ist  nichts  zu  danken,  ein  paar  Rippen  sind  entzwei  (Goethe's  Götz,  3,  9)  There 
is  nothing  to  be  thankful  for,  i.e.  that  one  can  be  thankful  for,  &c.  Was  ist 
denn  aber  dabei  zu  lachen?  (Wildenbruch 's  Der  Astronom),  War  es  zu  ver- 
wundern, daß  sich  bei  der  wachsenden  Spannung  die  Anstrengungen  der 
Mächte,  sich  durch  Flottenmacht  zu  schützen,  steigerten?  (Albrecht  Stauffer 
in  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeit.,  Jan.  23,  1906).  The  infinitive  often  preserves 
here  in  case  of  intransitives  and  reflexives  a  good  deal  of  its  older  substantive 
nature  and  hence  does  not  show  the  prepositions  and  reflexives  which  the  verb 
always  demands.  Thus  in  the  sentences  from  Goethe  and  Wildenbruch  the 
prepositions  für  and  über  are  omitted  altho  danken  requires  für  and  lachen 
takes  über.  In  the  sentence  from  Stauffer  the  reflexive  is  omitted.  The 
English  requires  the  prepositions  and  the  reflexive  where  the  verb  requires  them. 

A  few  common  impersonal  verbs  with  passive  form  but  active  force,  as  de- 
scribed in  219.  5.  A  (2nd  par.),  belong  here:  Es  ist  nicht  mit  ihm  zu  leben,  or 
Mit  ihm  ist  nicht  zu  leben  There  (formerly  it)  is  no  living  with  him.  Es  ist  ihm 
nicht  zu  trauen,  or  Ihm  ist  nicht  zu  trauen  He  cannot  he  trusted,  or  is  not  to  be 
trusted,  lit.  There  is  no  trusting  him. 

(3)  After  the  copulas  dünken  to  seem,  scheinen  to  seem,  ers<- meinen  to  appear 
the  infinitive  is  used  with  active  force  and  without  the  peculiar  modal  force 
found  in  (1)  and  (2):  Er  dünkt  sich  ein  großer  Geist  zu  sein,  or  without  the 
infinitive:   Er  dünkt  sich  ein  großer  Geist  or  einen  großen  Geist.     Er  scheint 


270 USES  OF  THE  PREP.  INFINITIVE      185.  A.  I.  i.  b.  (3\ 

ein  ehrlicher  Mann  zu  sein,  or  Er  scheint  ein  ehrUcher  Mann.  Er  scheint 
mir  fleißig  (zu  sein).  Er  scheint  mir,  fleißig  zu  arbeiten.  Er  scheint,  künftig 
noch  fleißiger  werden  zu  wollen.  Er  scheint,  zu  wollen  aber  nicht  zu  können. 
Er  scheint,  früher  rücht  fleißig  studiert  zu  haben,  but  the  sein  of  the  perfect 
infinitive  is  often  omitted:  Seine  Mutter  scheint  früh  gestorben  (zu  sein). 
Die  Leute  erscheinen  mir  liebenswürdiger  geworden  (zu  sein).  After  dünken 
we  find  the  infinitive  of  other  verbs  than  sein  only  in  older  German:  Der  dünkt 
mich  in  England  nach  Wölfen  zu  jagen  (Lessing).  In  M.H.G.  dünken  and 
scheinen  could  only  be  used  as  simple  copulas  with  a  predicate  adjective  or  noun. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  sein — later  replaced  by  zu  sein — began  to  be  added 
to  dünken,  a  little  later  also  to  scheinen.  Later  also  other  infinitives  than 
sein  were  used,  but  after  dünken  the  infinitive  except  in  case  of  zu  sein  has 
disappeared. 

(4)  The  infinitive  with  zu  is  sometimes  used  in  German  as  the  progressive 
form  or  a  participial  predicate  appositive  in  English:  Und  als  er  wieder  zu 
fischen  war,  |  da  ließ  ich  einen  Schatz  ihn  finden  (Schiller's  Macbeth,  1,  4)  And 
when  he  was  fishing,  &c.  Er  wußte,  jetzt  saß  seine  Großmutter  zu  sticken 
(Enking's  Die  Darnekotver,  p.  130)  He  knew  that  his  grandmother  was  sitting 
embnoidering.  Sonst  saß'  ich  jetzt  bei  ihm  zu  schustern  (id.,  Wie  Truges  seine 
Mutter  suchte,  IV).  After  to  he  this  construction  is  sometimes  found  in  older  Eng- 
lish: And  I  have  been  all  this  day  to  avoid  him  (^5  You  Like  It,  2,  5.  35).  In 
older  German  also  the  simple  infinitive  was  used  here  and  in  certain  expressions 
is  still  common:  Er  ist  fischen.  Er  ist  mit  seiner  Mama  spazieren  gewesen 
(Wildenbruch 's  Die  Alten  und  die  Jungen,  p.  55).  Erblieb  sitzen.  Both  con- 
structions are  old,  originally  infinitives  of  purpose.  The  simple  infinitive,  the 
original  construction,  is  the  infinitive  of  purpose  described  in  B.  I.  \.h.  Note  be- 
low. The  original  meaning  is  no  longer  felt,  for  the  infinitive  is  now  used  as 
described  above,  often  without  a  trace  of  the  idea  of  purpose:  Spür'  ich  einen 
rechten  Sturmwind  wehn,  |  als  wollt'  das  Schiff  zu  Grunde  gehn,  |  da  stehen 
meine  Gedanken  |  zu  wanken  (a  popular  song  in  Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten, 

I,  p.  23).  Du  warst  damals  erst  sechs  Jahre  alt  und  standest  am  Sarg  zu 
weinen  (Storm's  Werke,  II,  p.  311).  It  is  now  little  used  in  the  literary  language 
of  the  South,  but  in  the  North  it  still  occasionally  occurs  in  good  literary 
style.  After  stehen  and  sitzen  the  present  participle  is  now  the  common 
construction. 

2.     In  the  following  dependent  relations: 

a.     As  the  complement  of  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  adjective,  performing: 

(1)  The  function  of  the  genitive  of  a  substantive  dependent  upon  an  ad- 
jective: Er  ist  müde  länger  zu  leben  (=  Er  ist  des  Lebens  müde).  The  passive 
force  is  sometimes  expressed  by  acting  form,  but  more  commonly  by  the  passive: 
In  solchen  Ritzen  |  ist  jedes  Bröselein  |  wert  zu  besitzen  (Goethe).  Die  ich 
höre,  scheint  mir  wert  zu  krönen  (Schlegel's  Gedichte,  1,  308).  Dieser  Stein 
ist  wert,  in  Gold  gefaßt  zu  werden. 

(2)  The  function  of  an  appositive  genitive  or  a  noun  in  apposition  with  a 
pronoun,  substantive,  or  substantive  clause:  Die  Kunst  zu  schreiben  (=  des 
Schreibens)  war  den  Ägyptern  bekannt.  Unter  allen  Rollen  gibt  es  keine 
kläglichere  als  die,  mehr  zu  gelten  als  zu  sein.  In  dem  rätselvollen  Wirrsal 
von  Leid  und  Scham  gab  es  nur  eines:  schweigend  den  Schmerz  zu  ertragen 
(Boy-Ed's  Die  Ketten,  p.  223).  Nur  ein  einziges  Laster  beherrschte  sie: 
zwischen  bös  und  gut  keinen  Unterschied  zu  kennen  (Schiller).  Was  die 
meisten  Romantiker  doch  nicht  konnten,  brachte  er  fertig:  das  als  notwendig 
Erkannte  zu  tun  (Ricarda  Huch's  Ausbreitung  und  Verfall  der  Romantik,  p.  152). 
The  simple  infinitive  is  also  quite  common  here.     See  B.  I.  1.  c  below. 

The  appositional  construction  in  3  below  might  also  be  classed  here. 

(3)  The  function  of  a  relative  clause.  The  attributive  use  of  the  preposi- 
tional infinitive  with  the  force  of  a  relative  clause,  as  illustrated  also  in  271. 

II.  6,  is  quite  common  in  English,  but  it  is  in  general  little  employed  here  in 
German  and  must  usually  be  rendered  by  a  full  subordinate  clause,  or  where  the 


185.  A.  I.  3.  USES   OF  THE   PREP.    INFINITIVE 271 

force  is  passive,  also  often  by  a  modal  verbal  (180.  B):  The  king  has  no  chil- 
dren to  succeed  him  on  the  throne  Per  König  hat  keine  Kinder,  die  ihm  auf 
dem  Throne  folgen  könnten.  That  is  a  circumstance  not  to  be  overlooked 
Das  ist  ein  Umstand,  der  nicht  übersehen  werden  sollte,  or  Das  ist  ein  nicht 
zu  übersehender  Umstand.  Other  examples  and  the  German  renderings  are 
given  in  180.  B  and  d  thereunder.  When  the  relative  clause  contains  the 
idea  of  purpose  or  result  it  is  often  replaced  by  the  prepositional  infinitive  as 
in  English:  (purpose):  sein  Bestreben,  viel  Gutes  zu  tun;  (result):  Erasmus 
war  der  Mann,  den  Glanz  solcher  Stellung  zu  genießen  (Paulsen's  Geschichte 
des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  2nd.  ed.,  p.  145).  Here  the  zu  before  the  infinitive 
has  its  original  force  as  a  preposition,  as  in  h.  While  English,  starting  from 
this  same  point,  has  developed  the  prepositional  infinitive  into  the  full  force  of 
a  relative  clause,  German  has  scarcely  passed  beyond  the  first  stage  of  develop- 
ment. As  the  zu  with  the  infinitive  has  in  general  lost  its  original  meaning, 
um  is  often  prefixed  to  it  to  bring  out  clearly  the  idea  of  purpose  or  result: 
Die  Enden  der  Hirschgeweihe  dienen  als  Haken,  an  welche  man  Hüte,  Peitschen 
und  Sporen  hängt,  or  als  Haken,  um  Hüte,  Peitschen  und  Sporen  daran  zu 
hängen  The  branches  of  the  antlers  serve  as  hooks  on  which  to  hang  hats, 
whips  and  spurs,  or  as  hooks  to  hang  hats,  whips  and  spurs  on.  This  now 
common  construction  with  um  zu  +  infinitive — much  censured  by  grammarians 
— is  treated  at  considerable  length  in  255.  IV.  2.  a.  The  use  of  um  here  indi- 
cates that  German  has  developed  a  clearer  expression  for  this  idea  than  English. 

b.  In  the  dat.  relation,  as  the  object  of  the  prep,  zu,  after  verbs,  nouns,  and 
adjectives,  to  express,  in  accordance  with  the  general  meaning  of  zu,  the  aim, 
purpose,  direction  of  the  action  or  quality:  Da  treibt's  ihn,  den  köstlichen  Preis 
zu  erwerben.  Er  hatte  den  Hang,  stets  der  Vollkommenheit  seines  eignen 
Wesens  zuzustreben.     Er  ist  geneigt  zu  übertreiben. 

Note.  This  is  the  original  use  of  zu  with  the  infinitive.  Here  the  zu  is  not  the  mere  sign  of  the  infinitive  as  in 
1.  o.  and  b  above,  but  a  real  prep,  used  in  its  usual  sense  of  direction  towards. 

c.  In  the  ace.  relation,  as  the  direct  object  of  the  verb:  Das  Kind  beginnt 
zu  reden,  wie  es  anhebt  zu  denken.  Warum  versäumte  man  mich  zu  erinnern? 
For  exceptions  see  B.  I.  2.  a,  ö,  c,  d,  e. 

Note  1.  The  English-speaking  student  should  be  on  his  guard  here  as  the  infinitive  is  often  used  in  German  where 
in  English  a  full  clause  or  a  gerund  is  necessary:  (1)  After  verbs  of  believing  or  supposing  (glauben,  meinen),  con- 
fessing or  owning  (bekennen,  einräumen,  gestehen),  denying  ileugnen),  fancying  or  imagining  (wähnen,  sich  [dat.] 
einbilden),  maintaining,  asserting,  assuring,  declaring  (behaupten,  beteuern,  versichern),  suggesting  or  proposing 
(vorschlagen,!,  swearing  (schwören),  and  the  like:  Ich  glaube,  recht  zu  haben  I  believe  I'm  right.  Er  meint,  recht 
zu  haben  He  believes,  supposes  he  is  right.  Er  räumte  ein,  es  getan  zu  haben  He  confessed  doing  it,  or  that  he  did  it. 
Ich  leugne,  ihn  gesehen  zu  haben  I  deny  having  seen  him,  or  that  I  saw  him.  Die  Zeit  wähnte,  sehr  frei  zu  denken 
(Treitschke,  ö,  3  i7 )  The  period  fancied  or  imagined  that  it  was  very  liberal  in  its  thought.  Er  bildet  sich  ein,  Philoso- 
phie zu  verstehen  He  fancies  that  he  knows  something  about  philosophy.  Er  beteuerte,  nichts  davon  gewußt  zu 
haben  He  maintained  that  he  didn't  know  anything  about  it.  Er  schjug  vor,  spazieren  zu  gehen  He  suggested  or 
proposed  that  they  take  a  walk.  Ich  schwöre,  ihn  in  jener  Nacht  am  Tatort  gesehen  zu  haben  I  swear  that,  &c. 
Compare  11.  2.  e  below.  (2)  .\fter  verbs  of  commanding  when  the  person  to  whom  the  command  is  directed  is  not 
mentioned:  Der  General  befahl,  den  Feind  anzugreifen  The  general  ordered  that  the  enemy  be  attacked,  or  He 
ordered  the  enemy  to  be  attacked. 

A'ote  2.  The  older  usage  of  employing  the  simple  infinitive  as  object  of  the  verb  lingers  on  as  late  as  the  seven- 
teenth century:  Da  gund  (for  begann)  ich  mich  erholen  (Spee).  Even  in  the  sixteenth  century,  however,  the  new 
form  with  zu  has  gained  the  ascendency. 

3.  As  explanatory  of  a  preceding  anticipative  subject  or  object,  which  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  es,  dies,  das  or  a  pronominal  adverb.  In  apposition 
with  a  subject:  Es  ziemt  |  dem  edeln  Mann,  der  Frauen  Wort  zu  achten  (Goethe's 
Iphi genie,  5,  3).  In  the  relation  of  subject  the  simple  infinitive  is  also  used 
here.  See  B.  I.  1.  a  below.  In  apposition  with  the  object  of  a  verb:  Er 
wünscht  es  sehnUch,  dich  nur  noch  einmal  wiederzusehen.  Ich  denke  mir 
das  aussichtslos,  so  etwas  zu  unternehmen.  In  apposition  with  a  pronoun 
which  is  the  object  of  a  prep.,  but  which  has  in  German  only  the  form  of  an 
adverb:  Wir  sind  bereit  dazu,  dich  zu  unterstützen.  Jeder  muß  danach 
trachten,  seine  Seele  vom  Bösen  rein  zu  erhalten.  Occasionally  we  find  here 
the  simple  infinitive  preceded  by  a  preposition,  a  construction  similar  to  the 
English  gerund  in  -ing:  Ihre  einzige  Sehnsucht  ging  jetzt  nach  Stille,  nach 
nicht  mehr  hören  und  nicht  mehr  sehen  (Ernst  Zahn's  Das  Leben  der  Salome 
Zeller,  XVI).  The  simple  infinitive,  however,  is  often  used  instead  of  the 
form  with  zu  when  the  infinitive  for  emphasis  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the 


272 USES   OF   THE    PREP.    INFINITIVE  185.  A.  I.  3. 

proposition  followed  by  the  pronominal  adverb:  Eine  Sache  anfangen  und  auf 
halber  Tour  hinwerfen  —  damit  werden .  Sie  nie  im  Leben  zurechtkommen 
(Anna  Bemisch-Kappstein's  Das  klingende  Fließ  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Sept. 
1905,  p.  325). 

4.  Certain   complete  substantive  and   adverbial   clauses    (see  269.   3;  271. 

1.  c;  272.  A.  d,  C.  g,  D.  c;  276.  A.  a  (2nd  par.),  D.  b;  2.11.  2.  &;  279.  d,  e;  281. 
b)  may  be  contracted  to  infinitive  clauses  with  zu,  anstatt  zu,  ohne  zu,  or  um  zu. 
For  examples  see  the  references  just  given.  The  infinitive  clauses  can  usually 
without  changing  the  meaning  be  expanded  into  complete  subordinate  clauses, 
and  complete  subordinate  clauses  can  be  contracted  to  the  infinitive  construc- 
tion. It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  in  case  of  the  verb  wissen  there  is 
a  difference  of  meaning  between  the  two  constructions:  Er  weiß,  daß  er  seinen 
Willen  durchsetzt  He  knoivs  that  he  tvill  get  his  own  way,  but  Er  weiß  seinen 
Willen  durchzusetzen  He  knoivs  how  to  get  his  own  way. 

5.  The  infinitive  is  often  employed  absolutely,  as  illustrated  in  II.  2.  c  be- 
low. It  is  thus  much  used  with  or  without  zu  in  exclamations  and  in  general 
in  excited  or  vivid  language,  where  without  precise  grammatical  relations  it 
becomes  the  bearer  of  the  thought:  Ich  möcht'  euch  alle  mit  eigner  Hand 
umbringen!  Was,  fortlaufen!  Er  hatte  keine  Handvoll  Leute  mehr!  Fort- 
zulaufen, vor  einem  Mann!  (Hauptmann  in  Lager  scene  in  3rd  Act  of  Goethe's 
Götz).     See  also  B.  I.  4  below. 

6.  After  (an)treffen,  bekommen,  erhalten,  finden,  geben,  gehen  (180, 
A.  a)  to  be  possible,  haben,  kommen,  lassen  (=  übrig  lassen),  machen  (see  B.  I. 

2.  d,  toward  end),  reichen  to  reach,  schenken,  schicken,  schlagen,  sehen, 
überlassen,  and  the  impersonals  es  gibt,  es  gilt,  es  fehlt  an  (180.  A.  ö),  where 
the  infinitive  with  zu  contains  the  idea  of  the  necessity,  possibility,  or  fitness 
of  an  action,  in  case  of  transitives  usually  passive  in  force  and  in  this  book 
in  this  meaning  called  a  modal  verbal  (see  also  180.  A),  but  active  in  force  in 
case  of  intransitives  and  reflexives:  Wir  trafen  viele  Unordnungen  im  Hause 
zu  beseitigen  an  We  found  on  our  arrival  much  disorder  that  had  to  be  removed. 
Er  bekam  oft  Lügen  zu  hören  ( =  er  mußte  hören).  Es  wird  fortan  nichts  mehr 
zu  lachen  geben  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  III,  p.  210)  From  now  on  there 
will  be  nothing  to  laugh  about,  i.e.  nothing  that  one  can  laugh  about.  Da 
hat  die  Menge  was  zu  gaffen  (Fulda's  Talisman,  2,  12).  Hast  de  doch  wieder 
was  zu  ärgern,  Hans  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  Act  1).  Er  hat  viel 
zu  tun.  Haben  Sie  mich  noch  wohin  zu  schicken?  Ich  komme  noch  auf  ihn 
zu  sprechen  I  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  about  him  later.  Sie  kam  neben 
ihm  zu  sitzen  Chance  brought  it  about  that  she  should  sit  near  him.  Er  kam 
unten  zu  liegen.  Das  läßt  noch  viel  zu  wünschen.  Anna  hat  ihr  wirklich 
nicht  viel  zu  schaffen  gemacht  (Hauptmann's  E.  M.,  Act  3)  (see  also  B.  I. 
2.  d,  toward  end)  Anna  has  really  not  caused  her  much  trouble,  work.  Weil 
die  größeren  Kostgänger  des  Pastors  ihren  Freund  dabei  mitunter  überfielen 
und  ihm  den  Kopf  zu  bluten  schlugen  (Storm's  Hans  und  Heinz  Kirch,  p.  12). 

For  the  construction  after  es  gilt  see  Note  2. 

Note  1.  Some  of  these  words  are  used  here  in  a  certain  measure  as  auxiliaries  and  not  as  independent  verbs,  and 
it  should  be  remembered  that  they  also  can  be  used  in  the  latter  way:  Er  hat  (has,  possesses)  alte  Röcke  zu  verkaufen. 

Note  2.  The  impersonal  es  gilt  was  originally  construed  only  with  the  ace.  of  a  noun:  Es  gilt  dein  Glück,  deinen 
Besitz  Your  happiness,  your  possessions  are  at  stake,  lit.  It  will  cost  your  happiness,  your  possessions.  The  simple 
infinitive  has  substantive  force,  and  was  used  as  an  ace.  here:  Hie  gilt's  im  Finstern  und  blinzling  gehen  (Luther, 
V.  Abendm.,  1528).  In  early  N.H.G.  the  genitive  of  measure  could  also  be  used  here  as  elsewhere  instead  of  the  ace. 
of  measure  (see  223.  iv.  2.  A.  a):  Da  gilt's  Schweigens  (Luther,  v.  Abendm.,  1.528).  Formerly  the  construction  with 
urn  was  also  used:  Und  sollt's  dem  Teufel  um  ein  Ohr  gelten  (Schiller's  Räuber,  2,  3).  Sometimes  still:  Es  gilt 
um  Tod  oder  Leben!  (Fritz  Lienhard's  Wieland  der  Schmied,  p.  SO).  Later  the  gen.  and  in  large  measure  also  the 
prep,  construction  disappeared,  and  the  infinitive  with  zu  replaced  in  part  the  simple  infinitive  here  as  elsewhere, 
so  that  to-day  both  the  infinitive  with  and  without  zu  are  used  here:  Nur  noch  von  Doktor  Daim  galt  es  Abschied 
zu  nehmen  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Krafft,  II.  14,  p.  444).  Doch  es  galt  das  zerrinnende  Geld  ersetzen  (Ompteda's 
Eysen,  chap.  xii). 

Nole  3.  The  infinitive  often  preserves  in  case  of  intransitives  and  reflexives  a  good  deal  of  its  older  substantive 
nature,  and  hence  does  not  show  the  prepositions  and  reflexives  which  the  verb  always  demands.  Thus  in  the  sen- 
tence from  Hoffmann  given  above  the  preposition  über  is  omitted  altho  the  verb  requires  it  and  English  requires 
about.  In  the  first  sentence  from  Hauptmann  the  preposition  über  and  the  reflexive  pronoun  are  omitted.  The 
reflexive  is  also  omitted  in  the  substantive  use  of  the  infinitive  described  in  188.  a. 

7.  Quite  rare  is  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  as 
found  in  Latin  and  in  part  also  in  English,  after  verbs  of  reporting,  thinking, 
knowing,  supposing,  wishing,  &c.     See  B,  I.  5  below. 


185.  A.  II.  2.  g.     THE  SUBJECT  OF  THE  PREP.  INFINITIVE  273 

II.  1.  Position  and  Repetition  of  zu.  The  zu  must  stand  immediately 
before  the  present  infinitive,  and  if  there  are  several,  must  be  repeated  before 
each  one:  Der  Lehrer  gab  uns  ein  Gedicht  abzuschreiben  und  auswendig 
zu  lernen.  If  there  are  several  perfect  infinitives,  the  zu  is  used  but  once,  and 
stands  between  the  last  participle  and  the  auxiliary,  which  is  also  used  but 
once,  being  found  with  the  last  participle  and  understood  with  the  others: 
Der  Löwe,  sagt  Lichtenstein,  greift  einen  Menschen  oder  ein  Tier,  das  nicht 
vor  ihm  flieht,  nie  an,  ohne  sich  vorher  in  einer  Entfernung  von  zehn  bis  zwölf 
Schritten  niedergelegt  und  seinen  Sprung  gemessen  zu  haben. 

a.  In  case  there  are  a  number  of  present  infinitives  there  is  a  tendency  to 
drop  the  zu  after  it  has  been  used  once  or  twice,  as  the  simple  infinitive  here 
as  in  I.  5  naturally  becomes  the  bearer  of  the  thought,  the  exact  grammatical 
relations  having  faded  from  the  mind:  Wir  sind  nur  da,  über  die  Interessen 
unserer  respektiven  Staaten  und  Dynastien  zu  wachen,  jeder  drohenden 
Verringerung  ihrer  Machtstellung  entgegenzuarbeiten  und  jede  möghche 
Suprematie  zu  erringen  trachten,  eifersüchtig  die  Ehre  des  Landes  hüten, 
uns  angetanen  Schimpf  rächen  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder!,  II,  p.  183). 

2.  Subject  of  the  Infinitive.  The  infinitive  has  for  centuries  been  crowding 
more  and  more  out  of  common  use  the  full  subordinate  clause  with  a  finite  verb, 
but  it  is  still  less  used  in  German  than  in  English,  especially  since  it  is  not  much 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  ace.  with  the  infinitive,  which  is  so  common  in 
Latin  and  English.  Thus  the  infinitive  construction  in  English  must  often 
be  rendered  in  German  by  a  complete  subordinate  clause:  /  wish  him  to  come 
Ich  wünsche,  daß  er  komme.  See  also  I.  7  above  and  B.  I.  5  below.  Detailed 
information  concerning  the  use  of  the  infinitive  in  contracted  clauses  in  German 
and  English  is  given  in  269.  3;  271.  \.  c;  271.  II.  6;  272.  A.  d\  272.  C.  g;  272. 
D.  c;  276.  A.  a;  276.  D.  h;  277.  2.  b;  279.  d,  e;  281.  b.  Note.  The  expression 
contracted  clause  as  used  in  this  book  is  explained  in  268.  4.  The  origin  and 
development  of  the  infinitive  clause  are  sketched  in  269.  3  and  281.  b.  Note  (2nd 
par.). 

In  general  we  can  say: 

a.  In  German  the  infinitive  can  be  freely  used  when  the  subject  of  the  infin- 
itive is  identical  with  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition,  often  also  when 
the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  identical  with  an  accusative  or  dative  object  in 
the  principal  proposition,  provided  however  that  it  is  perfectly  clear  from  the 
connection  that  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  cannot  be  the  subject 
of  the  infinitive:  Er  verspricht,  noch  heute  zu  kommen.  Dürfte  ich  Sie  bitten, 
es  zu  tun?  Er  riet  mir  zu  gehen.  Under  similar  conditions  the  infinitive  can 
sometimes  be  used  when  its  subject  is  identical  with  a  genitive  in  the  principal 
proposition  or  a  genitive  implied  in  a  possessive  adjective:  Ein  Volk  ist  der 
Umschweif  der  Natur,  um  zu  sechs,  sieben,  großen  Männern  zu  kommen 
(Nietzsche).  Erst  standen  wir  alle  von  ferne,  und  wie  unsere  Neugierde 
größer  ward,  um  zu  sehen,  was  wohl  Blinkendes  und  Rasselndes  sich  hinter 
der  halbdurchsichtigen  Hülle  verbergen  möchte,  wies  man  jedem  ein  Stühlchen 
an  (Goethe).  The  subject  of  zu  sehen  is  the  wir  implied  in  unsere.  The 
infinitive  can  sometimes  be  used  when  its  subject  is  not  revealed  by  any  word 
in  the  principal  proposition  but  is  suggested  by  the  connection:  Statt  aber  von 
dem  Ton  und  Inhalt  dieser  Blätter  nur  zu  berichten,  möge  an  dieser  Stelle  ein 
kurzer  Auszug  eingeschaltet  werden  (Paul  Heyse).  The  speaker  here  is  evi- 
dently the  subject  of  zu  berichten. 

Note  1.  In  a  number  of  expressions  the  infinitive  has  a  subject  which  is  identical  with  the  suppressed  object  of  the 
principal  verb:  Ich  bitte  zu  bedenken  /  beg  you  lo  consider.  Ich  rate  zu  warten  /  advise  you  to  wail.  Ich  wünsche 
wohl  geruht  zu  haben  /  ho[>e  you  have  had  a  good  night's  rest. 

Note  2.  Infinitive  purpose  clauses  or  clauses  of  result  with  zu,  or  um  zu  in  order  to,  and  infinitive  clauses  of  man- 
ner with  ohne  without  and  anstatt  instead  of  usually  require  their  subject  to  be  identical  with  the  subject  of  the  prin- 
cipal proposition.  If  such  is  not  the  case  the  subjects  should  be  made  to  be  identical  by  changing  the  subject  in  the 
principal  proposition  or  in  the  infinitive  clause,  or  the  infinitive  clause  should  be  avoided  and  replaced  by  a  complete 
subordinate  clause,  or,  in  case  the  verb  in  the  purpose  clause  is  not  modified  by  too  many  objects  or  adverbial  modi- 
fiers, be  replaced  by  an  infinitive  substantive  or  a  verbal  noun:  not  Die  Unglücklichen  sind  hier  untergebracht, 
ohne  für  ihre  Pflege  zu  sorgen,  but  Man  hat  die  UnglückUchen  hier  untergebracht,  ohne  für  ihre  Pflege  zu  sorgen; 
er  Die  IJnglücklichen  sind  hier  untergebracht,  ohne  daß  für  ihre  Pflege  gesorgt  wäre.  Er  gab  mir  den  Brief  zum 
Abschreiben.     Er  schickte  sein  Buch  einem  Freund  zur  Durchsicht.     This  rule  requiring  identical  subjects  in  the 


274  THE  SUBJECT  OF  THE  PREP.  INFINITIVE     185.  A.  II.  2.  a. 

principal  propositiorf  and  the  infinitive  clause  is  not  always  strictly  followed,  good  usage  often  admitting  of  violations 
where  the  thought  is  clear:  Die  Mutter  rief  mich  hinein,  um  ihr  zu  helfen.  Other  violations  of  the  general  rule  are 
given  in  a  above.     In  general,  however,  the  English-speaking  student  should  keep  rather  close  to  the  general  rule. 

b.  The  infinitive  can  be  used  in  German  when  its  subject  is  a  general  or 
indefinite  one:  Gelegenheit,  Gutes  zu  tun,  findet  sich  immer.  Er  befahl  zu 
öffnen  He  ordered  somebody  to  open  the  door.  Er  ist  kein  Rothschild  und  die 
Hauptmannspension  ist  nicht,  um  sich  einen  Viererzug  davon  zu  halten  (Omp- 
teda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  LXI).  The  infinitive  must  here  be  replaced  by  a 
subordinate  clause,  if  its  subject  can  possibly  be  construed  as  identical  with 
the  subject  or  object  of  the  principal  verb:  not  Er  wünscht  zu  öffnen,  as  the 
translation  of  He  ivishes  somebody  to  open  the  door,  but  Er  wünscht,  daß  geöffnet 
werde,  or  daß  man  öffne,  for  the  infinitive  construction  might  mean  He  wishes 
to  open  the  door. 

c.  In  German  as  in  English,  an  absolute  infinitive  wnth  zu  is  often  used,  the 
subject  of  which  has  no  reference  to  the  subject  or  object  of  the  principal  verb: 
Die  Wahrheit  zu  sagen,  es  sind  schreckliche  Leute,  diese  alten  Cherusker 
(Klopstock).  Ohne  Ihnen  meinen  Rat  aufzudrängen,  so  würden  Sie  viel  besser 
tun,  es  zu  lassen.  Um  es  Ihnen  geradeaus  zu  sagen,  ich  mag  ihn  nicht.  Even 
tho  the  infinitive  precede  the  principal  verb,  there  is  no  inversion  except  after 
so.     See  also  265.  B.  d  and  281.  b. 

d.  English,  differing  from  German,  often  employs  the  infinitive  construction 
when  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  not  identical  with  the  subject  or  object 
of  the  verb  in  the  principal  proposition  and  when  the  subject  of  the  verb  in 
the  subordinate  clause  is  other  than  the  indefinite  one:  Your  plan  for  me  to 
go  at  once  does  not  please  me  Ihr  Plan,  daß  ich  sogleich  gehen  sollte,  gefällt 
mir  nicht.  It  should  be  observed  that  for  must  be  used  here  in  connection 
with  the  prepositional  infinitive.  For  further  details  concerning  this  con- 
struction see  269.  3,  271.  I.  c,  271.  II.  6,  272.  C.  g  and  D.  c,  277.  2.  b,  279.  d, 
281.  b.  Note  (2nd  par.). 

e.  Even  tho  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause  is  identical  with  the  sub- 
ject of  the  principal  proposition  a  full  clause  with  a  nominative  subject  must  be 
used  in  both  English  and  German  after  verbs  of  saying  and  communicating,  as 
sagen,  mitteilen,  melden,  berichten,  erzählen,  verkündigen,  ankündigen, 
&c.,  which  impart  facts  and  events,  also  after  verbs  of  perceiving,  noticing, 
picturing  something  to  one's  self,  seeing  (getting  an  insight  into  something), 
recognizing,  comprehending,  as  wahrnehmen,  bemerken,  sich  etwas  vorstellen, 
einsehen,  erkennen,  begreifen,  &c.,  which  report  events  and  facts  that  have 
been  perceived  by  the  senses  or  grasped  by  the  mind:  Er  sagte,  er  werde  mor- 
gen kommen,  or  daß  er  morgen  kommen  werde,  not  Er  sagte,  morgen  zu  kom- 
men. After  such  verbs  the  real  object  is  felt  to  be  the  following  clause  as  a 
whole,  not  any  w^ord  in  it.  As  the  prepositional  infinitive  is  still  often,  as  in 
the  original  construction,  felt  as  a  modifier  of  the  principal  verb  it  is  here  out 
of  place  where  no  one  word  has  individual  relations  with  the  verb.  English 
at  one  point  preserves  this  old  usage  better  than  German  as  it  usually  requires 
a  full  clause  with  a  nominative  subject  after  the  verbs  in  I.  2.  c.  Note  1,  which 
have  a  meaning  somewhat  similar  to  those  given  above,  while  German  can 
employ  here  either  the  prepositional  construction  or  the  full  clause.  German 
can  use  the  prepositional  infinitive  construction  as  the  prepositional  infinitive 
with  its  modifiers  is  coming  more  and  more  to  be  felt  as  a  grammatical  unit, 
as  the  equivalent  of  a  full  clause  with  a  nominative  subject.  At  this  one  point 
the  development  has  gone  farther  in  German  than  in  English,  but  at  other 
points  as  can  be  seen  in  d  the  English  development  has  outstripped  the  German. 
Thus  altho  in  a  very  large  number  of  cases  the  prepositional  construction  has 
about  the  same  meaning  as  a  full  clause,  as  in  Ich  hoffe,  morgen  gehen  zu  können, 
or  daß  ich  morgen  gehen  kann,  it  is  only  natural  that  in  certain  cases  the  old 
difTerence  between  the  two  constructions  has  become  fixed,  the  infinitive  serv- 
ing as  a  modifier  of  the  verb,  the  clause  representing  a  thought  as  a  whole:  Er 
vergaß,  ihm  zu  danken,  but  Er  vergaß,  daß  er  ihm  Dank  schuldete.  Er  weiß, 
sich  zu  benehmen,  but  Er  weiß,  daß  er  sich  heute  gut  benehmen  muß. 


185.  B.  I.  l.f. THE   SIMPLE    INFINITIVE 275 

B.     The   Infinitive  without  zu. 

I.  The  infinitive  without  zu  is  used  in  the  following  constructions: 
1.  In  the  following  independent  and  dependent  relations: 
a.  As  subject  of  a  verb,  especially  in  short  pithy  sayings,  also  in  general 
used  here  quite  as  correctly  as  the  infinitive  with  zu,  altho  perhaps  not  so  fre- 
quently: Ungeliebt  durchs  Leben  gehen,  ist  mehr  als  Mißgeschick,  es  ist 
Schuld  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Unsühnbar,  V.).  Also  as  explanatory  of  the 
preceding  anticipative  subject  es  or  das:  Und  herrlich  deucht'  es  mich,  die 
Fürstin  sein  |  an  eines  Fürsten  Seite  (Schnitzler's  Der  Schleier  der  Beatrice, 
p.  138).  Also  the  perfect  infin.:  Das  wird  mir  ja  unheimlich,  sich  dreißig 
Jahre  —  na,  bis  zum  dreißigsten  Jahre  als  Commis  voyageur  in  der  ganzen 
weiten  Welt  herumgetrieben  haben  und  dann  gar  nichts  mehr  von  ihr  wissen 
wollen  (Raabe's  Giitmajins  Reisen,  chap.  ii).  The  infinitive  without  to  is  also 
found  in  older  English:  To  know  my  deed,  't  were  best  not  know  myself  (Mac- 
beth, 2,  2).  Still  common  in  old  saws:  Better  (=  it  is  better)  bend  than 
break.     Better  ask  than  go  astray. 

h.  As  a  predicate,  or  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  predicate  after  bleiben 
to  remain,  fahren  to  drive  (intrans.),  gehen  to  go,  heißen  to  signify,  kommen 
to  come,  laufen  to  run,  legen  to  lay,  liegen  (rarely  with  infinitive,  usually  with 
pres.  participle)  to  lie,  reiten  to  ride,  sein  to  be,  schicken  to  send,  schleichen 
to  creep,  segeln  to  sail,  sich  setzen  to  sit  down,  springen  (see  ex.)  to  spring, 
leap,  stehen  (rarely  with  infin.,  usually  wnth  pres.  part.)  to  stand,  wandeln  to 
walk,  stroll,  and  the  auxiliary  werden  in  the  future,  future  perfect,  and  the 
periphrastic  subjunctive:  Er  bleibt  sitzen.  Wir  gingen  spazieren.  Wir  fuhren 
spazieren.  Wir  ritten  spazieren.  Wir  segelten  spazieren.  Genua  liegt 
schlafen  (Schiller's  Fiesko,  2,  18).  Sich  allein  leben  heißt  gar  nicht  leben. 
Dem  Himmel  ist  beten  wollen  auch  beten.  Die  Mutter  schickt  das  Kind 
schlafen.  Unheilbares  Siechtum  bannte  ihn  ans  Zimmer  und  gestattete  ihm 
höchstens,  bei  schöner  Witterung  ein  wenig  in  dem  kleinen  Garten  spazieren 
zu  schleichen  (H.  Seidel's  Der  Neuntöter).  Die  Alte  hatte  sich  drinnen  in  ihren 
Lehnstuhl  schlafen  gesetzt.  Der  is  (for  ist)  schon  Klock  (for  Glock')  sieben 
spazieren  gegangen.  Das  heißt :  spazieren  gesprungen,  muß  man  eigentlich 
sagen  (Otto  Ernst's  Die  Gerechtigkeit,  1,  Verwandlung  1).  Was  steht  ihr 
horchen?  (Schiller's  Die  Piccolomini,  4,  5).  Und  die  Väter  wandeln  würdevoll 
in  der  nächsten  Umgegend  spazieren  (H.  Seidel's  Die  Geschichte  eines  Tales). 
Er  wird  loben.     Er  würde  singen,  wenn  er  nicht  heiser  wäre. 

The  infinitive  of  certain  verbs,  as  sitzen,  liegen,  stehen,  stecken,  stocken, 
hangen,  kleben,  haften,  leben,  bestehen  is  very  common  after  bleiben  and 
in  poetic  language  the  infinitive  of  schweben  and  grünen  occurs,  but  this  con- 
struction, tho  sometimes  found  after  other  verbs,  as  in  Die  Uhr  fiel  hin,  aber 
sie  bUeb  gehen  (Sanders's  Wörterbuch)  and  Die  Zigarre  blieb  brennen  (ib.), 
cannot  be  freely  used  elsewhere,  hence  we  cannot  say:  Er  blieb  essen,  trinken, 
schlafen,  &c. 

Nole.  The  simple  infinitive  cannot  now  be  freely  used  after  fahren,  gehen,  kommen,  laufen,  legen,  reiten, 
schicken,  sich  setzen,  and  springen,  but  it  stil!  occurs  in  many  set  expressions:  Nach  ein  paar  Wochen  fuhr  sie 
schon  wieder  eine  andere  Wohnung  suchen.  Er  geht  früh  schlafen  He  retires  early,  but  Er  geht  täglich  eine  Stunde, 
um  besser  zu  schlafen  He  lakes  an  hour's  icalk  every  day,  so  that  he  may  sleep  better.  Er  geht  (kommt)  Wasser  holen. 
Er  geht  baden,  essen,  einkaufen.  Ich  gehe  die  Stimmung  beobachten  (Freytag's  Die  Journalisten,  2,  2).  Komm 
frühstücken,  Mama  ( Berlepscli's  Forlunal's  Roman,  p.  1.5.).  Der  Wind  läuft  schulen  (L.G.  /o  hide)  There  has  fallen 
a  dead  calm.  Sie  hat  sich  auf  dem  Sofa  schlafen  gelegt.  Die  Husaren  sind  furagieren  geritten.  Altho  in  these 
and  similar  examples  zu  can  sometimes  be  found  the  simple  infinitive  is  still  quite  common.  It  must  be  rernembered, 
however,  that  it  has  its  limits.  It  is  an  old  accusative  of  goal  which  in  Old  English  and  Old  Saxon  was  in  limited 
use  also  with  common  class  nouns:  (O.S.)  he  scolde  gifaren  is  fader  odil  (Heliand,  4495-7)  He  was  to  go  to  His  father's 
house.  The  accusative  of  the  infinitive  denoted  the  goal,  i.e.  the  purpose  of  the  action.  As  even  in  oldest  German 
this  accusative  had  gone  out  of  use  with  common  class  nouns  and  was  only  found  with  infinitives  its  original  force 
had  become  dim  and  hence  it  gradually  became  more  common  to  place  before  the  infinitive  the  preposition  zu  or 
later  also  um  zu,  which  brought  out  the  idea  of  purpose  more  clearly.  Compare:  ni  qam  gatairan,  ak  usfulljan  (\\  ul- 
fila,  Matth.  v.  17)  with  Luther's  translation  of  the  same  passage.  The  simple  infinitive  is  also  found  here  in  older 
English:  Go  fetch  me  them  (Gen.  xxvii.  1.3).  After  sein,  stehen,  and  sitzen  the  infinitive  of  purpose,  now  rather  un- 
common, has  had  a  peculiar  development.     Sf'e  A.  I.  1.  b.  (4)  above.  ... 

.A.iter  werden  the  infinitive  represents  an  older  present  participle  which  has  been  replaced  by  an  infinitive,  as  ex- 
plained in  190.  1.  G. 

After  heißen  and  sein  the  infinitive  is  usually  a  true  infinitive  used  as  a  predicate  noun.     See  examples  above. 

c.  In  apposition  with  the  pronouns  ein(e)s,  das  eine,  nichts  anderes  als, 
das,  a  substantive,  or  a  substantive  clause:  Weil  du  nur  eins  kennst,  mitmachen, 


276 THE   SIMPLE    INFINITIVE 185.  B.  I.  1.  c. 

dabei  sein,  dich  vergnügen  (G.  Wasner's  Der  rote  Faden).  Was  mich  quälte 
und  ängstigte,  mich  stundenweise  zur  Verzweiflung  brachte,  war  das  eine: 
seiner  selbst  nicht  sicher  sein  (Ernst  Heilborn's  Die  Krone).  Die  Wahrheit 
zu  sagen,  hätte  ihm  nichts  anderes  bedeutet,  als  Vermutung  auskramen  und 
seinen  besten  Freund  verleumden  (Hans  Hoffmann's  Der  Stellvertreter,  IV). 
Ich  denke  mir  das  besonders  trostlos,  sich  so  mit  malenden  Damen  herum- 
schlagen (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  I.).  Wochen  und  Wochen  ver- 
gingen, in  denen  es  für  Ernst  (name)  nur  zwei  Obliegenheiten  gab:  den  Dienst 
versehen  und  die  Mutter  pflegen  (Fedor  Sommer's  Ernst  Reiland,  p.  230). 
Der  Arbeitgeber,  der  sein  Interesse  wahren  will,  muß  unentwegt  an  der  alten 
Losung  festhalten:  Herr  im  Hause  bleiben!  {Hamh.  Nachr.,  Sept.  22,  1905). 
Der  Name  dieser  Veröffentlichung  sagt  schon  zum  Teil,  was  sie  soll:  Der 
Kunst,  besonders  der  Dichtung  und  dem  Schrifttum,  dienen  [Blätter  für  die 
Kunst,  Oct.  1892).  The  older  simple  infinitive  is  still  quite  as  common  here 
as  the  infinitive  with  zu.  The  use  of  the  simple  infinitive  may  often,  as  in  the 
next  to  the  last  example,  be  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  it  not  only  contains  the 
idea  of  apposition  but  also  has  the  force  of  an  imperative,  as  in  d.  Compare 
A.  I.  2.  a.  (2)  and  271.  I.  a. 

d.     As  an  imperative.     See  177.  I.  B.  e;  269.  2.  c;  271.  I.  a;   272.  C.  d. 

2.  The  simple  infinitive  is  used  in  a  number  of  dependent  and  independent 
relations  after  certain  very  common  auxiliaries  and  auxiliary-like  verbs.  The 
original  construction  is  little  felt  or  completely  forgotten.  This  infinitive 
stands: 

-  a.  As  object  after  the  modal  auxiliaries  dürfen,  können,  mögen,  müssen, 
sollen,  wollen,  and  in  colloquial  speech  quite  frequently  brauchen  to  need  to, 
which  has  come  under  the  influence  of  this  group,  as  it  has  assumed  one  of  the 
older  meanings  of  dürfen  and  is  in  general  by  its  new  meaning  related  to  these 
words:  Ich  will  gehen.  Du  brauchst  bloß  wollen  (in  choice  language  more 
frequently  zu  wollen),  Hannes  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  Act  2).  We 
employ  also  in  English  the  simple  infinitive  after  to  need  when  negatived,  used 
in  a  question,  and  for  the  most  part  also  when  qualified:  "He  needs  to  hurry," 
but  "He  need  not  hurry,"  "Need  he  hurry?",  and  "He  only  need  inquire  of  the 
porter." 

Note  1.  Vermögen  differing  from  mögen  requires  zu:  Die  betrübte  Stadt  vermag  sich  nicht  zu  trösten.  Earlier 
in  the  period  the  zu  could  be  omitted:    Denn  er  vermag  euch  nicht  erretten  von  meiner  Hand  (2  Kings  xviii.  29). 

Note  2.  Brauchen  only  rarely  takes  a  genitive  of  the  infinitive-substantive  instead  of  the  infinitive  with  or  with- 
out zu:    Bin  ich  doch  reich  und  brauche  Stehlens  nicht  (Grillparzer's  Die  Jüdin  von  Toledo,  2). 

Note  3.  The  perfect  infinitive  is  sometimes  employed  here  instead  of  the  correct  present:  Was  Huret  über  die 
Göttinger  Studentensitten  schreibt,  hätte  Emile  Zola  geschrieben  haben  können  (D.  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Sept. 
19U7.  p.  464). 

Note  4.  The  infinitive  is  often  omitted  as  it  can  easily  be  inferred  from  a  preceding  finite  verb:  Gehst  du  mit? 
Ich  darf  nicht  [gehen]. 

b.  As  objective  predicate  after  lassen  to  cause  (to  be  done),  have  (something 
done),  lead  to,  let,  allow:  Ich  lasse  ein  Haus  bauen  I  am  having  a  house  built. 
Ihr  Benehmen  läßt  mich  glauben,  daß  ich  ihr  nicht  gleichgültig  bin  Her  conduct 
leads  me  to  think  that  I  am  something  to  her.  Der  Oberst  ließ  die  Soldaten 
zwei  Stunden  ruhen  The  colonel  let  the  men  rest  two  hours.  Er  läßt  sich 
betrügen  He  allows  himself  to  be  deceived. 

c.  After  blasen  (see  ex.)  to  command  by  means  of  the  bugle,  heischen  to 
demand,  require,  heißen  to  bid,  direct,  tell  (order),  command,  call,  helfen  to 
help,  lehren  to  teach,  lernen  (but  verlernen  to  tmlearn  with,  zu)  to  learn,  nennen 
to  call,  name,  and  sometimes  vergessen  (usually  with  zu)  to  forget:  Ich  wende 
mich  zu  meinem  Hornisten:  „Weber!  Avancieren  blasen!"  (Liliencron's 
Krieosnovellen,  Anno  1870,  Unter  flatternden  Fahnen).  Die  Pflicht  heischt 
jetzt  handeln,  nicht  trauern  (Kronprinz  Rupprecht  von  Bayern,  Aug.  29,  1914). 
Er  hieß  ihn  sich  niedersetzen.  Sometimes,  especially  in  older  German,  Er 
hieß  mich  [mich]  niedersetzen  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  mich,  but  in  current 
German  the  repetition  is  the  more  common  usage  as  the  grammatical  conscience 
is  more  sensitive  than  formerly.  Er  lehrte  mich  lesen.  Das  nenne  ich  schlafen 
That  is  what  I  call  a  good  sleep.  Vergiß  nur  nicht,  der  Adelheidchen  guten 
Tag  sagen,  Kind  (Schulzc-Smidt's  Denk'  ich  an  Deutschland  in  der  Nacht,  II). 


185.  B.  I.  2.  d.  (1)  THE   SIMPLE    INFINITIVE 277 

Note.  After  lehren  and  lernen,  and  sometimes  after  helfen  and  heißen,  zu  may  stand  before  the  dependent  infin., 
especially  if  the  infinitive  is  modified  by  a  clause  or  a  number  of  words:  Er  lehrte  mich,  den  goldenen  Mittelweg 
zu  wählen.  Ich  will  dir  helfen  zu  lernen,  daß  es  weder  vornehm  noch  moralisch  ist,  mehr  Geld  auszugeben  als 
man  hat.  The  zu  stands  regularly  after  the  passive  here.  See  178.  2.  B.  d.  In  German  the  passive  is  in  general 
little  used  in  connection  with  an  infinitive,  except  as  described  in  178.  2.  B.  d.  Hence  He  was  directed  lo  go  is  usually 
translated  by  Man  hieß  ihn  gehen.  After  the  active  or  passive  form  of  lo  tell  (=to  order)  the  infinitive  with  to  may 
be  employed  in  English,  while  in  German  the  infinitive  clause  is  replaced  by  a  subordinate  clause  with  »  finite  verb: 
/  told  him  or  He  was  told  to  go  Ich  sagte  ihm  or  Ihm  wurde  gesagt,  daß  er  gehen  müsse. 

d.  As  objective  predicate  after  the  following:  verbs  of  perceiving,  finding, 
meeting,  and  knowing,  ahnen  to  forebode,  denken  or  sich  denken  to  imagine 
to  one's  self,  finden  (more  commonly  with  pres.  participle)  to  find,  fühlen  (and 
likewise  spüren  and  empfinden)  to  feel,  glauben  to  believe,  hören  (and  likewise 
vernehmen)  to  hear,  sehen  (and  likewise  bemerken,  merken,  erblicken,  ge- 
wahren, entdecken,  and  schauen)  to  see,  treffen  (also  with  present  participle) 
to  meet,  wähnen  to  believe,  fancy,  imagine,  wissen  to  knoiv,  but  with  zu  in  the 
sense  to  be  able  to,  knoiu  how  to;  also  after  führen  to  lead,  haben  to  have,  machen 
to  make,  tragen  to  carry,  wiegen  to  rock,  zeigen  to  show:  Ich  dachte  es  nicht 
so  arg  sein  (E.  von  Handel-Mazzetti's  Stephana  Schiuertner,  II,  chap.  VI),  or 
much  more  commonly  without  sein  in  such  cases  where  there  is  an  objective 
predicate  adjective:  Ich  dachte  es  mir  nicht  so  arg.  Man  denke  sich  (dat.) 
diese  Herren  in  diesen  Felsen  hausen  (Gregorovius's  Korsika,  1,  14).  Da 
fand  ich  sie  eines  Morgens  mit  kaum  noch  umflorten  Augen  auf  ihren  Kissen 
liegen  (Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alten  Doktors,  p.  99).  Er  saß  noch  lange,  bis 
der  Mond  schon  unter  war  und  er  alles  schlafen  glaubte  (Storm's  Ein  Doppel- 
gänger, p.  213).  Er  spürte  seine  Augen  feucht  werden  (Maria  Janitschek's 
Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  Vllj.  Der  unten  Stehende  gewahrte  nun  endUch  auch  den 
Jungen  wie. eine  große  schwarze  Raupe  um  den  Baum  herumhängen  (Storm's 
Wann  die  Äpfel  reif  sind).  Ich  sehe  sie  tanzen  I  see  her  dancing.  Ich  traf 
ihn  einmal  in  tiefe  Betrachtungen  versunken  vor  einem  Obstladen  stehen 
(Dahn's  Erinnerungen,  IV,  p.  135).  .  .  .  losbrechen  gegen  den  Einen,  den 
sie  schon  mit  abgehauenen  Gliedern  und  aus  Todeswunden  blutend  am  Boden 
liegen  wähnen  (Engel's  Ein  Tagebuch,  I,  p.  viii).  Wenn  ich  euch  da  sitzen 
und  frieren  weiß  (P.  Heyse's  Nov.,  150)  When  I  know  that  you  are  sitting  there 
freezing,  but  Er  weiß  solche  Schwierigkeiten  geschickt  zu  lösen  He  knows  how 
to  solve  such  difficulties  adroitly.  Er  führte  ihn  am  Arme  spazieren  He  took  him 
out  walking,  holding  him  by  the  arm.  Er  hat  das  Geld  im  Kasten  liegen. 
Das  machte  mich  laut  auflachen.  Er  macht  von  sich  reden.  ,,Wo  warst  du 
denn?"  „Meine  Sorgen  etwas  spazieren  tragen"  (Maria  Janitschek's  Elfter 
Mutter  Sieg,  IX).  Hab'  ich  doch  schon  manchmal  ein  großes  Kind  damit 
schlafen  gewiegt  (Goethe's  Egmont,  Act  3).  Man  zeigte  uns  das  Schloß 
Chauvan  blinken  (id.). 

We  sometimes  find  the  infinitive  with  zu  after  haben  and  machen  in  accordance 
with  the  general  trend  from  the  simple  to  the  prepositional  infinitive:  Das 
macht  mich  zu  lachen  (Goethe).  Er  hat  das  Geld  im  Kasten  zu  liegen.  The 
infinitive  with  zu  is  no  longer  thus  found  in  the  literary  language  after  machen, 
and  after  haben  it  has  never  been  used  here,  altho  it  is  common  in  dialect.  In 
connection,  however,  with  a  dat.  of  the  person  interested,  machen  usually 
requires  zu  before  the  dependent  infinitive  according  to  A.  I.  6:  Das  macht  mir 
zu  schaffen  that  gives  me  a  good  deal  of  work,  keeps  me  busy.  Also  haben 
may  be  similarly  used  with  zu;   see  (2)  below. 

Of  course,  a  full  clause  must  be  used  after  all  these  verbs  where  the  reference 
is  to  a  thought  as  a  whole:  Ich  sah  ihn  kommen,  but  Ich  sah,  daß  er  zu  spät 
kam. 

(1)  The  infinitive  after  the  verbs  in  the  above  list  is  in  many  cases  the  mutilated  form  of  the 
present  participle,  which  once  stood  here,  and  which  is  still  in  case  of  machen  preferred  in  certain 
expressions,  and  in  case  of  sehen  and  erblicken  is  still  occasionally  used,  and  in  case  of  (sich) 
denken,  finden,  glauben,  treffen,  wähnen,  and  zeigen  is  used  quite  freely:  Das  macht  ihn  rasend. 
Er  macht  sein  Recht  an  die  Krone  geltend  (formerly  also  gelten,  as  in  Goethe's  Dichtung  und 
Wahrheit,  II,  7)  He  urges  the  validity  of  his  claims  upon  the  throne.  Der  hat  zu  Protokoll 
gegeben,  daß  er  das  Mädchen  im  Mondschein  von  ihres  Vaters  Dach  kletternd  und  im  Walde 
laufend  gesehen  habe  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome,  chap.  x). 

In  English  there  is  a  distinct  shade  of  meaning  between  the  participle  and  infinitive  here. 
Compare  /  saw  him  coming  up  the  road  and  /  saw  him  come.     The  participle  has  descriptive 


278 SIMPLE    INFINITIVE   AFTER   TUN       185.  B.  I.  2.  J.  (1) 

force,  while  the  infinitive  calls  attention  to  a  statement  of  fact.  In  German  no  such  distinction 
is  regularly  made  between  infinitive  and  participle,  for  in  some  cases  the  participle  is  rarely  used  or 
not  employed  at  all.  In  some  cases,  however,  this  distinction  seems  to  be  observed:  Kaiser 
Otto  III.  fajid  den  ersten  deutschen  Kaiser  auf  einem  steinernen  Stuhl  sitzend,  die  Krone  auf 
dem  Haupt,  den  Reichsapfel  in  der  Hand  (MoltkeJ.  Im  Kriege  finden  wir  den  König  Opfer 
vollziehen  (Ranke).  In  earlier  periods  the  infinitive  and  participle  were  both  found  with  a 
number  of  these  verbs.  As  a  fixed  differentiation  did  not  develop,  and  the  participle  in  careless 
pronunciation  lost  its  final  d  and  thus  became  identical  in  form  with  the  infinitive,  the  latter 
construction  in  most  cases  became  established  and  the  possibility  of  making  a  beautiful  shade 
of  meaning  was  lost. 

(2)  Haben  is  used  in  a  number  of  idiomatic  expressions,  of  which  some  require  no  zu  before 
the  infin.,  while  others  require  it:  Er  hat  gut  reden  (construed  as  a  substantive  in  the  ace.) 
It  is  easy  for  him  to  talk.  Er  hat  zu  reden  (modal  verbal)  He  has  to  make  a  speech.  Er  hat 
hier  nichts  zu  befehlen  He  has  no  right  to  give  commands  here.  Er  hat  mit  mir  zu  tim  He  has 
to  do  with  me.  See  A.  I.  6.  In  English  the  old  objective  form  without  to  is  still  found  In  a 
few  expressions:  I  had  (past  subjunctive  =  I  should  regard)  as  lief  (=  lieb  =  pleasant)  go  as 
stay  Ich  möchte  ebenso  gem  gehen  als  bleiben.  You  had  better  go  at  once  Sie  sollten  Heber 
sogleich  gehen.  /  had  rather  remain  Ich  möchte  lieber  bleiben.  In  English  the  prepositional 
passive  Infinitive  is  freely  used  after  to  have,  but  In  C'rerman  this  construction  is  usually  replaced 
by  others:  That  has  to  be  done  Das  muß  getan  werden,  or  Das  hat  man  zu  tim.  He  will  have  to 
be  told  sooner  or  later  Man  wird  es  ihm  früher  oder  später  sagen  müssen.  The  passive  prep- 
ositional Infinitive  occasionally  occurs  In  German,  but  It  Is  usually  censured  by  grammarians: 
Beim  Durchtrennen  der  Leber  hatten  drei  starke  Schlagadern  unterbimden  zu  werden  {Deutsche 
Zeit.,  Feb.,  1902),  instead  of  mußten  tmterbimden  werden. 

(3)  This  use  of  the  Infinitive  after  wissen  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  case  where  an 
infin.  in  an  elliptical  clause  apparently  follows  wissen,  but  in  reality  is  dependent  upon  a  modal 
auxlllarv'  understood:  Sie  wußte  nicht,  was  [sie]  aus  der  Sache  machen  [sollte]  She  did  not 
know  what  to  make  out  of  the  affair. 

(4)  In  English  the  simple  infinitive  is  used  after  a  number  of  these  verbs  in  the  active,  while 
the  infinitive  with  to  is  usually  employed  after  the  passive:  I  heard  him  say,  I  made  him  come; 
but  He  was  heard  to  say.  He  ivas  made  to  come.  Such  a  passive  construction  is  truly  character- 
istic of  English,  which  can  transform  any  active  construction  into  a  passive  one  by  putting  the 
object  into  the  nominative  and  the  main  verb  into  passive  form,  elsewhere  preserving  the  con- 
struction as  nearly  as  possible  as  in  the  active,  as  if  the  verb  formed  with  its  modifiers  a  com- 
pound. The  passive  is  not  used  here  at  all  in  German.  The  transitives  admitting  of  the  pres- 
ent participle  construction  after  them  instead  of  the  infinitive  sometimes  form  a  passive,  where 
however  the  present  participle  is  always  employed:  Henning  (name)  wiurde  öfters  schlafend  auf 
Ausguck  getroffen  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Dec.  10,  1904).  English  may  also  employ  the 
present  participle,  sometimes  exclusively,  sometimes  alongside  of  the  more  common  infinitive. 
There  is  often  differentiation  of  meaning  as  in  the  active:  (descriptive)  He  was  found  sleeping; 
(statement  of  fact)  He  was  found  to  be  sleeping. 

e.     After  tun: 

(1)  In  the  common  expression  nichts  tun:  Er  tut  nichts  als  klagen  He  does 
nothing  but  complain. 

(2)  For  emphasis,  when  instead  of  the  simple  finite  verb  the  infinitive  of 
the  desired  verb  is  used  dependent  upon  tun.  Emphatic  words  are  usually- 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  clause  or  sentence,  but  a  finite  form  of  th^  verb  rarely. 
If  the  verb  is  to  be  made  emphatic,  the  infinitive,  which  alone  contains  the 
verbal  meaning  and  hence  the  important  part  of  the  verb,  now  usually  intro- 
duces the  clause  and  is  then  followed  by  a  finite  form  of  the  auxiliary  tun,  which 
merely  marks  the  verbal  function:  Loben  tat  sie  nicht  viel,  sie  hielt's  vom 
Überfluß  She  rarely  praised  anybody,  as  she  thought  it  superfluous.  Kutscher 
will  ich  wohl  sein  und  auf  dem  Bocke  sitzen,  aber  selbst  ziehen,  das  tue  ich 
nicht. 

In  dialect,  also  in  the  language  of  children  and  clumsy  speakers  in  general, 
tun  is  often  used  with  a  dependent  infinitive  which  is  not  restricted  to  the  first 
place  in  the  proposition.  This  construction,  which  first  appeared  about  1200, 
differs  from  the  later  development,  the  emphatic  form  described  above,  in  that 
it  is  a  mere  periphrasis  for  the  simple  verb:  Da  täten  sie  sich  trennen  =  Da 
trennten  sie  sich.  In  S.G.  often  in  the  passive:  Gelt,  das  war'  Euch  so  das 
Rechte,  wenn  für  jeden  einzelnen  von  Euch  ein  besonderes  Kirchengesetz 
gemacht  werden  tat'!  (Karl  Ettlinger's  Das  Beschwerdebuch,  p.  32).  For  ir- 
regular past  tense  in  this  construction  see  210.  a.  In  older  English  the  do-iorm. 
was  thus  used  promiscuously  with  the  simple  form  of  the  verb  without  a  dif- 
ference of  meaning,  but  later  a  differentiation  took  place,  so  that  the  do-iorm. 
has  become  fixed  in  the  emphatic,  negative,  and  interrogative  form  of  state- 


185.  B.  I.  5.    SIMPLE  INFINITIVE  AS  BEARER  OF  THOUGHT         279 

ment:  It  does  matter.  It  doesn't  matter.  It  doesn't  matter.  Does  it  matter? 
Does  it  matter?  Doesn't  it  matter?  Doesn't  it  matter?  Notice  that  in  English 
the  do-iorm.  is  always  accented  when  the  statement  is  emphatic,  while  in  German 
the  infinitive  receives  the  stress  and  usually  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the 
proposition.  The  German  emphatic  form  does  not  correspond  closely  to  the 
English,  for  it  is  only  used  to  emphasize  the  simple  verb,  not  to  emphasize  the 
statement.  German  uses  in  the  emphatic  form  of  statement  some  adverb 
where  English  employs  a  stressed  auxiliary  or  copula :  Ich  arbeite  ja  (unstressed ) ! 
I  do  work,  but  the  ja  is  strongly  stressed  to  answer  affirmatively  in  emphatic 
language  an  expressed  doubt  or  negation^  Es  ist  ja  so  in  answer  to  Es  ist  nicht 
so.  Wer  in  aller  Welt  schreibt  solchen  Unsinn?  Who  does  write  such  nonsense? 
Was  suchst  du  nur?  What  are  you  looking  for?  Was  ist  denn  aber  dabei  zu 
lachen?  What  can  they  find  in  it  to  laugh  about?  Compare  223.  XI.  A.  a. 
In  German  the  word-order  also  plays  an  important  role  here.     See  287.  B.  (7). 

Note  1.  Zu  stands  with  tun  in  the  idiom  zu  wissen  tun  to  announce,  acquaint  with,  let  somebody  know,  make 
known.     Compare  wc  do  you  to  wit  (2  Cor.  \-iii.  1). 

Note  2.  .A.fter  the  analogy  of  repeating  the  verbal  stem  in  such  correct  expressions  as  Tun  tue  ich  jetzt  sehr  wenig 
we  also  find  in  colloquial  speech  an  incorrect  repetition  of  other  verbal  stems,  as  the  infinitive,  no  longer  being  regarded 
as  an  object,  is  now  felt  to  express  only  the  verbal  meaning  and  hence  a  finite  form  of  tlie  same  verb  is  needed  to 
mark  the  verbal  function:  Haben  hab'  ich  ihn  (Fontanes  Cecile,  chap.  VI).  Reden  red't  er  viel,  aber  tun  tut  er 
nichts. 

3.  The  infinitive  without  zu  is  used  when  it  is  employed  to  repeat  an  idea 
contained  in  a  finite  verb  which  has  already  been  used,  no  matter  what  its 
construction  in  the  sentence  may  be:  „Lehne  dich  an  meine  Brust  und  schlafe." 
Der  Elsässer  ermannte  sich  wieder:  „Schlafen!  dazu  wird  keine  Zeit  mehr 
sein!"  (Rosegger). 

4.  W'here  the  situation  makes  clear  the  thought  in  questions  direct  or  in- 
direct introduced  by  some  interrogative  word  the  auxiliary  is  often  suppressed 
as  unimportant  and  the  simple  infinitive  employed:  Ja,  was  da  tun,  Engelke? 
(Fontane's  Stechlin,  chap,  i)  What  in  the  world  shall  I  do,  Engelke?  Ich  hätte 
nicht  so  beständig  mit  Ihnen  Rücksprache  genommen,  wenn  ich  sonst  gewußt 
hätte,  an  wen  mich  halten.  Sometimes  the  infinitive  with  zu  is  used:  Was 
nun  zu  tun?  (Grillparzcr's  Die  Argonauten,  2).  Daß  Liselotte  nicht  gewußt 
hätte,  wie  dagegen  anzukämpfen  (Gabriele  Renter's  Liselotte  von  Reckling, 
p.  26).  Also  other  elliptical  constructions  occur:  [ich  will]  Auch  ausfahren! 
Auch  ausfahren  mit  der  Mama!  As  the  original  construction  has  often  become 
indistinct,  the  simple  infinitive  is  now  used  very  freely,  and  in  excited  or  vivid 
language  without  precise  grammatical  relations  often  becomes  the  bearer  of 
the  thought:  Aber  wie  Klarheit  darüber  gewinnen?  Ihr  schreiben?  Wie  den 
Brief  in  ihre  Hände  spielen?  Und  dann  —  qualvoll  harren,  bis  die  Antwort 
käme,  vielleicht  vergeblich  harren!  (Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alten  Doktors,  p.  135). 

5.  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive.  Under  the  influence  of  humanistic  studies  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive,  as  in  Latin,  was  common  in  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries, 
and  still  occurs  in  the  classics  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  it  has  since  disappeared.  It  is  found 
after  such  verbs  as  achten,  denken,  glauben,  kennen,  sagen,  behaupten,  urteilen,  wissen,  wün- 
schen, <S:c.,  more  commonly  without  zu  early  in  the  period,  and  later  with  zu:  ich  achte  es 
billich  sein  (2  Pet.  i.  13),  in  revised  editions  ich  achte  es  billig  zu  sein,  but  in  such  cases  where 
there  is  an  objective  predicate  adjective,  participle,  or  prepositional  phrase,  it  is  now  more  com- 
mon to  drop  the  sein:  Ich  achte  es  billig,  or  more  frequently  Ich  achte  es  für  billig;  now  not 
Ich  glaubte  ihn  glücklich,  im  Recht  zu  sein,  but  Ich  glaubte  ihn  glücklich,  im  Recht.  Hier 
ruhet  Martin  Faulermann,  wenn  man  den  ruhen  sagen  kann,  der  seinen  Lebtag  nichts  getan 
(Weckherlin).  In  Lessing  it  is  especially  common  in  relative  clauses:  Dieser  Äschines,  den  er 
ein  so  elendes  Leben  zu  führen  glaubt.  The  infinitive  is  now  replaced  by  a  subordinate  clause 
with  or  without  daß:  Dieser  Äschines,  von  dem  er  glaubt,  daß  er  ein  so  elendes  Leben  führe. 
Ich  weiß,  daß  er  wohl  ist  /  know  hint  to  be  well.  As  can  be  seen  by  the  English  translation  of 
this  last  sentence  the  infinitive,  once  in  use  in  German,  has  been  retained  in  English.  Char- 
acteristic of  modern  English  is  the  retention  of  the  infinitive  even  in  the  passive  form  of  state- 
ment in  accordance  with  the  general  tendency  in  modern  English  to  retain  in  the  passive  state- 
ment the  active  form  with  the  exception  that  the  object  becomes  nominative  or  in  case  of  two 
objects  the  indirect  object  becomes  nominative:  (active)  He  declared  it  to  be  true  Er  behauptete, 
es  sei  wahr,  or  daß  es  wahr  sei,  in  the  passive:  It  was  declared  to  be  true  Es  wurde  behauptet, 
daß  es  wahr  sei.  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  English  and  German  usage  here  see  272.  C.  g.  Of 
course,  the  simple  infinitive  is  used  after  glauben  and  wissen  where  it  has  the  force  of  a  present 
participle  as  described  in  2.  d  above. 


280 PERF.  PART.  USED  FOR  PERF.  INFIN.  185.  B.  II. 

II.     Form  of  the  Infinitive  to  Denote  a  Past  Act. 

In  the  different  constructions  described  in  I,  above,  the  infinitive  stands 
uniformly  only  when  it  has  present  force.     In  case  its  force  would  be  past, — 

a.  It  assumes  the  form  of  the  perf.  infin.  after  the  modal  auxiliaries  and  the 
auxiliary  werden:  Er  will  es  gesehen  haben  He  pretends  to  have  seen  it.  Er 
wird  jetzt  wohl  geschrieben  haben  He  has  probably  written  by  this  time. 

Nole.  The  perf.  infin.  depending  upon  these  modal  auxiharies  should  not  be  confounded  with  another  construc- 
tion having  exactlv  the  same  form,  but  a  quite  different  meaning— namely,  haben  in  the  infinitive  depending  upon 
a  modal  auxiliary.' and  having  on  the  other  hand  a  perf.  part,  with  passive  force  depending  upon  itself:  Ich  wollte 
alles  historisch  erklärt  haben  I  wanted  to  have  everything  explained  from  a  historical  standpoint.  More  frequent 
and  forcible  than  haben  is  wissen:  Numa  wollte  keine  Gottheit  in  menschlicher  oder  tierischer  Gestalt  vorgestellt 
wissen  Numa  did  not  want  to  have  any  god  represented  in  the  form  of  man  or  beast.  Also  sehen  is  thus  used:  Er 
wollte  diese  Frage  mit  heiterer  Gelassenheit  behandelt  sehen  He  wanted  to  have  this  question  discussed  with  cheer- 
ful composedness. 

h.  Except  often  in  the  subject  relation  (see  1.  a  above,  under  I),  it  assumes 
the  form  of  the  perf.  part,  in  all  the  other  constructions  in  I:  in  the  subject 
relation:  Frisch  gewagt  [haben]  ist  halb  gewonnen  [haben].  In  older  German 
the  auxiliaries  haben  and  sein  were  often  omitted  here  in  the  compound  tense 
forms  after  the  analogy  of  their  absence  in  participial  clauses  as  explained  in 
183.  2.  C.  c.  This  older  usage  has  in  large  measure  passed  away,  but  it  persists 
tenaciously  here  in  a  very  large  number  of  pithy  old  sayings,  preserved  as  it 
were  by  the  charm  of  the  terse  apt  expression:  Aufgeschoben  (subject)  ist  nicht 
aufgehoben  (predicate)  Having  deferred  a  matter  is  not  the  same  as  having 
given  up  the  idea  altogether.  [Es  ist]  Besser  schlecht  gefahren,  als  zu  Fuß 
gegangen.  Often  also  in  the  predicate  relation:  Das  heißt  schlecht  geworfen 
That  was  a  bad  throw.  Das  heißt  gelogen  That  was  what  people  call  lying. 
Das  heißt  recht  den  Nagel  auf  den  Kopf  getroffen.  Dies  ist  natürlich  zu  weit 
gegangen  This  is  of  course  going  too  far,  or  to  bring  out  the  force  of  the  perf. 
part.  Here  of  course  he  went  too  far.  Das  war  denn  aber  doch  wohl  etwas  zu 
viel  verlangt  But  that  was  surely  asking  a  little  too  much.  Das  hieße  den 
Bock  zum  Gärtner  gesetzt  That  would  be  making  the  goat  the  gardener.^  Das 
heiße  ich  geschlafen  (objective  predicate).  There  is  little  difference  in  any 
of  these  sentences  between  the  perfect  infinitive  and  the  simple  infinitive,  so 
that  instead  of  the  last  example  we  may  say:  Das  heiße  ich  schlafen.  As  the 
perfect  infinitive  here  often  refers  to  a  definite  past  act  it  may  perhaps  emphasize 
the  idea  of  actuality.  On  the  other  hand,  the  perfect  infinitive,  altho  common 
in  a  few  set  expressions,  is  not  so  widely  used  as  the  simple  infinitive.  In 
imperative  function,  however,  the  perfect  infinitive  has  become  a  great  favorite, 
maintaining  itself  here  well  as  over  against  the  simple  infinitive  and  usually 
differentiating  itself  from  it  in  meaning,  as  described  in  177.  \.  B.  d  and  Note 
thereunder.  In  some  cases,  as  after  the  verbs  in  I.  2.  d,  the  perf.  part,  is  the 
original  construction,  not  an  elliptical  perf.  infin.:  Er  fühlte  sich  gekränkt 
(objective  predicate).  Ich  will  ihn  bestraft  sehen.  Ein  Wort  macht  alles 
ungeschehen  (objective  pred.)  One  word  will  smooth  over  the  unpleasant  feeling 
(bring  it  about  that  all  will  be  as  if  the  unpleasantness  had  not  happened). 

186.  Two  Infinitives  Connected  by  als. 

When  two  infinitives  connected  by  als  depend  upon  one  of  the  verbs  mentioned 
above  as  not  requiring  zu  with  the  dependent  infinitive,  they  both  are  usually 
without  the  zu,  but  not  infrequently  the  second  infinitive  takes  zu  contrary  to 
rule:  Mit  der  Welt  muß  niemand  leben,  als  wer  sie  brauchen  will;  ist  er  brauch- 
bar und  still,  sollt'  er  sich  lieber  dem  Teufel  ergeben,  als  zu  tun,  was  sie  will 
(Goethe).  Compare:  I  had  rather  be  a  doorkeeper  in  the  house  of  my  God, 
than  to  dwell  in  the  tents  of  wickedness  (Psalm  Ixxxiv.  10).  When  two  infinitives 
used  as  subjects  are  in  the  same  manner  connected  by  als,  they  usually  both 
take  zu  or  both  are  without  it,  but  often  contrary  to  rule  the  one  takes  zu  while 
the  other  is  without  it:  Aber  Brücken  abzubrechen  ist  leichter  als  aufbauen 
(Boy-Ed),  instead  of  sie  aufzubauen.  The  first  infinitive  may  be  without  the 
zu  while  a  later  one  takes  it. 

187.  Passive  Infinitive  in  Active  Form. 

The  active  infin.  often  assumes  passive  meaning  in  the  following  construc- 
tions: 


188. PASS.  INFIN.  IN  ACT.  FORM  —  INFIN.-SUBST. 281 

1.  After  heißen,  hören  (sometimes  also  zuhören),  lassen,  sehen,  and  less 
commonly  fühlen:  Ich  höre  ihn  kommen.  Ich  habe  müssen  zuhören,  Sie 
herabsetzen,  erniedrigen,  und  konnte  und  durfte  Sie  nur  halb  verteidigen 
(Goethe's  Die  Leiden  des  jungen  Werthers,  am  16.  März).  Er  ließ  den  Arzt 
holen  He  had  the  doctor  sent  for.  Wir  mußten  die  Tür  vom  Schlosser  öffnen 
lassen  We  had  to  have  the  door  opened  by  a  locksmith.  Ich  lasse  mir  von  dir 
nichts  befehlen.  Wir  sahen  den  Stein  empor  winden  We  saw  the  stone  being 
drawn  up.  We  occasionally  find  the  passive  form  instead  of  the  active:  Wer 
hat  je  gesehen  jemand  also  besprenget  werden?  (Luther's  Werke,  vol.  49, 
p.  132).  Und  da  sitzest  du  nun  und  siehst  ihn  von  dem  braven  germanistischen 
Pinsel  von  Vater  und  der  lächerlichen  Hexe  seiner  Mutter  immer  mehr  ver- 
zogen werden  (Raabe's  Der  Lar,  p.  1.58).  The  passive  form  is  not  infrequent 
after  lassen:  Die  Sage  läßt  Kronos  von  Zeus  entthronen  or  entthront  werden. 
The  passive  form  seems  the  rule  in  case  of  the  verb  gebären:  Den  Bildhauer 
Thorwaldsen  lassen  einige  auf  der  Überfahrt  von  Island,  andere  in  Kopenhagen 
geboren  werden  (August  Gebhardt).  Instead  of  a  passive  form  of  the  infinitive 
we  often  find  after  hören,  fühlen,  sehen  a  perfect  participle,  which  in  case  of 
transitives  is  here  as  elsewhere  passive  in  force:  Alt,  sich  beim  Vornamen 
gerufen  hörend,  hob  schnell  den  Kopf  (Georg  Wasner's  Der  rote  Faden,  II). 
Kr  fühlte  sich,  sah  sich  von  allen  verlassen.  The  employment  of  the  perfect 
participle  here  with  verbal  force  has  developed  out  of  its  adjective  use  as  objective 
predicate  (262.  III.  2.  B):  Er  fühlte  sich  gekränkt.  We  can  often  replace  the 
infinitive  with  passive  force  by  a  subordinate  clause  with  a  passive  verb:  Ich 
hörte,  wie  er  gerufen  wurde  instead  of  Ich  hörte  ihn  rufen.  The  infinitive  was 
originally  a  noun,  hence  the  reluctance  to  give  it  the  passive  form  of  a  verb 
and  the  feeling  that  it  should  be  replaced  by  other  more  expressive  constructions 
in  the  passive  rather  than  be  treated  as  a  verb.  On  the  other  hand,  as  it  has 
in  the  course  of  time  acquired  considerable  verbal  force,  there  is  a  tendency 
after  lassen  and  sehen  to  give  it  passive  form  in  accordance  with  its  present-day 
verbal  force. 

a.  Sometimes  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  infin.  is  active  or  passive:  Ich  hörte  ihn  rufen  means 
I  heard  him  calling,  or  heard  him  called  by  someone.  See  1  above  for  a  clear  passive  form  of 
this  sentence. 

b.  Formerly  also  machen  belonged  to  this  list:  Man  tat  alles,  um  sich  von  dem  König  be- 
merken zu  machen  (Goethe's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  II,  7).  Occasionally  still:  Die  ,, große 
Zeit"  hob  ihn  selbst  über  schweren  persönlichen  Kummer,  der  ihn  eben  erst  betroffen  hatte, 
hinweg  und  machte  diesen  „leichter  tragen"  (Caroline  Vicker  in  Westermanns  Monatshefte, 
June,  1905,  p.  407). 

2.  After  certain  other  verbs.     See  180.  A.  a,  b,  c. 

The  Infinitive-Substantive. 

188.  Different  from  the  preceding  infinitives,  which  can  be  used  substantively 
either  as  subject  or  object,  is  the  abstract  neuter  infinitive-substantive,  which 
may  take  an  article  or  other  adj.  modifiers  before  it  and  is  declined  as  any  noun 
in  -en  and  is  written  with  a  capital  letter:  Das  unaufhörliche  Weinen  des 
Kändes  the  constant  weeping  of  the  child.  Ich  bin  des  Treibens  müde.  Der 
Erben  Weinen  ist  ein  heimlich  Lachen  (proverb).  Auf  Lachen  folgt  Weinen. 
Mit  Warten  wird  nichts  erreicht.  It  is  the  presence  of  the  article  (or  other 
modifying  adj.)  that  distinguishes  this  substantive  from  the  verbal  infin.  used 
as  subject  or  object,  and  when  these  modifying  words  do  not  stand  before  the 
substantive  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  between  them:  Er  lernt 
schreiben.  Er  lernt  nicht  nur  Schreiben  und  Lesen,  sondern  auch  Geographie 
und  Geschichte.  In  the  first  sentence,  schreiben  expresses  an  activity,  hence 
is  the  verbal  infinitive,  in  the  second,  Schreiben  a  branch  of  study,  hence  a  noun. 

Sometimes  the  compound  tenses  of  the  infinitive — the  perfect  active  and  the 
passive  forms — are  used  as  substantives:  jene  dumpfe  Angst  des  Versäumt- 
habens (C.  Lara  in  Westermanns  Monatshefte,  Jan.  1905,  p.  548),  das  träge  und 
knechtschaffene  Sichgenügenlassen  am  Regiertwerden  von  oben  herab   {Der 


282 FORMATION    OF  THE   PRESEiNT    PERFECT 188. 

Türmer,  Jahrgang  \\,  p.  352),  das  Gefühl  des  Hinausgestoßenseins  (Boy-Ed). 
Das  Gefiihl  des  Gepriigeltwordenseins  trieb  ihm  die  Schamröte  in  die  Wangen 
(Georg  Edward).  Eine  solche  Partei  bietet  keinen  Schutz  gegen  das  Über- 
laufenwerden des  Deutschen  Reiches  von  der  roten  Flutwelle  {Hamburger 
Nachrichten,  Jan.  7,  1912). 

In  earlier  periods  the  infinitive-substantive  had  in  one  respect  more  sub- 
stantive force  than  now,  for  it  could  not  show  tense  and  voice  as  to-day.  Thus 
in  M.H.G.  the  form  was  active,  altho  the  meaning  was  clearly  passive,  as  in 
Welt  ir  uns  toetens  machen  vri,  |  so  ritet  da?  i'  u  verre  si  {Parzival  259,  11-12) 
Wollt  Ihr  uns  von  dem  Schicksal  des  Getötetwerdens  befreien,  so  entfernt 
Euch  von  uns.  Compare  b.  The  old  active  form  with  passive  force,  however,  is 
still  often  used :   Der  Räuber  fürchtet  sich  vor  dem  Hängen. 

a.  In  the  case  of  the  formation  of  substantives  from  reflexive  verbs  many 
now  prefer,  especially  in  case  of  the  compound  tense  form,  to  retain  the  reflexive 
pronoun  as  it  has  become  closely  associated  with  the  verbal  stem:  Das  immer 
tiefere  Sichversenken  in  das  Wort  des  Herrn  the  penetrating  ever  deeper  into 
God's  Word,  das  Bewußtsein  des  Sichfreigemachthabens.  Ich  will  nicht 
einmal  dagegen  einwenden,  daß  diese  unsere  Schwäche  ein  freiwilliges  Sich- 
begeben der  Stärke  sein  dürfte  (Boy-Ed's  Die  säende  Hand,  p.  178).  On  the 
other  hand  in  case  of  the  simple  infinitive  many  still  prefer  the  older  form 
without  the  reflexive  pronoun:  Da  war  ein  Freuen,  wenn  er  wieder  kam. 
Eine  Hinneigung  zur  Natur,  ein  inniges  Vertiefen  in  ihre  Schönheiten  (H.  R. 
Jockisch  in  Westermanns  Monatshefte,  Feb.  1907).  The  old  form  has  become 
fixed  in  a  few  nouns,  as  das  Befinden  health,  das  Betragen  conduct,  das  Be- 
sinnen reflection.     See  also  249.  II.  2.  G. 

b.  Sometimes  in  early  N.H.G.,  as  quite  commonly  in  earlier  periods,  the  infinitive-sub- 
stantive could,  like  the  verbal  infinitive,  take  an  object  in  the  ace:  Wollen  habe  ich  wol  |  Aber 
volbringen  das  gute  (now  Vollbringen  des  Guten)  finde  ich  nicht  (Rom.  vii.  18).  The  object 
in  this  construction  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  object  of  a  verbal  noun  and  also  that  of  a  verb. 
It  stands  after  the  infinitive-substantive  just  as  the  object  of  a  verbal  noun,  and  it  is  in  the  ace. 
just  as  the  object  of  a  verb.  The  object  of  the  infinitive-substantive  is  now  usually  in  the  gen., 
which  shows  that  the  infin.  is  now  felt  as  a  true  noun. 

189.  The  infinitive-substantive,  which  has  much  the  same  force  as  the 
prepositional  infinitive  or  the  gerund  in  English  (as.  To  read  is  profitable,  or 
Reading  is  profitable),  has  an  abstract  meaning  bordering  upon  the  abstract 
verbal  nouns  ending  in  -ung  and  those  formed  from  the  past  tense  of  strong 
verbs.  The  relation  of  this  infinitive-substantive  to  the  other  verbal  nouns 
is  that  the  former  is  more  abstract  and  hence  cannot  usually  take  a  plural, 
while  more  of  the  concrete  enters  into  the  latter,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing instructive  sentence:  Das  Unterscheiden  ist  nicht  leicht,  denn  der 
Unterschied  zwischen  zwei  Dingen  ist  oft  so  versteckt,  daß  die  Unterscheidung 
des  einen  von  dem  andern  kaum  möglich  ist.  This  close  distinction  cannot 
always  be  detected  so  clearly  as  in  the  preceding  sentence,  and  hence  they  are 
often  confounded,  and  we  find  the  infinitive-substantive  instead  of  one  of  the 
other  more  correct  verbal  nouns,  especially  as  the  infin.  is  a  favorite  construc- 
tion :  das  Aufgehen  der  Sonne  instead  of  der  Aufgang  der  Sonne  the  rise  of  the 
sun;  das  Anfertigen  des  Sarges  instead  of  die  Anfertigung  des  Sarges  the 
making  of  the  coltin. 

Formation  of  Compound  Tenses. 

190.  1.  A.  The  present  perfect,  indicative  and  subjunctive,  of  transitive 
and  most  intransitive  verbs  is  formed  with  the  present  indie,  or  subj.  of  haben 
and  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated,  but  some  intransitives 
(see  191)  form  this  tense  with  the  present  of  sein  and  the  perfect  participle: 
(indie.)  ich  habe  gelobt,  but  ich  bin  gefallen;  (subj.)  ich  habe  gelobt,  but  ich 
sei  gefallen.     For  origin  of  this  tense  form  see  191.  I.  1  and  4  (2nd  par.). 

The  imperative  in  this  tense  has  only  two  persons,  the  second  and  third. 
The  second  person  is  formed  with  the  present  imperative  of  haben  or  sein  and 


190.  l.B.b.         FORMATION   OF  THE    PAST    PERFECT 283 

the  perfect  participle,  and  the  third  person  with  the  present  subjunctive  of 
haben  or  sein  and  the  perfect  participle:  Habe  nie  umsonst  gelebt!  (Gutzkow). 
Ins  Grab!  Die  Schaufeln  her!  Er  sei  gewesen  (Ivleist's  Käthchen,  2,  8) 
Into  the  grave  with  him!     Bring  on  the  shovels!     May  he  soon  have  ceased  to  be! 

a.  Another  form  of  the  pres.  perf.  indie,  and  subj.  is  now  common  even  in  good  authors, 
however,  with  a  shade  of  difference  in  meaning.  To  the  regular  pres.  perf.  form,  gehabt  is  often 
added  if  the  verb  is  trans.,  or  gewesen  if  the  verb  is  intrans.,  to  indicate  that  a  past  condition 
or  state  of  things  is  to  be  represented  rather  than  a  past  act:  Nicht  auf  dir  lastet  die  Schuld, 
du  hast  dein  Herz  der  Liebe  nicht  verschlossen  gehabt  (Jensen's  Das  Bild  im  Wasser,  p.  433). 
Wie  ich  erschrocken  gewesen  bin!  (Spielhagen's  Sturmflut,  3,  30). 

b.  Omission  of  Tense  Auxiliaries  in  the  Present  Perfect  and  Past  Perfect.  The  auxiliaries 
haben  and  sein  are  sometimes  omitted  here: 

(1)  In  the  subordinate  clause,  only  occasionally  in  plain  prose,  much  more  commonly  in 
poetr^':  Die  alten  Rechte,  wie  wir  sie  ererbt  [haben]  von  unsern  Vätern,  wollen  wir  bewahren 
(Schiller's  Tell,  2,  2).  Er  wußte  auch  ganz  genau,  wer  dem  Attentat  die  ausführende  Hand 
geliehen  [hatte]  (Hans  Hoffmann's  hvan  der  Schreckliche,  VI). 

The  most  common  case  of  omitting  the  auxiliary  in  plain  prose  is  where  the  same  form  re- 
occurs in  successive  subordinate  clauses  which  do  not  modify  the  same  word.  Even  if  the 
same  form  occurs  here  only  twice  it  is  felt  as  unpleasant  and  one  of  them  is  suppressed:  bis  die 
Periode,  für  die  der  Reichstag  gewählt  worden  [war],  abgelaufen  war. 

Altho  present  usage  is  not  averse  to  an  occasional  omission  of  the  auxiliary  this  freedom  has 
almost  disappeared  in  sentences  containing  a  perfect  participle  with  the  .form  of  the  infinitive: 
Wenn  er  diesen  Brief  selbst  geschrieben  [hat],  so  will  ich  ihn  anstellen,  but  Werm  er  diesen 
Brief  selbst  hat  schreiben  können,  so  will  ich  ihn  anstellen.  In  such  sentences,  however,  as 
the  last  Lessing  still  frequently  suppresses  the  auxiliary,  and  this  omission  occurs  in  rare  in- 
stances later:  Seiner  fast  unbewußt,  hatte  er  die  Richtung  eingeschlagen,  die  sein  zürnender 
Brotherr  ihn  gehen  heißen  (Helene  Raff'  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Aug.  1908,  p.  172).  At  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  omission  of  the  auxiliaries  began  to  be  quite  common 
and  this  remained  so  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  From  then  on  this  freedom 
graduallv  disappeared.  The  causes  for  the  rise  and  decline  of  this  elliptical  construction  are 
given  in'237.  1.  B.  a.  Note,  183.  1.  B.  b  and  2.  C.  c,  d,  and  185.  B.  II.  b. 

(2)  In  the  crisp  style  of  telegrams  and  also  in  familiar  style  the  auxiliaries  often  drop  out 
in  the  principal  proposition  as  they  have  weak  stress  and  are  not  felt  as  necessary  to  the  thought: 
[ich  habe]  Eben  telegraphisch  die  Angelegenheit  gelöst  (from  a  telegram),  [hast  du  dich]  Gut 
amüsiert,  Kindchen?     Also  in  lively  vivid  style.     See  183.  1.  G. 

c.  The  participle  is  usually  accented  more  strongly  than  the  auxiliary  of  tense,  but  to  empha» 
size  the  idea  that  an  activity  is  all  over  the  auxiliary  receives  the  stress:  Er  hat  |  gelebt  —  der 
Streich  des  Todes  ist  gefallen  (Schiller's  Turandot,  1,  2).  Heinrich  läuft  heute  nicht  Schlitt- 
schuh; er  ist  gelaufen  (Georg  Edward).  The  auxiliary  is  similarly  stressed  to  emphasize  the 
actuality  or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  non-actuality  of  a  past  act  or  state:  Ich  höre  auf  zu  leben, 
aber  ich  habe  gelebt  (Goethe's  Egmont,  5,  Gefängnis).  Ja,  er  hat  gefühlt  und  gewählt,  und 
ist  männlich  entschieden  (id.,  Hermann  und  Dorothea,  V,  51).  Hatt'  ich  doch  den  Burschen 
aus  dem  Weg  geräiunt!  War'  ich  doch  dabei  gewesen!  Often  with  omitted  participle:  Lina, 
das  is  Handgeld  und  bringt  uns  Glück.     Und  hat  auch  (Fontane). 

On  the  other  hand,  to  emphasize  the  idea  that  a  condition  of  things  is  past  the  German  stresses 
the  participle,  while  the  English  accents  also  here  the  auxiliary  of  tense:  Er  hat  kein  Geld  mehr, 
aber  er  hat  Geld  gehabt  (Georg  Edward)  He  has  little  money,  but  he  has  had  money.  See  also 
194.  4.  Note  2  for  examples  in  passive  form. 

B.  The  past  perf.  of  trans,  and  most  intrans.  verbs  is  formed  with  the  past 
tense  of  haben  and  the  perf.  part,  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated,  but  some  in- 
transitives (see  191)  form  this  tense  with  the  past  tense  of  sein  and  the  perf. 
part.:  (indie.)  ich  hatte  gelobt,  but  ich  war  gefallen;  (subj.)  ich  hätte  gelobt, 
but  ich  wäre  gefallen.  Originally  this  form  was  a  past  tense  just  as  the  present 
perfect  was  originally  a  present  tense,  as  explained  in  191.  I.  1  and  4  (2nd  par.) 

a.  As  in  certain  dialects  the  pres.  perf.  replaces  the  past  (see  165.  2.  b),  the  past  perf.  is  re- 
placed by  a  special  form  made  by  adding  gehabt  in  case  of  transitives  and  gewesen  in  case  of» 
intransitives  to  the  regular  pres.  perf:  Bin  ich  schuld,  daß  der  Baron  sich  im  Zimmer  bei  mir 
hat  eingeschlichen  (oerf.  for  past)?!  Ich  hab'  ihn  nicht  hinbestellt  gehabt!  (instead  of  hatte  hin- 
bestellt) (Halbe's  Das  tausendjährige  Reich,  p.  31).  Dann  hat  sich's  (=  sie  sich)  über  das 
Kind  g'worfen  (perf.  for  past),  und  hat's  so  lang  niedergedrückt  (perf.  for  past)  in  die  Kissen 
mit  ihrem  ganzen  Leib,  bis  das  Dimd'l  (=  Mädchen)  erstickt  ist  g'wesen  (instead  of  erstickt 
war)  unter  der  Last  (Telmann).     For  the  use  of  this  form  in  indirect  discourse  see  171.  2.  B.  e. 

This  formation  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  literary  language  in  the  infinitive  with  the 
force  of  the  past  perf  ct,  altho  grammarians  have  not  generally  recognized  a  past  perfect  in- 
finitive: Ludwig  scheint  sich  entfernt  zu  haben  It  seejns  that  L.  has  withdraiun,  or  L.  scheint 
sich  damals  entfernt  z-u  haben  It  seems  that  L.  withdrew  at  that  time,  but  L.  scheint  sich  entfernt 
gehabt  zu  haben  (Wustmann's  Sprachdummheiten,  p.  110,  3rd  ed.)  It  seems  that  L.had  withdrawn. 

b.  A  past  perf.  form,  corresponding  to  the  pres.  perf.  described  in  A.  a  above,  is  now  common 
in  good  authors.  The  participles  gehabt  in  case  of  transitives  and  gewesen  in  case  of  intransi- 


284 FORMATION    OF   THE    FUTURE   TENSE         190.  LB.  6. 

tives  are  added  to  the  regular  past  perf.  to  form  a  past  perf.  with  a  slight  difference  of  meaning. 
This  past  perf.  differs  from  the  regular  one  in  that  it  expresses  a  state  or  conditio7i  of  things  in- 
stead of  an  action:  Ich  hatte  den  Brief  schon  geschrieben  gehabt,  als  ich  deine  Anfrage  bekam. 
Der  einige  Monate  verreist  gewesen  war  (P.  Heyse's  Im  Paradies,  2,  347)  ivho  had  been  away 
from  town  several  months.  There  is  a  tendency  to  use  this  past  perfect  tense  form  instead  of  the 
regular  one,  even  where  the  reference  is  cleariy  to  an  act  and  not  to  a  state  or  condition:  Das 
„Adieu"  hatte  sie  genau  in  dem  nämlichen  Ton  hervorgebracht,  mit  dem  er  es  damals  an  der 
Gartenpforte  gesprochen  und  sie  drauf  erwidert  gehabt  (Jensen's  Das  Bild  im  Wasser,  p.  307). 
c.  The  auxiliaries  haben  and  sein  are  often  dropped  in  subordinate  clauses  as  in  the  case 
of  the  pres.  perf.     See  A.  b.  (1). 

C.  a.  The  future,  indie,  and  subj.,  is  formed  with  the  pres.  indie,  and  subj. 
of  werden  and  the  simple  infin.:  (indie.)  ich  werde  loben,  ich  werde  fallen; 
(subj.)  ich  werde  loben,  ich  werde  fallen. 

Nole  1.  The  Historie  Development  of  the  Future  Active  and  the  Actional  Passive.  The  explanation  of  the  infinitive 
form  here  is  given  in  G  below.  It  first  appeared  in  the  eleventh  century  but  for  a  long  time  was  little  used,  so  that 
it  did  not  become  thoroly  established  until  the  fifteenth  century.  Thus  thruout  the  M.H.G.  period  and  in  early 
N.H.G.  we  usually  find  not  the  infinitive  but  the  present  participle  here,  as  in  the  following  sentences  from  "Der 
sogenannte  St.  Gebrgener  Prediger,"  completed  July  24,  1387:  Versüchent  und  merkent,  wie  suss  Got  ist,  so  werdent 
ir  in  minnende  (p.  171)  Try  to  see  how  lovely  God  is  and  you  will  love  him.  The  present  participle  minnende  here 
in  connection  with  the  auxiliary  werden  seems  to  be  the  modern  future  tense,  but  it  is  in  fact  a  periphrastic  present 
tense  used  as  a  future  just  as  the  simple  present  tense  is  often  employed  as  a  future.  In  many  other  places  in  this 
old  book  it  is  evident  that  this  form  is  a  periphrastic  present  tense:  Recht  als  das  wachs  von  der  haissen  sunnen 
smeltzent  wirt  und  zerfliessent,  also  wirt  du  (  =  dis )  sele  smeltzende  von  der  waren  sunnen,  unserm  herren  Jhesu 
Christo  (id.,  p.  .37)  Wie  das  Wachs  von  der  heißen  Sonne  schmilzt  und  zerfließt,  so  schmilzt  die  Seele  von  der  wahren 
Sonne,  imserem  Herrn  Jesu  Christo.  In  this  old  book  as  in  general  thruout  M.H.G.  and  in  earliest  X.H.G.  there 
is  a  regular  periphrastic  conjugation:  er  wirt  smeltzent  (used  as  a  present  tense  or  a  future),  er  ward  smeltzent  (past 
tense),  er  ist  smeltzent  worden  (present  perfect).  &c.  These  periphrastic  tenses  express  the  same  time  relations  as 
the  older  simple  tenses,  but  they  have  a  different  aspect  (see  164).  Both  werden  and  the  present  participle  have  here 
their  original  literal  meaning,  so  that  both  taken  together  have  ingressive  perfective  force  (164),  calling  attention 
not  to  an  activity  or  state  as  a  whole  but  to  one  point,  the  moment  of  entrance  into  the  state  or  activity:  das  wachs 
wirt  smeltzent  und  zerfliessent  the  wax  begins  to  melt  and  dissolve,  lit.  becomes  melting  and  dissolving.  At  this 
time  just  as  also  to-day  the  perfective  type  was  also  expressed  by  means  of  prefixes,  as  explained  in  detail  in  164.  Often 
later  and  sometimes  in  the  old  book  quoted  above  the  periphrastic  forms  lose  their  original  meaning  and  assume  a 
new  force.  The  idea  of  entrance  into  an  activity  develops  into  the  idea  of  an  act  as  a  whole,  so  that  the  periphrastic 
tenses  have  the  same  force  as  the  older  simple  forms:  Du  (  =  die)  werck  du  von  tugenden  gant,  da  mit  werdent  die 
tugend  all  gefüret  und  wachsend  (p.  214)  Die  Tugenden  werden  ernährt  und  wachsen  von  den  Werken,  die  von 
den  Tugenden  kommen.  In  this  sentence  we  find  this  development  not  only  in  the  active  periphrastic  forms  but 
also  in  the  passive,  werdent  gefüret,  i.e.  the  perfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  in  connection  with  werden.  This 
development,  i.e.  the  reference  to  the  action  as  a  whole,  took  place  much  earlier  in  the  passive  forms,  indeed  was 
firmly  established  in  O.H.G.  and  thus  facilitated  the  development  in  the  active  forms.  This  change  of  meaning 
in  the  active  periphrastic  forms  does  not  represent  a  gain  to  the  language,  for  the  older  simple  tenses  have  the  same 
meaning  and  are  much  handier,  but  in  the  passive  forms  this  change  resulted  in  the  development  of  the  actional  pas- 
sive (194.  4)  and  thus  represents  real  progress,  for  there  were  no  simple  passive  forms  in  existence  and  there  was  thus 
gained  a  clear  passive  form  for  the  expression  of  action  as  over  against  the  form  with  sein  which  denoted  state:  Das 
Haus  wird  jedes  Jahr  angestrichen  (action),  but  Das  Haus  ist  angestrichen  (state). 

Thus  the  forms  in  the  active  periphrastic  system  were  on  the  one  hand  pure  ingressive  perfectives,  as  explained 
above,  or  on  the  other  hand  were  a  mere  useless  periphrasis  for  the  older  simpler  tense  forms  and  as  useless  gradually 
disappeared  from  the  literary  language  with  the  e.xception  of  the  present  indie,  now  used  in  suppositions  as  explained 
in  165.  5.  b.  Nole,  and  the  past  subjunctive,  which  has  become  a  useful  form  as  described  in  E.  a  below.  In  dialect, 
however,  the  periphrasis  has  maintained  itself  better,  as  shown  in  E.  a  below.  Also  the  ingressive  perfectives  have 
disappeared,  not,  however,  by  way  of  elimination  but  by  the  development  of  a  new  meaning.  Even  in  the  old  book 
mentioned  above  there  are  evident  signs  that  the  ingressive  present  tense  is  differentiating  itself  from  the  simple 
present  tense.  It  is  the  favorite  where  there  is  a  reference  to  the  future:  Die  sint  sälig  die  rainnes  hertzen  sint, 
won  sie  sint  Got  sehent  werdent  (p.  259)  Selig  sind,  die  reines  Herzens  sind,  denn  sie  werden  späterhin  Gott  sehen. 
The  idea  of  an  entrance  into  an  activity  naturally  suggests  the  idea  of  a  future  activity.  This  ingressive  present 
gradually  lost  its  original  force  and  developed  into  a  pure  future  tense.  The  establishment  of  the  present  ingressive 
as  a  pure  future  destroyed  the  whole  ingressive  tense-system  as  it  no  longer  had  a  present  tense  to  rest  on.  Its  place 
has  been  taken  by  anfangen  with  a  dependent  infinitive,  a  construction  that  had  from  the  start  been  competing  with 
it,  and  also  by  other  ingressive  forms,  as  explained  in  164.  The  old  ingressive  system  with  werden  and  a  dependent 
infinitive  has  been  preserved  in  certain  dialects.     See  G  below. 

Note  2.  In  M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.  the  future  was  formed  by  means  of  the  auxiliaries  wollen  and  sollen,  just 
as  in  English  to-day.  The  Low  German  dialects  also  preserve  this  older  usage.  The  literary  form  with  werden  de- 
veloped in  the  South.  It  became  fairly  well  established  in  the  fifteenth  century.  It  is  a  decided  improvement, 
as  it  expresses  the  idea  of  futurity  pure  and  simple,  while  wollen  and  sollen,  and  in  English  will  and  shall,  contain 
a  certain  element  of  modality,  implying  in  addition  to  the  idea  of  futurity  that  of  desire  and  authority.  The  use  of 
wollen  and  sollen  to  express  futurity  still  continues  in  the  infin.     See  b. 

Note  3.  The  stress  in  the  future  tense  usually  rests  upon  the  infinitive  form,  but  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  actuality 
the  tense  auxiliary  is  stressed,  often  with  the  omission  of  the  infinitive:  Wenn's  mir  nur  gelingt!  Es  wird,  es  wird! 
(Viebig). 

b.  The  future  infinitive  is  formed  with  the  infin.  of  wollen  and  the  infin. 
of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated  wherever  the  act  is  planned  by  the  subject  of  the 
sentence:  Gordon  gab  übrigens  die  Versicherung,  es  gnädig  machen  zu  wollen 
(Fontane's  Cecile,  chap,  vi)  Gordon  assured  her,  moreover,  that  he  would  not 
be  too  severe.  Man  trennte  sich  früh,  aber  doch  mit  der  Zusicherung,  am 
andern  Tage  spätestens  um  sieben  beim  Frühstück  sein  zu  wollen  (id.,  Die 
Poggenpiihls,  chap.  xiv).     Figuratively:   Es  scheint  regnen  zu  wollen. 

Wherever  the  act  is  planned  by  someone  else  than  the  subject,  or  the  outcome 
of  events  depends  upon  factors  beyond  the  control  of  the  subject  sollen  is 
employed  here :  Das  Gut  scheint  verkauft  werden  zu  sollen.  Was  die  politische 
Lage  betrifft,  so  scheint  das  neue  Regime  keinem  ernsten  Widerstand  begegnen 
zu  sollen.     Man  durfte  kaum   erwarten,  noch  so  viel  Neues  und  Beachtens- 


190.  1.  G.     FORM.  OF  FUT.  PERF.  &  PERIPHRASTIC  SUBJ. 285 

wertes  über  Friedrich  von  Hagedorn  erfahren  zu  sollen,   wie   diese   Schrift 
enthält  (Albert  Köster  in    Anzeiger  Jür  deutsches   Altertum,    XXXVI,  p.  Iö9j. 
As  yet  there  has  appeared  no  tendency  to  use  werden  here  as  in  the  indie. 

D.  The  future  perfect,  indie,  and  subj.,  is  formed  with  the  present  indie,  or 
subj.  of  werden  and  the  perfect  infinitive:  (indie.)  ich  werde  gelobt  haben, 
ich  werde  gefallen  sein;  (subj.)  ich  werde  gelobt  haben,  ich  werde  gefallen 
sein.     For  the  origin  of  this  form  see  165.  6.  a.  Note. 

E.  The  past  periphrastic  subjunctive  is  formed  with  the  past  subj.  of  werden 
and  the  simple  infinitive:  ich  würde  loben  I  should  praise,  ich  würde  fallen 
I  should  fall. 

a.  The  infinitive  has  replaced  here  the  older  present  participle.  See  G  below.  The  past 
periphrastic  subjunctive  is  in  fact  the  past  subjunctive  of  the  pecuHar  old  past  tense  described 
in  G  below,  consisting  of  the  past  tense  of  werden  and  the  present  participle  or  infinitive  of  the 
verb  to  be  conjugated.  The  indicative  of  this  past  tense  is  now  lost.  Before  it  disappeared  it 
had  become  a  mere  periphrasis  for  the  usual  simple  past  tense,  having  lost  its  original  meaning: 
Solon  wart  disen  pilgram  fragen,  wie  sein  vatter  genennet  wer  (Hans  Sachs,  Goedeke  ed.,  I, 
p.  132)  =  Solon  (name)  fragte  diesen  Pilger,  (Sic.  The  present  and  past  tense  of  this  old  peri- 
phrasis is  widely  preserved  in  the  dialects:  ich  werde  gehen  =  ich  gehe.  Ich  wurde  gehen  = 
ich  ging. 

In  the  literary  language  this  old  periphrasis  only  survives  in  the  past  subjunctive  (ich  würde 
loben,  lieben,  iS:c.),  which  has  become  a  very  useful  form.  Grammarians  would  limit  its  use  to 
the  principal  proposition  of  conditional  sentences  and  to  indirect  discourse,  but  in  accordance 
with  its  origin  as  a  past  subjunctive  it  is  often  used  more  widely,  standing  wherever  the  regular 
past  subjunctive  can  stand,  as  described  in  169.  1.  A.  a;  169.  1.  B.  a;  169.  2.  B.  a;  169.  2.  D.  a, 
and  E.  Note  3.  On  account  of  the  lack  of  clear  subjunctive  forms  here  and  the  general  dislike 
for  the  simple  forms  of  this  mood  this  usage  is  spreading,  especially  in  the  South.  The  best 
usage,  however,  instead  of  thus  using  interchangeably  the  periphrastic  and  the  simple  sul)junctive, 
inclines,  especially  in  clauses  of  manner  and  sometimes  in  conditional  clauses,  to  diiTerentiate 
them,  so  that  the  former  expresses  future  time  and  the  latter  present  time,  or  in  subordinate 
clauses  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  principal  verb:  Er  spricht  von  meinen  Besitzungen,  als 
wenn  ich  so  reich  wie  ein  Herzog  wäre  (present  time),  but  Die  sehen  nicht  aus,  als  wenn  sie  so 
bald  Brüderschaft  mit  uns  trinken  würden  (Goethe's  Egmont,  Act  -1)  (future  time).  Wie  sie 
laufen,  als  ob  sie  aus  Zucker  wären  (present  time)  und  die  schweren,  frischen  Regentropfen  an 
ihnen  lecken  und  auflösen  würden  (future  time)!  (H.  Böhlau's  Adam  und  Eva,  chap.  i).  Mir 
ist  zu  Mute,  als  ob  ich  geschlagen  würde  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  4)  (present  time), 
but  Ich  habe  überhaupt  manchmal  ein  Gefühl,  als  ob  sich  Hannes  schon  allein  wieder  'raus- 
arbeiten würde  (ib.)  (future  time).  Es  hatte  den  Anschein,  als  würde  (would)  sich  die  Speku- 
lation mehr  der  Peripherie  der  Stadt  zuwenden  (future),  but  Es  hatte  den  Anschein,  als  wendete 
{ivere  turning)  sich  die  Spekulation  mehr  der  Peripherie  der  Stadt  zu  (contemporaneity).  Wenn 
er  nur  hier  wäre!  (present  time),  but  with  reference  to  the  future:  Wenn  sie  (i.e.  die  Rosen) 
doch  nicht  welken  würden!  (H.  Böhlau's  Adam  und  Eva,  chap.  VI). 

F.  The  past  perfect  periphrastic  subjunctive  is  formed  with  the  past  subj. 
of  werden  and  the  perfect  infinitive:  ich  würde  gelobt  haben,  ich  würde  ge- 
fallen sein. 

G.  Ingressive  and  Progressive  Forms.  Rarely  in  O.H.G.  but  often  later  in 
M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.  compound  tense  forms  consisting  of  the  present, 
past,  or  present  perfect  tense  of  werden  in  connection  with  the  pres.  part,  of 
the  verb  were  used  with  ingressive  force  (164)  to  indicate  the  commencement 
of  an  action  in  the  present  or  past:  Er  wird  laufend  He  is  beginning  to  run. 
Er  ward  laufend  He  began  to  run.  See  also  C.  a.  Note  1  above.  In  the  same 
way  the  present  and  past  tense  of  sein  were  often  in  O.H.G.,  M.H.G. ,  and  early 
N.H.G.  used  with  the  present  participle  to  indicate  the  continuance  of  an 
action,  just  as  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb  in  English:  Es  waren  aber  Juden 
zu  Jerusalem  wonend  (Acts  ii.  5).  The  present  participle  in  these  construc- 
tions often  goes  over  into  the  infinitive  form:  Er  ward  laufen,  er  war  wohnen. 
The  infinitive  form  here  first  appeared  in  the  eleventh  century  after  werden 
and  after  a  slow  development  became  established  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  it  began  to  appear  after  sein  after  the  analogy  of 
usage  after  werden.  This  change  of  form  was  rendered  easy  and  natural  on 
one  hand  by  the  fact  that  the  present  participle  had  in  careless  speech  become 
identical  with  the  infinitive  in  form,  on  the  other  hand  by  the  analogy  of  the 
infinitive  after  the  auxiliary  verbs  beginnen,  sollen,  wollen,  and  müssen.  In 
M.H.G.  beginnen  was  commonly  used  with  a  simple  dependent  infinitive,  not 
with  the  prepositional  infinitive  as  to-day.     As  werden  with  the  present  par- 


286 INGRESSIVE   AND    PROGRESSIVE    FORMS  190.  1.  G. 

ticiple  in  M.H.G.  usually  had  the  same  meaning  as  beginnen  with  a  dependent 
infinitive  there  arose  a  tendency  for  werden  likewise  to  take  the  infinitive. 
Werden  also  came  under  the  influence  of  sollen,  wollen,  and  müssen,  as  they 
were  all  often  used  as  auxiliaries  to  indicate  future  time.  Hence  werden  under 
the  powerful  influence  of  all  these  four  verbs  which  took  a  dependent  infinitive 
gradually  became  itself  permanently  associated  with  the  infinitive.  The 
participial  and  infinitive  forms  in  connection  with  sein  ha\-e  lingered  on  even 
up  to  our  own  day  in  the  case  of  the  verb  vermuten:  Ich  war  mir  Sie  in  dem 
Vorzimmer  nicht  vermutend  (Lessing's  Emilia  Galotti,  2,  7).  Was  gilt's,  das 
warst  du  nicht  vermuten  (id.,  Nathan,  2,  1).  So  etwas  war  ich  vermuten 
(Milliner's  Die  Schuld,  4,  1).  Es  gibt  viele  Redensarten  für  die  Betäubung, 
die  den  Menschen  überkommt,  wenn  ihm  etwas  begegnet,  dessen  er  sich 
durchaus  nicht  vermutend  war  (Raabe's  Hastenbeck,  chap.  xüi).  In  certain 
dialects  this  old  construction  is  better  preserved  and  is  found  with  other  verbs: 
Es  ist,  als  wenn  irgend  etwas  einen  zwingen  tat',  im  Gehen  die  Augen  zuzu- 
machen, wie  wenn  eins  schlafend  war'  (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Die  Freude  am  Licht, 
p.  54).  As  these  compound  forms,  made  up  of  sein  and  the  present  participle, 
were  never  deeply  rooted  in  the  language  since  the  construction  originated  and 
flourished  only  under  the  influence  of  the  Latin  and  as  on  the  other  hand  these 
compound  forms,  as  in  the  examples  just  given  often  had  the  same  force  as 
the  simple  tense,  i.e.  had  become  a  mere  periphrasis  for  the  simple  present  or 
past  tense  and  thus  did  not  as  in  English  develop  a  sharply  dift'erentiated  mean- 
ing they  gradually  as  useless  forms  disappeared  from  the  language.  The 
English  progressive  might  possibly  have  met  the  same  fate  if  the  gerundial 
construction,  as  in  "He  is  fishing"  (from  a-fishing  from  older  on  fishing),  had 
not  developed  into  the  same  form  and  given  it  more  vigorous  life.  Also  the 
German  construction  of  werden  with  the  infinitive  has  become  obsolete  except 
in  two  very  common  cases,  where  it  has  taken  on  a  slightly  different  meaning, 
serving  as  the  regular  tense  form  of  the  future  (see  C.  a.  Note  1  above)  and  as 
a  periphrasis  for  the  past  subjunctive  (see  E.  a).  In  some  dialects,  however, 
as  in  Austria,  the  present  participle  survives  here  with  its  original  force:  So 
oft  die  Red'  auf  n  Gelbhofbauer  kommt,  wird  bei  ihm's  Radel  laufend  und  da 
haspelt  er  die  ganze  alte  Geschieht'  aber  (Anzengruber's  Krcuzclschreiher,  1,  1). 
Es  sind  etliche  streitend  worden  (Handel-Mazzetti's  Stephana  SclnvertJier ,  I). 
The  infinitive  form  is  preserved  in  N.G.  dialect:  Dat  ward  (=  wird)  regen 
(dialect  of  Glückstadt)  =  Es  fängt  an  zu  regnen.  Do  wor  (=  wurde)  he 
ween'n  (ib.)  =  Da  fing  er  an  zu  weinen.  In  the  North  this  old  form  has  in 
some  dialects  developed  into  a  mere  periphrasis  for  the  simple  form  of  the  verb, 
as  described  in  E.  a. 

The  present  participle  is  still  often  found  in  connection  with  both  werden 
and  sein,  but  it  now  has  here  only  the  force  of  an  adj.:  Er  ist  vermögend  He 
is  rich.  Gebt  jeden  Zweifel  auf.  Euer  Mann  ist  sterbend  {in  a  dying  condition) 
(Ebner-Eschenbach's  Maslans  Frau).  Ihre  Stimme  ist  ersterbend,  verhauchend 
(Hauptmann's    Versurikene  Glocke,  Act  5). 

2.  These  compound  tenses  are  often  abbreviated  by  suppressing  the  non- 
personal  part,  i.e.  participle  and  infinitive,  when  the  suppressed  words  can  easily 
be  supplied  from  the  context.  Altho  the  auxiliary  verbs  are  usually  only 
lightly  stressed  they  are  here  accented  heavily  in  order  to  bring  out  clearly 
the  idea  of  the  actuality  or  non-actuality  of  a  past  act  or  the  certainty  of  a 
future  act.     The  abbreviation  may  assume  two  forms: 

c.  The  personal  part  of  the  verb,  i.e.  the  auxiliary,  may  alone  remain,  ac- 
companied by  one  of  the  pronouns  das,  es,  was,  which  represent  the  suppressed 
non-personal  part  of  the  preceding  verb  with  all  its  modifiers,  and  thus  stand 
for  the  whole  thought  expressed  in  the  preceding  sentence:  Du  würdest  sie  ja 
nicht  gezwungen  haben?  Nein,  das  hätte  ich  nicht,  or  Nein,  das  würde  ich 
nicht  You,  certainly,  would  not  have  forced  her,  would  you?  No,  I  would  not. 
Sie  hat  gebüßt,  wahrlich  sie  hat  es  She  has  atoned  for  it,  indeed,  she  has.  Er 
hat  studiert,  was  ich  nicht  habe. 


191.  I.  4.     OMISSION  OF  A  WORD  —  USE  OF  HABEN  &  SEIN  287 

b.  The  personal  part  of  the  verb  with  its  subject  may  alone  remain,  unac- 
companied by  the  neuter  pronoun,  the  suppressed  words  easily  being  suppHed 
from  the  context :  Kann  sein,  ich  habe  sie  auch  wirklich  geliebt.  Aber  —  ich 
habe!  (Lessing's  Emilia  Galotti,  1,  1)  It  may  be  that  I  once  really  loved  her, 
but  that  is  now  all  past,  lit.  /  have  [loved  her].  Hättest  du  ihn  nehmen  mögen, 
Selma?  Gewiß  hätt'  ich  [ihn  nehmen  mögen]  Should  you  have  wanted  to 
accept  him,  Selma?  Certainly,  I  should.  Wart!  euch  werd'  ich  [kuranzen] 
Just  wait,  boys!  I'll  give  you  a  good  sound  thrashing.  ,,Wenn's  mir  nur 
gelingt!"  „Es  wird,  es  wird!"  (Clara  Viebig).  Otto:  Wir  hätten  Straußberg 
auch  ohne  ihn  bekommen!  Barbara:  Warum  habt  Ihr  nicht?  (Wildenbruch's 
Die  Quitzows,  2,  4). 

The  Use  of  haben  and  sein. 

191.  The  Germans  have  not  yet  developed  in  their  language  the  idea  of 
tense  pure  and  simple  as  in  modern  English.  In  German,  tense  is  closely 
associated  with  aspect  (see  164),  so  that  each  compound  tense  except  the  future 
has  two  different  tense  forms  for  the  two  different  aspects,  one  with  haben, 
one  with  sein.  Hence  the  use  of  haben  and  sein  as  auxiliaries  of  tense  presents 
peculiar  difficulties  to  the  English-speaking  student,  as  the  German  has  two 
auxiliaries  for  the  one  to  have  in  English. 

The  following  distinctions  between  the  use  of  haben  and  sein  are  to  be  ob- 
served : 

I.     Haben  is  used: 

1.  With  transitives:  Ich  habe  den  Brief  geschrieben  I  have  written  the 
letter,  originally  a  present  tense:  I  have  tlie  letter  in  a  zuritten  condition. 

2.  With  durative  intransitives,  i.e.  such  as  represent  an  act  as  continuing, 
in  order  to  indicate  the  completion  of  the  activity:  Ich  habe  gearbeitet,  sie 
hat  gesungen,  wir  haben  gelacht.  Sie  hat  lange  gelitten.  Er  hat  lange  geirrt 
und  geschwankt,  ehe  er  den  Boden  fand,  darin  Wurzel  zu  fassen  ihm  beschieden 
war.     Es  hat  geregnet. 

3.  With  terminate  (175.  Note,  last  par.)  intransitives  to  denote  the  comple- 
tion of  an  act  as  a  ivhole  without  reference  to  the  idea  of  duration,  but  with 
sein  according  to  4  (2nd  par.)  when  the  attention  is  directed  to  a  change  of 
place  and  to  only  one  point  of  the  activity,  either  to  the  beginning  or  to  the 
end  or  result:  Der  Schiffer  hat  (to  denote  an  act)  or  ist  (to  denote  a  change 
of  place,  the  beginning  of  the  voyage)  abgestoßen.  Er  hat  (to  denote  an  act) 
or  ist  (to  denote  the  end  of  the  act  and  the  resulting  change  of  place)  gerückt. 
Der  Habicht  hat  (act)  auf  Tauben  gestoßen  came  upon  by  chance,  but  Das 
Schiff  ist  (result)  auf  den  Grund  gestoßen.  Die  Flotte  hat  (act)  or  ist  (result) 
gelandet.  Er  hat  (act)  or  ist  (result)  über  den  Bach  gesetzt.  Er  hat  (act) 
geeilt,  zu  seinen  Eltern  zu  kommen,  but  Er  ist  (goal)  nach  Hause  geeilt.  Er 
hat  (to  denote  an  act  of  only  a  moment's  duration)  nicht  gezuckt  He  did  not 
wince.  Er  hat  (act)  der  Schlange  auf  den  Kopf  getreten.  In  Zwölf  Bobs 
hatten  so  innerhalb  einer  Stunde  gestartet  (Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Feb.  1914) 
hatten  represents  the  starting  in  each  case  as  a  momentary  act,  sornething  corn- 
plete  in  itself,  not  the  beginning  of  a  long  ride,  but  of  course  sein  is  used  in 
Der  französische  Aviatiker  Poulet,  der  vor  einigen  Tagen  gestartet  ist  und  die 
25000  Kilometer  lange  Luftreise  in  30  Tagen  zurückzulegen  gedenkt  {Das 
Berliner  Tageblatt,  Oct.  29,  1919). 

4.  With  perfective  intransitives — point-action  intransitive  verbs  denoting 
not  an  act  as  a  whole  but  only  one  point  in  the  activity,  either  the  beginning 
or  the  end — so  far  as  they  are  non-mutative,  i.e.  do  not  indicate  a  change  of 
place  or  condition:  Er  hat  laut  aufgelacht  He  broke  out  into  a  loud  laugh. 
Der  Regen  hat  aufgehört.  Der  Sturm  hat  ausgetobt  The  storm  has  spent 
its  fury. 

On  the  other  hand,  sein  is  used  with  mutative  perfective  intransitives,  i.e. 
point-action  intransitives  denoting  only  one  point  in  the  activity,  either  the 
beginning  or  the  end,  in  connection  with  a  change  of  place  or  condition,  ex- 


288 USE   OF   HABEN   AND    SEIN 191.  I.  4. 

pressed  in  an  attained  or  contemplated  goal  or  a  resultant  state.  This  goal  or 
state  is  either  (1)  a  final  destination  or  condition:  Er  ist  eben  angekommen, 
er  ist  nach  Hause  geritten,  er  ist  heute  gestorben,  die  Blumen  sind  abgeblüht 
{faded,  indicating  a  resultant  state,  but  to  indicate  merely  the  end  of  an  activity 
der  Weizen  hat  abgeblüht  the  wheat  has  ceased  to  blossom);  or  (2)  the  beginning 
of  a  new  state  or  activity:  er  ist  eingeschlafen,  aufgewacht,  errötet,  abgefahren, 
literally  he  has  gotten  into  sleeping,  waking,  &c.  The  former  class  is  called 
effective  perfectives,  the  latter  ingressive  perfectives.  Originally  all  these 
forms  were  present  tenses,  a  present  tense  form  of  sein  in  connection  with  a 
perfect  participle,  which  was  originally  felt  as  a  predicate  adjective  expressing 
a  resultant  state.  The  full  treatment  of  these  perfectiv^es  is  given  in  II  below. 
The  boundary  lines  of  usage  between  haben  and  sein  are  not  at  every  place 
clearly  drawn.  Earlier  in  the  period  haben  was  more  widely  used  than  to-day, 
especially  in  the  North  and  Midland,  as  can  be  seen  in  II.  B.  r;  C.  1.  a  and 
2.  a;  D  below.  It  has,  however,  under  North  German  influence  made  small 
gains  in  the  one  group  described  in  II.  A.  Note.  Also  in  other  groups  the  N.G. 
tendency  toward  haben  occasionally  manifests  itself  in  the  literary  language, 
but  in  general  S.G.  usage,  which  favors  a  more  liberal  employment  of  sein, 
has  prevailed.  In  English  the  development  has  been  in  the  opposite  direction, 
for  to  be  has  been  entirely  replaced  here  by  to  have,  except  in  certain  cases  where 
to  be  may  still  be  used  to  express  the  idea  of  a  state  or  result:  The  melancholy 
days  are  come  (Bryant).  When  he  awoke,  the  boys  of  the  village  loere  gathered 
round  him. 

Note.  The  transitives  anfahren  to  speak  harshly  to,  rebuke,  angehen  to  ask,  solicit,  concern,  attack,  anlaxifen 
to  touch  (call)  at  (a  port),  anwandehi  to  come  over,  durch'fahren  to  drive  thru,  durch'gehen  to  go  thru  or  over, 
durch'laufen  to  run  thru  or  over,  duxch'wandern  to  walk  thru,  durch'ziehen  to  travel  thru,  eingehen  to  enter  into 
(a  contract,  &c. ),  passieren  to  pass  (as  a  verb  of  motion),  über'kommen  to  come  over,  sei^e,  are  not  only  conjugated 
with  haben,  but  also  not  infrequently  with  sein,  as  tlie  force  of  the  simple  verb,  which  is  primarily  an  intransitive 
conjugated  with  sein,  asserts  itself:  Bin  ich  ihn  angefahren:  Was  er  da  beim  Herd  zu  tun  hätt'?  (Rosegger's  Martin 
der  Mann,  p.  76).  Sie  hatten  schon  immer  allerhand  im  Halbschlaf  gehört:  Türen  werfen,  die  laute  Donnerstimme 
des  Vaters;  aber  es  war  sie  nichts  angegangen  (concerned)  (H.  Böhlau's  Adam  und  Eva.  chap.  ii).  Das  ganze  Dorf 
war  ich  schon  durchwandert  von  einem  Ende  zum  andern  (Paul  Keller's  Waldwinler,  IV).  Der  Bischof  Wedekind 
bereute  nicht  selten  gar  sehr  den  Handel,  welchen  er  mit  dem  Abt  Heinrich  zu  Fulda  eingegangen  war  (Raabe's 
Die  Hämelsclien  Kinder,  chap.  iii).  Harmover  (ship)  ist  gestern  Kap  Henry  passiert  ( Hamburgisi-her  Correspondent, 
May  30,  1901;  five  times  with  sein  on  one  page).  Sie  wußte  selbst  nicht,  was  sie  überkommen  war  (Storm's  2«»' 
Wald-  und  Wasserfreude,  p.  188). 

Ankommen  to  seize,  come  (hard,  easy,  &c. )  for  (one),  and  verbs  of  motion,  as  gehen,  kommen,  laufen,  reiten,  in 
composition  with  vorüber  or  vorbei  (see  also  259.  36),  are  usually  conjugated  with  sein,  as  the  force  of  the  simple 
verb  asserts  itself:  Denn  es  war  jn  ein  schrecken  ankommen  (Luke  v.  9).  Sauer  ist's  mich  genug  angekommen 
(.•\nzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap.  vii).  Kein  Geschöpf  bist  du  vorbeigegangen  (Herder).  Wir  sind  kein  Wirts- 
haus vorübergegangen,  ohne  emzukehren  (Blatz). 

"The  transitives  einschlagen  to  take  (a  way,  road),  über'gehen  to  pass  over,  um'fahren  to  drive  around,  um'gehen 
or  um'wandeln  to  walk  around,  are  occasionally  found  with  sein  earlier  in  the  period,  but  are  now  usually  conjugated 
with  haben. 

Verbs  that  take  a  cognate  accusative  (see  257.  2.  A)  are  not  real  transitives,  and  hence  usually  take  sein  where 
the  simple  verb  is  conjugated  with  sein:  Ich  bin  so  lange  Eisenbahn  gefahren,  daß  mich  alle  Kondukteure  kannten. 
Haben  is,  however,  used  here  when  the  idea  of  motion  disappears  and  that  of  an  act  or  activity  becomes  prominent: 
Ich  hätte  (perhaps  under  the  influence  of  J'ai  couru  le  risque)  Gefahr  gelaufen,  mich  zu  verschnappen  (Lessing). 
Die  Soldaten  haben  zweimal  Sturm  gelaufen  wider  die  Mauer  (Sanders's  IVörlerburh).  Da  aber  hatte  Brinckmann 
Attacke  geritten  (Ernst  Heilborn's  Zwei  Kanzeln,  I).  Present  usage,  however,  inclines  sometimes  also  here  toward 
sein  in  accordance  with  tlie  general  trend  of  intransitives  toward  sein:  Ich  bin  (habe)  große  Gefahr  gelaufen  (Blatz). 
In  many  other  cases  tlie  ace.  is  an  adverbial  ace.  and  the  verb  is  to  be  regarded  as  intransitive:  Ich  bin  diesen  Weg 
noch  nie  geritten.     Er  ist  die  Zimmer  alle  durchgegangen. 

II.     Sein  is  only  used  with  intransitives: 

1.  When  the  verb  is  a  mutative  perfective  with  effective  force,  i.e.  when  the 
subject  is  thought  of,  not  as  acting,  but  as  resting  in  a  state  or  condition  pro- 
duced by  the  action,  or  as  reposing  at  or  moving  toward  some  goal  or  destina- 
tion that  has  been  reached  or  will  be  reached  by  means  of  the  activity  indicated 
in  the  verb:  Das  liebe  Kind  ist  unter  meinen  eigenen  Augen  verkümmert 
wasted  away,  &c.  Er  ist  seinen  Leiden  erlegen  succumbed  to,  &c.  Sein  Leib 
ist  in  Staub  zerfallen.  Die  Post  ist  soeben  eingetroffen.  Er  ist  nach  der 
Stadt  gegangen.  Other  examples  are  given  in  I.  4  (2nd\par.)  above  and  B  and 
C  below. 

Note.  In  M.H.G.  we  often  even  in  the  South  find  haben  where  there  is  a  goal  expressed:  durch  weihe  schulde 
die  beide  her  gevarn  han  {Nibelungenlied,  Aventiure  Vll)  for  ivhat  purpose  the  heroes  have  come  here.  Here  haben 
is  used  as  the  idea  of  action  in  gevarn  is  more  prominent  than  that  of  goal.  The  mention  of  the  goal  here  gradually 
brought  these  words  into  relations  with  pure  mutative  perfectives,  as  kommen,  &c.,  which  are  used  with  a  goal  and 
are  conjugated  with  sein.     Hence  sein  is  used  here  to-day.     Compare  175.  Note,  last  par. 

2.  As  the  resultant  condition  and  the  attained  goal  are  not  only  the  out- 
come of  an  activity  but  also  often  the  commencement  of  something  new,  sein 
often  has  ingressive  force  and  points  to  the  beginning  of  a  state  or  activity: 


191.  II.  3.  B.  a. USE   OF    SEIN 289 

Sein  Herz  ist  zu  ihr  in  Liebe  entbrannt  His  heart  has  become  inflamed  with 
love  for  her.  Er  ist  abgereist  He  has  started  on  a  journey.  Other  examples 
are  given  in  I.  4  (2nd  par.)  above  and  in  A,  B,  and  C  below.  In  the  category 
explained  in  A  and  Note  thereunder  South  Germans  prefer  sein  to  haben  in 
order  that  they  may  give  expression  to  the  ingressive  idea. 

3.  Sein  is  often  used  with  certain  verbs  of  motion  pure  and  simple  without 
mention  of  a  goal  or  destination,  for  the  reason  that,  being  so  often  used  with 
these  words  when  a  destination  is  expressed,  it  has  become  associated  with 
them  and  remains  even  when  there  is  no  reference  to  a  goal.  Examples  are 
given  in  C.  2.  a  and  D. 

These  are  the  general  principles  which  may  serve  as  a  general  guide.  The 
detailed  treatment  follows: 

Sein  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  of  tense: 

A.  With  two  verbs  of  rest,  sein  to  be  and  bleiben  to  remain:  Er  ist  lange  im  Gefängnisse 
gewesen.  Er  ist  den  ganzen  Abend  zu  Hause  geblieben.  This  little  list  only  represents  the 
literary  usage  of  the  North.  In  the  literary  language  of  the  South  the  list  is  larger.  See  Note 
below. 

Note.  In  M.H.G.  a  number  of  intransitives  were  used  both  as  mutative  perfectives  and  as  duratives.  Thus  M.H.G. 
sitzen  in  the  meaning  to  sit  down  was  a  mutative  ingressive  and  was  conjugated  with  sein,  while  in  the  meaning  lo 
sit,  remain  sitting  it  was  a  durative  and  was  conjugated  with  haben.  Gradually  the  durative  idea  overshadowed 
the  perfective  meaning,  so  that  these  verbs  are  now  felt  as  duratives.  In  the  South,  however,  sein,  which  was  once 
so  often  used  with  these  intransitives  when  they  had  perfective  force,  has  become  so  thoroly  associated  with  them 
that  it  is  now  regularly  employed  even  tho  these  verbs  are  now  usually  felt  as  duratives.  This  development  began 
in  M.H.G.  and  became  established  in  the  South  by  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In  the  North,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  strong  durative  force  which  these  intransitives  now  usually  have  has  gradually  fixed  the  use  of  haben  here 
except  in  case  of  bleiben.  The  following  words  belong  to  this  group:  beharren  to  insist  upon,  beruhen  to  rest  upon, 
bestehen  to  insist  upon,  pass  (a  test,  examination),  bleiben  to  remain,  hangen  or  hängen  (intrans. )  to  hang,  hocken 
to  crouch,  pore  over,  kauern  to  crouch,  kleben  to  stick,  knien  to  kneel,  hegen  to  lie,  schweben  to  hover,  sitzen  to  sit, 
stecken  to  stick  (intrans.),  remain,  stehen  to  stand,  verharren  to  remain,  continue.  The  following  examples  illus- 
trate literary  S.G.  usage,  where,  however,  the  North  usually  employs  haben:  Der  junge  Priester  war  auf  der  Ent- 
fernung der  Bilder  beharrt  (Harriot's  Der  geistliche  Tod,  chap.  IV).  Du  weißt,  daß  ich  von  jeher  einem  idealen 
Zuge  nachgehangen  bin  (G.  Keller).  Neben  dem  Kutscher  ist  er  gehockt,  wie  ein  Häufele  Elend  (Karl  Schönherr 's 
Sonn^c'endtag,  p.  lö).  Viele  Monate  war  er  im  Spital  gelegen  (Rosegger).  Ich  finde  dich  anders,  als  du  mir  in  der 
Erinnerung  vorgeschwebt  bist  (Marriot's  Sei}te  Gottheit,  chap.  XXVIII).  Er  war  halbe  Tage  lang  an  seinem  Fen- 
sterchen gesessen  (Hermann  Hesse's  Unterm  Rad,  p.  216).  Ich  bin  nicht  immer  im  Loden  gesteckt,  wie  der  Bär 
in  seinem  Fell  (Ebner-Eschenbach).  Nie  ist  das  Deutsche  Reich  vor  einer  ernsteren  Entscheidung  gestanden  als 
in  dieser  Stunde  (König  Ludwig  von  Bayern,  Aug.  1,  1914).  In  S.G.  dialect  there  is  a  tendency  to  go  beyond  the 
boundaries  mentioned  above,  as  for  instance  in  Basel,  where  sein  is  used  in  general  with  verbs  denoting  rest  in  a  par- 
ticular place:  I  bi  im  Heu  gschlofe  =  Ich  habe  im  Heu  geschlafen.  Earlier  in  the  period  sein  is  often  found  in  the 
North  where  it  is  still  used  in  literary  S.G.:  Aus  meinen  eigenen  Lippen  hätt'  ich  den  Verband  gemacht,  wenn  ihr 
Vater  nicht  dabei  gestanden  wäre  (Hebbel's  Agnes  Bernauer,  1,  2).  Occasionally  in  our  own  time:  Diese  steinerne 
Bank  war  hier  vorhin  nicht  gestanden  (Thomas  Mann's  KöM?gZ/c/!eHo/zef^  p.  S4).  As  the  old  mutative  perfective  force, 
i.e.  the  idea  of  a  change  of  place  or  condition,  is  still  occasionally  felt  sein  of  course  sometimes  appears  with  these 
verbs  in  the  North:  Das  Ding  ist  drin  im  Hahn  gesessen  (Storm's  Im  Brauer-  Hause,  p.  10.3)  The  thing  got  fastened  in 
the  faucet.  Als  er  auf  den  Flur  zurückgekehrt  war,  ist  er  vor  der  Treppe  still  gestanden  (stopped),  als  müsse  er 
auch  hier  die  Stiegen  noch  hinauf  (id.,  Eekenhof.  p.  72).  Dann  sind  zu  den  Enten  die  Gänse  gestanden  (=  Dann 
haben  sich  —  begeben)  und  alle  haben  die  Hälse  nach  mir  gereckt  (Raabe's  Schiidderump,  chap.  xiv).  So  etwas 
(i.e.  das  lange  Kleid)  hätte  man  bei  uns  im  Busch  nicht  brauchen  können,  da  wäre  man  bald  auf  der  Nase  gelegen 
(Jensen's  Heimkunft,  VI).  (Er  steht  auf,  reckt  sich.)  Ich  bin  wieder  ganz  steif  gesessen  (Fulda's  Die  wilde  Jagd, 
3,  2)  I  have  again  become  quite  stiff  from  sitting.  The  one  verb  bleiben  always  takes  sein,  not  only  in  its  ingressive 
meaning,  as  in  Die  Uhr  ist  stehen  geblieben  The  watch  has  stopped  but  also  in  its  durative  meanings,  as  in  Er  ist  stehen 
gebUet)en  He  remained  standing.  The  mutative  perfective  idea  becomes  most  prominent  in  compounds,  where  sein 
is  quite  common  even  in  the  North:  Ihr  ein  Stützer  zu  sein  in  dem  Schicksal,  dem  sie  unterlegen  war  (F.  Lewald). 
Here,  however,  as  often  elsewhere,  as  for  instance  in  C.  1.  a  below,  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself  and  con- 
jugation with  haben  follows:  Die  Republikanische  Partei  hatte  im  Vorparlament  unterlegen  (Karl  Biedermann's 
Dreißig  Jahre  deutscher  Geschichte,  I.  p.  270).  Of  course  haben  should  be  used  if  the  durative  idea  is  prominent: 
Bei  den  rein  preußischen  Zivildiplomaten,  welche  der  Wirkung  militärischer  Disziplin  gar  nicht  oder  unzureichend 
unterlegen  hatten,  habe  ich  in  der  Regel  eine  zu  starke  Neigung  zur  Kritik  gefunden  ( Bismarck).  In  S.G.  we  often 
find  sein  in  compounds  even  where  we  should  naturally  expect  haben,  as  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself: 
Die  Buchen  waren  doch  dem  Zerbrechen  widerstanden  fStifter's  Studien,  2,  92). 

Earlier  in  the  period  sein  was  also  conjugated  with  haben  in  N.G.  and  M.G.:  Darumb  hatt  nie  kein  heyige  ßo 
küne  gewest  (Luther,  Weim.  Ausg.,  I,  220).  Originally  it  did  not  belong  here  at  all  as  it  was  from  the  start  a  durative. 
Hence  in  the  North  it  was  at  first  conjugated  with  haben.  Since  its  meaning  closely  resembles  that  of  the  verbs  in 
this  group,  such  as  bleiben,  stecken.  Sec,  it  was  in  the  South  early  after  the  rise  of  the  present  perfect  tense  attracted 
into  this  group,  which  in  M.H.G.  had  already  begun  to  take  sein  as  auxiliary  even  when  they  were  used  with  durative 
force.  North  German  usage  has  at  this  point  been  gradually  conformed  to  that  of  the  South,  likewise  in  case  of 
bleiben,  which  tho  now  usually  a  durative  is  in  the  North  conjugated  with  sein  as  in  the  South. 

In  a  few  cases  sein  is  not  the  sign  of  the  present  perfect  and  past  perfect  tenses  but  an  old  present  and  past  tense: 
Das  Dorf  ist  (old  present  tense)  am  Walde  gelegen  (pred.  adjective).  Jetzt  ist  er  in  Marburg  angesessen  He  is  now 
a  resident  of  M. 

B.  With  verbs  which  represent  the  subject  as  resting  in  a  new  state  or  condition  as  the 
result  of  a  change  brought  about  by  the  action  of  the  verb.  The  idea  of  rest  is  contained  in 
the  auxiliary,  that  of  action  is  contained  in  the  verb,  and  that  of  change  from  or  mto  may  lie: 

a.  In  some  prefix  of  the  verb  such  as  ent  away,  from,  transition  into,  er  out  of,  into  a  state 
of,  ver  to  the  end  of,  change  into,  zer  dissokition,  violent  separation,  a  breaking  to  pieces,  a 
scattering,  auf  up,  ein  irito^  &c.:  Das  Mädchen  ist  errötet  The  girl  has  blushed  (literally,  has 
reddened  out).  Die  Rose  ist  erblüht  The  rose  has  come  out  into  blossom.  Die  Rose  ist  verblüht 
The  blooming  of  the  rose  has  come  to  an  end.  Er  ist  gestern  abend  entschlummert  He  passed 
away  in  death  quietly  last  evening.  Dadurch  ist  viel  Streit  entstanden  Thru  that  much  strife 
has  arisen.  Er  ist  verarmt  He  has  become  poor.  Das  Seil  ist  zerrissen  The  rope  has  broken. 
Hans  ist  aufgewacht.     Hans  ist  eingeschlafen.     Gestern  abend  ist  einer  im  FluiS  ertrunken. 


290 USE   OF   SEIN 191.  II.  3.  B.  h. 

b.  In  some  prepositional  phrase  or  in  a  predicate  adjective:  Der  Wein  ist  (to  denote  resultant 
state)  zu  Essig  gegoren,  but  Der  Wein  hat  (to  denote  an  act)  gegoren.  Der  Wein  ist  klar 
gegoren.  Er  ist  ganz  blau  gefroren.  The  meaning  has  such  a  power  over  the  form  of  conjuga- 
tion that  some  verbs  which  usually  take  haben  are  conjugated  with  sein  when  they  indicate  a 
change  of  condition:  Eh,  da  müßte  der  Junge  doch  ganz  aus  der  Art  geschlagen  sein!  (Raabe's 
Finkenrode,  chap.  xvi). 

c.  In  the  meaning  of  the  verb  itself  in  the  following  verbs  when  used  intransitively:  altem 
(also  with  haben)  to  grow  old;  arten  (also  with  haben)  nach  to  take  after,  resemble;  bersten 
to  burst;  bleichen  (also  with  haben)  to  turn  pale,  white;  brechen  to  break;  frieren  to  freeze; 
gedeihen  to  thrive;  gelingen  to  be  successful,  and  its  opposite  mißlingen;  genesen  to  recover 
from  sickness;  geraten  to  turn  out  (to  be  so-and-so),  stray  into,  and  mißraten  to  Jail,  turn  out 
badly,  prove  a  failure;  gerinnen  to  coagulate,  congeal;  geschehen  to  come  to  pass,  happen; 
glücken  to  prosper,  succeed,  and  its  opposite  mißglücken;  heilen  (also  with  haben)  to  heal:  keimen 
to  spring  up,  come  up,  bud  out,  germinate  (in  this  meaning  usually  with  haben);  krepieren  to 
burst,  explode,  die  (of  animals,  and  in  coarse  language  also  of  men);  passieren  to  happen,  occur; 
platzen  to  explode;  quellen  to  swell  (of  wood,  &c.);  reißen  to  break,  tear;  rosten  (also  with 
haben)  to  grow  rusty;  scheitern  to  be  shipwrecked;  schleißen  to  split  (intrans.),  wear  out  by 
use  (intrans.); .  schmelzen  to  melt;  schwären  (also  with  haben)  to  fester,  suppurate;  schweigen 
or  geschweigen  to  become  silent,  still  in  use  in  early  N.H.G.,  as  in  Acts  xv.  13,  but  now  replaced 
by  verstummen;  schwellen  to  swell  up;  spleißen  to  split  (intrans.);  sprießen  or  sprossen  to 
sprout  up,  to  put  forth  buds  or  sprouts  (in  this  meaning  usually  with  haben);  springen  to  break 
or  burst  (intrans.),  spring  (a  leak);  sterben  to  die;  wachsen  to  grow;  welken  to  wither,  fade 
away;  werden  to  become;  wurzeln  (sometimes  w.  haben)  to  take  root:  Der  Topf  ist  geborsten 
The  pot  has  burst.  Die  Nadel  ist  gebrochen  The  needle  broke.  Getreide,  welches  angekeimt 
ist,  kann  den  Nahrungswert  nicht  mehr  haben,  als  wenn  es  noch  nicht  gekeimt  hätte  (Bismarck's 
Reden,  10,  147).  Das  Holz  ist  gequollen.  Die  Milch  ist  geronnen.  Die  Backen  sind  über 
Nacht  geschwollen.  Die  Feder  ist  gesprungen  The  spring  broke.  Das  Schiff  war  leck  ge- 
sprungen und  drohte  zu  sinken   {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  March  10,  1906). 

Earlier  in  the  period  haben  was  used  with  a  number  of  these  verbs  and  is  still  found  occasionally: 
Die  arabische  Religion  und  Nationalkultur  haßte  diese  Blumen  (der  Dichtung),  vielleicht 
hätten  sie  in  Europa  der  Zeiten  auch  noch  nicht  gedeihet  (now  gediehen)  (Herder).  Es  hätt' 
ihm  auch  geglückt,  wenn  nicht,  &c.  (Wieland).  Wie  weit  ihr's  gelungen  hat  (Schiller).  Die 
verborgenen  Klippen,  an  denen  die  stolze  Vernunft  schon  gescheitert  hat  (id.).  Daß  diese 
Pflanze  des  nationalen  Russentums  nur  auf  Moskauer  Boden  zu  gedeihen  vermag  und  auch 
nur  gediehen  hat  {Gegeniuart,  1887,  No.  34). 

Altern,  arten,  bleichen,  frieren,  heilen,  and  trocknen,  are  still  conjugated  with  haben  when 
it  is  desired  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  an  act  rather  than  that  of  a  resultant  state:  Onkel  Harre 
nämlich  hatte  in  der  letzten  Zeit  so  merklich  gealtert,  daß  es  selbst  für  uns,  die  wir  ihn  fast 
täglich  sahen,  auffällig  war  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxi).  But  to  call  attention  to  a 
result:  Obgleich  sie  furchtbar  gealtert  war  (Gutzkow's  R.,  9,  452).  Es  hat  (act)  gefroren,  but 
Das  Wasser  ist  (resultant  state)  gefroren.  Die  Wunde  hat  (act)  gut  geheilt,  but  Die  Wunde 
ist  (resultant  state)  geheilt.     Die  Wäsche  hat  gut  getrocknet,  but  Die  Wäsche  ist  getrocknet. 

Note  1.  In  using  the  above  words,  care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  between  the  idea  of  transitive  and  intransitive, 
as  only  the  latter  use  requires  sein  in  the  compound  tenses.     See  257.  1.  b. 

Note  2.  The  meaning  has  such  power  over  the  form  of  conjugation  that  some  verbs  which  usually  take  haben  are 
often  conjugated  with  sein  in  those  meanings  which  are  similar  to  those  of  the  verbs  in  the  above  list.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  einschlagen  fafter  the  analogy  of  geraten)  to  turn  out  (to  be  so-and-so),  succeed,  and  fehlschlagen  (after 
the  analogy  of  mißlingen)  to  turn  out  unsuccessful:  Eine  politische  Spekulation  dem  alten  preußischen  Fritz  gegen- 
über ist  auch  nicht  so  eingeschlagen,  wie  man's  wünschte  und  verhoffte  (Raabe's  .1.  T.,  chap.  xiii).  Auch  die  Ver- 
suche, selbst  die  lateinischen  Termini  (terms)  zu  verdeutschen,  sind  immer  wieder  fehlgeschlagen  (H.  Wunderlich). 
Das  Wagnis  ist  fehlgeschlagen  (Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Aug.  8,  191-i).  Here  as  elsewhere,  however,  the  force  of  the  simple 
verb  or  the  idea  of  an  act  asserts  itself,  and  hence  we  sometimes  also  find  haben:  Alle  seine  Hoffnungen  sind  oder 
auch  haben  ihm  fehlgeschlagen  (J.  Grimm).  Alle  ihre  derartigen  Versuche  haben  aber  bis  jetzt  fehlgeschlagen 
{Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Feb.  16.  1904). 

C.  With  all  intransitive  verbs  of  motion  from  place  to  place,  when  the  subject  is  thought  of 
as  resting  at  some  goal,  or  as  starting  from  some  point  of  departure  or  towards  some  end  or 
destination. 

1.  The  idea  of  rest  or  the  beginning  of  the  activity  is  in  sein,  that  of  action  is  contained  in 
the  verb,  and  that  of  a  destination,  arrival,  departure  may  lie: 

a.  In  some  prefix  such  as  er  out  of,  ent  away  from,  or  in  those  denoting  away,  arrival,  up, 
out  of,  thither,  hither,  into,  upward,  forth,  towards,  down,  &c.  (ab,  an,  auf,  aus,  hin  or  da'hin, 
her  or  da 'her,  ein,  em'por,  fort,  zu,  wieder,  &c.):  Auf  meine  Frage  ist  keine  Antwort  erfolgt 
No  answer  has  come  to  my  question  (lit.  has  followed  out  of  it,  i.e.  the  question).  Er  ist  dem 
Gefängnis  entsprungen  He  has  escaped  from  prison.  Bei  Schmidts  ist  ein  Töchterchen  ange- 
kommen A  wee  daughter  has  arrived  at  Schmidt's.  Er  ist  die  Treppe  hinuntergegangen.  Der 
Blitz  ist  herabgeflammt.  Der  Tag  ist  angebrochen.  Dunkelheit  ist  eingebrochen,  but  Der 
Dieb  hat  (act)  eingebrochen.  Er  ist  durch  Unglücksfälle  ganz  heruntergekommen  Misfortunes 
have  ruined  him  (lit.  He  has  come  down  on  account  of  misfortunes).  Er  ist  abgefahren,  abge- 
dampft, ausgekniifen. 

Earlier  in  the  period  haben  could  also  be  used  here:  Er  hat  nider  gekniet  |  vnd  sich  gelagert 
wie  ein  Leve  (Gen.  xlix.  9).  Thus  earlier  in  the  period  the  idea  of  the  act  as  a  whole  was  felt 
more  vividly  than  the  local  force  of  the  prefix,  while  to-day  attention  is  uniformly  directed  to 
the  point  of  arrival  or  departure. 

The  intrans.  umschlagen  to  upset  (intrans.),  capsize,  change  suddenly  is  usually  conjugated 
with  sein  on  account  of  the  idea  of  change  of  location  or  state  contained  in  the  prefix,  altho  the 


191.  II.  3.  C.  2.  c.  USE   OF   HABEN   AND    SEIN 291 

simple  verb  is  a  trans,  conjugated  with  haben:  Plötzlich  tat  nur  ein  lauter,  naher  Aufschrei 
kund,  daß  vermutlich  das  gefährdete  Boot  umgeschlagen  sei  (Jensen's  Heimkunft,  II.  6).  Die 
wundervollen  Illusionen  waren  schnell  in  ihr  Gegenteil  umgeschlagen  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap.  v). 
We  often,  however,  find  haben  here,  as  the  idea  of  an  act  as  a  whole  is  felt  more  vividly  than 
the  idea  of  change  of  place  or  state,  or  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself:  Der  Wagen 
hatte  umgeschlagen  (Schiller).  In  den  Volksschichten  hatte  die  Stimmung  gründlich  umge- 
schlagen (Kosegger's  Martin  der  Mann,  p.  43).  In  the  same  manner  other  verbs  fluctuate 
between  haben  and  sein:  Auf  dem  Rückwege  .  .  .  bin  ich  bei  meinem  Bruder  eingesprochen 
(Lessing's  Gefang.,  .3,  2).     Ich  habe  bei  ihm  eingesprochen  (M.  Heyne's  Wörterbuch). 

h.  In  a  prepositional  phrase  or  in  an  adverb:  Das  leichte  Gefährt  war  mit  Vater  und  Tochter 
von  dannen  gerollt.  Er  ist  über  den  Fluß  geschwommen.  Der  Rasen  war  wild  in  die  Höhe 
geschossen.  Wir  sind  an  den  Rand  des  Waldes  gelangt.  Die  polnischen  Aspirationen  wachsen 
ins  Uferlose,  sobald  nur  die  Möglichkeit  nahe  gerückt  ist,  daß  die  Regierung  sie  erfüllen  will. 
In  Hessen  ist  besonders  der  Notstand  zu  Tage  getreten.  Es  ist  das  erste  Mal,  daß  ich  auf 
ein  derartiges  Mißverstehen  gestoßen  bin.  Er  ist  in's  Zimmer  geschlagen  he  feil  head-foremost 
into  the  room  and  Es  war  mir  ordentlich  wie  ein  Schrecken  in  die  Glieder  geschlagen,  but  to 
denote  an  act:    Der  Blitz  hat  in  die  Eiche  geschlagen. 

2.     These  same  intransitive  verbs  of  motion  are  conjugated  with  haben,  and  not  sein: 

a.  When  the  idea  of  duration  is  prominent  and  no  goal  is  designated  by  prefix,  prepositional 
phrase,  or  otherwise,  especially  in  the  North:  Wir  haben  den  ganzen  Abend  getanzt,  but  Wir 
sind  aus  einer  Stube  in  die  andere  getanzt.  So  habe  ich  nie  geritten,  nie  so  toll  gejagt  (Goethe). 
In  seiner  Jugend  hat  er  gut  geritten,  but  Er  ist  fortgeritten.  Die  Fahnen,  die  auf  dem  Hinzuge 
so  lustig  im  Winde  geflogen  hatten,  but  Der  Vogel  ist  ins  Nest  geflogen.  Der  Wald  hat  ge- 
rauscht The  forest  has  murmured,  but  Der  Strom  ist  dahin  gerauscht  The  river  flowed  on  nnir- 
muring.  Als  wir  drei  Wochen  marschiert  hatten  (Frenssen's  Peter  Moors  Fahrt  nach  Südwest, 
172),  but  Wir  sind  in  drei  Tagen  hierher  marschiert.  Ihr  Mann  hatte  als  Kapitän  gefahren 
(Enking's  Wie  Truges  seine  Mutter  suchte,  III).  Even  if  the  goal  is  mentioned,  haben  is  often 
in  the  North  used,  as  the  idea  of  duration  or  the  idea  of  an  act  as  a  whole  is  felt  more  vividly 
than  the  idea  of  the  goal:  So  hat  er  lange  Jahre  neben  seinem  Hundefuhrwerk  durch  die  Dörfer 
getrabt  (Frenssen's  Jörn  Uhl,  chap.  xi).  Er  hatte  nur  einmal  um  den  Brunnen  getreten  (Ponten's 
Jungfräulichkeit,  p.  463). 

Usage  has  in  part  become  unsettled  here.  Such  verbs  as  reiten,  fahren,  rasen  to  rush  along, 
schwimmen,  &c.,  which  are  usually  used  in  connection  with  a  goal,  and  hence  are  often  conju- 
gated with  sein,  have  become  so  thoroly  associated  with  this  auxiliary  that  they  are  often  con- 
jugated with  it  when  no  goal  is  mentioned,  and  even  where  the  idea  of  duration  is  present:  Wir 
sind  geritten  ohne  Unterlaß  —  denn  die  Verfolger  waren  schnell  (Wildenbruch's  Kaiser  Hein- 
rich, 3,  9).  Seine  überraschende  Kenntnis  seltener  und  kostspieliger  Speisen  erklärte  sich 
daraus,  daß  er  eine  Zeit  lang  als  Schiffsküchenjunge  gefahren  war  (Hoffmann's  Rohleders  hohe 
Minne).  Der  ist  gerast  wie  doli  (N.G.  =  toll)  (Halbe's  Haus  Rosenhagen,  2,  p.  94).  Heute 
sind  wir  tüchtig  marschiert,  but  also  with  haben  as  the  idea  of  an  act  is  still  at  times  vividly 
felt:  Diese  Truppe  hat  ununterbrochen  marschiert  und  gekämpft  {Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Feb. 
19,  1915).  Perhaps  the  use  of  marschieren  here  with  kämpfen  helped  suggest  the  employment 
of  haben.  Sein  is  also  used  even  in  figurative  use:  Ich  habe  mich  nie  um  den  Morgen  ge- 
kümmert und  bin  stets  gut  dabei  gefahren  (Raabe's  Pechlin,  chap.  x).  Hence  these  words  are 
gravitating  towards  the  group  D  below.  Fahren  is  often  used  with  haben,  not,  however,  as  a 
verb  denoting  motion,  but  in  the  sense  to  perform  the  duties  of  a  coachman,  be  a  coachman,  have 
charge  of  the  driving,  or  with  reference  to  the  comfortableness  of  the  vehicle:  Er  hatte  in  Wien 
zehn  Jahre  gefahren  (Lessing's  Minna,  3,  2).  Wir  sind  nach  der  Stadt  gefahren.  Wer  hat 
gefahren?  We  rode  to  town.     Who  drove?     Der  Zug  hat  heute  schlecht  gefahren. 

Earlier  in  the  period  haben  was  common  with  pure  verbs  of  motion:  Bin  ich  nicht  dein  Eselin 
I  darauff  du  geritten  hast  zu  deiner  Zeit  (Num.  xxii.  30). 

b.  In  a  few  cases  when  the  verbs  are  used  figuratively,  as  the  idea  of  an  act  is  prominent: 
Er  hat  fortgefahren  zu  lesen  He  continued  to  read,  but  Er  ist  fortgefahren  He  has  driven  away. 
Sein  is  also  used  in  figurative  use,  as  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself:  Er  ist  in  der  Er- 
zählung fortgefahren  (M.  Heyne).  Ich  habe  in  ihn  gedrungen  /  have  urged  him,  but  with  sein 
where  the  local  idea  is  more  distinct,  as  in  Er  ist  noch  nicht  in  das  Geheimnis  gedrungen  He  has 
not  yet  penetrated  into  the  secret.  We  occasionalh"  find  sein  in  the  former  case,  as  the  literal 
force  of  the  verb  asserts  itself:  [Sie  sagte,]  Das  seien  nutzlose  Beunruhigungen,  weshalb  sie 
denn  auch  in  ihn  gedrungen  sei,  von  solchen  Berechnungen  Abstand  zu  nehmen  (Fontane's 
Stechlin  VII.  p.  107).  Er  hat  sich,  ohne  dais  ich  eigentlich  in  ihn  gedrungen  wäre,  mit  großer 
Offenheit  über  seine  ökonomische  Situation  ausgesprochen  (Spielhagen 's  Selbstgerecht  p.  75). 
We  say  Der  Kutscher  ist  (change  of  place)  or  hat  (act)  soeben  in  den  Hof  eingelenkt,  but  in 
figurative  user  Er  hat  eingelenkt  (=  nachgegeben).  In  verfahren  to  proceed,  deal  with,  treat, 
act.  the  original  idea  of  going  is  so  little  felt  that  the  auxiliary  haben  is  often  used:  Man  hat 
mit  unerhörten  Exekutionen  verfahren  (Goethe's  Götz,  5,  9).  Sie  haben  gegen  mich  wie  gegen 
einen  Spitzbuben  verfahren  (Gutzkow).  Dora  wußte  dies,  sonst  würde  sie  eben  anders  ver- 
fahren haben  (Junghans).  On  the  other  hand,  sein  is  also  used  here,  and  is  now  more  frequent, 
as  the  force  of  the  very  common  simple  verb  asserts  itself:  Das  Geschick  ist  nicht  sanft  mit 
mir  verfahren  (Goethe).  Wir  sind  wohl  alle  nicht  so  ganz  vollkommen  ehrlich  und  aufrichtig 
gegen  Sie  verfahren,  wie  wir  nach  strengen  Sittenlehren  eigentlich  sollten  (H.  HotYmann). 

c.  Treten  is  conjugated  with  sein  to  denote  a  change  of  position,  but  takes  haben  to  denote 
an  act:   Er  ist  auf  den  Hof  getreten,  but  Er  hat  ihm  auf  die  Hühneraugen  getreten  (H.  Paul) 


292 USE   OF   HABEN   AND    SEIN  191.  II.  3.  C.  2.  r. 

and  Er  hat  auf  eine  Raupe  getreten  (id.).    Instead  of  haben,  however,  we  often  find  sein  here: 
Du  bist  mir  auf  mein  Kleid  getreten  (Fulda's  Jugeyidfreiinde,  2,  4). 

D.  With  the  following  growing  list  of  intransitives,  in  most  part  simple  verbs  of  motion, 
sein  is  used  even  where  the  destination  is  not  expressed,  also  where  the  idea  of  duration  is  present, 
begegnen  (see  a  below)  to  meet,  bekommen  (sometimes  with  haben)  to  suit,  agree  with,  turn 
out  (well  or  bad)  for  one,  desertieren  to  desert  the  army,  fallen  to  fall,  fliegen  (except  in  the 
one  case  in  C.  2.  a)  to  fly,  fliehen  to  flee,  fließen  (see  a  below)  to  flow,  folgen  (see  a  below)  to 
follow,  gehen  to  go,  gleiten  to  glide,  slip,  kentern  to  upset  (of  a  boat),  kommen  to  come,  kriechen 
(see  a)  to  crawl,  creep,  laufen  to  run,  promenieren  to  take  a  walk,  reisen  to  travel,  retirieren 
to  retreat,  rinnen  to  run,  flow,  scheiden  to  depart,  separate,  schleichen  to  sneak,  schreiten 
to  step,  stride,  schwinden  to  disappear,  segeln  to  sail,  sinken  to  sink,  sprengen  to  ride  at  full  speed, 
steigen  to  rise,  stranden  to  run  ashore,  straucheln  (see  a)  to  stumble  and  fall,  stürzen  to  fall, 
tumble,  wandeln  to  walk,  wandern  to  travel,  journey,  weichen  to  yield,  ziehen  to  proceed,  move 
(intrans.) :  Er  ist  mir  heute  begegnet.  Wie  ist  Ihnen  das  gestrige  Fest  bekommen  (agreed  with)? 
"Wessen  Uhr  ist  nun  richtig  gegangen?  (Raabe's  Giituuuius  Ke-isen,  chajx  viii).  Sie  (i.e.  die  Uhr) 
ist  nie  ordentlich  gegangen  (1  leer's  Der  König  der  Benrina,  III ).  Ich  bin  den  ganzen  Tag  gelaufen. 
Zwei  Duelle  .  .  .  schienen  ein  rasches  Sichnähern  an  sein  Schneidigkeitsideal  zu  verbürgen 
und  hätten  ebensogut  wie  Wendelins  Talente  zu  großen  Hoffnungen  berechtigen  dürfen,  wenn 
nicht  das  Gespenst  der  Entlassung  wegen  beständig  anwachsender  Schulden  immer  nebenher 
geschritten  wäre  (Fontane's  Poggenpuhls,  chap.  i).    Deine  treue  Liebe  ist  nicht  geschwunden. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  haben  was  much  more  common  here  earlier  in  the  period: 
DEnn  wir  haben  nicht  den  klugen  Fabeln  gefolget  (2.  Peter,  I.  Id).  Mein  fus  hat  gestrauchelt 
(Ps.  xciv.  IS).  Nur  einem  Traurigen  hab'  ich  begegnet  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  3,  4).  Survi\als 
of  this  former  usage  can  still  be  found:  Ich  habe  heute  früh  Doktor  Mettner  begegnet  (Schnitz- 
ler's  Das  Vermächtnis,  p.  112),  haben  being  most  common  with  begegnen,  as  in  this  and  the 
following  example,  in  connection  with  an  accusative  object,  altho  the  dative  is  also  sometimes 
found  here  and  in  connection  with  sein  is  the  usual  construction.  Auf  einem  Waldgang  nun 
habe  ich  den  Riedel  (name)  begegnet  (Rosegger's  Sonnenschein,  p.  2).  Also  in  case  of  other  of 
these  verbs  do  we  sometimes  find  haben  in  accordance  with  older  usage,  esi)ecially  in  the  North, 
where  there  is  still  a  distinct  feeling  here  for  the  idea  of  an  act  or  activity:  Zwischen  uns  hat's 
schon  manchmal  auf  Hieb  und  Stich  gegangen  (Otto  Ernst's  Jugend  von  heute,  1,  1.5)  =  Wir 
haben  auf  Hieb  und  Stich  gefochten.  Das  tut  sie  immer,  aus  Spaß,  wenn  ich  so  toll  gelaufen 
habe  (Frenssen's  Jörn  UM,  XIV).  So  flüsterte  der  See  und  die  Bäume  und  der  Wind  in  der 
Nacht  in  der  Gegend,  wo  er  noch  vor  vierzehn  Tagen  gewandelt  hatte  (id.,  Hilligenlei,  p.  571). 
Et  hat  alles  jot  jejangen!  (Ponten's  Jungfräulichkeit,  p.  9)  =  Alles  ist  gut  gegangen.  Uns 
hat  es  bisher  noch  nicht  schlecht  gegangen  (Feldpostbrief  in  Magdeburger  Generalanzeiger,  1914). 
In  colloquial  speech  also  in  the  South:  Aber  erzähl' doch,  Fritz !  Wie  hat  es  gegangen?  (Ludwig 
Thoma's  Die  Lokalbahn,  p.  25),  but  the  "correct"  Beringer  on  p.  53  of  the  same  work  says: 
Nun,  wie  ist  es  gegangen? 

a.  A  few  of  the  above  list  may  take  haben  when  the  local  idea  disappears,  and  they  become 
figurative,  especially  begegnen,  in  the  sense  to  meet  with  (a  dithculty),  meet  (an  emergency), 
confront,  coincide  with,  and  often  in  the  meaning  to  treat  (friendly,  <S:c.);  fließen,  laufen,  lecken, 
and  triefen  in  case  of  a  metonymic  subject;  folgen  in  the  sense  to  obey,  follow;  kriechen  to  crawl, 
cringe;  straucheln  to  stumble  (in  a  moral  sense):  Gestern  bin  ich  einem  Bekannten  begegnet, 
but  Der  Lehrer  hat  den  Unarten  der  Schüler  nachdrücklich  begegnet  and  Und  in  einem  andern 
Punkte  hatten  Hohenlohes  und  Bismarcks  politische  Gedanken  sich  schon  früher  harmonisch 
begegnet  {Kölnische  Zeitung).  Er  ist  or  (laying  the  emphasis  upon  the  idea  of  a  conscious  agent 
acting  with  intention)  hat  mir  hart  begegnet  (met  or  treated).  Der  Eiter  ist  aus  der  Wunde 
geflossen,  but  Die  Augen  haben  geflossen.  Der  Wein  ist  aus  dem  Faß  gelaufen,  but  Das  Faß 
hatte  schon  einige  Zeit  gelaufen  (=  geleckt),  ehe  ich  es  bemerkte.  Das  Wasser  ist  aus  dem 
Kessel  geleckt,  but  Der  Kessel  hat  geleckt.  Der  Schweiß  ist  von  der  Stime  getrieft,  but  Die 
Stirne  hat  von  Schweiß  getrieft.  Der  Sohn  hat  dem  Vater  or  dem  Rat  des  Vaters  gefolgt.  Hätt' 
ich  nur  gleich  meinem  Instinkt  gefolgt!  Er  hat  vor  ihm  gekrochen.  Er  ist  gestrauchelt,  but 
Er  hat  gestrauchelt  (morally).  On  the  other  hand,  except  in  the  case  of  a  metonymic  subject, 
we  perhaps  more  frequently  find  sein  with  the  above  verbs  also  in  figurative  use,  as  the  force 
of  the  verb  in  its  literal  meaning  asserts  itself:  Ferdinand  VII.  war  vor  der  rauhen  Macht  Na- 
poleons gekrochen  (v.  Sybel).  Unter  diesen  Angehörigen  war  auch  ein  älterer  Bruder  von 
ihm,  der  ihm  bis  dahin  ganz  besonders  unliebsam  begegnet  war  (Fontane's  Der  Tunnel  über 
der  Spree,  V).  Ich  bin  seinem  Rate  gefolgt  (Vogel's  Deutsches  Nachschlagebuch),  but  Paul  in 
his  Wörterbuch  says  we  must  use  haben  when  there  is  no  object  at  all:  Wanmi  hast  du  nicht 
gefolgt? 

Genera!  Note.  Of  course  verbs  that  are  usually  intrans.  and  take  sein  are  conjugated  with  haben  when  they  become 
trans.:  Ich  bin  nach  Hause  gelaufen  /  have  run  home,  but  Ich  habe  mich  außer  Atem  gelaufen  /  have  run  until  I  am 
out  of  breath.     Er  ist  vom  Dach  gestürzt  und  hat  dabei  ein  Kind  tot  gefallen. 

E.  Intransitives  that  denote  a  beginning  or  cessation  of  activity  pure  and  simple  without 
reference  to  a  change  of  place  or  condition  are  usually  conjugated  with  haben:  Das  Spiel  hat 
eben  angefangen.  Der  Regen  hat  aufgehört.  Der  Sturm  hat  ausgetobt.  The  storm  has  spent 
its  fury.  Drei  Tage  darauf  hatte  die  alte  Lisbeth  ausgerungen  (Marriot's  Menschlichkeit). 
Meine  Geschichte  hat  ausgeklungen  (Lauft's  Kärrekiek,  p.  392). 

On  account  of  the  pronounced  ingressive  force  or  the  idea  of  an  end  or  result  contained  in 
some  of  these  verbs  there  is  a  tendency  to  employ  sein  instead  of  haben:  Das  Tier  hat  (act)  or 
ist  (result)  verendet.     Aber  das  Wort  „Califomien"  klang  doch  wie  Gold  und  Abenteuer,  und 


192. 


COMPOUND  TENSES  OF  LOBEN  &  FALLEN 


293 


es  war  zuerst  vor  seinem  Ohr  geklungen,  da  er  aus  jenem  Briefe  seines  Vaters  dessen  drohende 
Verarmung  herauszulesen  meinte  (Storm's  Bötjer  Basch,  p.  30).  Ihm  war  es  geklungen  {had 
sounded,  i.e.  the  impression  had  resulted),  daß  sie  meine,  seine  Heiterkeit  stamme  von  ihrem  für 
ein  Mädchen  sonderbaren  Anzug  (Jensen's  Heimkunft,  II,  4).  Der  letzte  Schlag  war  schon 
fünf  Minuten  ausgeklungen  {Böriie) .  Sein  aschenfarbenes  Gesicht  —  ein  Granatstück  hat 
die  Brust  zerrissen  —  ist,  soll  ich  so  sagen,  ruhig  ausgeklungen.  Er  hat  keine  Schmerzen 
gefühlt  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen,  Anno  1870,  Umzingelt).  Die  Glocken  aber  waren  ver- 
klungen (Lauff's  Kärrekiek,  p.  374). 

W  ith  such  compounds  as  have  a  verb  in  D  as  a  basal  component  sein  must  be  used:  Die 
Maschine  ist  unter  starker  Belastung  angelaufen  The  machine  started,  &c. 

a.  In  North  German  anfangen  is  not  infrequently  found  with  sein:  Bist  du  nicht  angefan- 
gen? (Gustav  Falke's  Die  Stadt  mit  den  goldenen  Türmen,  p.  81).  Du  hast  natürlich  nicht  daran 
gedacht,  daß  gestern  die  Pfingstferien  angefangen  sind  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getretien,  II).  Ich  bin 
von  oben  angefangen,  von  der  hohen  Uhl  her,  hoch  von  oben,  und  bin  gesunken  .  .  .  gesunken. 
Von  unten  anfangen,  das  ist  alles  (id.,  Jörn  Uhl,  XXVI).  Wie  ich  schon  sagte,  ist  man  erst  in 
den  letzten  Jahren  angefangen,  von  dem  Kloster  das  zu  erretten  und  zu  erhalten,  was  noch  zu 
erretten  und  zu  erhalten  ist  (O.  E.  Kiesel  in  Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Feb.  13,  1905).  This  is  a 
common  construction  in  Low  German  and  literary  Dutch.  It  was  probably  originally  the  common 
N.G.  present  perfect  passive  (see  194.  1.  B.  a)  and  may  possibly  still  perform  this  function  in  the 
first  sentence  from  P  renssen,  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is  a  thing,  but  in  the  other  sentences 
it  is  now  felt  as  an  intransitive  conjugated  with  sein. 

192.     Paradigm  of  the  Compound  Tenses  of  loben  and  fallen. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


I  have  praised,  &c. 


Indie. 


ich  habe 
du  hast 
er  hat 
wir  haben 
ihr  habt 
sie  haben 


Subj. 

ich  habe 
du  habest 
er  habe 
wir  haben 
ihr  habet 
sie  haben 


I  have  fallen  (see  191.  II.  D). 


Indic. 

ich  bin 
du  bist 
er  ist 
wir  sind 
ihr  seid 
sie  sind 


Subj. 

ich  sei 
du  sei  (e)  st 
er  sei 
wir  seien 
ihr  seiet 
sie  seien 


bX) 


Perfect  Infinitive. 


gelobt  (zu)  haben 


gefallen  (zu)  sein 


Perfect  Imperative. 

2nd  per,  habe  gelobt,  hab(e)t  gelobt  sei  gefallen,  seid  gefallen 

3rd  per.   er  habe  gelobt  er  sei  gefallen,  sie  seien  gefallen 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 


I  had  praised,  &c. 

I  had  fallen,  &c. 

Indic.                                                 Subj. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

ich  hatte 

ich  hätte 

ich  war 

ich  wäre 

du  hattest 

^         duhätt(e)st 

■4^ 

du  warst 

Ö 

du  wär(e)st 

a 

er  hatte 

»g         er  hätte 

er  war 

4> 

er  wäre 

4> 

wir  hatten 

1)         wir  hätten 

■ 

wir  waren 

wir  wären 

ihr  hattet 

^        ihr  hättet 

bX> 

ihr  wart 

ihr  wär(e)t 

to 

sie  hatten 

sie  hätten 

sie  waren 

sie  wären 

F 

'uture  Tense. 

I  shall  praise,  &c. 

I  sha 

11  fall. 

&c. 

Indic.                                              Subj. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

ich  werde 

ich  werde 

ich  werde 

ich  werde 

du  wirst 

du  werdest 

du  wirst 

du  werdest 

er  wird 

S         er  werde 

G 

er  wird 

er  werde 

wir  werden 

"o         wir  werden 

o 

wir  werden 

li 

wir  werden 

13 

ihr  werdet 

^         ihr  werdet 

ihr  werdet 

MH 

ihr  werdet 

M-l 

sie  werden 

sie  werden 

sie  werden  , 

sie  werden 

294 


COMPOUND   TENSES   OF   SEIN   &  WERDEN 


192. 


loben  zu  wollen 


Future  Infinitive. 


fallen  zu  wollen 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 


I  shall  have  praised,  &c. 


Indie. 

ich  werde 
du  wirst 
er  wird 
wir  werden 
ihr  werdet 
sie  werden 


ö 


o 
buO 


Subj. 

ich  werde 
du  werdest 
er  werde 
wir  werden 
ihr  werdet 
sie  werden 


Xi 
tüO 


I  shall  have  fallen,  &c. 


Indic. 

ich  werde 
du  wirst 
er  wird 
wir  werden 
ihr  werdet 
sie  werden 


buo 


Subj. 

ich  werde 
du  werdest 
er  werde 
wir  werden 
ihr  werdet 
sie  werden 


Periphrastic  Subjunctive. 


Past.   I   should    (would' 
fall,  &c. 


praise, 


Past. 

ich  würde 
du  würdest 
er  würde 
wir  würden 
ihr  würdet 
sie  würden 


Xi 

o 


Past  Perfect. 

ich  würde 
du  würdest 
er  würde 
wir  würden 
ihr  würdet 
sie  würden 


d 

(U 

Xi 
cö 

Xi 
-t-> 

Xi 

o 

'S 
to 


Past  Perfect.  I  should  (would)  have 
praised,  fallen,  &c. 


Past. 

ich  würde 
du  würdest 
er  würde 
wir  würden 
ihr  würdet 
sie  würden 


Past  Perfect. 

ich  würde 
du  würdest 
er  würde 
wir  würden 
ihr  würdet 
sie  würden 


tß 


193.     Paradigm  of  the  Compound  Tenses  of  sein  and  werden. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


I  have  been,  &c. 

Indic. 


ich  bin 
du  bist 
er  ist 
wir  sind 
ihr  seid 
sie  sind 


SU 

w 

to 


Subj. 

ich  sei 

du  sei  (e)  st 
er  sei 
wir  seien 
ihr  seiet 
sie  seien 


ö 
w 


Indic. 

ich  bin 
du  bist 
er  ist 
wir  sind 
ihr  seid 
sie  sind 


I  have  become,  &c. 

Subj. 


<üCJ 
TS 

O  Ol 

*<» 

tßy-i 


ich  sei 
du  sei  (e)  st 
er  sei 
wir  seien 
ihr  seiet 
sie  seien 


Ö  im' 

4)  t— 


gewesen  (zu)  sein 


Perfect  Infinitive. 

(ge) worden  (zu)  sein  (178.  2.  C) 


Perfect  Imperative. 


2nd  per.  sei  gewesen,  seid  gewesen 
3rd  per.   er  sei  gewesen,  sie  seien 
gewesen 


sei  (ge) worden,  seid  (ge) worden, 
er  sei  (ge) worden,  sie  seien  (gej wor- 
den (178.  2.  C). 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 


I  had  been. 

&c. 

I  had  become,  &c. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

Indic. 

Subj. 

ich  war 

ich  wäre 

ich  war 

ö--^ 

ich  wäre       "" 

örr 

du  warst 

ö 

U) 

duwär(e)st 

ö 

4) 
W 

du  warst 

du  wär(e)st 

er  war 
wir  waren 

er  wäre 
wir  wären 

er  war 
wir  waren 

)wor 
3.  2. 

er  wäre 
wir  wären 

)wor 
B.  2. 

ihr  wart 

to 

ihr  wär(e)t 

(V 

ihr  wart 

ihr  wär(e)t 

4)  t- 

sie  waren   ^ 

sie  wären 

sie  waren 

sie  wären 

^ — -        ' 

194.  I.A. 

THE 

PASS 

IVE  VOICE 

295 

Future  Tense. 

I  shall  be,  &c. 

I  shall  become,  &c. 

Indie.                                            Subj. 

Indie. 

Subj. 

ich  werde 

ich  werde 

ich  werde    "i 

ich  werde 

du  wirst 

du  werdest 

du  wirst 

ö 

du  werdest 

d 

er     wird 

.0         er  werde 

Ö 

er  wird 

L  73 

er  werde 

ll 

wir  werden 

S         wir  werden 

"v 

wir  werden 

wir  werden 

1 

ihr  werdet 

ihr  werdet 

ihr  werdet 

^ 

ihr  werdet 

^ 

sie  werden 

sie  werden 

sie  werden 

sie  werden 

Future  Infinitive. 
werden  zu  wollen. 


I  shall  have  been,  &c. 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 

I  shall  have  become,  &c. 


Indie. 

ich  werde 
du  wirst 
er  wird 
wir  werden 
ihr  werdet 
sie  werden 


w 

c 

CO 

o 
to 


Subj. 

ich  werde 
du  werdest 
er  werde 
wir  werden 
ihr  werdet 
sie  werden 


ö 


Indic. 

ich  werde 
du  wirst 
er  wird 
wir  werden 
ihr  werdet 
sie  werden 


U 

W  00 


Subj. 

ich  werde 
du  werdest 
er  werde 
wir  werden 
ihr  werdet 
sie  werden 


Periphrastic  Subjunctive. 


U 


ö 

0^     Er 


Past.    I    should    (would)    be, 
become,  &c. 


Past. 

ich  würde 
du  würdest 
er  würde 
wir  würden 
ihr  würdet 
sie  würden 


Past  Perfect. 

ich  würde 
du  würdest 
er  würde 
wir  würden 
ihr  würdet 
sie  würden 


W) 


Past  Perfect. 

Past. 

ich  würde 
du  würdest 
er  würde 
wir  würden 
ihr  würdet 
sie  würden 


I  should  (would)  have  been, 
become,  &c. 

Past  Perfect. 

ich  würde 
j         du  würdest 
\         er  würde 
!         wir  würden 
■         ihr  würdet 

sie  würden 


ö 

u 
o 


U 

W  00 


The  Passive  Voice. 

194.  The  passive  voice  denotes  that  the  subject  receives  the  action.  The 
passive  in  German  has,  as  in  English,  no  special  tense  or  mood  forms  of  its 
own,  but  is  made  up  by  combining  the  perfect  participle  with  different  auxiliary 
verbs.     The  following  forms  are  used  in  German: 

1.  A.  Actional  Passive  Forms.  The  usual  passive  form  to  express  action, 
i.e.  the  actional  (see  4  below)  passive,  is  formed  by  combining  the  various 
moods  and  tenses  of  werden  to  become  with  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb 
to  be  conjugated,  which  remains  uninflected  thruout:  (pres.  indic.)  ich  werde 
gelobt  /  am  being  praised,  du  wirst  gelobt,  &c. ;  (past  indic.)  ich  wurde  gelobt; 
(pres.  perf.  indic.)  ich  bin  gelobt  worden;  (past  perf.  indic.)  ich  war  gelobt 
worden;  (future  indic.)  ich  werde  gelobt  werden,  &c.;  (pres.  subjunctive)  ich 
werde  gelobt,  du  werdest  gelobt,  &c.  The  only  irregularity  in  the  conjugation 
is  that  the  perf.  part,  of  werden  is  here  uniformly  without  the  ge :  worden,  not 
geworden.  No  passive  idea  lies  in  werden,  as  it  also,  when  combined  with  the 
present  infinitive,  forms  the  future  active  (ich  werde  loben),  and  the  future 
perfect  active  when  used  with  the  perfect  infinitive  (ich  werde  gelobt  haben). 
Werden  retains  in  the  passive  its  original  meaning  of  to  become,  and  thus  denotes 
here  a  passing  into  a  state  which  is  indicated  by  the  perfect  participle:  ich  werde 
gerettet  I  am  being  rescued,  lit.  I  am  becoming  or  am  going  over  into  the  state 
of  being  rescued. 


296 THE   ACTIONAL    PASSIVE    FORMS 194.  1.  B. 

B.  However,  werden  is  not  the  only  auxiliary  employed  in  the  actional 
passive,  but  sein  is  still,  according  to  a  usage  prevailing  in  earlier  periods,  fre- 
quently used,  replacing  werden  often  in  the  pres.  perfect,  past  perfect,  future 
perfect,  past  perfect  periphrastic  subjunctive,  and  even  regularly  replacing  it 
in  the  imperative,  and  often  in  the  present  infinitive.     See  a,  b,  c. 

a.  In  M.H.G.  the  pres.  perfect  was  formed  by  combining  the  pres.  of  sein 
with  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated:  (indie.)  ich  bin  gelobet. 
The  past  perfect  was  formed  by  combining  the  past  of  sein  and  the  participle: 
ich  was  gelobet.  Thus  the  present  perfect  and  the  past  perfect  of  the  old 
actional  passive  were  formed  by  the  aid  of  the  auxiliary  sein  and  were  exactly 
the  same  in  form  as  the  present  and  the  past  of  the  modern  statal  (see  4  below) 
passive.  This  former  usage  still  lingers  on,  especially  in  the  North,  tho  no 
longer  recognized  by  grammarians:  Über  den  Begriff  der  Philologie  ist  viel 
herumgestritten  (H.  Paul,  Paul's  Grundriß,  p.  1,  2nd  ed.).  Im  übrigen  gibt 
der  Staatsanwalt  selbst  zu,  daß  in  der  Nähe  des  Postens  zweimal  scharf  ge- 
schossen ist  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Jan.  7,  1914).  This  form  often  occurs  in 
the  official  reports  of  the  Great  War :  Der  Brückenkopf  von  Friedrichstadt  ist 
gestern  erstürmt  (Sept.  4,  1915).  This  older  usage  is  quite  common  with  ge- 
bären; Ich  bin  am  23.  Mai  1844  geboren  (Wustmann's  Sprachdummheiten, 
p.  107,  3rd  ed.).  The  present  regular  passive  forms  with  the  auxiliary  worden 
in  the  present  perfect  and  the  past  perfect  first  appear  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, at  first,  however,  very  rarely.  By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  they  are 
fairly  well  established  in  the  South. 

b.  The  regular  future  perfect  and  the  past  perfect  periphrastic  subjunc- 
tive are  still  avoided  on  account  of  their  clumsiness  and  nonconformity  to  the 
usual  rules  for  end-stress  (215.  II.  1.  A.),  their  place  being  often  supplied  by 
combining  the  future  or  the  past  periphrastic  subjunctive  of  sein  with  the  perfect 
part.:  ich  werde  gelobt  sein  instead  of  ich  werde  gelobt  worden  sein;  ich 
würde  gelobt  sein  instead  of  ich  würde  gelobt  worden  sein. 

c.  In  an  earlier  period  of  the  language,  sein  was  the  more  common  passive 
auxiliary  in  the  infinitive  and  imperative,  and  it  has  tenaciously  defended 
these  positions  against  werden,  as  it  is  still  frequently  found  in  the  infinitive 
where  we  might  naturally  expect  werden,  and  is  used  as  a  rule  in  the  imperative, 
both  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  person,  altho  in  the  latter  also  werden  is  found.  In 
the  infinitive,  sein  seems  to  be  especially  common  after  the  modal  auxiliaries, 
particularly  wollen:  Wenn  er  im  Lager  einherging,  wollte  er  nicht  gegrüßt 
sein  (Ranke).  Nur  von  dir  möchte  ich  gut  genannt  sein,  was  die  Welt  von 
mir  spricht,  ist  mir  eins  (Heer's  Der  König  der  Bernina,  XVIII).  Diese 
[Entschuldigung]  beruht  auf  der  Befürchtung,  daß  ich  beleidigt  sein  müsse, 
an  mein  Alter  erinnert  zu  werden  (Suttner's  Im  Berghause,  p.  93).  Damit  soll 
nicht  gesagt  sein,  daß  man  nicht  auch  andere  lieben  kann  (Bartel's  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Literatur,  II,  p.  424).  These  examples  can  easily  be  multiplied, 
as  the  construction  is  still  quite  frequent,  but  the  use  of  werden  here  is  perhaps 
more  common:  Es  muß  ja  einmal  gesagt  werden  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  2,  11). 
In  the  perfect  infinitive,  however,  the  older  construction  with  sein  may  possibly 
be  the  preferred  one :  Dann  erzählte  er,  daß  der  junge  Mensch  seiner  Gesund- 
heit sowie  seinem  Beutel  wohl  zu  viel  zugemutet  haben  und  von  den  Seinen 
in  die  Verbannung  geschickt  sein  mochte  (Schubin's  Rcjugium  peccatorum,  V), 
instead  of  the  clumsy  geschickt  worden  sein  mochte. 

The  grammarians  often  give  werden  as  the  auxiliary  with  the  passive  im- 
perative; usage,  however,  seems  almost  wholly  upon  the  side  of  sein  in  the 
2nd  person  and  usually  also  in  the  3rd  person,  which,  however,  is  in  fact  the 
3rd  person  of  the  pres.  subjunctive.  Second  person:  Küsse  Lieschen  und  die 
Kinder  und  sei  geküßt  von  Deinem  Theodor  (Fontane  an  seine  Frau,  March 
10,  1857).  Seien  Sie  gesegnet  für  alles  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  4,  12).  Only 
rarely  here  with  werden:  oder  wirt  (older  form,  now  werde)  alhie  erslagen 
(Parsival,  2(57.  20).  Komm  —  neue  Erde  will  dich  umgrünen,  |  will  mit  dir 
sich,  der  Blume,  schmücken,  |  werde  geboren!  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Lieder  des 


194.  4. THE  STATAL    PASSIVE 297 

Euripides,  p.  67).  Third  person:  Hier  sei  es  bemerkt  Here  may  it  be  permitted 
me  to  remark.  Gott  sei  es  gedankt!  Thank  God  for  it!  Gesegnet  sei  dein 
Eingang,  liebes  Kind!  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus  dem  Walde,  HI,  chap.  xi).  Auf 
einen  wichtigen  Punkt  sei  hier  noch  die  Aufmerksamkeit  gelenkt  (Brugmann's 
Kurze  vergleichende  Grammatik,  p.  289).  Sein  is  also  used  in  a  subordinate 
clause  after  a  verb  expressing  will,  command:  Herrin,  ein  alter  Brauch  |  will, 
daß  wenn  Ostern  kam  ins  Land,  I  wenn  leise  grünt  der  Dornenstrauch  |  .  .  .  .  daI5 
dann  die  erste  Vollmondnacht  |  fliegend  und  wiegend  sei  durchwacht  (Su- 
dermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  3,  2. ) 

In  the  following  rather  rare  examples  werden  is  used  as  auxiliary  in  the  3rd 
person:  Geheiligt  werde  dein  Name  (Luther).  Ihr  seid  von  mir  geschieden  — 
werd'  auch  mir,  |  von  euch  zu  scheiden,  Kraft  und  Mut  verliehen!  (Goethe's 
Tasso,  4,  2).  Ewig  werde  dein  gedacht  (Schiller's  Siegesfest).  Die  Welt  will 
betrogen  werden,  so  werde  sie  denn  betrogen  (Über  Land  und  Meer). 

The  2nd  pers.  imperative  may  be  replaced  by  the  imperative  of  lassen  and  a 
dependent  infinitive:  laß  dich  überreden  (familiar  form)  be  persuaded,  or  allow 
yourself  to  be  persuaded;  laßt  euch  überreden  (pi.  of  familiar  form);  lassen  Sie 
Sich  überreden  (polite  form). 
2.  Passive  with  bekommen,  kriegen,  or  erhalten,  instead  of  werden.  A  peculiar 
passive  construction  is  often  found,  which  deserves  attention.  It  is  formed  by 
placing  the  noun  which  denotes  the  objective  point  of  the  activity  in  the  ace. 
as  the  object  of  the  verb  bekommen,  erhalten,  or  kriegen  (in  popular  language), 
and  then  making  the  real  verb  of  the  sentence  an  objective  predicate  in  the 
form  of  a  perfect  participle:  Er  hat  es  gesagt  bekommen  =  Es  ist  ihm  gesagt 
worden.  Bekamen  Sie  das  Geld  drahtlich  angewiesen?  Was  the  money  wired 
to  you?  Jedermann  erhielt  15  Patronen  zugezählt  Fifteen  cartridges  were 
dealt  out  to  each  man.  Ich  kriege  meine  Mühe  redlich  bezahlt  I  am  well 
paid  for  my  trouble.  The  passive  idea  here  lies  in  the  perf.  part.  The  object 
may  be  suppressed,  and  the  verb  bekommen  or  erhalten  remains  almost  with 
the  force  of  the  passive  auxiliary  werden:  Aber  nicht  doch  —  dafür  bekomme 
ich  ja  von  Fräulein  Phüippi  bezahlt  (Wildenbruch 's  Die  Waidfrau)  Don't  pay 
me — I  shall  be  paid  by  Miss  P. 

A  similar  construction  is  found  after  führen,  bringen,  and  nehmen:  Man 
führte  ihn  an  einem  Arm  gefaßt  He  was  led  along  held  by  one  arm.  Mädchen 
bringen  den  Hut  auf  einer  Stange  getragen  (Schiller's  Tell,  1.  2915).  Die 
Dienstboten  brachten  kleine  Wälder  in  die  Öfen  geschleppt  (Maria  Janitscheck's 
Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  IX).     Man  nahm  ihn  gefangen. 

3.  Passive  with  gehören.  Another  passive  construction  is  not  infrequently 
found  which  is  worthy  of  attention  by  reason  of  its  pithy  terseness.  Instead 
of  müssen  ought  (a  necessity  which  lies  in  the  nature  of  things)  with  a  dependent 
passive  infinitive  a  simple  tense  of  gehören  to  belong,  be  fit  is  used  followed  by 
the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated,  which  serves  as  a  predicate 
complement:  Ein  entlaufen  Schaf  gehört  in  seinen  Stall  geliefert  (Scheffel's 
Ekkehard,  chap,  xxi)  A  runaway  sheep  ought  to  be  brought  back  to  its  fold. 
Sauber  gehalten  gehört  ein  IQnd  und  wohl  verpflegt  (Hermine  Villinger's 
's  Romans- Hütt').  Dem  gehört  das  Handwerk  gelegt  (Karrillon's  O  Domina 
Mea,  p.  123). 

4.  Actional  and  Statal  Passive.  Different  from  the  above  passive  forms 
denoting  an  action  is  a  statal  passive  which  does  not  denote  an  action  at  all, 
but  only  a  state.  It  is  formed  by  combining  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb 
to  be  conjugated  with  the  different  moods  and  tenses  of  the  auxiliary  sein. 
The  difference  between  this  statal  passive  and  the  actional  passive  is  indicated 
by  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  two  auxiliaries  employed.  The  forms 
with  werden  denote  an  action  going  on  or  an  act  conceived  as  a  whole,  while 
the  forms  with  sein  denote  a  state  that  has  resulted  from  previous  action:  Das 
Haus  wird  angestrichen  The  house  is  being  painted  and  Das  Haus  wird  oft 
angestrichen  The  house  is  often  painted,  but  Das  Haus  ist  angestrichen  The 
house  is  painted.     Die  Tür  wird  jeden  Abend  lun  sechs  Uhr  geschlossen  The 


298 THE  STATAL   PASSIVE   FORMS 194.  4. 

door  is  shut  (i.e.  some  one  shuts  the  door)  every  evenmg  at  six,  but  Die  Tür  ist 
geschlossen  The  door  is  shut.  Die  Schiffbrüchigen  sind  mit  großer  Gefahr 
der  Brandung  entrissen  worden,  jetzt  sind  sie  gerettet.  Where  we  might 
upon  the  first  thought  expect  to  find  a  statal  passive  form  with  sein  we  often 
find  an  actional  form  with  werden,  as  not  the  idea  of  a  physical  state  is  before 
the  mind  but  that  of  a  mental  operation  which  the  mind  itself  performs  over 
and  over  again,  or  performs  each  time  anew  when  the  subject  presents  itself: 
Jeder  Kreis  wird  durch  jeden  Durchmesser  in  zwei  gleiche  Teile  geteilt  Every 
circle  is  divided  by  each  of  its  diameters  into  two  equal  parts.  Europa  wird 
von  Asien  durch  das  Uralgebirge  getrennt.  For  the  origin  of  the  actional 
passive  see  190.  1.  C.  a.  Note  1. 

The  statal  passive  forms  a  complete  conjugation  in  all  the  moods  and  tenses: 
(pres.  indie.)  ich  bin  erschöpft  I  am  exhausted;  (past  indie.)  ich  war  erschöpft 
I  was  exhausted;  (pres.  perf.)  ich  bin  erschöpft  gewesen  I  have  been  in  an 
exhausted  condition;  (past,  perf.)  ich  war  erschöpft  gewesen  I  had  been  in 
an  exhausted  condition  (at  a  time  before  a  certain  event  in  the  past);  (future) 
ich  werde  erschöpft  sein  There  will  be  a  time  when  I  shall  be  exhausted;  (pres. 
subjunctive)  ich  sei  erschöpft;    (past  subj.)  ich  wäre  erschöpft;    &c. 

Note  1.  Characleristic  Differences  between  German  and  English.  Altho  literary  English  is  lacking  in  accurate 
passive  forms  colloquial  speech  has  even  fuller  forms  than  German:  (actional  passive)  The  house  often  gets  painted; 
(progressive  actional  passive)  The  house  is  getting  painted;  (statal  passive)  The  house  is  painted.  In  German  there 
is  no  progressive  form,  but  this  idea  is  sometimes  expressed  by  combining  a  prepositional  phrase  with  the  perfect 
participle  begriffen:  Das  Haus  ist  im  Bau  begriffen  The  house  is  being  built.  Andere  Pläne  zur  Erledigung  der 
Frage  sind  in  der  Ausarbeitung  begriffen. 

Note  2.  Characteristic  Differences  between  the  Actional  and  the  Statal  Passive.  The  characteristic  difference  of 
nature  between  these  two  forms  often  becomes  marked  in  the  Present  perfect.  This  tense  represents  the  act  as  com- 
pleted and  the  state  as  past  at  the  present  time,  but  in  case  of  the  actional  form  the  results  of  the  completed  activity 
often  remain  intact  at  the  present  time,  while  in  case  of  the  statal  form  the  state  once  obtaining  is  represented  as 
having  passed  entirely  away:  Die  Wände  sind  eben  tapeziert  worden  The  walls  have  just  been  papered  and  are 
now  of  course  in  fine  condition,  but  Der  Wirt:  Das  Zimmer  ist  doch  sonst  galant  (  =  elegant)  und  tapeziert  —  Just: 
Gewesen!  (Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  1,  2)  Landlord:  The  room  is  elegant  and  papered — Just:  It  has 
been.  Notice  that  to  empliasize  the  idea  that  the  condition  has  passed  away  the  perfect  participle  gewesen  is  strongly 
accented  in  German,  while  in  English  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  is  stressed.  In  normal  German  speech,  however, 
the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated  is  stressed  here  as  elsewhere,  for  the  mere  use  of  gewesen  usually 
indicates  that  the  state  has  passed  away:  Diese  Zeitschrift  ist  sehr  verbreitet  gewesen  This  periodical  has  been 
widely  read.  In  English  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  must  also  in  normal  speech  be  accented  as  otherwise  the  statal 
form  could  not  be  distinguished  from  the  actional.  On  the  other  hand,  the  present  perfect  of  the  actional  passive 
often  points  to  a  past  activity  that  has  left  behind  no  results  which  remain  intact  at  the  present  time,  but  also  here 
the  actional  form  differs  distinctly  from  the  statal.  The  former  merely  points  to  a  past  act  or  activity,  while  the  latter 
indicates  that  the  past  state  continued  for  a  while  before  it  passed  away:  Er  ist  viel  geliebt  und  viel  gehaßt,  hoch 
bewundert  und  tief  verachtet  worden  (Kippenberg's  Handbuch  der  deutschen  Literatur,  p.  3SÖ),  but  Gottfried  ist 
nicht  nur  von  den  Vertretern  der  Literatur  auf  lange  Zeit  gekannt  und  geschätzt  gewesen,  sondern  er  wirkte  auch 
lebendig  ein  auf  die  Dichterwelt  (Bechstein's  Einleitung  zu  Tristan,  p.  xxv). 

What  has  just  been  said  of  the  force  of  the  present  perfect  tense  in  the  passive  docs  not  apply  at  all  to  indirect 
discourse,  for  here  the  present  perfect  represents  often  the  past  tense  of  the  direct,  so  that  the  present  perfect  of  the 
statal  passive  merely  points  in  indirect  discourse  to  a  state  of  things  in  the  past  without  reference  to  tlie  present: 
Es  ist  die  herrschende  Ansicht,  daß  während  der  Blütezeit  der  mittelhochdeutschen  Literatur  eine  von  den  Mund- 
arten verschiedene  Gemeinsprache  bestanden  habe,  die  allerdings  nicht  so  fest  geregelt  gewesen  sei  wie  die  neu- 
hochdeutsche Schriftsprache  (Paul's  Mittelhochdeutsche  Grammatik,  p.  4).  As  a  state  of  things  in  the  past  implies 
that  tlie  action  which  lias  produced  tlic  state  has  already  taken  place,  the  present  perfect  of  the  statal  passive  is  in 
indirect  discourse  in  the  new  sequence  1 171.  2.  B),  which  avoids  past  tense  forms,  much  used  to  represent  an  actional 
past  perfect  of  the  direct.  Examples  are  given  in  171.  2.  B.  e.  This  same  present  perfect  of  the  statal  passive  is  of 
course  regularly  used  as  an  actional  past  perfect  tense  also  in  direct  discourse  in  dialects  which  use  the  present  perfect 
for  the  past  in  narrative,  for  their  present  perfect  statal  passive  always  points  to  a  past  state  and  hence  often  indicates 
that  the  action  which  has  produced  the  state  has  already  taken  place:  Die  ist  aber  nicht  ausgestiegen,  sondern  hat 
immerzu  nach  den  Fenstern  von  unsere  Wohnung  raufgesehen,  wo  eben  Licht  angesteckt  gewesen  ist  (Therese  in 
Sudermann's  Heimat,  1,  10). 

5.  Passive  with  Verbs  governing  the  Genitive  or  Dative.  In  case  of  verbs 
which  govern  a  case  other  than  the  ace.  the  construction  must  be  impersonal, 
the  gen.  or  dat.  being  retained  in  the  passive:  Meine  Mutter  hat  oft  gesagt, 
sie  wolle  in  das  Wasser  gehen,  da  sei  ihr  allein  geholfen.  Weshalb  habt 
ihr  sie  denn  in  die  Erde  gegraben,  wenn  ihr  im  Wasser  geholfen  war?  (Raabe's 
Schüdderump,  chap.  xiv).     See  also  219.  5.  A  (last  par.). 

195.     Synopsis  of  loben  in  the  Actional  Passive. 

Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

Pres.  I  am  praised,  am  being  praised,  &c. 
ich  werde  gelobt  ich  werde  gelobt 

Past.    I  was  praised,  was  being  praised,  &c. 
ich  wurde  (or  ward)  gelobt  ich  würde  gelobt 


196.  I.  4. SUBSTITUTES   FOR  THE   PASSIVE 299 

Pres.  Perfect.    I  have  been  praised  &c. 
ich  bin  gelobt  worden  ich  sei  gelobt  worden 

Past  Perfect.    I  had  been  praised,  &c. 
ich  war  gelobt  worden  ich  wäre  gelobt  worden 

Future.    I  shall  be  praised,  &c. 
ich  werde  gelobt  werden  ich  werde  gelobt  werden 

Future  Perfect.    I  shall  have  been  praised,  &c. 
ich  werde  gelobt  worden  sein  ich  werde  gelobt  worden  sein 

Past  Periphrastic  Subjunctive,  ich  würde  gelobt  werden  I  should  (would)  be 
praised. 

Past  Perfect  Periphrastic  Subjunctive,  ich  würde  gelobt  worden  sein  I  should 
(would)  have  been  praised. 

Imperative. 
2nd  sg.    sei  gelobt  (see  194.  1.  B.  c)  be  praised. 
3rd  sg.    er  sei  gelobt,  or  er  werde  gelobt  let  him  be  praised. 
1st  pi.    seien  wir  gelobt  let  us  be  praised. 
2nd  pi.  seid  gelobt,  seien  Sie  gelobt  be  praised. 
3rd  pi.  sie  sollen  gelobt  werden  (or  sein)  they  shall  be  praised. 

Infinitive. 
Pres,   gelobt  (zu)  werden  (or  sein;  see  194.  1.  B.  c)  to  be  praised. 
Perf.   gelobt  worden  (zu)  sein  to  have  been  praised. 

Participles. 
Used  as  a  Verb,  Adjective,  or  Substantive. 
Pres,  wanting,  but  often  supplied  by  the  perfect  gelobt  (see  183.  3). 
Perf.  gelobt,  or  more  rarely  gelobt  worden  (see  184.  e). 

Substitutes  for  the  passive. 

196.  I.  In  German  more  strictly  than  in  English  we  are  confined  to  the 
rule  that  the  passive  is  only  used  tvhen  it  is  desired  to  especially  represent  the 
subject  as  the  objective  point  of  an  activity.  Often  where  in  English  the  passive 
form  is  common  or  required,  some  other  construction  is  used  in  German.  The 
most  common  substitutes  for  the  passive  are  the  following: 

1.  Very  frequently  man  with  an  active  verb:  Bei  uns  schließt  man  die 
Türen  um  10  Uhr  With  us  the  doors  are  shut  at  10  o'clock. 

a.  This  construction  is  always  used  in  German  where  in  English  an  infinitive 
follows  the  passive  of  verbs  of  hearing,  perceiving,  knowing,  thinking,  believing, 
finding,  or  where  the  passive  form  of  these  verbs  is  introduced  by  anticipatory 
it,  pointing  foru'ard  to  a  following  subject  clause:  Man  hörte  ihn  sagen  He  was 
heard  to  say.  Man  fand  ihn  schlafen  He  tvas  found  to  be  sleeping.  Man  sah, 
daß  es  zu  spät  war  It  icas  seen  that  it  icas  too  late. 

2.  The  simple  reflexive  construction  described  in  218.  3.  A  and  B. 

3.  The  use  of  lassen  reflexively  with  a  dependent  infinitive.  See  218.  3. 
A.  a. 

Note.  There  is  a  difference  of  meaning  between  these  various  passive  constructions.  The  passive  proper  represents 
tlie  subject  as  the  objective  point  of  an  activity.  Der  Garten  wird  von  dem  jetzigen  Besitzer  erweitert  The  garden 
is  being  enlarged  by  its  present  owner.  Tlie  construction  with  man  (see  1  above)  and  tlie  active  represents  an  in- 
definite agent  at  worlc  upon  something:  Man  erweitert  den  Garten.  Tiie  construction  with  lassen  used  reflexively 
with  a  dependent  infinitive  (see  3  above)  indicates  the  possibility  of  a  successful  action:  Der  Garten  läßt  sich  er- 
weitern The  garden  can  be  enlarged.  The  simple  reflexive  construction  (see  2  above)  represents  the  subject  as 
self-acting,  either  under  the  impulse  of  natural  forces  or  some  hidden  force,  so  that  it  seems  to  act  of  itself:  Mein 
Herz  erweitert  sich  My  heart  is  being  enlarged  (under  the  natural  influence  of  sympathy).  Da  öffnet  sich  behend 
ein  zweites  Tor  Then  a  second  door  is  quickly  thrown  open  (it  seemed  to  open  of  itself).  Das  ändert  sich  bald  That 
will  soon  be  changed,  circumstances  will  soon  alter  this  condition  of  things.  Very  often  this  reflexive  construction 
can  be  translated  by  an  intrans.  as  in  the  first  two  sentences:  My  heart  is  growing  broader,  larger.  Then  a  second 
door  quickly  flies  open.     Compare  218.  3.  B. 

4.  Also  in  a  number  of  other  cases  active  forms  in  the  German  are  rendered 
by  passives  in  English: 


300 GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB       196.  I.  4.  a. 

a.  The  auxiliary  sollen  is  often  rendered  by  is  said  to,  is  expected  to,  is 
supposed  to:  Er  soll  sehr  reich  sein  He  is  said  to  be  very  rich.  Die  Königin 
soll  heute  kommen  The  queen  is  expected  to  arrive  to-day.  Dieses  Gemälde 
soll  (is  supposed)  von  Rubens  sein. 

b.  The  auxiliary  dürfen  is  often  rendered  by  to  be  allowed:  Er  darf  nicht 
gehen  He  is  not  allowed  to  go. 

c.  The  active  infinitive  very  often  has  passive  force.     See  187.  1. 

d.  The  modal  verbals  (see  180.  A.  a,  b,  c  and  B),  tho  active  in  form,  are 
passive  in  force. 

e.  An  impersonal  idiom  is  sometimes  rendered  by  a  passive:  Es  bedarf 
keiner  Hilfe  No  help  is  needed. 

/.  The  German  intrans.  ertrinken  (of  human  beings)  and  ersaufen  (of 
animals)  are  translated  by  to  be  drowned:  Der  Knabe  ertrank.  Die  Katze 
ersoff. 

<,'.  In  its  intransitive  use  heißen  is  usually  rendered  passively  in  English 
to  be  called:  Herodot  heißt  der  Vater  der  Geschichte  Herodotus  is  called  the 
father  of  history.  Wie  heißt  das  Kind?  What  is  the  child  called,  or  what  is 
the  child's  name? 

h.  The  intrans.  erschrecken  is  translated  by  to  be  frightened:  Erschrick  nur 
nicht!  Don't  be  frightened! 

i.  In  German  the  passive  is  in  general  very  little  used  in  connection  with 
an  infinitive:  He  was  known  to  be  honest  Man  wußte,  daß  er  ehrlich  war. 
For  fuller  statement  see  1.  a  above  and  185.  B.  I.  2.  d.  (4).  With  lehren  and 
heißen,  however,  the  passive  may  be  used  here.  See  178.  2.  B.  d.  See  also 
185.  B.  I.  2.  c.  Note. 

5.  The  English  passive  construction  with  verbs  which  take  a  prepositional 
object  must  be  rendered  in  some  other  way:  He  is  often  spoken  of  may  be  trans- 
lated by  Man  spricht  oft  von  ihm.  The  German  construction,  however,  may 
correspond  closely  to  the  English  where  the  preposition  has  entered  into  a 
compound  with  the  verb:  The  skiff  was  run  into  by  a  sailboat  Der  Nachen 
wurde  von  einem  Segelboot  angerannt. 

II.  Impersonal  Passive.  On  the  other  hand,  in  its  impersonal  form,  the 
passive  is  often  used  where  there  is  no  person  or  thing  represented  as  being 
acted  on.     See  219.  5.  B. 


GRADATION    (Ablaut)    CLASSES  OF  THE 
STRONG  VERB. 

Vowel  and  Consonant  Changes. 

197.  A.  Gradation.  The  conjugation  of  the  weak  verb  is  very  uniform, 
and  all  can  in  general  be  conjugated  after  the  model  of  loben,  but  the  strong 
verb  forms  its  simple  tenses  and  perf.  participle  by  a  change  of  vowel  in  the 
stem  instead  of  adding  suffixes  to  the  stem.  This  change  of  vowel  in  the  dif- 
ferent tenses  is  the  result  of  a  different  accent  which  obtained  in  an  earlier 
period,  but  is  now  used  to  make  more  clear  certain  grammatical  distinctions 
such  as  tense  and  number.  Strong  verbs  do  not  all  show  the  same  changes 
of  vowel,  but  subdivide  into  classes  and  groups.  Each  class  usually  observes 
within  itself  a  uniform  change  of  vowel  in  the  past  tense.  The  pres.  and  past 
tenses  cannot  have  the  same  vowel.  The  vowel  of  the  perf.  part,  is  in  some 
groups  the  same  as  in  the  present,  in  others  the  same  as  in  the  past,  or  again 
it  may  have  a  different  vowel  from  both.  This  change  of  the  stem-vowel  in 
the  simple  tenses  and  the  perf.  part,  is  called  gradation.  Each  class  usually 
has  subdivisions,  differing  from  each  other  in  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  or  other- 
wise. 

a.  The  nouns  and  adjectives  made  from  strong  verbs  have  also  a  relation  to  this  gradation. 
Many  masculine  monosyllabics  and  feminine  dissyllabics,  also  masculine  derivatives  in  -er  de- 


197.  A.  c.  GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB 301 

noting  agents,  and  neuter  verbal  nouns  in  -en  and  feminine  verbal  nouns  in  -ung,  often  correspond- 
ing to  our  nouns  in  -ing,  have  the  same  vowel  as  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  from  which  they 
are  formed;  other  nouns  have  the  same  vowel  as  the  past,  which  are  usually  masculine  if  mono- 
syllabic and  feminine  if  dissyllabic,  and  still  other  nouns  are  made  upon  the  vowel  of  the  perfect 
participle:  steigen  to  mount,  ascend,  past  stieg,  perf.  part,  gestiegen;  der  Steig  path,  die 
Steige  path,  staircase,  der  Steiger  climber,  der  Steigende  the  one  who  is  now  ascending,  das 
Steigen  ascending,  die  Besteigung  des  Berges  the  ascending  of  the  mountain;  der  Stieg  ascent, 
die  Stege  (see  198,  2.  Division,  d)  staircase;  der  Hinaufgestiegene  the  one  who  has  ascended. 
Nouns  denoting  agents,  verbal  and  participial  nouns,  are  made,  as  those  given  above,  quite 
regularly  upon  the  appropriate  gradation  form;  but  many  other  nouns,  as  die  Stege  (see  reference 
given  above),  are  seemingly  irregularly  formed,  as  they  have  retained  in  many  cases  the  grada- 
tion form  of  the  verb  as  found  in  earlier  periods,  or  have  undergone  peculiar  phonetic  changes. 
On  account  of  these  irregularities  these  nouns  are  especially  treated  under  the  different  classes, 
while  those  regularly  formed  will  not  require  especial  treatment. 

Adjectives  are  not  always  so  easily  brought  into  relation  with  the  present  gradation  classes 
as  nouns,  since  they  often  have  retained  old  gradation  forms  which  the  verb  has  exchanged  for 
newer  formations:  zahm  tame,  from  the  past  tense  of  the  M.H.G.  zemen  (now  ziemen,  wk.) 
to  be  becoming,  past  zam  (pi.  zamen),  part,  gezomen,  &c. 

Note.  The  exact  relation  of  nouns,  adjectives,  &c.  to  the  gradation  of  the  verb  cannot  always  be  definitely  de- 
termined. Some  nouns  are  taken  directly  from  a  gradation  form  of  the  verb  and  share  its  verbal  force:  (der)  Backet 
baker  =  one  who  bakes,  thus  pres.  and  active  in  force.  Other  nouns,  especially  those  showing  the  vowel  of  the  past 
tense,  altho  they  have  the  same  vowel  as  a  gradation  form  of  the  verb,  do  not  have  the  same  verbal  force:  das  Band 
tie,  fetter  =  that  which  ties,  fetters,  thus  pres.  in  force,  altho  the  word  shows  the  vowel  of  the  past  tense  of  the  verb. 
It  is  probable  that  this  class  of  nouns  were  not  formed  from  verbs,  but  that  each  noun  was  made  directly  from  the 
stem  from  which  also  the  verb  was  made.  Similar  phonetic  conditions  developed  the  same  vowel  in  verb  and  noun. 
As  the  original  stem  of  such  words  does  not  now  appear  anywhere  in  the  language,  it  is  profitable  to  associate  every 
noun  and  adj.,  where  it  is  possible,  with  the  same  gradation  form  of  the  verb,  as  this  is  the  oldest  related  form  to 
which  it  can  be  traced  and  from  which  light  can  be  obtained  as  to  its  real  meaning.  Thus  when  (der)  Fluß  river  is 
brought  into  relation  to  flussen  (earlier  form  of  the  pi.  of  the  past  tense  of  fließen  to  flow)  its  real  meaning  becomes 
apparent.  Altho  originally  such  nouns  and  adjectives  were  not  formed  directly  from  the  gradation  forms  of  the  verb, 
but  developed  a  similar  form  under  the  force  of  similar  conditions,  they  nevertheless,  from  long  association  with  the 
verbal  gradation  forms,  have  come  to  be  felt  as  directly  derived  from  them.  This  is  especially  seen  in  a  number 
of  abstract  nouns,  such  as  Kniff,  Pfiff,  Wuchs,  Hieb,  &c.,  which  have  been  formed  within  the  present  period 
directly  from  the  gradation  forms  of  the  verb  after  the  analogy  of  other  nouns  which  seemed  to  be  derived  directly 
from  the  verb.  It  has  become  especially  common  to  form  such  abstract  nouns  directly  from  the  present  tense  of 
both  strong  and  weak  derivative  and  compound  verbs:    Verderb,  Beweis,  Beleg,  Nachweis,  &c. 

b.  The  gradation  classes  are  very  old,  and  in  course  of  centuries  changes  of  gradation  in 
individual  words  within  a  group  or  thruout  a  group,  and  shifting  of  words  from  one  group  to  an- 
other, have  taken  place,  and  traces  of  these  former  gradation  conditions  can  still  be  clearly 
seen,  and  will  be  noted  under  the  individual  groups.  Verbs  that  are  followed  by  Roman  numbers 
used  to  belong  to  the  classes  indicated  by  the  Roman  characters.  In  dialect  the  groups  do  not 
always  correspond  to  those  of  the  written  language,  as  many  words  have  abandoned  their  group 
for  a  more  popular  one. 

c.  In  several  groups  the  Middle  High  German  form  is  given  below  the  New  High  German. 
In  this  case  two  vowels  are  given  in  the  past  tense,  as  the  past  tense  had  a  different  vowel  in  the 
sing,  and  the  pi.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  old  sayings,  where  sometimes  a  rime  has  preserved  the 
older  form  of  the  pi.:  Wie  die  Alten  sungen  (now  elsewhere  sangen),  so  zwitschern  die  Jungen. 
In  Luther's  language  this  difference  of  vowel  is  still  very  common,  but  to-day  it  has  disappeared 
except  in  past  present  verbs  (see  212.  1)  and  in  the  past  tense  of  werden:  ich  ward  (or  wurde), 
wir  wurden.  Wherever  the  vowel  of  the  past  tense  was  different  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  the  sub- 
junctive had  thruout  the  sing,  and  pi.  the  mutated  vowel  of  the  indie,  pi.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in 
past  present  verbs,  the  past  of  werden  (past  indie,  ich  ward,  pi.  wir  wurden,  subj.  ich  würde, 
pi.  wir  würden),  and  other  cases  mentioned  under  the  different  classes. 

Also  nouns  often  show  even  to  this  day  the  plural  vowel  of  the  old  past  tense.  Thus  (der) 
Schuß  still  shows  the  vowel  of  the  plural  of  the  old  past  tense  of  schießen. 

d.  Factitive  verbs  (which  show  that  the  subject  makes  something  do  or  become  something, 
as  the  woodman  fells,  i.e.  makes  fall,  the  tree)  are  formed  from  strong  verbs  by  mutating  the  vowel 
of  the  past  tense,  the  consonants  remaining  unchanged  except  that  final  ß  and  ch  of  the  stem 
usually  appear  as  z  and  ck,  and  d  and  s  as  t  and  r  in  leiten  (factitive  of  leiden;  see  198.  1.  Division, 
c)  and  nähren  (factitive  of  nesen,  now  only  found  in  the  form  of  genesen;  see  202.  2.  General 
Note).  The  mutation  of  a  is  usually  written  e,  but  in  some  verbs  ä.  Mutation  does  not  always 
appear  in  M.H.G.,  especially  before  labials,  but  later  thru  the  influence  of  Luther  and  M.G. 
writers  became  more  general:  (M.H.G.)  ersoufen  ersäufen.  These  factitive  verbs  being 
derivatives  are  of  course  weak.  Ex.:  erschrecken  to  be  afraid,  to  start  with  fright,  erschrak, 
erschrocken,  but  erschrecken,  new  infin.  from  the  mutated  stem  of  the  past,  to  make  start  with 
fright,  to  frighten,  past  erschreckte,  perf.  part,  erschreckt;  liegen  to  lio,  lag,  gelegen,  but  legen 
to  lay  (to  make  lie),  legte,  gelegt;  sitzen  to  sit,  saß,  gesessen,  but  setzen  to  set,  setzte,  gesetzt; 
stechen  to  pierce,  stach,  gestochen,  but  stecken  to  stick  (literally  to  make  pierce),  steckte, 
gesteckt.  In  older  periods  when  the  past  tense  had  a  different  vowel  in  sing,  and  pi.  the  factitive 
had  the  same  vowel  as  the  singular.  The  factitives  have  retained  the  original  singular  vowel, 
while  this  vowel  has  in  a  number  of  cases  disappeared  in  the  past  tense  of  the  corresponding 
strong  verbs,  as  the  singular  in  this  tense  has  often  been  leveled  by  the  plural.  In  this  way 
and  also  thru  mutation  and  the  change  of  the  form  of  the  final  consonant  in  the  stem  the  fac- 
titives have  become  disconnected  from  the  parent  verbs  and  are  often  not  felt  as  related  forms. 
Thus  feeling  for  this  formation  is  waning  and  a  number  have  disappeared  entirely.  The  change 
of  d  to  t  and  that  of  s  to  r  mentioned  above  clearly  indicate  according  to  40.  2.  a  that  the  accent 


302 VOWEL   AND    CONSONANT   CHANGES 197.  A.  c. 

of  factitives  was  formerly  upon  the  verbal  suffix,  not  upon  the  stem  as  at  present.  The  change 
of  ß  and  ch  to  z  and  ck  in  the  factitive  arose  from  the  fact  that  in  prehistoric  West  Germanic 
the  j  that  was  then  in  the  factitival  suffix  caused  the  doubling  of  the  final  t  and  k  of  the  stem, 
as  it  later  also  caused  the  mutation  of  the  stem  vowel.  In  the  O.H.G.  period  the  t  and  k  shifted 
to  ß  and  ch,  but  double  t  and  k  to  z  and  ck  according  to  rule.  In  prehistoric  West  Germanic 
the  j  of  the  factitival  suffix  did  not  always  double  the  preceding  t  after  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong, 
so  that  here  we  find  ß  in  some  verbs  and  z  in  others:  flößen  (or  less  commonly  flozen;  see  199, 
General  Remarks  on  the  1.  Division,  c),  but  beizen  (198.  1.  Division,  c). 

B.  A-Mutation.  This  is  a  partial  assimilation  of  the  stem  vowel  to  the  vowel  in  the  fol- 
lowing syllable.  The  stem  v^owel  u  was  in  an  earlier  period  changed  to  o,  when  an  a,  e,  or  o 
followed  in  the  next  syllable,  except  before  a  nasal  +  consonant  or  before  j.  Thus  the  perf. 
participle  geholfen  (O.H.G.  giholfan)  has  the  mutated  o,  while  in  gebunden,  perf.  part,  of  binden, 
a  verb  belonging  to  the  same  gradation  class,  mutation  did  not  take  place,  as  it  was  hindered 
by  the  nd  following  the  stem-vowel.  This  force  of  o-mutation  can  be  seen  only  in  its  effects. 
It  can  be  better  studied  in  O.H.G.  by  reason  of  its  preservation  of  the  vowels  of  the  unaccented 
syllable.  See  26.  B.  One  result  of  this  force  has  been  that  the  third  gradation  class  has  been 
split  into  dififerent  sub-divisions. 

Similarly  an  i  became  in  this  same  older  period  e  before  a,  e,  o  in  the  next  syllable.  For  ex- 
amples see  198.  1.  Division,  d,  2.  Division,  d.     See  also  26.  B. 

C.  I-,    U-,  and  Nd-Mtttation: — 

a.  I-Mntation  of  the  back  vowels.  In  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing,  of  the  present  indie,  and 
thruout  the  subj.  of  the  past  tense  mutation  is  the  rule  wherever  the  stem  vowel  is  capable  of 
it.  See  26.  A.  The  i  of  earlier  periods  which  has  often  here  been  the  cause  of  the  mutation 
has  either  entirely  disappeared  or  has  been  reduced  to  the  form  of  e:  (2nd  pers.  sing,  of  fahren) 
O.H.G.  du  ferist,  N.H.G.  du  fährst;  (1st  pers.  sing,  of  the  past  subj.  of  nehmen)  O.H.G.  nämi, 
N.H.G.  nähme.  In  early  S.G.,  mutation  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  indie,  was  not  an  ab- 
solute requirement  even  in  the  literary  language.  In  some  cases  the  vowel  remained  here  un- 
changed, especially  au  before  a  labial,  in  other  cases  usage  fluctuated.  In  S.G.  dialect  and 
colloquial  language  of  our  time  non-mutation  here  is  still  quite  common:  Du  fahrst  fort?  (Schön- 
herr's  Sonnwendtag,  p.  45).     See  also  201.  /. 

b.  I-,  U-,  and  Nd-M-iitation  of  e  to  i.  This  change  of  e  to  i  (see  26.  C)  brought  about  in  several 
classes  a  difference  of  vowel  between  the  singular  and  plural  of  the  pres.  indie,  and  also  was  the 
cause  of  splitting  the  third  gradation  class  into  different  subdivisions:  (pres.  tense  indie,  of 
helfen  in  O.H.G.)  hilfu,  hllfis,  hilfit,  pi.  helfames,  helfet,  helfant;  but  binden  in  the  same  class 
takes  in  O.H.G.  (also  in  N.H.G.)  i  thruout,  as  it  always  stands  before  n  -f-  t  or  d:  bintu,  bintis, 
bintit,  pi.  bintames,  bintet,  bintant.  The  1st  person  sing,  of  helfen  is  now  ich  helfe,  as  explained 
in  201.  /. 

D.  Leveling.  Another  force  at  work  among  str.  verbs  is  leveling.  This  is  the  natural  ten- 
dency to  level  out  the  little  irregularities  in  the  conjugation  and  make  it  regular.  This  force 
has  long  been  at  work  and  is  still  continuing,  as  is  illustrated  below  in  200,  2.  Division,  a. 

E.  Verner's  Law  (see  40.  2.  a).  The  effects  of  a  force  which  was  at  work  in  an  earlier  period 
upon  the  consonants  of  str.  verbs — the  so-called  Verner's  Law — can  still  here  and  there  be  seen. 
Owing  to  a  difference  in  accent  in  different  conjugational  forms  of  the  same  word,  there  arose 
a  difference  in  the  consonants:  ziehen,  zog,  gezogen;  leiden,  litt,  gelitten;  war,  gewesen.  Thus 
in  the  following  classes  there  is  occasionally  a  change  in  the  same  word  or  in  related  words  of 
d  to  t,  h  (now  a  silent  letter)  to  g,  and  s  to  r,  as  is  indicated  in  each  case  below. 

F.  Differentiation  of  Forms.  There  is  a  tendency  toward  the  wk.  conjugation,  and  a  number 
of  str.  verbs  have  wk.  forms  alongside  of  the  regular  str.  ones.  Sometimes  the  wk.  and  str. 
forms  have  the  same  meaning,  sometimes  an  economic  instinct  has  led  to  a  differentiation  of 
meaning.  The  wk.  forms  may  be  used  more  in  familiar  conversation,  the  str.  ones  may  be 
choicer  or  have  a  slightly  different  application.  Thus  in  familiar  conversation  er  scheltet  can 
be  heard,  while  in  choice  language  the  form  is  er  schilt.  In  the  literal  meaning  gären  to  ferment 
is  Str.,  while  in  figurative  language  it  is  wk. :  Der  Wein  hat  gegoren,  but  Es  gärte  in  ihm.  There 
are  also  double  str.  forms.  Here  the  older  form  is  often  used  in  old  saws,  poetry  or  elevated 
prose,  while  in  common  conversation  the  newer  form  is  used.  Thus  hub  is  often  used  in  poetry, 
while  in  prose  it  is  usually  replaced  by  hob. 

198.     I.  Class.     Gradation: 

Pres.       ei  Past  i  and  ie  Perf.  Part,  i  and  ie. 

M.H.G.   I  ei  or  e-i  (197.  A.  c)  i. 

This  class  falls  into  two  divisions  strictly  on  the  basis  of  the  closing  con- 
sonant of  the  stem.  If  the  stem  terminates  in  ch,  f,  ß,  t  (which  includes  leiden 
and  schneiden  by  virtue  of  their  past  litt,  schnitt  and  perf.  part,  gelitten,  ge- 
schnitten), the  vowel  of  its  past  tense  and  perf.  part,  is  short  i,  while  it  is  in  all 
other  cases  long  i  (written  ie). 

Historical  Note.  The  explanation  of  this  division  lies  in  an  earlier  condition  of  things.  Formerly  the  vowel  of 
the  perf.  part,  and  the  plural  of  the  past  tense  was  uniformly  short  i.  At  the  beginning  of  the  modern  German  period 
all  short  vowels  became  long  in  open  syllables;  hence,  as  ch,  ff,  ss,  t  after  a  short  root  vowel  according  to  4.  1.  b.  Nole 
formed  a  closed  syllable,  words  in  which  ch,  ff,  ss,  t  followed  a  short  root  vowel  could  not  participate  in  that  move- 
ment which  made  the  short  root  vowel  of  words  long  in  open  syllables.  Thus  verbs  of  this  class  fell  into  two  groups 
in  the  perf.  part,  and  the  plural  of  the  past  tense,  one  with  the  new  vowel  gradation  i  (written  ie),  the  other  with 
the  old  short  i.     Formerly  the  singular  of  the  past  tense  of  verbs  in  this  class  had  a  double  vowel  gradation,  ei  in 


198. I.    CLASS,    1.    DIVISION 303 

some  cases,  e  in  others.  These  gradations  have  disappeared  in  the  verbal  conjugation,  as  the  vowel  form,  i  or  ie, 
which  each  verb  had  in  the  plural  has  spread  to  the  singular  in  accordance  with  the  modern  tendency  to  make  the 
vowel  uniform  thruout  the  same  inflectional  system.  This  development  began  in  the  South  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century  and  gradually  spread  northward.  The  derivatives,  however,  still  preserve  in  a  number  of  cases  the  old  singular 
vowel  of  the  past  tense.     See  c  under  1.  Division  and  b.  c,  d  under  2.  Division. 

In  English  the  singular  vowel  here  in  most  words  spread  to  the  plural,  while  in  a  few  others  the  singular  was  leveled 
by  the  plural,  which  has  thus  split  this  class  into  two  divisions  along  a  different  line  from  that  observed  in  German: 
to  drive,  drove  (the  sing,  vowel,  thus  corresponding  to  M.H.G.  treib),  driven;  to  bite,  bit  (the  plural  vowel,  which  thus 
also,  as  in  modern  German,  has  entered  the  singular),  bitten. 


Division.     Gradation: 

Pres.       ei 

Past  i 

Perf.  Part.  i. 

M.H.G.   i 

ei-i  (197.  A.  c) 

i. 

Examples:  beißen,  biß,  gebissen;  schleifen,  schliff,  geschliffen;  leiden,  litt, 
gelitten;   reiten,  ritt,  geritten. 

The  following  belong  here:  beißen  to  bite;  sich  befleißen  to  apply  oneself  to, 
but  sich  befleißigen  with  the  same  meaning  is  w^k.;  bleichen  (modern  repre- 
sentative of  the  two  M.H.G.  verbs  blichen,  str.,  and  bleichen  [from  adj.  bleich], 
wk.)  to  turn  pale,  white,  bleach  (intrans.),  grow  wan,  fade,  sometimes  str.,  usually 
wk.  in  the  first  three  meanings,  but  str.  in  the  last  two,  especially  in  compounds; 
erbleichen  (modern  representative  of  the  two  M.H.G.  verbs  erblichen,  str., 
and  erbleichen,  wk.)  to  turn  pale,  turn,  fade,  die,  wk.  in  the  first  meaning,  str. 
in  the  last,  str.  or  wk.  in  the  others,  wk.  especially  in  the  past  tense  and  str. 
in  the  perf.  part.;  verbleichen  (modern  representative  of  the  two  M.H.G. 
verbs  verblichen,  str.,  and  verbleichen,  wk.)  to  turn  pale  (now  little  used  in  this 
meaning),  to  grow  wan,  fade,  die,  str.  in  the  last  meaning  and  str.  or  less  com- 
monly wk.  in  the  others;  the  transitive  factitive  bleichen  (from  adj.  bleich)  to 
bleach,  turn  white  is  always  wk.,  either  in  simple  form  or  in  compounds;  gleichen 
to  resemble,  smooth,  level,  make  equal,  intrans.  with  dat.  in  the  first  meaning, 
trans,  with  the  ace.  in  the  other  meanings  and  in  all  compounds,  in  early  N.H.G. 
wk.,  and  still  so  in  all  the  meanings  except  the  first,  where  it  is  now  always  str., 
also  usually  str.  in  compounds;  gleiten  to  glide,  slide,  sometimes  wk.,  and  al- 
ways so  in  begleiten  (from  begeleiten,  and  thus  not  related  to  gleiten)  to  ac- 
company, but  rarely  so  in  the  compound  ausgleiten  to  slip;  greifen  to  seize; 
keifen  (rather  coarse  word)  to  chide,  'jazv,'  str.  in  the  language  of  Goethe  and 
some  other  writers,  but  now  commonly  wk.  as  originally;  kneifen  (rarely  wk.) 
to  pinch;  leiden  to  siffer,  but  the  factitive  verleiden  (from  adj.  leid)  to  render 
impleasant,  spoil,  set  against,  wk. ;  pfeifen  to  whistle;  reißen  to  tear,  pull,  break 
away  from;  reiten  to  ride  on  horseback;  schleichen  to  sneak;  schleifen  in 
M.H.G.  to  slide,  glide,  and  still  with  this  meaning  in  Austria,  as  in  Als  der 
Schlitten  vorüberschliff  (Rosegger's  Der  Adlerwirt,  p.  37),  and  also  elsewhere 
in  the  narrowed  meanings  to  shuffle  icith  the  feet  and  to  slide  on  the  ice  (in  these 
two  meanings  also  wk.),  and  from  the  idea  of  sliding  back  and  forth  on  a  surface 
come  the  common  meanings  to  polish,  grind;  schleißen  (now  rare;  see  factitive 
in  c)  to  split  (intrans.),  ivear  out  by  use  (intrans.);  schmeißen  to  fling,  slam; 
schneiden  to  cut;  schreiten  to  stride;  spleißen  to  split  (trans,  or  intrans.), 
sometimes  wk.;  streichen  to  stroke,  cross  out;  streiten  to  contend;  weichen 
to  yield,  but  the  factitive  weichen  to  soften,  soak,  from  the  adj.  weich  soft,  is  always 
wk.;  also  other  verbs  belong  here,  but  only  rarely,  and  hence  are  not  given; 
see  205. 

a.  As  the  past  tense  and  perf.  part,  contain  a  short  vowel,  a  single  final  consonant  must 
in  these  forms  be  doubled  to  show  that  the  vowel  is  short  and  a  final  d  is  changed  to  t  (197.  E) 
and  then  doubled:  reiten,  ritt,  geritten;  schneiden,  schnitt,  geschnitten.  For  change  from 
ß  to  SS  see  4.  2.  D,  p.  17. 

b.  Luther  still  used  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  past  tense  as  in  M.H.G.: 
ich  reit,  wir  ritten.  See  Historical  Note,  above.  This  old  usage  is  still  preserved  in  the  old 
past  tense  ich  weiß  /  know,  wir  wissen,  but  the  form  is  now  felt  as  an  irregular  present.  See 
212.  1. 

c.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  in  this  division  have  still  the  vowels  of  the  M.H.G.  period  when 
the  past  sing,  contained  an  ei:  beizen  to  make  bite  into,  said  of  liquids  in  the  mechanical  arts, 
as  to  stain  (wood),  soak  (wood),  corrode,  &c.;  leiten  to  lead,  lit.  to  make  go,  thus  preserving  an 
older  meaning  of  leiden  (formerly  to  go,  pass  thru,  now  only  used  in  the  derived  meanings  to 
experience,  suffer);  reizen  to  provoke,  lit.  to  cause  to  break  away  from  one's  self-control;  schleifen 
lit.  to  make  slide,  hence  to  drag,  trail,  raze  (a  fortress);   schleißen  to  split,  to  cause  to  wear  out,  wear 


304 I.    CLASS,    2.    DIVISION 198. 

out  (trans.),  often  confounded  with  the  intrans.  str.  schleißen  to  split,  wear  out,  hence  the  trans. 
is  wk.  or  more  commonly  str. 

d.  A  number  of  monosyllabic  and  dissyllabic  nouns  show  the  vowel  of  the  past  tense:  der 
Biß  bite,  der  Schnitt  cut,  der  Pfiff  whistle  (sound);    die  Schnitte  slice,  &c. 

Das  Blech  (from  bleichen  in  its  older  meaning  to  shine,  glitter)  sheet-metal  shows  the  mutated 
(a-mutation;   see  26.  B)  form  of  this  vowel. 

Some  nouns  have  the  vowel  of  the  present  tense:  der  Streit  contention,  die  Schneide  edge 
(of  a  knife,  sword),  &c. 


2.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres.      ei 

Past  ie 

Perf.  Part. 

ie 

M.H.G.   I 

ei  or  e-i  (197.  A.  c) 

1. 

Examples:   bleiben,  blieb,  geblieben;   reiben,  rieb,  gerieben. 

Here  belong:  bekleiben  (simple  kleiben  now  entirely  lost)  to  take  root,  stand 
firmly  rooted,  now  rare  and  confined  to  poetry;  bleiben  to  remain;  gedeihen 
(see  e)  to  thrive,  earlier  in  the  period  occasionally  wk.;  fleihen  (N.G.,  sometimes 
wk.)  to  put  in  order,  arrange,  fold;  leihen  to  borrow,  lend;  meiden  to  avoid; 
preisen  to  praise,  earlier  in  the  period  wk.,  now  str.,  but  the  compound  lob- 
preisen to  praise  in  song,  str.  or  wk.,  lobpries  or  lobpreis (e)te,  gelobpriesen, 
lobgepriesen,  or  gelobpreist;  reiben  to  rub;  scheiden  VII  to  separate,  as  a 
verb  now  always  str.  according  to  its  present  class,  but  in  early  N.H.G.  (see 
Gen.  xiii.  14)  still  in  class  VII,  1.  Division,  which  former  inflection  still  sur- 
vives in  the  adjective  participle  bescheiden  (see  204.  1.  Division,  a),  or  in 
transitive  use  sometimes  wk.,  as  in  Gen.  i.  4;  scheinen  to  shine,  seem;  schreiben 
to  write;  schreien  to  scream,  in  early  N.H.G.  also  wk. ;  schweigen  to  be  silent; 
speien  to  speiv,  vomit  (fire,  &c.),  spit  (formerly  common  in  this  meaning,  now 
restricted  to  Blut  speien,  Feuer  und  Flammen  speien,  &c.),  earlier  in  the  period 
also  wk.,  and  still  wk.  in  biblical  and  popular  language;  steigen  to  mount; 
treiben  to  drive,  impel;  weisen  to  point  out,  show,  in  early  N.H.G.  also  wk. 
now  str. ;  zeihen  to  accuse,  sometimes  wk. 

a.  Luther  still  used  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  past  tense,  as  in  M.H.G. : 
ich  schreib,  wir  schrieben. 

b.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are:  kleiben  to  make  stick,  paste,  now  little  used,  largely  replaced 
by  kleben  (see  c);  geschweigen  or  schweigen  (early  N.H.G.  and  later,  now  only  in  limited  use 
in  the  literary  language)  to  silence,  hush:  Du  weißt,  die  Mutter  hing  oft  ein  Tuch  über,  um  ihn 
(i.e.  den  Hänfling)  zu  geschweigen,  wenn  er  so  recht  aus  Kräften  sang  (Storm's  Immensee). 
Er,  der  mit  seinem  Überlegenheitslächeln  jede  Unterhaltung  zu  Boden  schwelgte  (Carl  Spit- 
teler's  Imago,  p.  167). 

c.  The  vowel  i  of  the  old  plural  of  the  past  tense  still  appears  in  derivatives:  O.H.G.  kliban 
to  stick  (intrans.),  which  formerly  belonged  to  this  class  and  is  still  represented  here  by  the 
poetic  compound  bekleiben  given  in  the  list  above,  is  the  source  of  two  derivatives:  klimmen 
(O.H.G.  klimban  III)  II  to  climb  (lit.  to  stick),  which  shows  the  gradation  i  of  the  old  plural  of 
the  past  tense  of  kliban  and  an  insertion  of  a  nasal  (m)  between  the  stem  vowel  and  the  conso- 
nantal termination,  which,  however,  later  became  assimilated  to  the  nasal;  the  wk.  kleben 
(O.H.G.  kleben)  to  stick,  at  first  intrans.,  later  also  trans.,  replacing  largely  in  the  latter  function 
the  factitive  kleiben  (see  b).  Kleben  shows  the  gradation  i  of  the  old  plural  of  the  past  tense 
of  kliban  changed  to  e  under  the  influence  of  o-mutation  (see  26.  B).  The  wk.  zeigen  to  show, 
from  zeihen  to  accuse  (lit.  to  show  something  against),  has  preserved  the  vowel  of  the  old  sing, 
of  the  past  tense.     The  g  instead  of  h  is  the  result  of  the  operation  of  Verner's  Law  (197.  E). 

d.  Der  Steig  path,  die  Steige  path,  staircase,  show  the  vowel  of  the  present  tense;  der  Unter- 
schied difference,  der  Stieg  ascent,  show  the  new  vowel  of  the  past  tense,  while  in  die  Stege 
(S.G.  from  O.H.G.  stega)  staircase,  der  Steg  path,  we  see  the  mutated  (ö-mutation;  see  26.  B) 
form  of  the  plural  vowel  of  the  old  past.  Die  Trift  (from  treiben,  hence  a  place  where  cattle  are 
driven)  pasture  and  die  Schrift  luriting  show  the  vowel  i  of  the  old  perfect  participle  and  the  old 
plural  of  the  past  tense.  Zeichen  sign,  mark,  related  to  zeihen  to  accuse  (lit.  to  show,  point  out 
something  against),  has  preserved  the  vowel  of  the  old  sing,  of  the  past. 

e.  The  old  perf.  part,  of  gedeihen,  according  to  Verner's  Law  (197.  E),  was  gediegen.  This 
form  still  exists,  but  is  now  felt  as  an  adjective  with  the  meanings  solid,  genuine,  sterling,  mean- 
ings which  are  easily  brought  into  relation  to  the  primary  signification  of  the  verb.  In  the 
present  period  the  older  participle  has  been  replaced  by  the  leveled  form  gediehen,  which  has 
resulted  from  the  tendency  to  level  out  little  inequalities  and  to  extend  the  same  consonant 
thruout  the  same  inflectional  system. 

199.     II.  Class.     Gradation: 

Pres.       ie,  e,  au,  ii,  i,  ä,  ö  Past  6  Perf.  Part.  6. 

M.H.G.  ie  (iu  in  sing.,  ie  in  pi.)  ou  or  ö-ü  (197.  A.  c)  o. 


199. II.    CLASS,    1.    DIVISION 305 

This  class  falls  into  two  divisions  strictly  on  the  basis  of  the  closing  conso- 
nant of  the  stem.  If  the  stem  terminates  in  ch,  f,  ß,  sch,  t  (which  includes 
sieden  by  virtue  of  its  perf.  part,  gesotten),  a  double  consonant  or  a  combina- 
tion of  consonants,  the  vowel  of  the  past  tense  and  perfect  part,  is  short  o, 
while  it  is  in  all  other  cases  long  o.  For  some  reason,  however,  bieten  does  not 
follow  this  law. 

Historical  Note.  The  explanation  of  this  division  lies  in  an  earlier  condition  of  things.  Formerly  the  vowel  of 
the  perfect  part,  was  uniformly  short  o.  At  the  beginning  of  the  modern  German  period  all  short  vowels  became 
long  in  open  syllables;  hence  as  ch,  f,  ß,  t,  double  consonants  or  a  combination  of  consonants  at  the  close  of  a  stem 
formed  a  closed  syllable,  words  containing  such  final  consonants  in  their  stems  could  not  participate  in  that  move- 
ment which  made  the  stem-vowel  of  words  long  in  all  open  syllables.  Thus  verbs  of  this  class  fell  into  two  groups 
in  the  perfect  participle,  one  with  the  new  vowel  gradation  ö,  the  other  with  the  old  Ö.  Later  in  the  course  of  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the  vowel  of  the  perfect  participle  spread  by  force  of  analogy  to  the  past  tense,  so 
that  each  verb  had  the  same  vowel  in  the  past  tense  and  perfect  participle,  and  there  thus  arose  two  divisions  of  these 
verbs,  each  with  the  same  vowel  in  the  past  tense  and  perfect  participle. 

The  old  past  tense,  which  had  been  leveled  away  in  the  manner  just  described,  contained  in  early  N.H.G.  two  vowel 
gradations  in  the  singular,  ou  before  labials  and  velars  (except  ch)  and  ö  before  ch  and  dentals,  while  all  alike  had  the 
same  gradation  in  the  plural,  namely,  short  u.  When  later  the  vowel  of  the  perfect  participle  replaced  the  old  vowels 
of  the  past  tense,  the  derivatives  remained  unaffected,  and  thus  still  show  the  old  gradations  of  the  past  tense.  See 
1.  Division,  c,  d,  and  2.  Division,  c,  d  below. 

This  class  was  greatly  enlarged  by  accessions  from  the  other  classes,  as  can  be  seen  by  glancing  at  the  lists  below. 
Words  in  other  classes  which  contained  a  long  or  a  short  o  in  their  perfect  participle  joined  those  verbs  in  this  class 
which  had  there  the  same  vowel,  and  along  with  them  extended  the  vowel  of  their  perfect  participle  to  their  past 
tense  and  became  identified  with  them  as  members  of  one  class.  Their  derivatives,  however,  did  not  make  this  change, 
and  still  show  the  older  vowels. 

Also  in  English  words  of  this  class  the  past  tense  was  leveled  by  the  perf.  part.:  freeze,  froze,  frozen,  &c.  Almost 
all  of  the  words  in  class  IV  joined  this  group  as  they  also  had  leveled  their  past  tense  by  their  perf.  part.,  which  like- 
wise contained  the  stem  vowel  o:   bear,  bore  (sometimes  bare  according  to  its  original  class),  born{e). 

1.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres.       ie,  e,  i,  au,  o  Past  ö  Perf.  Part.  o. 

M.H.G.  ie  (iu  in  sing.,  le  in  pi.)  ou  or  ö-ü  (197.  A.  c)  o. 

Examples:   fließen,  floß  (pi.  wir  flössen),  geflossen;    sieden,  sott,  gesotten. 

Here  belong:  1.  In  ie:  verdrießen  to  vex;  fließen  to  flow;  gießen  to  pour; 
kriechen  to  crawl,  creep;  genießen  to  enjoy;  riechen  to  smell;  schießen  to 
shoot;  schliefen  (S.O.)  to  slip;  schließen  to  shut,  close;  sieden  (choicer  and 
less  common  than  kochen  to  boil,  cook  and  with  a  narrower  range  of  meanings 
as  it  only  means  to  boil)  to  boil,  str.  only  when  transiti\e  and  used  of  eggs  and 
the  like,  which,  when  'done,'  are  said  to  be  gesotten,  as  in  gesottene  Krebse, 
weich,  hart  gesottene  Eier,  Das  Fleisch  ist  gar  gesotten,  but  elsewhere  weak, 
as  in  Das  Wasser  hat  gesiedet.  Mein  Blut  hat  gesiedet,  Ich  siedete  Wasser 
(but  Ich  sott  Eier);  sprießen  to  sprout,  sometimes  wk.,  now  largely  confined 
to  choice  language,  elsewhere  usually  replaced  by  the  wk.  sprossen;  triefen 
to  drip,  troff,  getroffen,  now  just  as  commonly  wk.  in  the  past  and  usually  wk. 
in  the  perf.  part.,  so  that  the  form  may  be  distinguished  from  getroffen,  perf. 
part,  of  treffen. 

2.  In  e:  dreschen  (du  drischest  or  drischst,  er  drischt)  III  (O.H.G.),  IV 
(M.H.G.)  to  thrash,  perhaps  more  commonly  in  Class  III,  3.  Division,  rarely 
wk.;  fechten  (du  fichtst,  er  ficht)  III  (O.H.G.  in  the  South  and  the  Midland 
and  M.H.G.  in  the  Midland),  IV  (M.H.G.  in  the  South)  to  fight;  flechten  (du 
flichtst,  er  flicht)  III  (O.H.G.  in  the  South  and  the  Midland  and  M.H.G.  in 
the  Midland),  IV  (M.H.G.  in  the  South)  to  braid,  plat,  plait,  rarely  wk.;  melken 
(du  milkst,  er  milkt,  or  more  commonly  du  melkst,  er  melkt)  III  to  milk,  str. 
and  wk.  forms  in  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  both  so  common  that  it  is 
difficult  to  decide  which  inflection  present  usage  prefers  here  except  that  the 
strong  form  has  become  fixed  in  the  adj.  part,  (frisch  gemolkene  Milch  milk 
just  from  the  co%v);  quellen  (du  quillst,  er  quillt)  III  to  swell  up,  gush;  schellen 
III  to  sound  (intrans.),  now^  replaced  in  the  pres.  by  the  wk.  schallen,  past 
schallte,  in  poetic  or  choice  language  scholl,  in  early  N.H.G.  schall  (Mark  i.  28) 
according  to  former  class,  perf.  part,  geschallt,  str.  only  in  poetic  or  choice 
language  in  certain  compound  words  as  erschollen  resounded,  and  always  in 
verschollen /o/-go//f';?,  lit.  sound  or  report  (of  him,  her,  it)  died  away,  schmelzen 
(du  schmilzest  or  schmilzt,  er  schmilzt)  HI  to  melt  (intrans.);  schwellen  (du 
schwillst,  er  schwillt)  III  to  swell  up,  out  (intrans.),  sometimes  wk. 

3.  In  i:  glimmen  HI  to  glimmer,  smoulder,  str.  or  perhaps  more  frequently 
wk.;    klimmen  HI  to  climb,  str.  or  wk.;    also  the  adjecti\'e  participle  beklom- 


306 II.    CLASS,    2.    DIVISION 199. 

men  breathing  with  difficulty,  mixioiis,  oppressed  in  one's  feelings,  oppressive, 
adjective  and  participle  from  the  lost  beklimmen,  only  rarely,  however,  as  a 
real  participle  with  verbal  force:  Hat  dir  je  den  Busen  Liebesschmerz  beklom- 
men? (Platen). 

4.  In  au,  (ä),  or  ö:  saufen  (du  säufst,  er  säuft,  sometimes  du  saufst,  er 
sauft)  to  drink  (of  animals,  or  as  animals),  soff,  gesoffen,  sometimes  wk.; 
erlöschen  (du  erlischest  or  erlischst,  er  erlischt)  III  (O.H.G.),  IV  (M.H.G.) 
to  go  out  (of  a  light,  &c. ),  intrans.,  sometimes  wk.  Here  also  belongs  the  poetic 
part,  gerochen  from  rächen  l\  to  avenge,  now  usually  entirely  wk.,  in  early 
N.H.G.  ich  reche,  du  riehst,  er  rieht,  past  räch,  later  roch,  now  entirely  replaced 
by  the  wk.  rächte.  The  strong  part,  is  still  occasionally  found  in  prose:  Das 
soll  sieben  Mal  gerochen  werden  (Frenssen's  Heimatsfest,  1,  1). 

General  Remarks  on  the  1.  Division: 

a.  For  the  change  of  vowel  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing.  pres.  tense,  see  177.  II.  D.  a, 
b,  c,  d,  e,  f. 

h.  The  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing.  pres.  still  occasionally  show  in  poetry  old  forms  in  eu,  which 
were  the  rule  in  Luther's  works:  fleußt,  kreucht,  &c.  for  fließt,  kriecht,  &c.  For  the  develop- 
ment of  eu  out  of  M.H.G.  iu  see  (2),  p.  2.  The  ie  of  the  plural  had  in  the  Midland  even  before 
Luther's  day  largely  supplanted  the  M.H.G.  iu  (N.H.G.  eu)  in  the  1st  pers.  sing.,  but  had  not 
yet  driven  it  out  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing.  Later  the  ie  under  S.G.  influence  leveled  the 
entire  sing.     See  also  201.  /. 

c.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are:  ersätifen  to  dro-w7i,  from  M.H.G.  ersoufen;  flößen  to  ad- 
minister wine,  medicine,  &c.,  instil  (courage,  «S:c.),  float  or  raft  logs,  as  in  Holz  flößen,  in  this 
last  meaning  sometimes  in  the  form  of  flözen  (see  197.  A.  d,  toward  end);  träufen  to  make  fall 
in  drops  upon,  from  M.H.G.  tröufcn;  löschen  to  extinguish,  quench,  slack  (lime),  lay  (dust); 
quellen  to  soak  (peas,  &c.);  schellen  to  cause  to  sound,  ring  (bell  for  servant,  &c.);  schmelzen 
to  cause  to  melt,  melt  (trans.),  also  strong,  as  it  is  under  the  influence  of  the  strong  intransitive, 
as  in  Sie  schmolzen  Schnee  und  Eis  (Ludwig's  Zwischen  Himmel  und  Erde,  XX),  and,  per- 
haps, more  commonlv  so  in  the  perf.  part.;  schwellen  to  cause  to  swell  up.  For  the  change 
of  M.H.G.  ou  to  N.H.G.  au  see  (4),  p.  3.  Hence  M.H.G.  öu  became  N.H.G.  äu.  The  last 
five  verbs  in  the  above  list  were  formed  when  they  were  in  their  former  class  (III),  hence  the 
vowel  e  in  their  stem,  but  leschen  was  later  corrupted  to  löschen,  which  form  was  also  extended 
to  the  str.  verb.  The  strong  verb  löschen  is  often  confounded  with  the  wk.,  hence  the  wk.  forms 
which  are  frequently  found  instead  of  the  more  correct  str.  in  the  intrans.  use:  Daim  war  es, 
als  löschten  alle  diese  Lichter  aus  (Fontane's    Vor  dem  Sturm,  I.  chap.  i). 

d.  Most  nouns  made  from  the  past  tense  of  the  original  verbs  of  this  class  show  the  old  vowel 
of  the  pi.:  der  Verdruß  vexation,  der  Guß  downpour  (of  rain),  casting  (of  a  bell,  &c.),  der  Ge- 
nuß enjoyment,  »S:c.;  die  Schluft  or  more  commonly  Schlucht  (from  Low  German)  ravine. 
In  other  cases  the  u  has  changed  to  ö  under  the  influence  of  a-mutation  (26.  B):  der  Fluß 
river,  with  old  u,  but  die  Flosse  (O.H.G.  flo^^a)  fin,  with  u  mutated  to  o.  In  Flöß  raft  we  have 
the  old  gradation  ö  of  the  past  singular,  and  in  Schleife  (for  the  correct  early  N.H.Ct.  Schlaufe) 
noose  the  mutated  form  of  the  old  gradation  au  (M.H.G.  ou).  For  the  explanation  of  the  forms 
Schall,  Schmalz,  Schwall  see  200.  3.  Division,  c. 

2.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres.       ie,  e,  au,  ii,  ä,  ö  Past  ö  Perf.  Part.  Ö. 

M.H.G.  ie  (iu  in  sing.,  ie  in  pi.)  ou  or  ö-ü  (197.  A.  c)  6. 

Examples:   biegen,  bog,  gebogen;   wiegen,  wog,  gewogen. 

Here  belong:  1.  In  ie:  biegen  to  bend;  bieten  to  offer;  fliegen  to  fly; 
fliehen  to  flee;  frieren  to  freeze;  kiesen,  see  küren  in  4  below;  schieben  to 
shove;  stieben  to  fly  away  (in  the  form  of  mist,  dust,  or  other  small  particles), 
to  scatter  (intrans.),  sometimes  wk.;  verHeren  to  lose;  wiegen  and  wägen 
(du  wägst;  see  Note)  V,  the  former  to  iveigh  on  the  scales,  used  transitively  or 
intransitively,  not  only  literally  but  also  figuratively,  as  in  Das  Fleisch  wiegt 
(past  wog)  4  Pfund  and  Meyer  wiegt  hundert  Schmidts  auf  Meyer  outiceighs, 
&c.,  trans.  Er  wiegt  das  Fleisch,  also  to  iveigh  in  the  mind,  have  value,  he  im- 
portant, when  used  intransitively,  as  in  Seine  Gründe  wiegen  schwer  and 
Ein  Freund  wiegt  in  der  Not,  on  the  other  hand,  wägen  to  iveigh  with  the  mind, 
consider,  is  usually  only  employed  transitively  and  only  in  this  figurative  meaning, 
as  in  Er  wägt  seine  Worte  nicht.  Erst  wäge,  dann  wage  (with  object  understood), 
Ich  erwäge,  ob  ich  mich  darauf  einlassen  soll,  often,  however,  especially  in  the 
South,  wägen  (du  wägst,  er  wägt,  wog  or  wägte,  gewogen  or  gewägt)  is  uni- 
formly used  in  transitive  function,  without  regard  to  meaning,  while  wiegen 


199. II.    CLASS,    2.    DIVISION 307 

(wog,  gewogen)  is  employed  only  intransitively:  Der  Metzger  wägt  das  Fleisch 
und  findet,  daß  es  4  Pfund  wiegt;  (wiegen  to  rock,  always  wk.  as  it  is  a  de- 
nominative from  Wiege  cradle,  lit.  that  which  is  moved);  ziehen  to  draw,  pull, 
go,  move  (intrans.),  zog,  gezogen. 

Nole.  The  parts  of  wiegen  and  wägen  to  weigh  (as  in  Das  Fleisch  wiegt  4  Kund,  lit.  moves,  sels  in  motion  the  four- 
pound  weight  on  the  scales),  move  (intrans.,  a  meaning  now  in  general  obsolete  in  the  original  verb,  but  surviving  in  the 
factitive  bewegen  to  move  (trans.)  and  other  derivatives)  were  in  early  N.H.G.  according  to  V:  wegen  (du  wiegst, 
er  wiegt),  past  wag  (sometimes  wug),  pl.  wögen  (developed  from  M.H.G.  wägen;  sometimes  wugen),  perf.  part. 
gewegeil.  Later  the  present  was  split  into  two  forms  wiegen  and  wägen  (corrupted  from  wegen  under  the  impression 
that  it  was  a  derivative  of  Wage  pair  of  scales),  the  former  of  which  resulted  from  the  leveling  of  the  forms  by  the 
vowel  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing.,  the  latter  from  leveling  by  the  1st  person  sing.  The  plural  form  of  the  past 
wogen  leveled  the  sing,  to  wog,  and  later  the  vowel  o  spread  also  to  the  perf.  part,  except  in  case  of  verwegen 
(see  2  below).  The  vowel  of  the  old  present  survives  in  lengthened  form  in  Weg  way  (lit.  thai  over  luhich  something 
moves)  and  sich  verwegen  (see  2  below).  The  vowel  of  the  old  sing,  of  the  past  survives  in  lengthened  form  in  Wagen 
wagon  (lit.  that  which  is  moved)  and  in  mutated  form  also  in  the  weak  factitive  bewegen  to  move  in  c  below  and  the 
strong  factitive  bewegen  to  induce  (lit.  to  make  the  will  move)  in  2  below,  which,  however,  ought  to  be  weak.  The 
vowel  of  the  old  M.H.G.  plural  of  the  past  survives  in  Wage  {pair  of  scales,  lit.  that  which  moves  up  and  down).  The 
modern  vowel  of  the  past  is  found  in  Woge  billow  (lit.  that  which  is  moved). 

2.  In  e:   heben  (hebst)  VI  to  lift,  see  also  heben  in  203;   pflegen  (pflegst) 

V  to  keep  up  (friendship,  &c.),  maintain  (relations),  carry  on  (negotiations,  &c.), 
past  tense  in  poetical  language  sometimes  pflag  (according  to  its  former  class), 
now  wk.  thruout  in  the  meanings  to  be  accustomed  to,  take  care  of,  cherish,  altho 
earlier  in  the  period  strong  forms  occur;  scheren  (du  scherst,  or  in  poetic  style 
also  schierst  you  cut  or  shear,  scher'  or  schier  dich  fort  get  out  of  here,  du  scherst 
or  schierst  yoti  bother,  das  schert  or  schiert  dich  nicht  that  doesn't  concern  you)  IV 
to  cut,  shear,  be  off,  bother,  concern,  perf.  part,  usually  str.,  past  tense  str.  in  the 
first  and  second  meanings,  wk.  or  less  commonly  str.  in  the  fourth  and  fifth, 
and  rare  in  the  third,  the  word  in  this  use  being  largely  confined  to  the  im- 
perative; (bescheren  to  give,  present,  always  wk.);  weben  (webst)  V  to  weave, 
he  astir,  float  (of  clouds,  mist,  etc.),  usually  wk.  in  the  second  and  third  mean- 
ings, in  the  first  meaning  also  usually  wk.,  but  often  str.,  especially  in  poetic 
language  and  figurative  use,  sometimes  with  an  adjective  participle  made 
according  to  its  former  class,  as  in  die  festen  hauswebenen  (for  hausgewebten) 
Stoffe  the  strong  home-woven  fabrics;  bewegen  (du  bewegst;  see  1.  Note  above) 
to  move  the  will,  induce,  but  wk.  in  the  other  applications  of  the  meaning 
move,  as  to  move  the  feelings,  move  objects,  &c. ;  sich  verwegen  or  sometimes 
verwägen  (du  verwegst  or  verwägst;  for  construction  see  262.  II.  A.  b)  V  to 
dare,  venture  upon,  now  only  used  in  the  perf.  part,  as  adj.  or  adv.  The  adj. 
or  adv.  perf.  part,  verwegen  bold,  daring  is  formed  according  to  the  former 
class  of  verwegen.  The  adj.  or  adv.  perf.  part,  verwogen,  according  to  its 
present  class,  is  also  found,  but  now  more  commonly  with  differentiated  mean- 
ing, jaunty:  Er  hat  einen  alten  Jägerhut  ziemlich  verwogen  auf  den  schon 
stark  angegrauten  Kopf  gesetzt  (Hauptmann's  Hannele,  1,  p.  12;.  Ich  seh' 
dich  schon  als  verwegene  Schloßherrin  (Halbe's  Haus  Rosenhagen,  2,  p.  80). 

3.  In  au:  saugen  (du  saugst,  in  early  N.H.G.  also  du  seugst  or  säugst) 
to  suck,  elsewhere  usually  str.,  sometimes  wk.  thruout;  schnauben  (du  schnaubst, 
in  early  N.H.G.  also  du  schneubst  or  schnaubst)  to  snort,  elsewhere  usually  wk., 
but  in  poetry  and  choice  prose  also  str.,  sich  schnauben  (N.G.)  to  blow  the  nose, 
regularly  wk.;  schrauben  (du  schraubst)  to  screw,  usually  wk.  as  originally, 
sometimes  str.,  especially  in  the  adjective  perf.  participle  verschroben  distorted, 
crazy,  cranky. 

4.  In  Ü:  küren  (from  die  Kur  choice,  and  hence  in  a  strict  sense  more  properly 
wk.)  or  kiesen  (more  properly  str.),  both  confined  largely  to  a  choice  style 
with  the  meaning  to  choose,  kor  (rarely  kieste)  or  kürte,  gekoren  (rarely  gekiest) 
or  gekürt;  lügen  (in  early  N.H.G.  liegen;  the  present  spelling  has  come  from 
association  with  the  derivative  die  Lüge  lie)  to  lie  {falsify),  sometimes  wk.; 
trügen  (older  form  triegen  still  common  in  eighteenth  century;  the  present 
spelling  has  come  from  association  with  its  derivative  der  Trug  deception  and 
analogy  with  lügen)  to  deceive,  occasionally  wk. 

5.  In  ä  and  ö:  gären  (earlier  in  the  period  giert  in  3rd  pers.  sing.,  now 
gärt)  V  to  ferment,  work,  effervesce,  str.  in  the  literal  meaning,  wk.  when  used 
figuratively,  as  illustrated  by  an  example  in  197.  F;  see  Note  below;  schwären, 
(schwärt,  now  rarely  schwiert)  IV  to  fester,  suppurate,  colloquially  sometimes 


308 III.    CLASS,    1.    DIVISION 199. 

wk.  thruout  to  distinguish  the  forms  from  those  of  schwören;  schwören  VI 
to  swear,  schwor  or  perhaps  more  commonly  schwur  (according  to  its  original 
class),  geschworen,  only  rarely  wk.  thruout,  see  also  schwören  in  203;  wägen 
(M.H.G.  wegen),  see  wiegen  under  1  above. 

Note.  Gären  comes  from  M.H.G.  jesen  (ich  gise,  du  gisest),  jas  fpl.  järenl,  gejeren.  In  N.H.G.  the  long  a  in 
the  past  developed  here  as  often  elsewhere  into  ö  and  spread  to  the  singular  of  the  same  tense  and  then  to  the  perf. 
part.  Äledial  s  has  been  leveled  to  r  thruout.  The  initial  g  of  the  present  tense  sing,  spread  later  to  all  the  other 
forms.  This  development  and  the  change  of  vowel  from  e  to  ä  in  the  plural  of  the  present  tense  and  in  the  infinitive 
were  probably  furthered  by  the  earlier  grammarians,  who  derived  the  verb  from  gar. 

General  Remarks  on  2.  Division: 

a.  For  interchange  in  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing,  see  177.  II.  D.  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f. 

b.  Old  forms  in  eu  occur  in  poetry  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing.:  fleucht  &c.  for  flieht,  &c. 
For  explanation  of  the  forms  in  eu  see  1.  Division,  General  Remarks,  b  and  more  at  length  in 

201./. 

c.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  in  this  division  are  beugen  to  make  bend,  bend  (the  will,  spirit, 
knee,  head,  «Sec),  from  M.H.G.  böugen;  bewegen  to  move,  made  when  wegen  (see  1.  Note  above) 
was  in  class  V;  in  Switzerland  entwegen  to  swerve,  from  which  comes  the  new  but  common  literary 
perf.  part. unentwegt  unsiverving:  an  diesen  Absichten  unentwegt  .  .  .  festzuhalten  (Bismarck); 
säugen  to  suckle,  from  M.H.G.  söugen;  stäuben  (sometimes  replaced  by  wk.  stieben,  which  is 
properly  str.  and  intrans.)  to  throtv  off  fine  particles  {as  dust,  spray,  mist),  to  scatter  (trans.), 
strew,  from  M.H.G.  stöuben.  Notice  that  in  the  original  factitives  of  this  class  the  stem  vowel 
is  äu  (in  beugen  written  eu),  as  according  to  (4),  p.  3,  M.H.G.  ou  has  developed  into  N.H.G.  au, 
and  consequently  M.H.G.  ou  is  represented  by  N.H.G.  äu. 

d.  The  nouns  made  from  the  gradation  of  the  past  tense  show  the  vowels  of  the  old  singular 
and  plural:  der  Staub  (from  M.H.G.  stoup,  which,  according  to  (4),  p.  3,  has  become  N.H.G. 
Staub)  dust,  der  Flöh  flea,  der  Flug  flight,  die  Lüge  (O.H.G.  lugi)  falsehood.  Frost  (o-mutation 
from  old  stem  frosta;  see  26.  B)  frost,  &c.  The  old  u  and  o  (a-mutation)  were  short,  but  at 
the  beginning  of  the  present  period  they  became  long  before  one  consonant:  Lüg,  Flug,  Gebot, 
but  Flucht  (fliehen),  Verlust,  Frost. 

200.     III.  Class.     Gradation: 

Pres,   i,  e  Past  a  Perf.  Part,  u,  o. 

1.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres.       i  Past  ä  Perf.  Part.  ü. 

M.H.G.  1  ä-ü  (197.  A.  c)  ü. 

Examples:  binden,  band,  gebunden;   dringen,  drang,  gedrungen. 

Here  belong:  binden  to  bind;  dingen  to  hire,  dang  (dung)  or  dingte,  sub- 
junctive dänge,  dingte,  gedungen,  gedingt,  originally  wk.;  bedingen,  str.  or 
now  less  commonly  wk.  in  the  sense  to  reserve  in  a  contract  something  for  oneself, 
but  wk.  in  the  adjective  participle  in  the  meaning  conditional  (ein  bedingtes 
Versprechen  a  conditional  promise,  but  Das  habe  ich  mir  bedungen  That  I  have 
reserved  to  myself),  always  wk.  in  the  meanings  to  cause,  bring  about,  require 
(as  a  necessary  condition  of  success),  constitute;  dringen,  now  usually  intrans. 
to  penetrate,  crowd,  rush,  press  into,  earlier  in  the  period  also  trans,  to  press, 
crowd,  push,  force,  and  still  so  in  abdringen  to  extort  from,  einem  etwas  aufdringen 
(or  aufdrängen)  to  force  something  upon  o?ie,  and  also  in  certain  participial 
expressions,  as  dringende  Gefahr,  eine  gedrungene  Gestalt,  notgedrungen, 
ich  fühle  mich  gedrungen,  also  in  dringlich  pressing,  aufdringlich  obtrusive, 
obtruding,  elsewhere  now  usually  replaced  in  the  transitive  use  by  the  wk. 
drängen;  finden  to  find;  gelingen  to  succeed;  klingen  to  sound,  either  wk.  or 
str.  in  the  meaning  to  clink  glasses;  ringen  to  wrestle,  wring;  schinden  to  flay, 
skin  (one's  limb),  schund  or  schindete,  geschunden,  originally  wk.;  schUngen 
to  twine,  swallow  (in  this  meaning  earlier  with  the  form  schlinden,  from  which 
Schlund  esopjj^us,  abyss  survives;  see  40.  1.  b.  Note  6);  schrinden  to  burst, 
chap  (intralTs.)/schrund  or  schrand,  geschrunden,  now  little  used;  schwinden 
to  disappear;  schwingen  to  swing,  wave,  whirl,  but  beschwingen  to  wing,  der- 
ivative from  Schwinge  iving,  always  wk.;  singen  to  sing;  sinken  to  sink; 
springen  to  spring,  leap;  stinken  to  stink;  trinken  to  drink;  winden  to  wind; 
wringen  to  wring  {out),  N.G.  form  of  ringen,  but  also  in  use  in  the  South;  zwingen 
to  force. 

a.  \  Here  belongs  the  adj.  part,  gedunsen  (usually  aufgedunsen)  bloated,  of  the  now  otherwise 
obsolete  dinsen;  also  the  adj.  part,  verwunschen  (also  verwünscht)  in  the  one  meaning  enchanted, 


200. III.    CLASS,    2.    DIVISION 309 

from  the  otherwise  wk.  verb  verwünschen  to  curse,  eticliatiL  In  dialect  also  the  perfect  participle 
gewunschen  (for  gewünscht)  occurs:  alles,  was  sich  das  Herz  gewunschen  hat  (Wilhelm  Fischer's 
Sonnenopfer,  I).  In  careless,  colloquial  language  the  weak  schimpfen  to  rail  against,  abuse, 
often  forms  a  perf.  part,  according  to  this  class:  Hast  doch  sonst  immer  so  flämsch  auf  das 
alte  Nest  geschumpfen  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandhing,  1). 

b.  Luther  still  used  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  past  tense,  as  in  M.H.G.: 
ich  band,  wir  bunden.  In  archaic  style  we  find  the  old  pi.  even  in  the  nineteenth  century: 
Durch  die  das  Paradies  wir  wieder  funden  (Tieck's  Oct.,  155).  In  the  course  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  past  tense  was  'leveled,'  the  vowel  of  the  sing,  spreading  to  the  pi.  In  two  words, 
however,  the  pi.  vowel  has  entered  the  sing.:  ich  schund,  wir  schunden;  schrund,  schrunden. 
Earlier  in  the  period  we  find  also  other  words  that  were  leveled  according  to  the  pi.:  Der  junge 
Graf,  voll  Löwengrinun,  |  schwung  seinen  Heldenstab  (Schiller's  Graf  Eberhard). 

In  English  the  past  tense  is  in  some  words  leveled  by  the  singular  vowel,  in  others  by  the 
plural:  drank,  rang,  sang,  sank  or  sunk,  sprang  or  sprung,  &c.,  but  clung,  stung,  swung,  wrung, 
&c. 

c.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  rf)  of  this  division  are:  verschwenden  to  squander;  senden  to  send, 
lit.  to  make  go  from  the  lost  str.  intrans.  sinden  to  go,  from  which  there  survives  Gesinde  {der- 
ivative of  the  lost  Sind  joiirney)  servants,  formerly  troops,  lit.  those  who  journey  with  their 
prince  in  his  military  expeditions;  sengen  to  s-inge,  lit.  to  cause  to  sing,  referring  to  the  crackling 
noise  of  flames;  senken  to  sink  (trans.) ;  sprengen  to  blow  up,  blast,  to  ride  at  full  speed  (originally 
trans.,  ein  Pferd  sprengen  to  make  a  horse  jump,  later  construed  as  intrans.  with  sein,  as  the  ob- 
ject was  usually  understood  and  finally  not  felt  at  all);  tränken  to  give  to  drink,  to  cause  to  drink 
in  (used  of  animals,  persons,  and  materials:  Man  tränkt  das  Vieh,  ein  Kind,  die  dürre  Erde, 
Pflanzen,  die  Seele  mit  großen  Empfindungen);  wenden  to  turn. 

d.  The  nouns  of  this  division  made  from  the  gradation  of  the  past  tense  now  show  the  vow^el 
of  the  sing,  and  now  the  pi.  vowel  of  the  old  past:  der  Band  volume;  der  Bund  alliance;  der 
Schwtmd  disappearance,  &c. 

2.  Division.     Gradation:  \ 

Pres.  (177.  II.  C,  D.  &,  c)  ^      Past^       ^  Perf.  Part, 

i,  e  (i  in  2nd  &  3rd  sing.)  ä  (subj.  ä  or  o)  o. 

M.H.G.  i,  e  (i  in  sing,  and  e  in  pi.)  ä-ü  (197.  A.  c)  6. 

For  an  explanation  of  the  change  of  vowel  in  the  sing,  of  the  present  tense 
see  201.  /. 

Examples:  spinnen,  spann,  subj.  spänne  or  spönne,  gesponnen;  gelten  (du 
giltst,  er  gilt),  galt,  subj.  gölte  or  gälte,  gegolten. 

Here  belong:  beginnen  to  begin,  past  begann,  in  early  N.H.G.  usually  begunde 
(sometimes  begunte,  begonste,  beginnte,  began,  begun),  later  begunte,  be- 
gon(n)te,  begonn,  begann,  perf.  part,  begonnen,  in  early  N.H.G.  begannen, 
begönt,  begunt,  begonnen;  bersten  (du  birst  in  choice  language,  in  colloquial 
speech,  perhaps,  more  commonly  berstest)  to  burst,  barst,  sometimes  borst 
and  berstete,  subj.  börste,  bärste,  or  berstete,  perf.  part,  geborsten;  gelten 
(du  giltst)  to  be  worth,  pass  for;  rinnen  to  flow,  run  (of  liquids);  schelten 
(du  schiltst  or  colloq.  sometimes  scheltest)  to  scold;  schwimmen  to  swim; 
sinnen  to  meditate,  in  older  German  often  with  the  meaning  to  turn  in  thought 
toivard,  from  which  survives  gesonnen  turned  in  thought  toward,  to  be  distin- 
guished from  gesinnt  disposed,  minded,  derived  directly  from  Sinn  hent  of  mind: 
Er  ist  übel  gesinnt  anl-minded,  but  Er  ist  gesonnen,  es  zu  tun  is  willing,  inclined, 
or  intends  to  do  it;  spinnen  to  spin;  gewinnen  to  win. 

a.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  N.H.G.  period  the  M.H.G.  u  in  the  plural  of  the  past  indica- 
tive became  o  before  nn  and  mm  in  accordance  with  a  general  phonetic  law  (see  (6),  p.  3), 
sunnen,  sünnen  (subjunctive)  becoming  sonnen,  sonnen.  In  the  other  words  of  this  group 
the  plural  vowel  sometimes  became  o  after  the  analogy  of  these  words  and  under  the  influence 
of  the  o  of  their  own  perfect  participle:  wir  bürsten  or  borsten.  This  o  then  spread  to  the 
subjunctive  (as  in  börste),  which  formerly  had  the  same  vowel  as  the  plural  of  the  indicative. 
The  u  and  the  o  of  the  past  indicative  which  were  still  used  by  Luther  dropped  out  later  entirely 
from  the  plural,  or,  speaking  technically,  the  plural  was  "leveled"  by  the  singular:  ich  barst, 
wir  barsten.  Occasionally,  however,  the  plural  vowel  leveled  the  singular:  das  Grundeis  borst 
(Burger's  Lied  v.  br.  Mann).  The  a  spread  also  to  the  subjunctive,  so  that  there  are  now  two 
forms,  the  older  one  in  ö  and  the  newer  one  in  ä:  ich  gölte  or  gälte.  The  ö  of  the  subjunctive 
tho  warmly  defended  by  the  grammarians  is  slowly  dying.  This  ö  of  the  past  subj.  is  most  com- 
mon in  verbs  with  the  stem  vowel  e  in  the  present,  as  the  new  past  subj.  with  the  stem  vowel  ä 
is  in  these  verbs  identical  in  sound  with  the  present:  gölte  better  than  gälte,  as  the  latter  form 
is  the  same  in  sound  as  the  present  gelte. 

b.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are:  brennen  (brannte,  gebrannt)  to  hum  (trans,  and  intrans.), 
from  the  str.  intrans.  brinnen  to  burn,  which  earlier  in  the  period  belonged  here,  but  is  now  re- 


310 III.    CLASS,    3.    DIVISION  — IV.    CLASS 200. 

placed  by  brennen,  which  thus  assumed  the  intrans.  force  of  the  parent  word  in  addition  to  its 
own  trans,  meaning;  rennen  (rannte,  gerannt)  to  run  (dagger,  &c.)  into  (trans.),  run  or  race 
(intrans.  with  sein,  originally  trans.,  ein  Pferd  rennen  to  make  a  horse  run,  race  it,  later  construed 
as  intrans.  as  the  object  was  usually  understood  and  finally  not  felt  at  all),  in  the  meanings 
to  curdle  (milk),  melt  (iron),  raft  (logs)  always  trans.,  usually  with  the  principal  parts  rennen, 
rennte,  gerennt;   schwemmen  to  wash  away,  lit.  to  make  swim. 

3.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres,  (see  177.  II.  C,  D.  &,  c)  Past  Perf.  Part. 

e  (i  in  2nd  &  3rd  sing.)  ä                                      ö. 

M.H.G.  e  (i  in  sing,  and  e  in  pi.)  ä-ü  (197.  A.  c)              6. 

For  an  explanation  of  the  change  of  vowel  in  the  sing,  of  the  present  tense 
see  201.  /. 

Examples:  helfen  (du  hilfst,  er  hilft),  half,  subj.  hülfe  or  hälfe,  geholfen. 
Except  in  case  of  dreschen  the  old  past  subj.  with  the  stem  vowel  ü  is  still  often, 
perhaps  prevailingly,  used,  as  the  new  form  with  the  stem  vowel  ä  is  identical 
in  sound  with  the  form  for  the  present  tense. 

Here  belong:  bergen  (du  birgst)  to  save;  dreschen  (du  drischest)  to  thrash,  past 
drasch  or  almost  or  quite  as  commonly  drosch,  subj.  usually  drosche,  past  indie, 
sometimes  drasch  and  in  that  case  to  be  placed  in  class  IV;  helfen  (du  hilfst) 
to  help;  sterben  (du  stirbst)  to  die;  verderben  (du  verdirbst)  to  spoil  (trans. 
and  intrans.);  werben  (du  wirbst)  to  enlist,  woo;  werden  (see  177.  III.  c)  to 
become;  werfen  (du  wirfst)  to  throw;  the  adjective  verworren  in  a  state  of 
disorder,  confusion,  perf.  part,  of  the  lost  verwerren.  The  related  verwirren 
to  confuse  is  entirely  weak.  Compare  the  adjective  verworren  with  the  wk. 
part,  verwirrt:  Weil  er  ganz  verwirrt  war,  war  auch  seine  Rede  verworren 
Because  he  was  confused,  his  thoughts  were  in  a  state  of  disorder.  Er  ist  verwirrt 
He  is  (temporarily)  confused  (by  something),  but  Er  ist  verworren  His  thoughts 
are  in  a  chronic  state  of  disorder. 

a.  Luther  still  used  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  past  tense  as  in  M.H.G. : 
ich  starb,  wir  stnrben  (sometimes  storben). 

b.  The  one  factitive  (197.  A.  d)  is  verderben  to  cause  to  spoil,  to  spoil  (trans.),  but  usually 
now  limited  to  spoil  in  a  moral  or  a  phonetical  sense,  that  is,  to  corrupt,  and  in  other  senses  now- 
replaced  by  the  str.  verderben:  ein  verderbtes  Herz;  ein  verdorbener  Magen.  But  even 
in  the  moral  sense  the  str.  forms  are  common. 

c.  Notice  the  noun  der  Wurf,  which  still  shows  the  pi.  vowel  of  the  old  past  tense  of  werfen. 
The  nouns  Schall  sound,  Schmalz  lard,  Schwall  swell  still  show  the  old  past  tense  sing,  vowel 

a  of  the  verbs  schellen  (now  obsolete  in  pres.  tense)  to  sound,  schmelzen  to  melt,  schwellen 
to  swell,  all  of  which  have  left  this  class  for  Class  II. 

201.     IV.  Class.     Gradation: 

Pres,  (see  177.  II.  C,  D.  h,  c) 
ä,  e,  e,(i,  ie  in  2nd  &  3rd  sing.),  c 
M.H.G.  e  (i  in  sing,  and  e  in  pi.) 

For  an  explanation  of  the  change  of  vowel  in  the  sing,  of  the  present  tense 
see  /  below. 

Examples:  brechen  (du  brichst,  er  bricht),  brach,  gebröchen;  erschrecken 
(du  erschrickst,  er  erschrickt),  erschrak,  erschrocken;  treffen  (du  triffst,  er 
trifft),  traf,  getröffen;  stehlen,  (du  stiehlst,  er  stiehlt),  stähl,  gestöhlen.  The 
quantity  of  the  vowel  is  the  same  in  the  infinitive  and  perf.  part,  except  in 
nehmen.     The  vowel  of  the  past  is  always  long.     See  also  a  below. 

Here  belong:  brechen  (du  brichst)  to  break;  gebären  (du  gebierst,  often 
gebärst)  to  bear,  bring  forth,  past  sometimes  wk.;  befehlen  (du  befiehlst)  HI 
to  command;  empfehlen  (du  empfiehlst)  HI  to  recommend;  nehmen  (du 
nimmst,  er  nimmt)  to  take,  nahm,  genommen;  schrecken  (du  schrickst)  or 
more  commonly  erschrecken  to  be  frightened,  usually  str.  used  intransitively 
or  reflexively,  but  sometimes  also  wk.  in  both  uses,  often  wk.  instead  of  the 
more  correct  str.  in  compounds,  as  aufschrecken  to  start  up  icith  fright,  zurück- 
schrecken to  start  back  with  fright,  and  zusammenschrecken  to  be  overcome  ivith 
fright;  sprechen  (du  sprichst)  to  speak;  stechen  (du  stichst)  to  stick  with  a 
pointed  instrument,  sting,  stab;    stecken  (du  stickst,  er  stickt,  common  in  the 


Past 

Perf. 

Part, 

ä 

ö, 

ö 

ä-ä 

(197. 

A. 

c) 

ö 

202. IV.    CLASS  — V.   CLASS 311 

classical  period  but  now  usually  replaced  by  the  wk.  forms  du  steckst,  er  steckt) 
to  remain  sticking  in,  intrans.,  past  stak  or  perhaps  more  commonly  steckte, 
perf.  part,  rarely  gestocken,  usually  gesteckt;  stehlen  (du  stiehlst)  to  steal; 
treffen  (du  triffst)  to  hit,  traf,  getroffen;    komn.en  (du  kommst,  kömmst,  the 

latter  form  common  in  the  classics  but  now  less  frequent,  especially  in  choice 
language)  to  come,  kam,  gekommen. 

a.  Those  words  that  have  double  consonants  or  ck  in  the  infin.  and  part,  must  drop  one 
consonant  or  the  c  in  ck  in  the  past  as  the  vowel  is  long.     See  examples. 

b.  Befehlen,  empfehlen,  stehlen  have  either  ö  or  ä  in  the  past  subjunctive,  preferably  ö  as 
it  can  be  more  easily  distinguished  from  the  e  of  the  present  subjunctive:  beföhle  or  befähle, 
empföhle  or  empfähle,  stöhle  or  stähle.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  past  indicative  often  had 
the  vowel  ö  after  the  analogy  of  the  perfect  participle.  In  English  the  perfect  participle  has 
thus  leveled  the  past  tense  in  almost  all  the  words  originally  belonging  to  this  class.  See  199, 
Historical  Note  (last  par.).  Befehlen  and  empfehlen  were  in  earliest  N.H.G.  still  in  class  III. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  vowel  of  their  perfect  participle  they  then  trended   toward  class  II, 

•  as  indicated  above,  and  finally  under  the  influence  of  stehlen  became  established  for  the  most 
part  here  in  class  IV. 

c.  Here  belongs  unverhohlen  open,  unconcealed,  adj.  part,  of  the  late  Al.H.G.  verheln,  now 
replaced  by  the  wk.  verhehlen  to  conceal. 

d.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are  erschrecken  to  frighten,  usually  wk.,  but  sometimes  (as  in 
case  of  the  factitive  verderben  and  others)  is  str.  in  colloquial  language,  as  it  is  influenced  by 
the  str.  intrans.,  as  in  Du  erschrickst  ein'n  aber  auch  (Hauptmann's  Friedensfest,  1);  quälen 
to  torment,  from  the  lost  quelen  to  suffer  pain  with  the  stem  vowel  ä  instead  of  e  as  the  verb  is 
now  felt  as  a  derivative  from  the  substantive  Qual  (see  e);  stecken  (from  stechen;  see  197. 
A.  d)  to  make  stick,  stick  (trans.) 

e.  Nouns  are  made  from  the  gradation  of  the  present  tense:  der  Befehl,  der  Schreck,  der 
Stich,  &c.  A  number  have  the  gradation  of  the  past  tense:  Die  Spräche,  die  Ausnahme,  die 
Quäl  (from  the  lost  quelen  to  stiff  er  paiji),  &.c.  Stachel  and  its  derivatives  stachelig,  stacheln 
have  short  a,  the  vowel  of  the  old  sing.  In  verbs  thi^  old  gradation  has  disappeared,  as  the  sing, 
was  leveled  by  the  pi.  It  remains,  however,  in  mutated  form  in  the  factitives;  see  d  above. 
Other  nouns  have  u,  which  was  once  also  the  stem  vowel  of  perf.  part.:  der  Bruch,  die  Geburt, 
die  Ankunft,  &c.  The  old  stem  vowel  of  the  part,  suffered  a-mutation  (197.  B),  which  was 
caused  in  an  earlier  period  by  the  presence  of  an  a  (now  e)  in  the  participial  suffix.  The  nouns 
originally  belonged  to  the  mutated  e-plural  class,  and  thus  had  i  as  the  final  vowel  of  their  stems 
and  were  preserved  from  a-mutation.  The  effect  of  the  original  i  in  the  stem  can  be  still  seen 
in  the  pi.  in  the  z-mutation  (see  26.  A)  of  most  of  these  words:  der  Bruch,  pi.  die  Brüche.  The 
noun  der  Brocken  crumb  and  the  weak  verb  brocken  to  crumb,  both  from  brechen,  have,  like 
the  perfect  participle,  the  vowel  o.     The  k  was  not  shifted  to  ch,  as  it  was  doubled. 

/.  Change  of  Vowel  in  the  Singular.  Corresponding  to  M.H.G.  short  i  of  the  first  pers. 
sing.  pres.  indie,  we  find  in  N.G.  and  M.G.  of  the  same  period  a  long  e,  as  in  the  Midland  and 
North  short  i  developed  into  long  e  in  an  open  syllable,  while  in  the  closed  syllables  of  the  2nd 
and  3rd  pers.  we  find  the  old  historic  short  i:  ich  nehme,  du  nimmst,  er  nimmt.  This  change 
from  e  in  the  1st  pers.  to  i  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  gradually  became  a  fixed  usage  in  the  literary 
language.  This  type  of  inflection  was  facilitated  by  the  similar  change  from  unmutated  vowel 
in  the  1st  pers.  to  mutated  form  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  in  classes  VI  and  VII.  It  was  further: 
supported  by  the  N.G.  and  AI.G.  change  from  long  i  in  open  syllables  to  short  i  in  closed  syllables, 
as  can  still  be  heard  in  colloquial  N.G. :  ich  kriege,  du  krichst,  er  kricht  (see  4.  a.  Note  (1)  and 
209).  In  all  these  cases  the  vowel  of  the  1st  pers.  sing,  was  the  same  as  the  vowel  of  the  plural 
and  there  was  a  change  of  vowel  sound  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing.  This  type  influenced 
class  II,  so  that  the  ie  of  the  plural  entered  the  1st  pers.  sing.:  ich  krieche,  du  kreuchst,  er 
kreucht  (Luther).  The  type  ich  kriege,  du  krichst  has  never  taken  a  deep  root  in  the  literary 
language.  The  type  ich  krieche,  du  kreuchst  was  once  under  M.G.  influence  widely  used  but 
later  even  in  the  Midland  began  to  be  replaced  by  the  leveled  type  ich  krieche,  du  kriechst,  er 
kriecht,  so  that  in  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  felt  as  poetic.  The  types  ich  nehme,  du  nimmst; 
ich  rate,  du  rätst  under  ÄI.G.  influence  have  gradually  become  established  in  the  litefary  language, 
not,  however,  without  vigorous  opposition  in  the  South,  where  the  former  was  in  older  German 
unknown  and  the  latter  never  thoroly  fixed.  The  older  type  without  a  change  of  vowel  is  still 
common  in  S.G.  colloquial  speech:  ich  nimm,  du  nimmst,  er  nhnmt;  ich  rat,  du  rätst,  &c. 

Altho  the  literary  language  here  rests  upon  N.G.  and  M.G.,  it  has  in  matter  of  quantity  gradu- 
ally developed  its  own  law.  Instead  of  the  N.G.  change  from  a  long  vowel  in  the  1st  pers.  to  a 
short  sound  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  the  quantity  usually  remains  thruout  the  inflection  the  same 
as  in  the  plural :  ich  lese,  du  liest,  er  liest,  wir  lesen;  ich  breche,  du  brichst,  er  bricht,  wir  brechen. 
Where  the  vowel  of  the  plural  is  now  long  the  old  short  vowel  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing, 
survives  in  only  four  verbs:  du  nimmst,  trittst,  wirst,  gibst  (in  colloquial  speech  but  in  the  choice 
language  of  the  North  and  on  the  stage  gibst),  from  nehmen,  treten,  werden,  geben. 

202.     V.  Class.     Gradation : 

Present  (177.  IL  C,  D.  b,  c) 
e,  e,  (i,  ie  in  2nd  and  3rd  per.  sing.),  i,  ie 
M.H.G.  e  (i  in  sing,  and  e  in  pl.),  i 


Past 

Perf.  Part, 

a 

e,  e 

ä-ä  (197.  A.  c) 

ä 

312 V.    CLASS  — VI.    CLASS 202. 

1.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres,  e,  e  (i,  ie  in  2nd  and  3rd  sing.)  Past  ä  Perf.  Part,  e,  e 

For  an  explanation  of  the  change  of  vowel  in  the  sing,  of  the  present  tense 
see  201.  /. 

Examples:  essen  (du  issest  or  ißt,  er  ißt),  äß  fpl.  wir  äßen),  gegessen;  lesen 
(du  liesest  or  liest,  er  liest),  las,  gelesen.  The  quantity  of  the  vowel  is  the  same 
in  the  infinitive  and  perf.  part.     The  vowel  of  the  past  is  always  long. 

Here  belong:  1.  In  e:  essen  (du  issest  or  ißt,  er  ißt;  see  also  a)  to  eat; 
fressen  (du  frissest,  er  frißt)  to  eat  (of  animals  or  as  animals);  geben  (du 
gibst,  er  gibt)  to  give;  genesen  (du  genesest,  earlier  in  the  period  du  geniesest) 
to  recover  from  sickness,  earlier  in  the  period  occasionally  wk.  in  the  past  tense 
and  perf.  part.;  geschehen  (es  geschieht,  in  early  N.H.G.  es  geschieht)  to 
happen;  lesen  (du  liesest  or  liest,  er  liest)  to  read;  messen  (du  missest  or 
mißt,  er  mißt)  to  measure;  sehen  (du  siehst,  er  sieht,  in  early  N.H.G.  du  siehst, 
er  sieht)  to  see;  treten  (du  trittst,  er  tritt)  lY  to  step,  tread;  vergessen  (du 
vergissest  or  vergißt,  er  vergißt)  to  forget;  sein  (which  has  replaced  the  regular 
wesen  except  in  nouns,  as  das  Schulwesen  the  educatiofial  system,  and  in  part, 
adjectives,  as  abwesend  absent,  &c.)  to  be,  war,  gewesen. 

a.  The  perfect  participle  of  essen  was  in  early  N.H.G.  geessen,  and  in  contracted  form 
gessen.  Later  the  contracted  form  prevailed,  but  still  later  another  ge  was  prefi.xed  to  it,  as 
the  first  ge  was  no  longer  felt,  the  form  thus  becoming  gegessen. 

2.  Those  in  i,  ie,  which  do  not  show  an  interchange  in  2nd  and  3rd  sing.: 
bitten  to  ask,  beg,  bat,  gebeten;  liegen  to  lie,  lag,  gelegen;  sitzen  to  sit,  saß, 
gesessen.: 

General  Note.  (1)  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are:  atzen  to  feed  (birds,  animals,  prisoners),  ätzen  to  etch,  feed 
fbirds,  &c.);  ergötzen  (corruption  of  ergetzen)  lo  amuse,  lit.  lo  cause  lo  forget,  factitive  of  M.H.G.  erge??en  lo  forget; 
legen  to  lay;  nähren  (factitive  of  nesen,  now  only  found  in  the  form  genesen;  see  197.  A.  d)  to  nourish,  lit.  to  cause 
to  recover  or  remain  strong;    setzen  to  set. 

(2 )  Atzung  and  Satz  have  short  a,  the  vowel  of  the  old  sing,  of  the  past  tense.  E.xcept  in  case  of  atzen  verbs  no 
longer  show  this  old  gradation,  as  the  sing,  vowel  was  leveled  by  the  pi.  It  remains,  however,  in  mutated  form  in 
the  factitives  ätzen,  setzen,  and  in  rounded  form  also  ergötzen.  In  the  other  factitives  it  has  become  long,  as  it 
stands  in  an  open  syllable.     See  art.  4.  b.  Note,  p.  13. 

203.  VI.  Class.     Gradation: 

Present  (177.  II.  B,  D.  a)  ^  Past  Perf.  Part. 

ä,  ä,  (ä,  ä  in  2nd  and  3rd  sing.),  e,  o  ü  ä,  ä 

Example:  schlagen  (du  schlägst,  er  schlägt),  schlug,  geschlagen;  schaffen 
(du  schaffst,  er  schafft),  schuf,  geschaffen.  The  perf.  part,  always  has  the 
same  vowel  as  the  infinitive  except  in  case  of  heben,  schwören,  and  stehen. 
The  vowel  of  the  past  is  always  long. 

Here  belong:  bachen  (in  early  N.H.G.  the  literary  word  of  the  South  and 
still  used  there)  or  backen  (used  by  Luther  and  now  the  common  literary  word; 
du  bäckst  and  now  also  not  infrequently  backst,  er  bäckt,  backt)  to  bake,  past 
tense  buch  (early  N.H.G.),  now  buk  or  perhaps  more  commonly  backte,  perf. 
part,  gebachen  (early  N.H.G.),  now  uniformly  gebacken  in  this  meaning, 
but  in  the  North  where  there  is  a  pronounced  trend  toward  the  weak  forms 
there  is  also  a  weak  perf.  part,  in  the  derived  meaning  to  cake,  form  a  rigid  mass, 
as  in  Eis  und  Schnee,  die  in  der  rauhen  Rinde  festgebackt  waren;  fahren  (du 
fährst,  er  fährt)  to  drive;  fragen  (du  fragst,  also  fragst  but  less  common  than 
a  little  earlier  in  the  period,  er  fragt,  fragt)  to  ask,  fragte,  less  commonly  frug, 
perf.  part,  always  gefragt;  graben  (du  gräbst,  er  gräbt)  to  dig;  heben  (du 
hebst,  er  hebt)  to  raise,  in  early  N.H.G.  past  hub,  perf.  part,  gehaben  (1  Cor. 
XV.  26),  also  sometimes  wk.  thruout,  now  usually  in  class  II  except  in  the  past 
tense  where  we  still  not  infrequently  find  the  older  hub  alongside  of  the  more 
common  hob,  which  arose  under  the  influence  of  weben,  wob  and  since  the 
17th  century  has  been  gradually  gaining  ground;  jagen'  (du  jagst,  rarely  jagst, 
er  jagt,  rarely  jagt)  to  chase,  hunt,  jagte,  rarely  jug,  gejagt,  rarely  gejagen; 
laden   (du  lädst  or  less  commonly  ladest)   to  invite  (in  this  meaning  properly 

'  The  str.  forms  of  jagen  are  earlier  in  the  period  sometimes  employed  in  the  literary  language  and  still  occur  pro- 
vincially,  now  usually  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning,  being  used  in  the  derived  meanings  to  drive  rapidly,  dart, 
chase  after,  drive  something  before  one:  Ehe  der  Polizist  die  Nummer  (des  Wagens)  merken  konnte,  jug  (shot,  drove 
quiclily)  der  Bengel  um  die  Ecke. 


204. VII.    CLASS,    1.    DIVISION 313 

wk.  and  still  often  so  in  the  present,  but  usually  found  str.  in  the  past  and  now 
always  so  in  the  perf.  part.),  to  load  (in  this  meaning  str.  except  in  the  present 
tense,  where  the  wk.  unmutated  forms  are  sometimes  found);  mahlen  to  grind, 
now  entirely  wk.  except  in  part,  gemahlen,  in  early  N.H.G.  str.,  du  mähist,  er 
mahlt,  past  muhl;  schaffen  (du  schaffst,  er  schafft),  str.  in  the  meaning  to 
create,  produce,  wk.  in  the  meaning  cause,  bring  about,  as  this  meaning  is  only  the 
figurative  application  of  the  following  meanings,  which  are  always  found  with 
wk.  form,  but  the  str.  form  is  also  found  as  this  meaning  is  quite  similar  to  the 
preceding  meaning,  as  in  Hier  muß  Wandel  geschaffen  werden  (Prof.  Martin 
Havenstein  in  Zeitschrift  für  Deutschkunde,  1920,  p.  46),  always  wk.  in  the 
meanings  to  procure,  bring  to  the  spot,  work,  command  (in  Bavarian  dialect); 
schlagen  (du  schlägst,  er  schlägt)  to  strike;  schwören  (up  to  the  18th  century 
usually  schweren)  to  swear,  past  schwur  or  since  the  17th  century  also  but 
perhaps  less  commonly  schwor,  perf.  part,  geschworen;  stehen  (du  stehst,  er 
steht)  to  stand,  in  early  N.H.G.  there  were  also  other  forms  in  use,  which  still 
survive  in  certain  S.G.  dialects,  the  old  indie,  present  stä(h)  (du  stä(h)st), 
the  imperative  stand  and  the  subjunctive  present  stände,  the  last  two  forms 
representing  the  survivals  of  a  longer  stem  in  use  in  O.H.G.  and  still  surviving 
in  the  literary  language  in  the  past  tense  forms  stund  (quite  common  earlier  in 
the  period)  and  the  now  usual  form  stand,  past  subjunctive  stände  and  still 
quite  frequently  the  older  form  stünde,  and  the  perf.  part,  gestanden,  which 
forms  now  serve  as  the  past  tense  and  the  perf.  part,  of  stehen;  tragen  (du 
trägst,  er  trägt)  to  carry;  wachsen  (du  wächsest  or  wächst,  er  wächst)  to  grow; 
past  wuchs,  perf.  part,  gewachsen;  waschen  (du  wäschest  or  wäschst,  er 
wäscht),  past  wusch,  perf.  part,  gewaschen. 

a.  The  adj.  erhaben  lofty,  lit.  lifted  up,  is  the  old  perf.  part,  of  erheben,  which  has  left  this 
group  for  class  II. 

b.  The  one  factitive  (197.  A.  d)  is  führen  (from  fahren)  to  lead,  guide. 

204.     VII.  Class.     Ablaut: 

Present  (177.  II.  B,  D.  a) 
ä,  ä,  au,  ei,  ö,  ü 

1.  Division.     Gradation:  Pres. 

ä,  ä,  aü,  ei,  ö,  ü  ie  ä,  ä,  au,  ei,  ö,  ü 

Example:  halten  (du  hältst,  er  hält),  hielt,  gehalten.  The  perf.  part,  always 
has  the  same  vowel  as  the  infin. 

Here  belong:  blasen  (du  bläst,  er  bläst,  rarely  du  blasest,  er  blast)  to  blow; 
braten  (du  brätst,  er  brät,  sometimes  du  brätst,  er  bratet)  to  fry,  roast,  bake, 
past  sometimes  wk.;  fallen  (du  fällst)  to  fall,  fiel,  gefallen;  halten  (du  hältst) 
to  hold;  hauen  (early  N.H.G.  du  heuest,  now  haust)  to  hew,  strike  with  a 
sword,  switch,  whip,  to  flog,  chop,  chisel  in  stone,  &c.,  hieb,  gehauen  in  choice 
language,  in  colloquial  speech  however  the  past  tense  is  usually  haute  in  certain 
expressions,  as  Er  haute  seinen  Bruder,  Er  haute  mich  an  den  Kopf,  Er  haute 
Holz,  hieb  in  others,  as  in  Er  hieb  mit  dem  Stock  auf  mich.  Du  hiebst  mit  ihm 
in  dieselbe  Kerbe,  Er  hieb  dem  Hunde  die  Ohren  ab,  the  perf.  part,  is  gehauen 
in  the  North  and  the  Southwest  and  gebaut  in  Bavaria  and  Austria;  heilten 
(du  heißest  or  heißt,  er  heißt)  to  bid,  command,  to  be  called,  signify;  lassen 
(in  S.G.  dialect  and  poetry  still  found  contracted  to  Ian  as  in  earlier  periods; 
du  lassest  or  läßt,  er  läßt)  to  let,  cause  to,  to  have  (something  done);  laufen 
(du  läufst)  to  run,  occasionally  earlier  in  the  period  in  the  literary  language 
and  still  often  in  popular  speech  with  the  past  loff  and  perf.  part,  geloffen  after 
the  analogy  of  saufen;  raten  (du  rätst,  sometimes  rätst)  to  advise,  w.  dat.  of 
person  and  ace.  of  thing;  rufen  (du  rufst)  to  call  (somebod^^  in),  with  ace,  to 
call  out  to  some  one,  with  dat.,  earlier  in  the  period  also  wk. ;  schlafen  (du  schläfst) 
to  sleep;  stoßen  (du  stoßest  or  stößt,  er  stößt;  in  early  N.H.G.  also  du  stoßest, 
er  stoßt)  to  thrust,  push,  kick.  Salzen  to  salt,  spalten  to  split,  schroten  to  grind 
coarse  have  still  a  str.  part,  alongside  of  a  wk.  one,  but  are  otherwise  entirely  wk. : 
gesalzen  or  now  rarely  gesalzt,  gespalten  or  less  commonly  gespaltet,  geschroten 


Past 

Perf.  Part. 

le,  1 

a,  a,  au,  ei,  o,  u 

Past 

Perf.  Part. 

314 VII.    CLASS,    2.    DIVISION 204. 

or  geschrotet.     Entirely  wk.  is  schroten  to  roll  (casks,  &c.).      The  strong  past 
forms  spielt  and  schriet  occur  in  early  N.H.G. 

a.  Here  also  belong:  the  adj.  part,  bescheiden,  once  part,  of  bescheiden  to  instruct,  which 
has  left  this  class  for  class  I,  2nd  division,  now  felt  as  an  adj.  with  the  general  meaning  instructed, 
hence  wise,  sensible,  or  more  commonly  modest,  as  it  is  felt  as  belonging  to  sich  bescheiden  to 
be  contented  ivith;  the  adj.  part.  geiaWen  folded,  still  found  instead  of  the  more  common  wk.  form 
gefaltet;  sometimes  geschmalzen  greased,  cooked  in  lard  (perf.  part,  of  the  otherwise  wk.  verb 
schmalzen)  after  the  analogy  of  gesalzen,  especially  in  the  expression  weder  gesalzen  noch 
geschmalzen;  in  popular  language  the  past  tense  kief  from  kaufen  to  buy  and  the  perf.  part. 
gemalen  from  malen  to  paint,  both  of  which  in  choice  language  are  always  wk. 

b.  The  factitive  is  fällen  to  fell.  Notice  that  the  one  factitive  of  this  class,  differing  from 
those  of  the  other  classes,  has  the  same  vowel  as  the  present  tense. 

c.  Nouns:   der  Fall  fall,  der  Rat  advice,  der  Ruf  call,  der  Hieb  blow,  &c. 

2.  Division.  Gradation :  Pres,  ä,  e  Past  i  Perf.  Part,  ä 
Example:  hangen  (du  hängst,  er  hängt),  hing,  gehangen. 
Here  belong:  fangen  (du  fängst,  er  fängt;  in  early  N.H.G.  also  in  the  form 
of  fahen,  du  fehest,  er  fehet,  which  still  survive  in  poetry  in  the  forms  fahen, 
du  fähst,  er  fäht)  io  catch,  formerly  also  intrans.  to  grasp  after  and  still  occasionally 
so:  Unseliger,  der  nur  die  Angel  ist,  [  mit  der  der  Heide  fäht  nach  deinem  Volk 
(Ludwig's  Makkabäer,  2);  gehen  (du  gehst,  er  geht)  to  go,  in  early  N.H.G. 
there  were  also  other  forms  in  use,  which  still  survive  in  certain  S.G.  dialects, 
the  old  indie,  present  gä(h)  (du  gä(h)st),  the  imperative  gang  (as  in  Gangen's 
[gangen  Sie]  nur  ruhig  schlafen!  —  Marriot's  Der  geistliche  Tod,  chap.  I)  and 
the  subjunctive  present  gange,  the  last  two  forms  representing  survivals  of  a 
longer  stem  in  use  in  O.H.G.  and  still  surviving  in  the  literary  language  in  the 
past  tense  form  ging  and  the  perfect  participle  gegangen,  which  now  serve  as 
the  past  tense  and  the  perfect  participle  of  gehen;  hangen  (du  hängst,  er  hängt; 
in  early  N.H.G.  also  du  hängst,  er  hangt)  or  more  commonly,  but  less  correctly, 
hängen  (du  hängst,  er  hängt)  to  hang  (intrans.),  as  it  has  become  confounded 
with  the  trans,  hängen  (see  a). 

a.  Hängen  to  hang  is  usually  a  weak  transitive:  hängen,  hängte,  gehängt.  It  has  besides 
its  wk.  past  hängte  also  the  strong  form  hing,  and  besides  its  usual  wk.  perf.  part,  gehängt  some- 
times a  strong  perf.  part,  gehangen,  a  form  once  common.  The  str.  trans,  participle  is  becoming 
rare  but  it  still  occurs  occasionally  in  good  literature:  Glauben  Sie,  daß  Sie  dann  nicht  ebenso 
gut  aufgehangen  werden  wie  einer  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  III,  p.  105). 

b.  Nouns:   Der  Hang  inclination,  der  Fang  catch,  der  Gang  walk. 

c.  The  vowel  of  the  past  tense  of  this  division  was  originally  long,  and  the  spelling  i  has  only 
in  comparatively  recent  years  been  generally  recognized,  the  older  spelling  ie  continuing  long 
after  the  sound  had  become  short.  This  shortening  of  the  sound  has  split  this  class  into  two 
divisions.     See  also  4.  2.  A.  d.  (2)  Note. 

205.  Verbs  formerly  Strong.  Earlier  in  the  period  also  the  following  verbs 
were  strong  which  have  since  become  weak  or  have  disappeared:  bannen 
(VII);  bauen  (VII),  sometimes  with  strong  participle  (gehauen),  now  weak; 
bellen  (HI,  II),  now  weak;  brauen  (II),  sometimes  with  strong  participle 
(gebrauen),  now  weak;  brinnen  (HI),  intransitive,  now  replaced  by  the  irreg- 
ular weak  trans,  brennen,- now  trans,  and  intrans.;  entbehren  (IV);  gellen 
(HI),  the  vowel  of  the  old  past  tense  still  surviving  in  Nachtigall;  gleißen  (I); 
greinen  (I),  sometimes  with  a  str.  part.,  now  usually  wk.;  heischen  (VII), 
earlier  in  the  period  str.  or  wk.,  now  wk.  with  the  exception  that  a  str.  participle 
is  sometimes  found;  hinken  (HI),  str.  part,  sometimes  still  found  in  S.G.;  jäten 
(V);  kneten  (V);  klieben  (II)  to  split;  kreischen  (I);  kriegen  (I;  in  early 
N.H.G.  often  in  M.G.  form:  kriegen,  past  kreig,  part,  (ge)kriegen,  later 
replaced  by  the  wk.  kriegen)  to  get;  nagen  (VI),  the  part,  genagen  still  pre- 
served in  pop.  language;  reuen  (II),  in  early  N.H.G.  still  with  a  strong  perf. 
part,  gerewen  or  gerawen;  schaben  (VI),  still  with  str.  part,  in  S.G.;  schalten 
(VII)  to  shove;  scherren  (HI;  Josh.  vii.  21),  now  replaced  by  the  wk.  scharren; 
schmiegen  (II);  schneien  (I);  schrimpfen  (HI;  Job  vii.  5),  now  replaced  by 
the  wk.  schrumpfen;  schweifen  (VII);  verseigen,  versieg,  versiegen  [Ps. 
cvii.  33],  from  the  last  form  of  which  the  wk.  versiegen  developed  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  later  entirely  supplanting  the  older  verseigen)  to  dry  up;  span- 
nen (VII);    walzen  (VII);    waten  (VI).     Strong  forms  of  these  verbs  have  also 


208.  I.  a. IRREGULAR   WEAK   VERBS 315 

appeared  more  or  less  frequently  within  the  present  period,  but  have  now  dis- 
appeared, or  survive  only  in  dialect  or  in  an  occasional  participial  form.  Altho 
a  few  weak  verbs  have  assumed  strong  forms  as  recorded  under  the  different 
classes  of  strong  verbs,  the  general  tendency  is  toward  the  weak  conjugation. 

A^o/?.  In  college  slang  just  the  opposite  tendency  is  found,  namely,  for  comical  effect  weak  verbs  are  given  strong 
forms:  bla'moren  for  b'.a'miert,  eingebrungen  for  eingebracht,  gedocken  for  gedeckt,  gemorken  for  gemerkt,  ge- 
schonken  for  geschenkt,  geschumpfen  for  geschimpft,  gewunken  for  gewinkt,  überzogen  for  überzeugt.  Some- 
times, however,  an  author  or  speaker  conjugates  a  weak  verb  strong  in  all  seriousness,  as  he  has  in  this  point  been 
influenced  by  his  native  dialect,  either  following  older  usage  or  coining  a  new  form  after  the  analogy  of  a  strong  verb 
of  similar  form:  Die  kleine  Glocke  auf  der  Kirche  (wenige  Schritte  vor  mir)  ist  eingeschnieen  (I;  Swabian  for  ein- 
geschneit) und  hat  einen  Klang  wie  Blei  (Mörike  in  a  letter  to  Friedrich  Kauffmann.  dated  Novem.  1827).  So 
spiesen  (a  modern  strong  form  according  to  class  I  following  the  analogy  of  similar  forms,  such  as  weisen,  mostly 
confined  to  S.G.  dialect)  wir  denn  vertraulich  (G.  Keller,  Werke,  iii.  86). 

206.  Conjugation  of  Strong  Verbs  in  Compounds.  Strong  verbs  when  com- 
pounded directly  with  some  other  word  or  prefix  are  conjugated  as  simple  verbs: 
erschlagen  (du  erschlägst)  to  strike  dead,  erschlug,  erschlagen.  However, 
if  the  verb  is  compounded  indirectly  (see  217),  that  is,  when  it  is  made  from 
a  compound  noun  the  last  component  element  of  which  is  made  from  a  str. 
verb,  it  is  conjugated  wk.:  ratschlagen  to  take  counsel  with,  made  not  from  rat 
and  the  str.  verb  schlagen,  but  from  the  noun  der  Ratschlag  counsel,  past 
ratschlagte,  perf.  part,  geratschlagt;  thus  also  radebrechen  to  break  o?i  the 
wheel,  derived  from  the  noun  die  Radebreche:  Er  radebrecht  (not  radebricht, 
altho  occasionally  found  in  good  authors)  das  Deutsche  He  speaks  bad  (lit. 
breaks  on  the  wheel)  German.     See  also  217.  Note  2. 

Irregular  Conjugation. 

207.  haben  (in  popular  language  contracted  to  han)  to  have  is  irregular  in 
the  pres.  and  past  indie,  and  also  in  the  past  subj.,  which  tho  a  wk.  verb 
sufifers  mutation.     For  conjugation  see  177.  III.  a. 

a.  The  obsolete  reflexiv^e  sich  gehaben  to  behave  one's  self,  find  one's  self  is  entirely  regular:  Er 
gehabt  sich  wohl  He  is  well.  Er  gehabte  sich  besser.  Also  handhaben  to  handle  is  entirely 
regular,  as  it  is  formed  not  from  haben,  but  from  the  substantive  Handhabe  handle. 

208.  Irregular  Weak  Verbs.  The  so-called  irregular  iveak  verbs  have  a 
vowel  in  the  past  indie,  and  perf.  part,  differing  from  the  vowel  in  the  present, 
but  are  otherwise  formed  regularly  according  to  the  weak  conjugation.  They 
fall  into  two  groups: — 

1.  Infinitive  Past  Indie.  Past  Subj.  Perf.  Part, 

brennen  to  burn  brannte  brennte  gebrannt 

Here  belong:  brennen;  kennen  to  be  acquainted  with;  nennen  to  name, 
call;  rennen  to  run  (dagger,  &c.)  info,  run  (intrans.),  race,  sometimes  in  past 
tense  and  perf.  part,  rennte,  gerennt  instead  of  rannte,  gerannt,  and  regularly 
so  in  certain  other  meanings,  see  200.  2.  b;  senden  to  se?id,  past  indie,  sandte 
or  sendete,  perf.  part,  gesandt  or  gesendet  (see  b);  wenden  to  turn,  past  indie, 
wandte  or  wendete,  perf.  part,  gewandt  or  gewendet  (see  b). 

a.  Unmtitation.  These  verbs  had  originally  an  a  in  the  pres.  tense,  which  according  to 
26.  A  was  mutated  to  e  by  a  j  or  /'  that  once  stood  between  the  stem  and  the  inflectional  ending 
of  the  present:  N.H.G.  legen,  Gothic  lagjan;  N.H.G.  brennen,  Gothic  brannjan.  This  j  is 
the  rule  in  most  wk.  verbs  in  Gothic.  It  disappeared  early  in  O.H.G.,  but  its  effects  can  still 
be  seen  as  in  the  preceding  examples  in  the  mutated  vowel  of  the  stem.  The  connecting  vowel 
i  that  once  stood  between  the  stem  and  the  inflectional  ending  in  the  past  indie,  and  perfect 
participle  of  wk.  verbs  was  in  O.H.G.  in  certain  verbs  syncopated,  which  resulted  in  unmiitation, 
i.e.  a  return  to  the  original  vowel  as  the  stem  was  no  longer  affected  by  the  i:  (a)  leggen,  legita, 
gilegit,  but  (b)  brennen,  branta,  gibrant,  also  gibrennit.  Most  wk.  verbs  formerly  belonging 
to  b  now  retain,  as  the  result  of  leveling  from  the  infinitive  and  the  second  form  of  the  perfect 
participle,  the  mutated  vowel  thruout,  only  the  few  words  in  the  above  list  now  following  b. 
In  early  N.H.G.,  however,  the  number  in  the  latter  class  was  greater,  especially  in  Luther's 
language  and  in  M.G.  in  general:  setzen,  satzte,  gesatzt,  also  gesetzet,  now  setzen,  setzte,  ge- 
setzt. This  leveling  has  largely  resulted  from  Bavarian  and  Austrian  influence,  where  the 
mutated  form  of  the  perfect  participle  in  b  had  begun  already  in  the  thirteenth  century  to  sup- 
plant the  unmutated  form.  In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  mutated  vowel  gradu- 
ally gained  the  ascendency  and  spread  to  the  past  tense.  The  unmutated  forms,  brannte, 
rannte,  &c.  indicate  the  influence  of  Middle  German,  which  here  retained  the  older  form.  The 
mutated  vowel,  however,  under  the  influence  of  the  weak  group  in  2  below,  found  favor  in  the 


316 IRREGULAR  WEAK  &  PAST  PRESENT  VERBS       208.  1.  a. 

subjunctive:  brennte,  &c.  This  M.G.  feature  of  distinguishing  indicative  and  subjunctive  in 
the  past  tense  of  this  weak  group  in  contrast  to  the  general  usage  of  not  distinguishing  them  in 
the  weak  past  has  become  estabhshed  in  the  Hterary  language.  Unmutation  here  in  the  perfect 
participle  is  also  due  to  M.G.  influence.  A  few  fossilized  adjective  participles  still  show  the 
old  unmutated  form  of  the  perfect  participle,  which  was  once  preferred  in  adjective  function: 
durchlaucht  and  erlaucht  from  leuchten;  gedackt  from  decken;  gelahrt  (now  only  used  in  ar- 
chaic, solemn,  or  comic  style)  from  lehren,  which  after  the  analogy  of  the  verbs  in  (b)  once, 
especially  in  M.G.  and  L.G.,  had  the  parts  lehren,  lahrte,  gelahrt;  getrost  from  trösten;  miß- 
gestalt,  ungestalt,  and  Wohlgestalt  from  stellen,  &c. 

b.  Earlier  the  forms  sandte,  wandte  and  gesandt,  gewandt  were  more  common  than  the 
mutated  forms  sendete,  wendete,  and  gesendet,  gewendet.  At  present,  however,  both  forms 
can  be  quite  freely  used  except  in  certain  expressions  where  the  newer  mutated  or  the  older 
unmutated  forms  have  become  fixed.  Thus  we  say  ein  gewendeter  (renovated,  lit.  turned) 
[not  now  gewandter]  Rock.  The  old  forms  are  especially  firm  in  the  words  Gesandter  am- 
bassador, gewandt  skilful,  clever,  bewandt  such,  verwandt  related. 

2.     Infinitive  Past  Indie.  Past  Subj.  Perf.  Part. 

bringen  to  bring      brachte  brächte  gebracht 

denken  to  think      dachte  dächte  gedacht 

dünken  to  seem      f  dünkte  /  dünkte  /  gedünkt 

\  deuchte  (däuchte)  \  deuchte  (däuchte)  \  gedeucht 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  we  find  the  forms  dünken,  dünken  (now  obsolete),  es  daucht  (after  the  analogy  of  the 
past  dauchte;  now  obs. ),  past  dauchte  (now  obs. ),  subj.  deuchte,  perf.  part,  gedaucht  (now  obs. ).  Tlie  present  tense 
forms  dünken  and  dunken  spread  to  the  past  and  perf.  part.:  dünkte  (now  very  common)  or  dunkte  (now  obs.), 
gedünkt  (now  very  common)  or  gedunkt  (now  obs.).  The  form  of  the  very  common  past  subj.  deuchte  spread  to 
the  present  tense:  es  deucht  (a  little  earlier  in  the  period  very  common  and  still  not  infrequent )  or  deuchtet  (now  rare) 
with  the  infinitive  deuchten  (now  rare).  This  new  infinitive  produced  the  new  past  deuchtete  (now  rare).  The 
new  present  tense  form  deucht  transformed  the  original  past  indie,  dauchte  and  perf.  part,  gedaucht  into  deuchte, 
gedeucht.  The  grammarians  usually  recommend  the  forms  given  in  2  above.  The  tendency  to-day  is  to  level: 
dünken,  dünkte,  gedünkt. 

209.  The  verb  kriegen  to  get  is  inflected  regularly  in  choice  language,  but 
usually  in  the  loose  colloquial  language  of  the  North  and  Midland  under  the 
influence  of  dialect  ie  becomes  i  in  a  closed  syllable,  hence  in  the  2nd  and  3rd 
pers.  sing,  of  the  present  tense  and  thruout  the  past  tense  and  also  in  the  perf. 
part:  ich  kriege,  du  kriegst  (pro.  krichst),  er  kriegt  (pro.  kricht),  ich  kriegte 
(pro.  krichte),  gekriegt  (pro.  gekricht).     See  4.  1.  a.  Note,  205,  and  201./. 

210.  The  verb  tun  to  do  is  very  irregular:  present  ich  tue,  du  tust,  er  tut, 
wir  tun,  ihr  tut,  sie  tun.  The  subjunctive  present  is  regular:  ich  tue,  du  tuest, 
er  tue,  wir  tuen,  ihr  tuet,  sie  tuen.  The  past  indicative  is  tat,  subjunctive 
täte,  perfect  participle  getan. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  poetic  or  humorous  language  the  past  tense  forms  tat  (same 
as  M.H.G.  let  and  hence  at  present  misspelled),  pi.  täten,  are  often  used  instead  of  the  usual 
tat,  pi.  taten,  at  present,  however,  only  when  employed  in  connection  with  a  following  infinitive 
as  a  mere  periphrasis  for  a  simple  form  of  the  verb  (see  185.  B.  I.  2.  e.  (2)):  Vnd  die  Kinder 
Israel  theten  alles  wie  der  Herr  Mose  geboten  hatte  (Exodus  xxxix.  32).  Er  tat  nur  spöttisch 
vim  sich  blicken  (Uhland)  =  Er  blickte  nur  spöttisch  um  sich. 

Note.  In  M.H.G.  the  past  tense  was  tet(e)  in  the  sing,  and  lälen  in  the  plural.  Later  in  the  literary  language 
the  plural  vowel  passed  over  into  the  singular.  Alongside  of  these  forms  we  find,  as  described  above,  the  forms  tat, 
pi.  täten,  which  have  resulted  from  the  leveling  of  the  plural  by  the  singular. 

211.  For  the  irregular  werden  see  177.  III.  c;  other  irregularities  in  str. 
verbs  under  the  gradating  groups,  198-206. 

Past-Present  Verbs. 

212.  1.  Among  the  most  irregular  verbs  are  the  Past-Present  verbs.  Their 
present  tense  tho  present  in  meaning  has  the  form  of  the  past  tense  of  str.  verbs 
and  even  to-day  preserves  the  peculiarities  of  the  medieval  past  tense  better 
than  any  other  word  except  werden.  These  evident  marks  of  the  past  tense 
are:  a.  The  1st  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  are  alike,  b.  The  sing,  and  pi.  vowels 
are  different  as  was  once  the  rule  for  the  past  tense,  and  still  show  in  part  the 
gradation  classes  to  which  they  once  belonged,  c.  The  vowel  of  the  subj.  is 
the  mutated  vowel  of  the  pi.  indie,  which  was  once  the  rule  for  the  past  subj., 
as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  past  subj.  of  werden  (past  subjunctive  ich  würde, 
past  indicative  ich  ward,  pi.  wir  wurden).  The  mutated  forms  of  the  present 
indicative  plural,  as  wir  müssen,  dürfen,  &c.,  are  in  fact  subjunctive  forms, 
as  the  latter  mood  has  leveled  here  the  former.     These  mutated   forms  have 


212.  2.  a. 


PAST   PRESENT   VERBS 


317 


become  established  in  the  infinitive  wherever  they  are  found  in  the  indicative: 
dürfen  (infin.),  wir  dürfen,  &c.  After  the  old  past  had  come  to  be  used  as  a 
present  the  weak  past  was  employed  to  express  past  time. 

2.  These  verbs  are:  wissen  to  know,  ktwiv  how  to,  be  able  to,  and  the  six 
auxiliaries  of  mood:  dürfen  to  be  allowed;  können  to  be  able  {can);  mögen  to 
like,  to  desire  to  (also  often  expressing  a  possibility  or  a  concession  =  may); 
müssen  to  be  compelled,  to  have  to  (mnst);  sollen  expressed  in  English  by  shall, 
ought  to,  am  (is)  to,  is  said  to,  &c. ;  wollen  (see  g)  to  be  willing  to,  to  be  about  to, 
to  desire  to,  &c.     They  are  inflected  as  follows: 

Present  Indicative. 


ich  weiß 

darf 

kann 

mag 

muß 

soll 

will 

du  weißt 

darfst 

kannst 

magst 

mußt 

sollst 

willst 

er  weiß 

darf 

kann 

mag 

muß 

soll 

will 

wir  wissen 

dürfen 

können 

mögen 

müssen 

sollen 

wollen 

ihr  wißt 

dürft 

könnt 

mögt 

müßt 

sollt 

wollt 

sie  wissen 

dürfen 

können 

mögen 

müssen 

sollen 

wollen 

Present  Subjunctive. 

ich  wisse 

dürfe 

könne 

möge 

müsse 

solle 

wolle 

du  wissest 

dürfest 

könnest 

mögest 

müssest 

sollest 

wollest 

er  wisse 

dürfe 

könne 

möge 

müsse 

solle 

wolle 

wir  wissen 

dürfen 

können 

mögen 

müssen 

sollen 

wollen 

ihr  wisset 

dürfet 

könnet 

möget 

müsset 

sollet 

wollet 

sie  wissen 

dürfen 

können 

mögen 

müssen 

sollen 

wollen 

Past  Indicative. 
ich  wußte,  durfte,  konnte,  mochte,  mußte,  sollte,  wollte. 

Past  Subjunctive. 
ich  wüßte,  dürfte,  könnte,  möchte,  müßte,  sollte,  wollte. 

Perfect  Participle, 
gewußt,  gedurft,  gekonnt,  gemocht,  gemußt,  gesollt,  gewollt. 

The  participle  of  mögen  and  müssen  is  only  rarely  gemocht  and  gemüßt: 
Wir  hatten  viele  (Offiziere)  nacheinander;  doch  habe  ich  nie  einen  gemocht 
(Tagebücher  des  Grafen  August  von  Platen,  p.  14).  Und  wer  von  der  Liebsten 
scheiden  gemüßt  (Schefifel's  Trompeter,  Werners  Lieder  aus  Welschland,   XII). 

The  compound  tenses  are  formed  regularly  (see  also  e) : 


Pres.  Perfect. 


ich  habe  gewußt,  gedurft,  gekonnt,  gemocht,  &c. 

ich  habe  (kommen)  dürfen,  können,  &c.  (but  not  wissen; 

see  b). 
ich  hatte  gewußt,  gedurft,  gekonnt,  gemocht,  &c. 
ich  hatte  (kommen)  dürfen,  können,  mögen,  &c. 
ich  werde  wissen,  dürfen,  können,  mögen,  &c. 
ich  werde  gewußt  haben,  gedurft  haben,  &c. 
ich  werde  haben  (kommen)  dürfen,  können,  &c. 

ich  würde  wissen,  dürfen,  können,  mögen,  &c. 
ich  würde  gewußt  haben,  gedurft  haben,  &c. 
ich  würde  haben  (kommen)  dürfen,  können,  &c.,  or 
ich  hätte  (kommen)  dürfen,  können,  &c. 


Past  Perfect. 

Future. 
Future  Perfect. 

Past  Periphrastic 
Subjunctive. 

Past  Perfect  Peri- 
phrastic Sub- 
junctive. 

a.  The  imperatives  and  present  participles  are  either  deficient  or  rarely  used.  Wissen  and 
wollen  alone  have  an  imperative:  wisse,  &c.,  wolle,  &c.  In  popular  language  the  imperative 
will  (instead  of  wolle)  is  heard  and  is  sometimes  also  found  in  literature  (in  Auerbach,  Grill- 
parzer). 


318 USES   OF   DÜRFEN 212.  2.  a. 

The  present  participle  is  formed  regularly:  wissend,  könnend,  &c.  With  the  exception  of 
the  participle  of  wissen,  however,  these  forms  are  rarely  found.  The  present  participles  of  thg 
modal  auxiliaries  are  only  used  in  connection  with  a  dependent  infinitive,  as  illustrated  in  184. 
/,  and  in  the  case  of  a  few  derivatives  and  compounds,  in  the  most  part  adjectives,  as  bedürfend 
requiring,  in  need  of,  vermögend  wealthy,  wohlwollend  well-wishing.  Also  the  participial  sub- 
stantive der  Wollende  the  one  that  wills  is  used. 

b.  The  modal  auxiliaries  (not  including  wissen)  do  not  use  the  weak  perf.  participle  given 
above  when  an  infinitive  depends  upon  them  in  a  compound  tense,  but  a  form  exactly  like  the 
infinitive,  for  which  construction  see  178.  2.  B.  a  and  Note  1  thereunder.  Thus  the  construction 
of  wissen  differs  from  that  of  the  other  past-present  verbs:  Er  hat  zu  antworten  gewußt  He 
knew  how  to  answer,  but  Er  hat  antworten  können  He  was  able  to  answer. 

c.  Note  that  wissen  and  vermögen  (see  185.  B.  I.  2.  a.  Note  1)  are  the  only  past-present 
verbs  that  require  zu  before  the  dependent  infin.:  Er  weiß  sich  nicht  zu  halten  He  is  not  able 
to  contain  himself,  but  Er  muß  arbeiten  He  has  to  work.  However,  the  infinitive  without  zu 
is  also  used  after  wissen,  but  with  a  different  meaning.     See  185.  B.  I.  2.  d. 

d.  Earlier  in  the  period  in  the  Southwest  the  third  person  of  the  present  tense  of  wissen 
•  sometimes  assumed  t,  weiß  becoming  weißt  after  the  analogy  of  words  in  the  regular  present 

tense:  Der  seine  Burg  zu  schirmen  weißt  (in  rime  with  Geist)  (Wieland's  Gedichte,  p.  98). 
In  eariy  N.H.Ci.  and  as  late  as  the  classical  period  the  forms  du  sollt  and  willt  are  found,  now 
always  du  sollst,  willst.  Cf.  Eng.  shalt,  wilt.  In  early  N.H.G.  also  other  forms  occur,  which 
have  since  disappeared  in  the  literary  language:  dürfen  and  dorfen  for  dürfen,  dorfte  and  dörfte 
for  durfte  and  dürfte;  künnen  for  können,  künde,  kunte,  or  kvmt  for  konnte;  mügen  for 
mögen;   wellen  and  wollen  for  wollen. 

e.  In  an  earlier  period  of  the  language  the  German,  like  the  English  of  the  present  day, 
could  not  form  a  perf.  participle  from  the  modal  auxiliaries.  The  older  German  had  to  express 
the  pres.  perfect  by  putting  the  dependent  infinitive  into  the  perfect  tense,  and  the  past  perfect 
by  placing  the  past  indie,  of  the  auxiliary  before  the  perfect  infinitive  of  the  dependent  verb: 
ich  kan  getragen  haben,  now  ich  habe  tragen  können;  ich  künde  getragen  haben,  now  ich  hatte 
tragen  können;  ich  künde  getragen  haben,  now  ich  hätte  tragen  können.  When  the  new  forms 
were  introduced  the  old  forms  did  not  drop  out,  but  remained,  often,  however,  with  a  new  shade 
of  meaning:  Er  kann  gesprochen  haben  He  may  have  spoken,  but  Er  hat  sprechen  körmen  He 
has  been  able  to  speak.  Er  konnte  schon  gesprochen  haben  It  w'as  possible  that  (at  that  time)  he 
had  already  spoken,  but  Er  hatte  schon  sprechen  können  He  had  already  been  able  to  speak.  Er 
könnte  gesprochen  haben  He  might  possibly  have  spoken,  but  Er  hätte  sprechen  können  He 
woidd  have  been  able  to  speak.  The  English-speaking  student  must  be  cautious  here,  as  there 
are  pitfalls  for  him  at  almost  every  step.  We  must  not  translate  He  should  have  done  i/ literally 
by  Er  sollte  es  getan  haben,  as  the  German  may  mean :  He  was  said  to  have  done  it.  The  Cierman 
form  should  be  Er  hätte  es  tun  sollen.  Er  könnte  gekommen  sein  corresponds  to  the  English 
He  could  have  come  only  in  the  sense  that  it  is  a  possibility  that  he  has  come.  If  we  mean  that 
it  woidd  have  lain  in  his  power  to  come  we  must  say  Er  hätte  kommen  können.  Occasionally 
the  old  and  new  constructions  are  used  without  difi^erentiation:  Ich  sollte  vorsichtiger  gewesen 
sein,  or  more  commonly  Ich  hätte  vorsichtiger  sein  sollen. 

/.     In  early  N.H.G.  there  were  two  other  past-present  verbs: 

(1)  Tügen  (now  taugen,  entirely  wk.)  with  the  following  principal  parts:  (pres.)  ich  taug, 
er  taug,  wir  tügen;  past  ich  tuchte,  (subj.)  tüchte,  (ge)tucht.  Ex.:  Moses  sprach]  Das  taug 
nicht  i  das  wir  also  thun  (Exodus  viii.  26).     Derivatives  are  tüchtig  and  Tugend. 

(2)  Thüren  (now  obs.)  to  dare  (same  word  as  Eng.  dare)  with  the  following  principal  parts: 
ich  thar,  er  thar,  wir  thüren,  past  ich  thurste.  Later  it  was  replaced  by  dürfen,  which  in  turn 
has  been  replaced  in  this  meaning  by  wagen  and  sich  imterstehen. 

g.  From  the  standpoint  of  historical  grammar  wollen  is  not  a  past-present  verb.  It  is, 
however,  now  justly  classed  here  upon  the  basis  of  its  present  forms,  which  are  those  of  past- 
present  verbs.  The  present  indicative  was  originally  a  past  subjunctive,  which  formerly  had 
the  force  of  the  past  subjunctive  of  cautious  statement  (see  169.  2.  A.  (1).  c)  as  used  to-day. 
Thus  this  original  past  subjunctive  had  the  meaning  of  ich  wünschte  wohl.  Later  it  took  on 
the  force  of  a  present  indie,  and  the  forms  of  past-present  verbs,  as  it  was  on  account  of  its  mean- 
ings under  the  influence  of  the  past-present  verbs. 

Special  Uses  of  the  Modal  Auxill\ries. 

213.  1.  Dürfen,  a.  A  permission  from  someone  to  do  something,  or  a  right,  cause,  or 
liberty  to  so  do,  in  so  far  as  there  is  nothing  in  the  dictate  of  circumstances  or  moral  obligation 
or  any  authority  to  restrain  or  forl)i(l:  Du  darfst  nicht  hingehen  You  are  not  allowed  to  go  there. 
Gefangene  dürfen  mit  niemand  verkehren  Prisoners  are  not  allowed  to  associate  with  anybody. 
Jedermaim  darf  Waffen  tragen  P2ver>'body  is  permitted  to  carry  arms.  Darf  ich  darauf  rech- 
nen, Sie  morgen  bei  mir  zu  sehen?  Er  darf  sich  darüber  nicht  wundern  He  must  not  (has  no 
right,  cause  to)  wonder  at  it.  Wir  dürfen  unsere  Pflichten  nicht  vergessen  We  should  not 
forget  our  duties.  Wir  dürfen  es  schon  unseres  Rufes  wegen  nicht  tun  We  cannot  do  this  out 
of  consideration  for  our  reputation,  to  say  nothing  about  other  things  (all  in  schon).  This  leads 
to  the  very  frequent  use  of  dürfen  in  negative  sentences  corresponding  to  müssen  in  positive 
form:  Dir  dürft  nicht  laut  schreien!  Children,  you  must  not  scream  out  loud.  Müssen  here 
has  a  milder  force.  See  4.  c  below.  The  past  subjunctive  softens  the  force  of  dürfen:  Bald 
dürfte  ich  nicht!  (Lessing's  Minna,  1,  2)  I  almost  ought  not  to! 


213.  2.  F. USES   OF  DÜRFEN   &   KÖNNEN 319 

b.  Need  only  to,  need  hut:  Er  darf  nur  winken,  so  sind  wir  da  He  need  but  make  a  sign  and 
we  shall  be  there.  Sie  dürfen  nur  klingeln  Vou  need  only  to  ring.  Sie  dürfen  nur  befehlen 
You  need  only  to  speak,  to  command. 

c.  The  past  subj.  (potential;  see  169.  2.  A.  (1).  c)  is  much  used  to  state  in  a  modest  way 
something  that  one  is  pretty  sure  is  or  will  be  true:  Jetzt  dürfte  es  zu  spät  sein  Now  it  is  probably 
too  late.     Es  dürfte  ein  Leichtes  sein  It  would  probably  be  an  easy  matter. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  dürfen  in  this  connection  are  können  and  mögen  with  distinct  shades  of  difference. 
Können  denotes  a  mere  possibility,  mögen  a  probabiHty  or  likelihood,  dürfen  a  rather  positive  assertion,  but  stated 
politely:  Man  könnte  Sie  fragen  One  miijht  question  you.  Man  möchte  Sie  fragen  You  will  likely  be  questioned. 
Man  dürfte  Sie  fragen  I  warn  you,  you  will  be  questioned. 

d.  Rarer  meanings  occur:  (1)  In  early  N.H.G.  to  need,  now  replaced  by  bedürfen:  Die 
Gesunden  dürffen  des  Artztes  nicht  (Luke  v.  31).  This  is  the  original  meaning,  and  still  sur- 
vives in  dürftig  needy,  bedürfen  to  need,  Bedürfnis  need.  (2)  In  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  the 
classical  period  and  even  later  in  negative  sentences  and  questions  to  need,  have  occasion  for, 
now  replaced  by  brauchen:   Vor  mir  dürfen  Sie  sich  Ihres  Unglücks  nicht  schämen  (Lessing's 

•  Minna,  1,6).  Wollte  Gott  sich  deiner  erbarmen,  mein  armes  Herz,  daß  du  nicht  immer  Schmer- 
zen ausstehen  dürftest!  (Bismarck  an  seine  Frau,  March  3,  1851).  (3)  In  early  N.H.G  it 
replaced  in  part  the  obsolescent  thüren  (see  212.  2.  /.  [2])  to  dare:  Wie  habt  jr  das  thun  dürffen 
(Gen.  xliv.  1.5).  Luther  retained  thüren  in  a  large  number  of  cases,  but  the  later  revisions 
substituted  dürfen.  Compare  Luther's  translation  of  Alatth.  xxii.  46  with  a  revised  edition. 
In  our  own  day  dürfen  rarely  occurs  in  this  meaning,  but  is  replaced  here  by  wagen  and  sich 
unterstehen. 

2.  Köimen.  A.  Ability  or  power:  Er  kann  gut  reiten  He  can  ride  well.  Der  Kranke  kann 
nicht  gehen. 

Note.  In  this  sense  alone  is  vermögen  synonymous  with  können,  only  differing  from  it  in  being  stronger  and 
in  requiring  zu  with  the  infin.:  Er  war  zu  schwach,  er  vermochte  nicht  die  Mitteilung  zu  Ende  zu  hören,  or  er  konnte 
die  MitteOung  nicht  zu  Ende  hören.     In  early  N.H.G.  the  infin.  depending  upon  vermögen  is  also  without  zu. 

a.  Often,  cannot  hear  to:   Sie  kann  kein  Blut  sehen. 

b.  Notice  the  idiomatic  use  of  nicht  umhin  können  =  müssen,  requiring  zu  before  the  de- 
pendent infin.:   Er  konnte  nicht  umhin  zu  lächeln  He  could  not  help  smiling. 

B.  Possibility  in  the  broad  sense,  that  which  is  contingent  upon  circumstances,  and  often 
probability  and  in  this  sense  synonymous  with  mögen  in  A,  but  more  common  than  the  latter 
in  the  pres.  tense  and  not  so  common  in  the  past:  Der  Brief  kann  vor  Dienstag  nicht  dort  sein. 
Er  kann  jeden  Augenblick  da  sein.  Ich  glaub',  es  kann  wohl  heute  noch  schneien.  Ver- 
damme ihn  nicht,  er  kann  (ma>)  noch  unschuldig  sein.  Sie  können  (may)  mich  morgen  er- 
warten. 

Note.  Observe  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  pres.  of  können  with  the  perf.  infin.  and  the  pres.  perf.  of 
körmen:  Er  kann  den  Brief  geschrieben  haben  He  may  have  written  the  letter.  Er  hat  den  Brief  schreiben  können 
He  has  been  able  to  write  the  letter.  Notice  also  the  difference  between  Er  körmte  es  getan  haben  He  might  have 
done  it  (i.e.  it  is  possible  that  he  has  done  it)  and  Er  hätte  es  tun  können  He  woidd  have  been  able  to  do  it. 

C.  Permission,  arising  from  the  idea  that  something  can  be  done,  as  there  are  no  hindrances 
in  the  way:  Meinetwegen  kann  er  kommen  As  far  as  I  am  concerned  he  may  come.  Von  acht 
bis  neun  Uhr  können  wir  noch  in  dem  Garten  ein  wenig  spazieren  gehen.  Sie  können  jetzt 
gehen. 

D.  It  often  contains  in  polite  form  instnictions,  directions,  a  request,  or  even  a  7nild  command: 
Ich  habe  jetzt  nicht  Zeit  für  euch,  ihr  könnt  aber  morgen  wieder  einmal  nachfragen  I  have  not 
time  for  you  to-day,  but  you  might  inquire  again  to-morrow.  Du  könntest  (or  in  still  stronger 
language  kannst)  mir  eigentlich  das  lästige  Geschäft  abnehmen  I  think  you  might  take  this 
troublesome  piece  of  business  off  my  hands.  A  mild  command:  Du  kannst  gehen  You  may  go. 
Er  kann  gehen  Let  him  go.  It  sometimes  contains  a  reproach:  Du  kannst  (or  könntest)  immer 
auch  einmal  mit  angreifen!  I  think  you  might  take  a  hold  and  help  us  a  little  bit!  Das  kannst 
du  selber  machen!  I  think  you  might  do  that  ^-ourself ! 

E.  Good  grounds  or  reasons  or  good  opportunity  for  an  action:  Darauf  körmen  Sie  stolz 
sein  You  can  well  be  proud  of  that.  Kann  (or  darf)  ich  nun  anfangen?  Should  I  begin  now? 
(Are  things  favorable  for  action?) 

F.  Also  used  as  an  independent  transitive  verb  with  noun  or  pronoun  as  object  in  the  sense 
of  to  know  or  understand  thoroly,  to  be  at  home  in,  which  is  the  original  meaning:  Er  kann  das 
Lied  auswendig  He  knows  the  song  by  heart.  Der  kann  etwas  That  fellow  understands  his 
business.  Können  sie  Deutsch?  Can  you  speak  German?  Der  Schüler  kann  seine  Vokabeln 
The  pupil  Icnows  his  vocabulary.  Können  Sie  Klavier?  Can  you  play  upon  the  piano?  Er 
kann  sehr  gut  Französisch. 

Note  1.  Here  belongs  the  expression  Was  kaim  ich  dafür?  How  can  I  help  it,  how  can  I  be  blamed  for  it?  It 
has  here  changed  the  original  idea  of  beinf;  able  to  do  something  for  to  that  of  blame  for  not  doing  something.  Thus  also: 
Er  kann  nicht  dafür  It  is  not  his  fault.  Was  kann  sie  für  ihre  Mutter?!  (Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alten  Doktors,  p.  142) 
How  can  she  be  held  responsible  for  her  mother  being  what  she  is?! 

Note  2.  Distinguish  carefully  between  können  to  know  something  thoroly,  to  know  by  heart,  to  have  a  fair  degree 
of  skill  or  proficiency  in  something,  wissen  to  know  facts,  kennen  to  know  or  be  acquainted  with  persons  or  also  those 
things  which  like  persons  can  be  recognized  by  certain  characteristics:  Sie  köimen  Deutsch  They  can  speak  German. 
Die  können  ihre  Sache  They  understand  thoroly  the  matter  they  have  in  hand.  Er  kann  das  Einmaleins  He  knows 
by  heart  the  multiplication  table.  Ich  weiß,  wo  er  wohnt  I  know  where  he  lives.  Ich  weiß  sein  Haus  I  know  where 
his  house  is.  Ich  kenne  ihn  gut  I  know  him  well.  Ich  kenne  sein  Haus  I  am  acquainted  with  the  outside  or  inside 
or  both  outside  and  inside  arrangements  of  his  house.  Das  Kind  kennt  die  Buchstaben  noch  nicht  The  child  cannot 
distinguish  the  letters  yet.  Ich  kenne  diese  Melodie  This  tune  is  familiar  to  me.  Das  kennt  man  schon!  We  know 
all  about  that,  i.e.  we  have  had  experience  in  that  matter. 


320 IjSes  of  Mögen  &  müssen  213. 2.  g. 

G.  Also  as  an  intransitiv-e  verb  in  the  sense  of  to  have  the  power,  skill:  „Du  willst  also?" 
„Mach'  mich  können,  so  will  ich"  ((ioethe).  Um  zu  können,  mußt  du  in  jedem  Fall  tun,  um 
zu  wissen,  darfst  du  dich  in  vielen  Fällen  nur  leidend  verhalten  (Pestalozzi). 

3.  Mögen.  A.  Probability,  plausibility,  that  which  rests  with  more  or  less  probability  on 
facts,  but  which  is  after  all  only  supposition,  conjecture  (see  können,  B):  Es  ist  unrecht,  daß 
er  nicht  geantwortet  hat,  aber  er  mag  krank  sein  It  is  not  right  that  he  has  not  answered,  but 
it  may  be  that  he  is  sick.  Er  hat  es  keinem  gesagt,  er  mag's  wohl  geheim  halten  wollen  He 
has  told  no  one,  he  may  probably  desire  to  keep  it  a  secret.  Das  mag  wohl  sein  That  may  be. 
Es  mag  wahr  sein.  Es  mag  jetzt  zwölf  sein  It  may  be  12  o'clock.  Sie  mochte  fühlen,  daß 
sie  mir  unrecht  getan  She  probably  felt  that  she  had  done  me  injustice.  Es  mochte  wohl  Mitter- 
nacht sein  It  might  have  been  about  midnight.  Er  mag  das  gesagt  haben  He  may  possibly 
have  said  that.  Usage  is  here  confined  to  the  positive  statement.  In  negative  form  können 
is  used  here:  Es  kann  nicht  wahr  sein.     Kann  das  wahr  sein?  (with  negative  force). 

a.  It  is  much  used  in  the  past  subjunctive  (potential)  to  state  modestly  something  as  prob- 
able, plausible  (see  also  dürfen,  c.  Note):  Es  möchte  wohl  besser  sein,  wenn  wir  es  unter- 
ließen It  would  probably  be  better  if  we  did  not  do  it.  Das  möchte  schwer  zu  beweisen  sein 
That  might  be  hard  to  prove.     Daraus  möchte  wohl  nichts  werden  That  is  likely  enough  to  fail. 

B.  To  indicate  that  something  is  granted,  allowed,  at  least  that  no  objection  will  be  raised 
on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  and  from  this  arises  the  idea  of  concession  in  general,  which  is  much 
used  in  subordinate  concessive  clauses:  Das  mag  er  immerhin  tun,  was  kümmert's  mich?  Let 
him  do  it,  what  matters  it  to  me?  Mögen  die  Leute  reden,  was  sie  wollen  Let  people  say  what 
they  will.  In  subordinate  clause:  Was  ich  auch  tun  mag,  so  ist  es  dir  nicht  recht  No  matter 
what  I  do,  I  can't  satisfy  you. 

C.  Akin  to  the  preceding  is  the  idea  of  inclination,  liking,  in  this  meaning  also  used  as  an 
independent  transitive  verb  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  object:  Ich  mag  ihn  jetzt  nicht  sehen 
I  do  not  care  to  see  him  now.  As  a  transitive  verb:  Ich  mag  diese  Radieschen  nicht.  Vielleicht 
mögen  Sie  lieber  Gurken  I  do  not  like  these  radishes.  Perhaps  you  like  cucumbers  better. 
Mögen  is  often  strengthened  by  the  adverb  gern:  Ich  habe  nie  gern  tanzen  mögen  I  never  liked 
to  dance. 

a.  The  subjunctive  is  much  used  in  wishes  in  independent  clauses  with  different  meaning 
according  as  present  or  past  tense  is  employed  (168.  I.  1.  B,  and  169.  1.  A).  The  present  sub- 
junctive is  also  used  in  mild  commands  direct  and  indirect.  See  177.  I.  B.  a;  171.  4.  a.  The 
present  indicative  and  subjunctive  are  used  in  warnings  and  menaces:  Er  mag  nur  aufpassen, 
sonst  passiert  ein  Unglück  He  should  be  on  the  look-out  or  some  misfortune  will  happen.  Er 
möge  sich  hüten,  mich  zu  reizen  Let  him  beware  of  provoking  me. 

b.  The  subjunctive  of  mögen  is  in  indirect  discourse  often  used  instead  of  the  subjunctive 
of  the  simple  verb,  especially  after  verbs  of  wishing,  fearing,  doubting:  Wir  wünschten,  daß 
er  komme  or  kommen  möge. 

c.  The  past  and  past  perfect  subjunctive  (potential),  the  former  with  present,  the  latter 
with  past  force,  differ  from  the  indicative  in  meaning  in  that  not  the  mere  record  of  a  strongly 
pronounced  desire  or  a  habitual  inclination  is  made,  but  especial  attention  is  called  to  that  which 
at  the  time  and  under  the  circumstances  the  subject  feels  inclined  or  would  like  to  do:  Fast 
möchte  ich  weinen  I  almost  feel  like  crying.  Ich  möchte  spazieren  gehen  I  should  like  to  go 
out  walking.  Ich  hätte  es  ihm  nicht  sagen  mögen  I  should  not  have  liked  to  tell  it  to  him. 
Da  hätte  er  in  den  Boden  sinken  mögen  Then  he  felt  as  tho  he  would  like  to  sink  thru  the  floor. 

The  subjunctive  of  modest  statement  (169.  L  A,  3rd  par.)  is  much  used  to  state  a  wish  mod- 
estly: Ich  möchte  Sie  um  ein  Stückchen  Hammelschlegel  bitten,  niu-  zum  Versuchen  I  will 
thank  you  for  a  small  piece  of  the  leg  of  mutton,  just  to  try  it. 

D.  Its  oldest  meaning,  that  of  power  and  ability,  it  has  given  over  to  vermögen  in  ordinary 
prose,  but  this  meaning  can  still  be  found  in  elevated  diction:  O  lieb',  so  lang  du  lieben  kannst 
(can  find  an  opportunity)!  O  lieb',  so  lang  du  lieben  magst  (are  able)!  (Freiligrath).  This 
meaning  occurs  frequently  still  in  the  noun  (die)  Macht  might  and  the  adj.  möglich  possible, 
which  have  been  derived  from  it. 

a.  After  the  analogy  of  vermögen  (see  2.  Note  above)  the  infinitive  with  zu  is  in  a  few  rather 
rare  instances  used  here  with  mögen  instead  of  the  simple  infinitive,  especially  when  the  in- 
finitive precedes  the  auxiliary:  Die  Gefahr  von  ihr  zu  wenden  magst  du  ganz  allein  (Goethe's 
Die  natürliche  Tochter,  2,  1). 

4.  Müssen,  a.  Necessity  in  the  broad  sense,  either  physical  compulsion  or  that  constraint 
which  is  imposed  by  the  stress  of  circumstances,  or  lies  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  or  that  which 
appears  to  the  mind  as  necessary,  appropriate,  or  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of  things,  hence 
corresponding  to  the  English  words  must,  have  to,  obliged  to,  ought  to,  need  to:  Das  Kind  mußte 
zu  Bette  gehen  The  child  had  to  go  to  bed.  Er  handelt,  wie  er  muß  He  acts  as  he  ought  to  do 
under  the  circumstances.  Du  kommst  nicht  mit,  denn  du  hast  keine  Kleider  und  kannst  nicht 
tanzen;  wir  müßten  uns  deiner  schämen  (we  should  indeed  under  the  circumstances  have  to 
feel  ashamed  of  you).  Kinder  müssen  bescheiden  sein  In  the  natural  order  of  things  children 
ought  to  be  modest.  Effi  (name),  eigentlich  hättest  du  doch  wohl  Kunstreiterin  werden  müssen 
(ought).  Mußt  du  denn  alles  wissen?  Do  you  need  to  know  everything?  Also  translated  in 
various  other  ways:  Wir  mußten  uns  freuen  We  could  not  but  rejoice.  Ich  mußte  lachen  I 
could  not  help  laughing.     It  is  much  used  in  commands.     See  177.  I.  B.  a. 

It  often  denotes  a  logical  or  inferred  necessity:  Ihr  Gesicht  war  regelmäßig  und  der  Aus- 
druck desselben  verständig;  sie  mußte  in  ihrer  Jugend  schön  gewesen  sein  She  must  have 
been,  &c.      (Besieht  ihn  [i.e.  den  Brief])  Wahrhaftig,  er  ist  erbrochen.     Wer  muß  ihn  denn 


213.  5.  d. USES   OF   MÜSSEN   &   SOLLEN 321 

erbrochen  haben?    (Lessing's  Minna,  3,  10)  Somebody  must  have  broken  it  open,  who  could 
it  be? 

Note.  Observe  the  difference  of  meaning  between  the  pres.  of  müssen  with  the  perf.  infin.  and  the  perf.  tense  of 
müssen:  Er  muß  vorbeigegangen  sein  He  must  have  passed  by,  but  Er  hat  vorbeigehen  müssen  He  was  compelled 
to  pass  by.  The  simple  past  subjunctive  and  the  periphrastic  past  subjunctive  have  in  most  auxiliaries  about  the 
same  meaning  where  both  forms  can  be  used,  but  in  müssen  the  meaning  is  often  differentiated:  Du  müßtest  ihm 
helfen  You  ought  to  help  him,  but  Du  würdest  ihm  helfen  müssen  You  would  be  obliged  to  help  him. 

b.  It  often  conveys  the  idea  that  the  circumstance  or  happening  in  question  is  untoward, 
unfortunate,  resulting  in  discomfiture  to  the  person  in  question,  translated  by  unfortunately 
to  happen  to,  to  have  of  course  to,  'it  must  needs  be:  Gerade  ihn  mußte  ich  treffen!  Whom  should 
I  unfortunately  happen  to  meet  but  him!,  or  more  idiomatically:  Of  course  1  had  to  run  across 
him.  Und  ich  mußte  so  fern  sein!  And  bad  luck  would  have  it  that  I  just  happened  to  be  so 
far  away!  Mein  Hund  war  ohne  Maulkorb  hinausgelaufen.  Nun  mußte  auch  gerade  ein 
Polizist  daher  kommen  Now  as  bad  luck  would  have  it  a  policeman  happened  to  come  along 
just  at  that  time,  or  Of  course  a  policeman  had  to  come  along  just  then.  Es  mus  ja  ergernis 
komen  !  doch  weh  dem  Menschen  |  durch  welchen  ergemis  kompt  (Matth.  xviii.  7). 

c.  Just  as  in  English  the  meaning  to  be  permitted,  ought  is  found  in  negative  sentences,  as 
in  case  of  dürfen  in  1.  a  above  but  with  milder  force:  Ich  muß  nicht  vergessen,  den  Bettel  zu 
vernichten  (Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm  1,  7)  I  must  not  forget  to  destroy  the  trifle.  „Ach," 
sagte  EHsabeth,  „das  weiß  ich  ja  auswendig;  du  mußt  auch  nicht  immer  dasselbe  erzählen" 
(Storm's  Immensee,  Die  Kinder). 

This  old  meaning  of  müssen  comes  close  to  the  original  one,  to  find  one's  self  in  a  situation  to, 
have  opportunity  to,  be  free  to,  have  occasion  to.  Also  the  use  in  b  approaches  this  sense  with  the 
additional  idea  that  the  result  is  unpleasant  to  the  party  in  question.  Later,  as  in  a,  the  idea 
arose  that  the  situation  in  which  the  subject  finds  himself  is  forced  upon  him,  and  that  he  has 
to  act,  not  in  accordance  with  his  wishes,  but  under  the  stress  of  circumstances.  The  original 
meaning  of  müssen  occurs  not  infrequently  in  early  N.H.G.  in  difTerent  stages  of  development. 
In  optative  sentences  the  original  force  is  still  found  in  the  classical  period:  So  müsse  (now  möge) 
mir  Gott  helfen  (Schiller).  It  is  also  still  quite  commonly  found  here  in  accordance  with  a 
above,  where  the  wisher  expresses  the  desire  that  somebody  may  be  forced  to  suffer  something: 
Müsse  der  elend  umkommen,  dem  je  besser  von  dir  begegnet  würde  als  mir  (P.  Heyse's  L'Ar- 
rabbiata).  Wären  wir  Bettler!  Müßten  wir  barfuß  durch  die  FrühHngsnacht  wandern!  (R. 
Huch's    Vita  somninm  breve,  I,  p.  7). 

The  related  noun  Muße  leisure  has  retained  more  of  the  original  meaning  than  the  verb,  and 
has  developed  in  quite  a  different  direction. 

d.  It  is  also  used  as  an  intransitive  verb  in  the  sense  of  to  suffer  compulsion:  Kein  Mensch 
muß  (according  to  c)  müssen  (Lessing's  Nathan,  1,  3)  No  one  should  suffer  compulsion. 
Alle  andere  Dinge  müssen,  der  Mensch  ist  das  Wesen,  welches  will  (Schiller,  10,  214). 

5.  Sollen  expresses  thruout  all  its  varied  meanings  a  moral  constraint,  indicating  that  that 
which  is  to  be  done  does  not  proceed  from  the  will  of  the  person  represented  as  the  subject  of 
the  verb,  but  from  some  other  person,  or  some  other  source.     The  chief  uses  are: 

a.  The  will  of  a  certain  definite  person  is  to  be  carried  out:  Du  sollst  nicht  stehlen  Thou 
öhalt  not  steal  (God's  will).  The  father  says  to  John:  Du  sollst  fleißig  sein  I  want  you  to  be 
diligent.  In  the  3rd  person  the  expression  of  will  is  an  indirect  one  to  be  transmitted  by  a  third 
party:  Er  soll  gleich  kommen  Tell  him  that  he  is  to  come  at  once.  Hence  its  use  in  the  im- 
perative. See  177.  I.  B.  a.  Also  in  toasts:  Gugler  (sie  stoßen  an):  Die  Bauemstudenten 
sollen  leben!  Prosit!     (Schönherr's  Sonnwendtag,  p.  21). 

Note.  In  this  meaning  the  past  and  past  perfect  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  Cpotential)  are  used,  the  former  with 
present  force,  the  latter  with  past  force,  to  state  that  something  ought  to  be  done  or  ought  to  have  been  done  if  the 
will  or  judgment  of  the  speaker  were  consulted:  Die  Gesellschaft  sollte  die  Kunst  fördern  Society  ought  to  promote 
art.     Er  hätte  sich  verteidigen  sollen  He  ought  to  have  defended  himself. 

b.  In  a  figurative  sense  it  often  means  the  will  or  dictate  of  circumstances  or  fate,  to  be  destined 
to,  to  have  to,  to  turn  out  that,  will  (expressing  not  mere  futurity,  but  indicating  that  something 
will  come  about  because  it  must  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case  and  the  probabilities),  to  be 
apt  to,  to  be  likely  to:  Darin  sollte  er  sich  täuschen  In  that  he  was  destined  to  be  disappointed. 
Der  Mann,  der  das  kann,  soll  erst  noch  geboren  werden  The  man  who  does  that  has  yet  to  be 
born.  So  laß  uns  überlegen,  wie  du  den  Irrtum  ungeschehen  machen  sollst  how  you  should  or 
will  have  to  (dictate  of  circumstances),  &c.  Ich  hoffe  noch  immer,  die  Nachricht  soll  sich 
nicht  bestätigen  I  am  still  hoping  that  it  will  turn  out  that  the  news  will  not  be  confirmed.  Ich 
denke,  das  soll  noch  kommen  I  think  that  will  yet  come  about.  Versuchen  Sie  diesen  Kohl, 
er  soll  (is  apt  to)  Ihnen  schmecken.  Ich  will  dir  zeigen,  wie  du  dieses  Ziel  erreichen  sollst 
(are  likely  to). 

Note.  In  this  use  the  potential  subjunctive  is  much  employed  fl)  to  represent  something  as  possible  but  as  con- 
tingent upon  the  caprice  of  circumstances,  especially  in  conditional  clauses  where  it  is  translated  by  our  should,  were 
lo:  Wenn  es  regnen  sollte,  würde  ich  nicht  kommen  If  it  should  rain  I  shouldn't  come;  (2)  interrogatively  to  express 
a  doubting  or  deliberative  conjecture:  Sollte  Karl  das  getan  haben?  Can  it  be  that  Carl  has  done  that?  Sollte  das 
wahr  sein?  Can  that  be  true? 

c.  Used  in  threats  indicating  that  the  speaker  is  willing  for  some  one  to  do  something  if  he 
dares:   Sie  soUen  sich  nur  regen,  wenn  sie's  wagen!  Just  let  them  budge  if  they  dare! 

d.  It  may  denote  the  will  of  the  public,  hence  in  general  the  constraint  of  custom,  law,  &c.: 
Die  Kinder  sollen  ihren  Eltern  gehorchen  Children  ought  to  obey  their  parents.  Here  sollen 
can  often  be  translated  by  it  is  to  be  expected  that:  Wie  sollte  er  sich  rühren,  wo  vielleicht  nur 
der  Galgen  zu  gewinnen  stand!  How  was  it  to  be  expected  that  he  should  bestir  himself  there 
where  perhaps  only  the  gallows  could  be  gained?     Here  sollen  can  also  be  translated  by  is  it  to 


322 USES   OF   SOLLEN   &   WOLLEN 213.  5.  d. 

be  tolerated:  „Ein  Fremdling,"  sprachen  sie  untereinander,  „soll  hierher  kommen  nach  Bag- 
dad, uns  Ruhm,  Ehre  und  Sieg  zu  entreißen?" 

e.  The  idea  of  willing  a  thing  leads  to  planning  its  accomplishment,  to  be  intended  to:  Worte 
waren  es  nur,  die  ich  sprach;  sie  sollten  vor  euch  niu"  meine  Gefühle  verstecken  It  was  only 
empty  words  that  I  spoke;  they  were  intended  to  conceal  my  feelings  from  you.  Soil  das  ein 
Scherz  sein?  Is  that  intended  as  a  joke?     Was  soil  das?  What  is  that  for? 

/.  The  idea  of  willing  a  thing  or  determining  that  it  shall  be  done  leads  to  that  of  promising, 
assuring  it,  shall:  Sie  sollen  es  morgen  haben  Vou  shall  have  it  to-morrow.  Der  ehrliche 
Finder  soll  belohnt  werden  The  honest  finder  shall  be  rewarded.  Es  soll  geschehen  It  shall  be 
done.  In  Berlin  soil  man  lange  suchen,  bis  man  imter  den  hiesigen  Gelehrten  einen  Mann 
von  solcher  Bildung  findet  I  assure  you  that  you  will  hunt  a  long  time  in  Berlin  before  you 
will  find  among  the  scholars  of  the  city  a  man  of  such  culture. 

g.  It  often  denotes  the  will  of  different  parties,  hence  in  general  an  agreement  or  arrangement, 
or  the  decision  of  some  proper  authority:  Ich  soll  zehn  tausend  Mark  das  Jahr  erhalten  I  am 
to  receive  ten  thousand  marks  a  year.  Sie  sollen  warten  The  arrangement  is  that  you  are  to 
wait.  Die  Brücke  soll  neu  gebaut  werden  The  bridge  is  to  be  rebuilt.  Er  soll  den  Gesandten 
begleiten  He  is  appointed  to  accompany  the  ambassador. 

Note.  In  this  meaning,  if  noch  is  added,  it  is  implied  that  a  promise  or  arrangement  has'been  broken  and  probably 
will  not  be  fulfilled:   Er  soil  noch  wiederkommen  He  has  never  turned  up. 

h.  Much  used  in  questions  to  ascertain  the  will,  idea,  or  thought  of  the  person  addressed: 
Sollen  wir  jetzt  nach  Hause  gehen?  Shall  we  go  home  now?  Was  soil  ich  Ihnen  vorlegen? 
What  shall  I  help  you  to?  (at  the  table).  A:  Ach,  du  hast  keinen  Geschmack!  Die  soll  schön 
sein?     B:    Natürlich  ist  sie  das. 

/.  That  which  report  will  have  something  to  be,  it  is  said:  Dr.  Faust  soil  in  Erfurt  gelebt 
haben  Dr.  Faust  is  said  to  have  lived  in  Erfurt.  Sieben  Sträflinge  sollen  entkommen  sein. 
Ich  werde  es  wieder  getan  haben  sollen  It  will  be  said  again  that  I  did  it. 

/.  Used  to  suppose  a  case  for  sake  of  argument:  Alfred  der  Große  soll  London  erbaut  haben. 
Wie  erklären  Sie  dann,  daß  die  Römer  die  Stadt  schon  vor  Christi  Geburt  kannten?  Well!  We'll 
say  that  Alfred  the  Great  built,  &c. 

k.  Used  earlier  in  the  period  as  a  trans,  verb  with  the  force  of  schulden  to  owe:  Wer  mir 
fünfzig  Gülden  soll  (Logau).     This  old  meaning  survives  in  Soll  und  Haben  credit  and  debit. 

6.  Wollen  differs  from  sollen  in  that  it  expresses  the  will  or  desire  of  the  subject,  while  sollen 
e\'en  tho  in  the  first  person  expresses  the  will  of  another:  Ich  will  gehen  /  desire,  want  to  go,  but 
Ich  soll  gehen  /  am  ordered  to  go.  Ich  will  mich  gem  geirrt  haben  I  wish  (or  hope)  I  may  be 
mistaken.     Ich  will  nichts  gesagt  haben  Let  it  be  as  if  I  had  not  spoken. 

It  is  used  in  many  idiomatic  expressions: 

a.  Figuratively:  Blumen  wollen  gepflegt  sein  Flowers  ought  (lit.  want)  to  be  tended.  Auch 
das  wollte  beachtet  sein  Also  that  needed  to  be  considered.  Notice  the  idiomatic  expressions: 
das  will  sagen  that  is  to  say,  that  means,  das  will  nicht  viel  sagen  that  doesn't  inean  mtich,  doesn't 
amount  to  much. 

b.  Often,  to  intend  to,  to  mean  to:  Sie  will  den  Kindern  ein  Fest  geben  She  intends  to  give  a 
party  for  the  children.     Er  wollte  es  heute  bringen  He  meant  to  bring  it  to-day. 

Note.  Sometimes  used  to  question  the  ability  to  carry  out  an  intention  or  plan:  Wie  wollen  Sie  das  heut  noch 
vollenden?  How  do  you  expect  to  accomplish  that  yet  to-day? 

c.  A  claim  that  some  one  makes:"  Der  Zeuge  will  den  Angeklagten  gesehen  haben  The 
witness  claims  to  have  seen  the  defendant.  Ich  will  es  nicht  gesehen  haben  I  will  claim,  pretend 
that  I  did  not  see  it.  Er  wird  es  wieder  nicht  gehört  haben  wollen  He  will  claim  again  that  he 
didn't  hear  it.  Figuratively:  Das  Werk  will  mehr  sein  als  eine  Kompilation  The  work  professes 
to  be  more  than  a  compilation. 

Note.  Observe  the  difference  of  meaning  between  th&  present  of  wollen  with  the  perf.  infin.  and  the  pres.  perf. 
of  wollen:    Er  will  ihn  gesehen  haben  He  claims  to  have  seen  him,  but  Er  hat  ihn  sehen  wollen  He  wanted  to  see  him. 

d.  Often,  Oft  the  point  of,  to  be  about  to:  Es  will  regnen  It  is  on  the  point  of  raining.  Ich 
will  es  Ihnen  sogleich  geben  I  am  going  to  give  it  to  you  directly.  Ich  wollte  eben  zu  ihm 
gehen,  als  er  hereintrat  I  was  just  going  to  see  him  when  he  entered  the  room. 

e.  Wollen  with  the  infinitive  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated  is  also  used  to  replace  the  wanting 
imperative  forms.     See  177.  I.  B.  a.     It  is  also  used  in  wishes.      See  168.    I.  1.  B  and  169.  1.  A. 

/.  Sometimes  with  the  idea  of  confidence,  assurance:  Ich  will  es  noch  erleben,  daß  Klotz 
sich  .  .  .  zurückzieht  (Lessing,  Brief,  17SG)  /  shall  yet  live  to  see,  &c.  Und  wenn's  nicht  war' 
durch  falsche  Leut'  verraten  worden,  wollt'  er  ihm  das  Bad  gesegnet  und  ihn  ausgerieben  haben 
((ioethe's  Götz,  1,  1).  Gehen  Sie  hinten  zum  Garten  hinaus  und  auf  der  Wiese  hin,  bis  es 
Mittag  schlägt;  darm  kehren  Sie  zurück,  und  ich  will  den  Spaß  schon  eingeleitet  haben  (id., 
Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  IL  10)  then  return,  and  I  shall  surely  have  made  all  preparations  for  the 
practical  joke.  Wart'  nur  ein  Weilchen,  bis  der  Mond  aufgegangen  ist,  dann  woUen  wir  den 
Weg  schon  fmden  (Grimm's  Häusel  und  Gretel). 

g.  Wollen  is  often  used  more  or  less  pleonastically,  and  must  be  variously  rendered  or  not 
rendered  at  all.  In  these  cases  it  represents  the  statement  not  so  much  as  an  actual  fact  as 
that  it  is  the  opinion  or  seeming  intention  of  somebody,  or  is  seemingly  a  fact  or  the  probable 
outcome  of  the  matter,  or  the  natural  result  of  the  given  circumstances:  Als  er  immer  und  immer 
nicht  kommen  wollte  (almost  =  kam),  wurde  ein  Postbedienter  abgeschickt,  ihn  zu  suchen 
(Hebel)  When  after  a  long  while  he  did  not  put  in  an  appearance  (or  when  it  seemed  sure 
tiiat  he  did  not  intend  to  come),  a  postal  clerk  was  sent  to  hunt  him  up.  Nun  irrte  er  bereits 
seit  zwei  Stxmden  durch  die  Kiefern,  und  der  Wald  wollte  kein  Ende  nehmen  (Baumbach) 


215.  I.  2. CONJUGATION  OF  COMPOUND  VERBS 323 

Now  he  had  been  straying  about  among  the  fir  trees  for  two  hours  already,  and  the  forest  seemed 
to  have  no  end.  Verlegen,  daß  keine  Nachrichten  von  dem  Arzt  kommen  wollten  (Goethe) 
Puzzled,  because  it  seemed  that  no  news  would  come  from  the  doctor. 

h.  Also  used  as  a  trans,  verb  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  object,  in  the  sense  of  to  desire,  to 
■will:  Wollen  Sie  Erbsen  oder  Blumenkohl?  Will  you  take  peas  or  cauliflower?  Er  will  dein 
Glück.  Gott  will  es  God  wills  it  thus.  Das  wolle  Gott  nicht!  May  God  forbid!  Compare: 
What  woiddst  thou  of  us^  (Shakespeare). 

■/.  Also  used  as  an  intransitive  verb  in  the  sense  of  to  have  the  desire:  „Willst  du  das?"  „Wenn 
du  willst."  „Nein,  du  mußt  wollen.  —  Mit  freudigem  Herzen.  Sonst  ist  keia  Segen  dabei" 
(Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  3,  4). 

214.  Omission  of  the  Verb  Depending  upon  the  Auxiliary.  This  omission  is  very  common, 
and  perhaps  the  following  cases  are  the  most  frequent. 

1.  a.  If  the  dependent  verb  is  gehen  to  go,  reisen  to  travel,  fahren  to  drive,  and  verbs  of  motion 
in  general:  Wohin  wollen  Sie  (gehen)?  Where  do  you  intend  to  go?  Ich  muß  nach  Koblenz 
(gehen)  I  must  go  to  Coblentz.  Compare  the  English  of  Shakespeare:  You  may  away  by  night, 
she  must  with  me,  thou  shall  to  prison.  In  parts  of  Great  Britain  and  America  it  is  common  to 
say:  /  want  in,  I  want  out.  Quite  general  is  the  similar  usage  after  let:  Let  me  in,  (to  a  conductor 
of  a  street-car)  Let  me  off  at  uth  Street. 

b.  In  case  the  dependent  verb  is  tun  to  do,  heißen  to  signify,  and  various  other  words:  Was 
soil  ich  (tun)?  What  am  I  to  do?  Was  soil  das  (heißen)?  What  does  that  mean?  Der  Kranke 
darf  kein  Fleisch  (essen)  the  patient  must  not  eat  meat. 

2.  In  case  the  verb  depending  upon  a  modal  auxiliary  is  dropped,  difference  of  usage  occurs 
according  as  tlie  verb  is  trans,  or  intrans.  With  intransitives  nothing  shows  the  omission  of 
the  verb,  but  with  transitives  the  pronoun  es  or  das  may  stand  after  the  auxiliary  as  the  object 
of  the  verb  which  is  to  be  supplied:  Sprich  lauter!  Ich  kann  nicht  Speak  louder!  I  cannot. 
Kamist  du  das  beweisen?  Jawohl;  ich  kann  es,  or  das  kann  ich  Can  you  prove  that?  Yes, 
indeed  I  can.  Often  the  es  or  das  thus  used  does  not  point  to  a  definite  object,  but  to  an  idea 
suggested  by  or  contained  in  the  previous  proposition:  Schaffet  und  bestellet  Klageweiber,  daß 
sie  kommen;  und  schicket  nach  denen,  die  es  (referring  to  the  idea  of  klagen,  suggested  by  the 
word  Klageweiber)  wohl  können  (Jer.  ix.  17,  revised  edition).  Wollen  Sie  mir  diesen  Gefallen 
tun?  Ich  kann  es  (referring  to  the  general  idea  of  doing  the  favor,  not  to  Gefallen,  which  is  of 
a  difi"erent  gender)  nicht  Will  you  do  me  this  favor?  I  cannot.  O  hätte  ich  mich  gefreut,  als 
ich  es  (=  mich  freuen)  noch  konnte!  O,  had  I  enjoyed  myself  when  I  was  still  able  to  do  so! 
Er  hat  as  getan,  ob  er  es  gemußt  hat,  weiß  ich  nicht.  With  such  transitives  this  object,  how- 
ever, is  often  omitted,  especially  in  common  conversational  style:    Ich  mache  es  so  gut  ich  kann. 

Note.  Distinguish  between  the  cases  where  the  auxiliary  stands  alone,  the  dependent  verb  being  understood, 
and  the  cases  where  these  words  are  not  auxiliaries  but  independent  verbs.  The  latter  case  occurs  in  können,  213.  2. 
F,  G,  in  mögen,  213.  3.  C,  in  müssen,  213.  4.  d,  in  sollen,  213.  5.  k,  in  wollen,  213.  6.  h,  i. 


CONJUGATION  OF  COMPOUND  VERBS. 

I.     General  Statement. 

215.  1.  Separable  Compounds.  All  accented  prefixes  (see  II.  1.  B)  in 
compound  verbs  are  separated  in  the  following  cases  from  the  simple  verb: 
(1)  In  the  simple  tenses  (pres.  and  past)  of  principal  propositions  and  such 
subordinate  clauses  as  do  not  have  the  transposed  word-order,  the  prefix  is 
separated  from  the  verb  and  placed  at  the  end  of  the  clause  or  sentence:  (pres.) 
ich  fange  meine  Arbeit  an;  (pres.  imper.)  fang  deine  Arbeit  an;  (past)  ich 
fing  meine  Arbeit  an.  Er  sagt,  er  fange  seine  Arbeit  an;  but  Er  sagt,  daß  er 
seine  Arbeit  anfange.  (2)  In  the  perf.  part,  the  ge  and  in  the  infin.  and  the 
modal  verbals  (180)  the  zu  is  inserted  between  the  prefix  and  the  verb,  but  in 
these  cases  the  prefix  is  not  really  felt  as  separated  and  hence  is  written  as  one 
with  the  verb:  ich  habe  meine  Arbeit  angefangen;  ich  habe  versprochen, 
meine  Arbeit  morgen  anzufangen;  (attributive  modal  verbal)  die  morgen 
anzufangende  Arbeit  the  work  that  must  be  begun  to-morrow.  Elsewhere  the 
separable  prefix  is  not  separated  from  the  verb:  (future)  ich  werde  meine 
Arbeit  anfangen;  (pres.  part.)  ein  anfangender  Rechtsanwalt  a  young  lawyer 
who  is  just  beginning  to  practise  his  profession. 

2.  Inseparable  Compounds.  The  prefixes  (for  list  see  II.  2)  which  are 
always  unaccented  are  never  separated  from  the  verb.  Such  inseparable  com- 
pounds do  not  differ  in  conjugation  from  simple  verbs  except  that  they  never 
take  ge  in  the  perf.  part. :  Er  erreicht  seinen  Zweck.  Er  erreichte  seinen 
Zweck.  Er  hat  seinen  Zweck  erreicht.  Er  versucht  (is  trying),  seinen  Zweck 
zu  erreichen. 


324 CONJUGATION   OF   COMPOUND    VERBS  215.1.3. 

3.  Compounds  Separable  or  Inseparable.  Certain  prefixes  (see  II.  3.  A)  are 
separable  or  inseparable  according  as  they  are  accented.  If  unaccented  they 
are  inseparable,  if  accented  they  are  separable:  Er  iiber'setzt  das  Gedicht  He 
is  translating  the  poem.  Er  hat  das  Gedicht  iiber'setzt.  Er  versucht,  das 
Gedicht  zu  über'setzen.  But  Die  Truppen  setzen  über  The  troops  are  crossing 
the  river.  Der  Fährmann  setzt  sie  über  The  ferryman  is  taking  them  across 
the  river,  ,Sie  beabsichtigen  (intend)  'überzusetzen.  In  the  separable  com- 
pounds each  element  usually  has  its  full  literal  meaning,  while  the  inseparable 
compounds  have  an  altered  or  figurative  meaning. 

His'orical  Note.  Originally  adverbs  preceded  the  verb  in  accordance  virith  the  old  principle  that  a  grammatically 
dependent  element  preceded  the  governing  word.  At  the  beginning  of  the  historical  period  there  was  already  in 
both  German  and  English  a  strong  tendency  to  place  stressed  adverbs  and  objects  after  the  verb.  This  indicates 
the  development  of  a  new  word-order,  narnely  the  removal  of  heavily  stressed,  logically  important  words  to  the  end 
of  the  sentence  in  order  by  thus  withholding  them  for  a  time  to  render  them  more  conspicuous.  Gradually  almost 
all  adverbs  were  removed  to  a  place  after  the  verb  and  this  position  has  become  functional  for  adverbs.  Hence  it 
became  unusual  to  form  new  firm  verbal  compounds  with  a  stressed  adverb  before  the  verbal  element,  as  in  'ausging 
in  er  'ausging,  for  this  stood  in  conflict  with  the  new  law  that  required  the  stressed  adverb  to  stand  after  the  verb. 
A  new  compound,  or  group-word  as  it  is  often  called  in  this  book,  is  always  formed  from  a  group  of  words  that  stand 
in  a  grammatical  relation  to  each  other,  and  hence  the  new  compound  usually  has  the  word-order  and  stress  of  the 
group  from  which  it  was  formed,  as  explained  more  fully  in  47.  2.  B.  c  and  247.  1  and  2.  Thus  the  new  group  with 
the  stressed  modifier  after  the  verb  prevented  the  formation  of  new  firm  verbal  compounds.  The  firm  verbal  com- 
pounds that  had  come  down  from  the  prehistoric  period,  such  as  'ausging  (ein  after  andaremo  'n^giengun — Tatian, 
120.  6  =  einer  nach  dem  anderen  ging  hinaus),  'abfuhr  (her  'abfuor — id..  228.  4  =  er  ging  fort),  'einging  ("er  tho  sar 
thara  'ingiang — Otfrid,  II.  11.  .5  =  er  ging  dann  sogleich  hinein)  from  the  ninth  century,  did  not  long  remain  firm 
under  the  new  conditions,  in  fact  were  even  in  oldest  German  more  commonly  treated  as  separables  and  later  be- 
came regularly  separable,  ging  aus,  ging  ein,  &c.  under  the  strong  tendency  to  place  the  stressed  modifiers  of  the 
verb  after  the  verb.  They  have  survived  as  inseparable  compounds  only  in  the  subordinate  clause,  where  the  stressed 
modifiers  of  the  verb  still  precede  the  verb  as  in  the  prehistoric  period  and  sometimes  in  oldest  historic  Germanic. 
It  is  usually  stated  by  scholars  that  there  were  in  the  Germanic  languages  no  firm  verbal  compounds  in  the  prehistoric 
period  and  in  oldest  Germanic,  but  the  rather  frequent  use  of  firm  compounds  in  Otfrid  and  in  O.H.G.  translations 
from  the  Latin  as  in  Tatian  and  in  old  glosses  rendering  Latin  words  as  'u^gat  (  =  er  geht  aus )  for  Latin  exit.  &c. 
makes  it  seem  quite  sure  that,  on  the  one  hand,  Otfrid's  poetry  faithfully  preserves  older  German  usage  and  that, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  old  translators  felt  the  firm  Latin  compounds  as  closely  related  to  the  similar  forms  still  in 
use  in  poetical  style  in  their  own  language.  The  two  languages  were  at  that  time  not  so  far  apart  at  this  point  as 
later,  for  at  one  time  in  prehistoric  Latin  as  in  prehistoric  German  the  adverb  standing  before  the  verb  in  verbal 
compounds  was  usually  stressed  as  still  indicated  by  the  reduced  vowels  of  many  Latin  compounds:  exigo  (from 
ex+ago),  incido  (from  in+cado),  &c.  The  word-order  and  in  many  forms  the  accent  survived  in  later  Latin,  so 
that  in  the  O.H.G.  period  the  Latin  compounds  were  quite  similar  to  those  found  in  poetic  German.  In  prehistoric 
Latin  these  compounds  had  become  rigidly  fi.xed  in  form  and  thus  later  remained  intact,  while  in  German  they  were 
dissolved  by  the  forces  that  had  formed  them.  Just  as  in  the  prehistoric  period  the  old  laws  of  Germanic  word- 
order  had  brought  the  components  together  and  formed  them  into  syntactical  units  the  new  laws  of  word-order,  as 
described  above,  dissolved  them,  except  in  the  subordinate  clause,  where  the  new  laws  have  never  become  estab- 
lished. 

A  few  weakly  stressed  adverbs  did  not  follow  the  general  tendency  to  assume  the  new  emphatic  position  after  the 
verb  as  they  were  naturally  unfit  for  this  position  by  reason  of  their  weak  accent.  Thus  verbs  that  form  compounds 
with  adverbs  fall  into  two  classes — inseparables,  in  which  the  weakly  stressed  adverb  still  stands  in  its  old  historic 
position  before  the  verb,  and  separables.  in  which  the  strongly  stressed  adverb  stands  in  the  important  end  position. 
The  reason  of  the  weak  stress  of  the  first  component  in  inseparables  is  in  a  large  number  of  cases  perfectly  clear.  The 
adverbial  force  is  very  faint  as  the  form  has  acquired  almost  pure  prepositional  force.  See  II.  3.  A.  a  (2nd  par. ).  In 
case  of  the  prefixes  be,  emp,  ent,  er,  ge,  ver,  zer  the  force  is  still  fainter  as  the  prefLxes  have  lost  almost  every  trace 
of  their  former  concrete  meaning  and  are  now  used  only  with  perfective  force  (246.  II.  3.  b).     See  also  47.  2.  B.  c. 

In  recent  literature  certain  separables  are  manifesting  a  tendency  to  become  firm  compounds.  The  components 
are  so  often  united  in  the  infinitive  and  the  subordinate  clause  that  they  are  beginning  to  be  felt  as  firm  compounds: 
'anerkennen,  'anerkannte,  &c.  More  examples  are  given  in  II.  2.  c  and  Note  thereunder.  These  beginnings  are  as 
yet  very  small.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  new  development  will  spread.  The  firmness  of  form  in  these 
recent  compounds  does  not  indicate  that  they  are  felt  more  distinctly  as  units,  for  the  older  separables  on  account 
of  their  peculiar  form  and  stress  are  just  as  vividly  felt  as  units.  Firmness  of  form  here  simply  means  that  the  origin 
of  the  form  has  been  forgotten.  If  such  forms  become  established  they  will  join  the  great  throng  of  units  whicli  in 
spite  of  their  obscure  origin  are  performing  their  parts  in  the  language  creditably. 

II.     Detailed  Statement. 

1.     Separable  Compounds. 
A.     End-stress  Now  and  Formerly.     The  question  of  separation  or  non-separation  is  one  of 
accent,  and  the  accent  is  a  question  of  the  meaning  and  importance  of  the  prefix.      A  clear  under- 
standing of  the  question  of  separable  prefixes  will  result  from  a  study  of  their  origin  and  the 
position  that  the  German  gives  to  the  important  words  in  the  sentence. 

The  word  in  a  sentence  that  is  logically  the  most  important  receives  the  strongest  accent. 
Any  word  that  for  one  reason  or  another  seems  especially  important  to  the  speaker  is  distinguished 
by  stronger  stress,  tho  it  may  ordinarily  be  quite  unimportant.  Logical  accent  is  thus  often  a 
matter  of  subjective  view  and  feeling,  but  on  the  other  hand  certain  grammatical  elements  of 
a  sentence  are  quite  regularly  more  important  than  others,  and  are  consequently  distinguished 
by  stronger  accent.  Usually  the  most  important  grammatical  element  is  the  predicate,  and 
consequently  it  receives  grammatical  accent  even  tho  some  other  word  may  for  some  especial 
reason  receive  a  still  stronger  logical  accent.  The  favorite  position  of  the  logically  most  im- 
.  portant  word  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  while  the  favorite  position  of  the  grammatically 
most  important  element  is  the  very  last  word  in  the  clause  or  sentence.  This  position  of  the 
grammatically  important  element  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  has  in  the  literary  language  become 
fixed  and  stereotyped,  and  hence  is  retained  even  when  the  grammatically  important  word  is 
immediately  preceded  by  some  modifier  which  is  relatively  more  important,  and  in  fact  is  more 
forcibly  stressed:    Er  hat  eine  Ohrfeige  gekriegt.     Such  grammatical  elements  are  a  predicate 


215.  II.  \.  A.b.  gg. END-STRESS 325 

noun  in  the  nom.,  an  unintlected  adjective  standing  as  a  predicate  complement,  a  noun  in  the 
ace.  or  an  uninflected  adjective  used  as  an  objective  predicate  (see  262.  III.  2  and  104.  2.  A.  c), 
a  perf.  part.,  an  infin.,  and  lastly  a  separable  prefix,  all  of  which  are  absolutely  necessary  to 
complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  and  naturally  as  due  to  their  grammatical  importance  stand 
at  the  end  and  receive  accent:  Predicate  noun:  Er  war  stets  in  alien  Kämpfen  ein  Mann.  Predi- 
cate complement:  Er  war  in  alien  Kämpfen  tapfer.  Objective  predicate:  Er  hielt  die  Fahne 
in  allen  Kämpfen  hoch  He  held  high  the  flag  in  every  battle.  Participle:  Er  ist  nach  Hause 
gegangen.  Infinitive:  Er  wird  morgen  kommen.  Er  wünscht  mich  kennen  zu  lernen.  Sep- 
arable prefix:   Das  Schiff  ging  mit  Mann  und  Maus  unter. 

The  perfect  participle  and  the  present  infinitive  often  have  less  stress  than  the  other  words 
that  stand  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  for  they  are  now  felt  as  only  a  part  of  the  verb  and  like 
the  simple  verb  usually  take  less  stress  than  the  more  important  words  that  modify  them.  Their 
present  position  is  the  survival  of  older  usage  when  they  had  more  independent  force  and  hence 
stood  at  the  end  by  virtue  of  their  importance.  They  were  then  not  a  part  of  the  verb  but  an 
important  complement  of  it:  Er  hat  einen  Brief  geschrieben  (originally  a  verbal  adjective  used 
as  an  objective  predicate,  lit.  written,  in  a  written  state,  still  with  its  full  original  force  when 
stressed:  Er  hat  den  Brief  schon  geschrieben).  Er  wird  einen  Brief  schreiben  (originally 
schreibend,  a  predicate  verbal  adjective).  Er  will  einen  Brief  schreiben  (originally  as  now 
the  object  of  will).  The  establishment  of  the  infinitive  in  the  last  place  preceded  by  its  modifiers 
as  in  the  last  example,  was  greatly  facilitated  by  the  strong  resemblance  of  this  construction 
to  that  of  old  group-words  (247.  2.  a),  as  Kopfverletzimg,  Blutvergießen,  &c.,  where  the  verbal 
component  is  always  preceded  by  its  modifier.  In  course  of  time  the  old  historic  position  of 
participle  and  infinitive  at  the  end  has  become  permanent,  but  it  is  now  held  as  a  grammatical 
or  functional  duty  rather  than  as  an  indication  of  their  logical  importance.  The  common  posi- 
tion of  a  participle  or  infinitive  with  secondary  stress  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  preceded  by  a 
more  strongly  stressed  predicate,  object,  adverb,  or  prepositional  phrase  has  brought  about 
in  sentences  containing  a  compound  tense  form  a  new  descriptive  group-stress  with  the  chief 
stress  upon  the  first  member,  in  this  treatise  called  end-stress:  Er  ist  gesund  geworden.  Er 
hat  Feuer  gemächt.  Er  will  gesund  werden.  Er  will  Feuer  mächen.  Er  ist  nach  Hause 
gegangen.  Das  Haus  ist  von  Bäimien  imigeben.  See  also  285.  II.  B.  b.  aa.  hb.  cc;  50.  A.  6.  This 
type  of  end-stress  has  become  productive  within  the  present  period  in  that  it  has  influenced 
other  end-groups  to  assume  the  same  word-order  and  stress.  Luther's  Er  hat  es  können  tun 
has  become  Er  hat  es  tun  können.  Older  Er  muß  sein  gekommen  and  Er  kaim  den  Brief  haben 
geschrieben  have  become  Er  muß  gekommen  sein  and  Er  kann  den  Brief  geschrieben  häben. 
The  future  perfect  shows  the  same  word-order  and  stress:  Er  wird  den  Brief  geschrieben  haben. 
In  the  subordinate  clause  with  a  compound  tense  form  we  often  find  the  same  stress,  the  result 
however  of  quite  a  different  grammatical  force,  namely  the  law  that  requires  the  personal  part 
of  the  verb  in  the  subordinate  clause  to  be  placed  at  the  end  often  causes  an  auxiliary  to  stand 
after  a  more  strongly  accented  participle  or  infinitive:  ein  Mann,  der  das  sägen  kann;  der 
Mann,  der  morgen  kommen  wird;  der  Mann,  der  es  gesägt  hat.  Fora  fuller  description  of  this 
development  in  the  subordinate  clause  see  237.  1.  B.  a.  Note.  Thus  end-stress  is  now  charac- 
teristic of  principal  propositions  and  subordinate  clauses  that  have  a  compound  tense  form. 

The  predicate  nominative,  the  predicate  adjective,  and  the  separable  prefix  of  the  principal 
proposition  were  originally,  like  the  infinitive  and  participle,  placed  at  the  end  on  account  of 
their  stress  and  logical  importance.  In  course  of  time  this  position  has  become  functional. 
Of  course,  however,  the  predicate  noun  and  adjective  and  the  separable  prefix  are  still  often 
logically  important  and  are  consequently  heavily  stressed.  Thus  they  have  not  only  kept  their 
old  historic  position  but  also  their  old  stress. 

o.  Separable  Prefix  and  Participle  or  Infinitive  Come  Together  at  the  End.  In  the  pres.  perf. 
and  past  perf.  tenses  of  a  separable  verb  the  principle  of  placing  the  most  important  grammatical 
element  in  the  predicate  at  the  end  of  the  clause  would  require  both  the  prefix  and  part,  and  in 
the  future  and  fut.  perf.  both  the  prefix  and  infin.  to  stand  last,  which  of  course  is  impossible, 
as  only  one  word  can  be  last.  The  verb  (part,  or  infin.)  here  as  elsewhere  has  precedence  and 
takes  the  favorite  position  at  the  end,  but  the  prefix  stands  immediately  before  it,  and,  as  both 
together  form  one  idea,  they  are  written  usually  as  one  word.  However,  a  separable  prefix 
differs  markedly  from  an  inseparable  one,  altho  not  separated  from  the  verb,  for  it  still  retains 
its  accent,  since  it  is  the  important  element  of  the  verbal  compound:  Das  Schiff  ist  or  (past. 
perf.)  war  mit  Maim  und  Maus  'untergegangen.  Das  Schiff  wird  mit  Mann  und  Maus  'unter- 
gehen, or  (fut.  perf.)  wird  'xmtergegangen  sein. 

Note.  The  poet  often  does  violence  here  to  the  prose  construction  and  separates  the  prefix  from  the  verb:  Denn 
sie  kann's  nur  vorhersehen,  |  ab  es  wenden  kann  sie  nicht  (Grillparzer).  Especially  in  the  German  spoken  by  certain 
foreigners_  (see  285.  II  B.  b.  ff.)  deviations  from  the  usual  rules  occur.  They  often  separate  the  separable  prefix 
from  the  infin.  and  place  it  after  the  infin.:  Er  ist  eingezogen,  zu  spionieren.  Wir  wollen  ihm  kommen  zuvor,  daß 
uns  nicht  kann  begegnen  ein  Unglück  (words  from  a  Jewish  character  in  Ebner-Eschenbach's  Der  Kreisphysikus). 

h.  Position  of  the  Separable  Prefix  in  a  Subordinate  Clause.  The  position  of  the  separable 
prefix  in  the  subordinate  clause  depends  upon  whether  the  conjunction  introducing  the  clause 
is  expressed  or  omitted. 

aa.  If  the  subordinate  conjunction  is  expressed,  the  verb  of  the  clause  is  required  according 
to  the  German  idiom  to  stand  at  the  end,  and,  as  the  prefix  on  account  of  its  grammatical  im- 
portance must  also  stand  at  the  end,  this  brings  verb  and  prefix  together.  As  both  together 
form  one  idea,  they  are  written  as  one  word:  Wenn  das  Schiff  vor  Morgen  nicht  mit  Mann 
und  Maus  untergeht,  werden  alle  gerettet.     If  the  verb  is  in  a  compound  tense  the  auxiliary 


326 LIST  OF  SEPARABLE  PREFIXES  215.  II.  1.  A.  6.  gg. 

g:oes  to  the  end  and  the  \erli  compounded  with  the  prefix  stands  next  to  it:  Ich  glaube,  daß  das 
Schiff  mit  Mann  und  Maus  untergegangen  ist. 

bb.  If  the  conjunction  daß  is  omitted,  the  prefix  is  treated  just  as  if  the  clause  were  a  main 
clause:  Ich  glaube,  das  Schiff  geht  mit  Mann  und  Maus  unter.  Ich  glaube,  das  Schiff  ist  mit 
Mann  und  Maus  untergegangen. 

cc.  If  the  conjunction  wenn  is  onn'tted,  the  verb  stands  the  first  word  in  the  clause  and  the 
prefix  the  last  in  simple  tenses,  but  in  compound  tenses  the  auxiliary  stands  first  in  the  clause, 
and  the  prefix  compounded  with  the  \-erb  stands  last:  Geht  das  Schiff  vor  Morgen  nicht  mit 
Mann  und  Maus  unter,  so  werden  alle  gerettet.  Ist  das  Schiff  morgen  früh  nicht  unterge- 
gangen, so  werden  alle  gerettet. 

c.  Position  of  ge-  and  zu.  The  ge  of  the  part,  and  the  zu  of  the  infin.  and  modal  verbals 
stand  between  prefix  and  verb:  Er  hat  die  Tür  aufgemacht.  Ich  bitte,  die  Tür  aufzumachen 
Please  open  the  door.     Die  aufzumachende  Tür  The  door  that  is  to  be  opened. 

d.  Non-separation  in  Pres.  Part.  Separation  does  not  take  place  in  the  pres.  part.:  Sind 
alle  diese  Kinder  Ihre  Enkel?  fragte  die  junge  Frau,  sich  teilnehmend  im  Zimmer  umsehend. 

e.  All  separable  prefixes  remain  unseparated  in  simple  tenses  in  one  particular  case.  If  the 
separable  prefix  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  for  logical  emphasis,  as  can  be  done  with 
any  word,  inversion  takes  place  according  to  the  usual  rule,  and  this  throws  prefix  and  verb 
together:  'Niederjagt  die  Front  der  Major  (Schiller's  Die  Schlacht)  The  major  dashes  down 
the  space  in  front  of  the  troops.  The  components  are  here  more  commonly,  but  certainly  not 
more  correctly,  written  apart :  Auf  steigt  der  Mond,  und  nieder  sinkt  die  Sonne  (Raabe's  Nach 
dem  großen  Krüge,  p.  2). 

/.  If  there  are  two  accented,  separable  prefixes,  which  is  a  rare  case,  the  first  prefix  takes  the 
accent.  Such  compounds,  however,  are  only  used  in  the  cases  where  complete  separation  never 
occurs:  Zünfte,  welche  sich  wieder  nach  ihren  verschiedenen  Gewerken  'unterabteilen.  In 
the  part,  the  ge  stands  after  the  second  prefix:  'unterabgeteilt,  'rückumgelautet  (Blatz's  Neti- 
hochdeutsche  Grammatik,  I,  p.  535,  3rd  ed.). 

B.      Form  and  List  of  Separable  Prefixes.     The  separable  prefix  of  the  verb  may  be: 

a.  An  adverb  or  preposition  (225.  1.  a  and  b):  ab  denoting  a  movement  downward  or  off, 
away,  often  with  the  additional  idea  of  deterioration;  the  taking  back  of  a  former  order  or 
announcement;  separation  or  deviation  from  something  or  someone,  often  pure  and  simple, 
often  with  the  additional  idea  of  contrast,  disapproval,  disparagement,  aversion,  or  deficiency; 
often  losing  every  trace  of  its  original  concrete  meaning  and  assuming  perfective  force  expressing 
the  end  or  result  of  an  act,  often  with  the  additional  idea  of  thoroness,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
idea  of  excess  and  injury  on  the  other  hand,  as  illustrated  in  223.  I.  7.  G.  d;  an  at,  upon,  on, 
on  to,  to,  expressing  a  rest  at  a  permanent  goal,  arrival  at  a  goal  (223.  I.  9.  B.  1),  motion  toward, 
a  general  forward  movement,  or  a  steady  continuation  (223.  I.  7.  E.  a),  sometimes  an  upward 
movement,  often  the  beginning  of  an  activity  or  the  idea  of  affecting  an  object  only  a  little 
(223.  7.  E.  b.  (2));  auf  up,  open,  an  arousing,  a  restoration  to  a  previous  condition,  often  losing 
e^•ery  trace  of  its  original  concrete  meaning  and  assuming  perfective  force  expressing  the  be- 
ginning of  an  act  or  state  or  the  end  of  an  action,  often  with  the  additional  idea  of  consuming, 
exhausting,  as  illustrated  in  223.  I.  7.  E.  c;  often  rest  upon  or  direction  toward  an  object  as 
illustrated  in  223.  I.  9.  B.  2.;  aus  out,  out  of,  the  finishing  or  cessation  of  an  activity  or  a  state, 
the  pushing  of  an  activity  to  a  befitting  end;  bei  by,  at  the  side  of,  aside,  expressing  the  idea 
of  nearness,  close  association,  cooperation,  accompaniment,  addition  to,  direction  toward, 
hostility  to;  be'vor  ahead  of  (of  time);  da  (dar  before  vowels)  there  +  preposition,  as  in  da'von, 
da'ran,  &'c.;  dar  to,  before  (of  place),  early  in  the  period  used  with  the  force  of  da'hin  with  ref- 
erence to  a  definite  place,  now  =  hin  without  reference  to  a  definite  place,  confined  in  its  use 
to  a  few  verbs;  ein  (223.  I.  9.  B.  4)  into;  em'por  up;  fort  onward,  away;  ent'gegen  toward,  against, 
expressing  a  friendly  movement  toward,  or  a  hostile  resistance  to,  or  movement  against;  ent'zwei 
(corrupted  form  of  in  zwei)  in  two,  apart;  heim  home;  her  motion  toward  the  speaker;  hin 
motion  from  the  speaker;  compounds  with  her  and  hin,  as  he'rab,  hi'nab,  da'hin,  to  that  place, 
to  it,  denoting  motion  toward  a  definite  place,  da'her  or  ein'her  along,  &c.;  hint'än  behind, 
in  a  secondary  position,  after;  los  loose,  free  from,  off,  a  sudden  and  lively  breaking  forth  of 
an  activity  that  is  conceived  of  as  held  in  check,  as  losschießen  to  fire  away,  losschlagen  to 
begin  battle;  mit  with;  nach  after,  a  succession  in  order  of  time  or  place;  nieder  down;  ob 
above,  on  top,  upon,  fig.  of  duties  that  rest  or  devolve  upon  us,  or  of  work  upon  which  we  must 
bestow  time  and  labor;  vor  (earlier  in  period  sometimes  für;  see  für,  b  in  230)  before,  forward, 
also  in  compounds  (voraus,  &c.);  weg  away;  da'von  up  and  away;  weiter  continuation:  wei- 
tergehen to  continue,  but  weiter  gehen  to  go  on  further;  zu  to,  toward,  lively  unceasing  exertion 
(223.  I.  4.  A),  addition,  shutting;  zu'riick  back;  zu'sammen  together;  zu'vor  before,  ahead  of 
(of  time),  &-c. 

b.  An  adjective,  usually  used  as  an  objective  predicate  (see  104.  2.  A.  c) :  totschlagen  or 
tot  schlagen  to  strike  dead,  bloßstellen  to  expose,  lit.  place  bare,  'gutmachen  or  gut  machen  to 
make  good.  This  is  a  very  large  group  of  words,  but  there  is  no  uniform  way  of  writing  them. 
The  closer  adjective  and  verb  blend  together  by  taking  on  a  distinct  meaning  not  contained 
in  the  words  taken  separately,  the  more  liable  they  are  to  be  written  together. 

c.  A  noun  (see  249.  II.  1.  D.  (1)):  achtgeben  to  give  attention,  haushalten  to  keep  house, 
Folge  leisten  to  obey,  teilnehmen  to  take  part  in. 

d.  A  prepositional  phrase  (see  249.  II.  1.  C):  zu  Schiffe  gehen  to  go  on  board,  zuteil  werden 
to  be  allotted,  zustande  kommen  to  be  accomplished,  imstande  sein,  instand  setzen,  zugrunde 
gehen,  &c. 


215.  U.S.  A.  a. INSEPARABLE  COMPOUNDS 327 

2.  Inseparable  Compounds. 
The  inseparable  prefixes  are:  be,  ent  (written  emp  before  f:  empfinden),  er,  ge,  ver,  wider 
(except  in  widerhallen,  &c.;  see  3.  A.  e  below,  3rd  par.),  zer,  and  usually  miß  (see  b  below). 
As  they  do  not  now  as  formerly  have  separate  existence  outside  of  compounds,  verbs  com- 
pounded with  them  are  in  reality  not  compounds,  but  only  derivative  verbs.  These  prefixes 
have,  however,  a  distinct  meaning,  and  often  influence  both  the  meaning  and  construction  of 
the  verb.  Their  meanings  are  treated  in  246.  II  at  length,  as  their  importance  deserves.  These 
prefixes  are  ordinarily  without  accent,  but  to  make  a  contrast,  they  may  receive  stress:  In  zu 
feuchten  Gegenden  muß  man  die  Felder  nicht  'be-  sondern  'entwässern  In  very  moist  regions, 
it  is  necessary  to  drain  instead  of  irrigating.  As  they  are  usually  unaccented  they  have  in  course 
of  time  changed  considerably  their  original  form,  and  have  lost  their  identity  as  independent 
words  which  they  once  were,  and  are  now  so  closely  compounded  with  the  verb  that  they  are 
felt  as  one  with  it,  and  can  never  be  separated  from  it. 

a.  In  the  perf.  part,  these  prefixes  never  take  a  ge  before  them,  but  in  the  infin.  and  the 
modal  verbals  (180)  the  zu  stands  before  them;  Er  hat  die  Tür  verschlossen.  Ich  bitte,  die 
Tür  zu  verschließen  Please  lock  the  door.  Die  zu  verschließende  Tür  the  door  that  is  to  be 
locked. 

b.  Among  these  prefixes  miß  occupies  an  exceptional  position,  as  fully  explained  in  246. 
II.  8. 

c.  When  a  separable  prefix  stands  before  an  inseparable  one,  separation  usually  takes  place, 
but  there  is  in  individual  cases  evidently  a  tendency  to  disregard  this  rule:  Ich  erkenne  die 
Verdienste  des  Marmes  an,  but  also  Ich  anerkerme  den  Widerstreit  der  Meinungen  (Fontane's 
Vor  dem  Sturm,  III,  chap.  ii).  Jukundus  anerbot  sich,  die  Mission  zu  übernehmen  (G.  Kel- 
ler's Die  Leute  von  Seldivyla,  2,  p.  317).  Die  Waschfrauen  zunächst  einverleibten  sie  ihrem 
Verbände  und  verschafften  ihr  genügende  Arbeit  (ib.,  p.  337).  Niemandem  auf  der  Welt 
anvertraute  er  das  Schicksal  seines  einzigen  Kindes  mit  größerer  Beruhigung  als  gerade  ihm 
(Ertl's  Mistral,  v).  Mein  Vater  vorenthält  mir  nicht  seine  lobenden  Worte  (Gustav  Falke's 
Die  Stadt  mit  den  goldenen  Türmen,  p.  18). 

Note.  There  is  also,  especially  in  certain  words,  a  trend  toward  non-separation  even  in  case  of  separable  prefixes 
which  are  not  thus  used  in  connection  with  an  inseparable  prefix:  Da  weideten  und  wiederkäuten  nebeneinander 
die  verschiedenartigsten  pflanzenfressenden  Großtiere  iDr.  L.  Heck  in  \'dhagen  und  Klusiiias  Monalslu-flc-,  Oct. 
1905.  p.  217).  Mir  war,  als  obläge  mir  die  Sorge  über  eine  ganze  Welt  (Rosegger's  Waldheini,  I,  186).  Sein  Wille 
erlahmt  an  dem  Widerstand  seines  leichtbeweglichen  Herzens,  dieses  obsiegt  über  jenen  (Gustav  Plähn  in  Mil- 
teilungen  für  die  Gesellsckafl  der  Freunde  Wilhelm  Raabes,  1919,  p.   10).     Compare  I.  3.    lli^lurical   Note    (3rd  par.) 

d.  When  an  inseparable  prefix  stands  before  a  separable  one,  the  compound  is  inseparable: 
An  der  Tür  wird  [Bettlern]  nichts  ver'abreicht.     Compare  3.  B  below. 

3.     Compounds  Separable  or  Inseparable. 

A.  A  few  prefixes  have  double  accent,  accented  or  unaccented  according  to  their  meaning, 
and  as  a  consequence  are  treated  as  separable  or  inseparable  according  to  their  accent  and  mean- 
ing. These  prefixes  are:  durch  thru,  hinter  behind,  über  over,  above,  um  around,  unter  under, 
beneath,  voll  full,  completion,  wider  (see  e,  3rd  par.)  back,  wieder  again. 

Verbs  compounded  with  these  prefi.xes  are  separable  when  the  prefix  receives  the  principal 
accent  and  is  distinctly  felt  as  the  more  important  element  of  the  compound.  These  verbs 
become  inseparable  when  the  accent  is  placed  upon  the  verb.  This  shifting  of  the  accent  upon 
the  verb  may  result  in  intensifying  the  verbal  force  of  the  new  compound  or  the  weakening 
of  the  distinctly  local  force  of  the  prefix  by  the  weakening  of  its  accent,  which  latter  result  often 
facilitates  the  use  of  the  compound  in  a  figurative  sense.  These  inseparable  verbs  take  on  fig- 
urative meaning  if  the  simple  verb  is  trans.,  and  if  the  simple  verb  is  intrans.  the  compound 
verb  becomes  trans,  with  figurative  or  literal  meaning.  In  the  latter  case  the  inseparable  verb 
takes  on  intensive  force,  and  only  in  this  respect  and  grammatical  construction  does  it  differ 
from  the  intrans.  separable  verb.  Few  inseparable  verbs  are  intrans.  Hinter  is  rarely  ac- 
cented in  these  compounds,  and  hence  is  usually  employed  in  a  figurative  application.  It  is 
accented,  and  has  its  literal  meaning  only  in  popular  and  colloquial  language;  Die  Studenten- 
mutter stieg  mit  ihrem  neuen  Mieter  ins  zweite  Stockwerk  hinauf  und  führte  ihn  einen  halb- 
dunkeln  Gang  hinter  (Sperl's  Burschen  heraus!,  p.  291).  The  more  detailed  treatment  is  as 
follows: 

a.  The  separable  verb  is  trans,  or  intrans.  with  literal  meaning:  Der  Fährmann  setzte  die 
Truppen  über  The  ferryman  transported  the  troops  over  the  river,  or  intrans.:  Die  Truppen 
setzten  über  The  troops  went  over  the  river  on  the  ferr>'.  The  same  verb  is  trans,  and  insep- 
arable in  figurative  or  altered  meaning:  Der  Schüler  über'setzte  das  Buch  The  student  trans- 
lated the  book.  Er  holt  das  Buch  bald  wieder  He  will  soon  go  to  get  the  book,  but  Er  wieder 'holt 
seine  Aufgabe  He  is  reviewing  his  exercise.  Compare  hold  up  and  Uphold,  set  tip  and  iipset, 
run  out  and  outrun. 

In  this  group  of  inseparables  the  prefix  has,  except  in  case  of  voll-,  adverbial  force,  but  on  ac- 
count of  its  figurative  meaning  it  is  little  felt  and  hence  is  weakly  stressed.  The  separable 
prefix  voll-  was  originally  a  predicate  adjective,  an  objective  predicate,  and  as  a  predicate  had 
a  strong  stress,  and  in  concrete  expression  still  has:  Hans  hat  sich  tüchtig  vollgepfropft,  but 
in  a  figurative  sense:  Ich  habe  die  Tat  vollbrächt.  In  the  inseparables  in  b  and  c  the  prefix 
has  in  most  cases  prepositional  force  and  like  prepositions  in  general  has  weak  stress.  In  all 
separable  verbs  the  prefix  has  strong  adverbial  force  or  in  case  of  voll-  is  an  objective  predicate 
and  hence  has  strong  stress,  for  adverb  and  predicate  are  usually  more  strongly  stressed  than 


328 COMPOUNDS  SEP.  OR  INSEP. 215.  II.  3.  A.  a. 

the  verb.  Altho  in  the  separable  prefixes  the  adverbial  force  predominates  they  have,  as  other 
separable  prefixes  that  are  related  to  prepositions,  also  considerable  prepositional  force,  as 
illustrated  in  223.  I.  9.  B. 

b.  The  separable  verb  is  intrans.  with  literal  meaning:  Er  hielt  nirgends  an,  er  fuhr  durch, 
ist  'durchgefahren  He  stopped  nowhere,  he  drove  thru.  Die  Milch  ist  'übergelaufen  The  milk 
has  run  over,  overflowed.  Also  metonymically  Der  Krug  ist  'übergelaufen.  The  inseparable 
verb  is  trans,  with  figurative  meaning:  Der  gellende  Ruf  durch'fuhr  meine  Glieder,  hat  meine 
Glieder  durch'fahren  The  piercing  cry  went  thru  my  \ery  limbs.  Ich  habe  die  Rechnung  nur 
über'laufen  I  have  only  cast  a  glance  over  the  bill.  Es  über'lief  mich  kalt  My  blood  ran  cold. 
Seine  Gläubiger  über'laufen  ihn  His  creditors  are  annoying  him.  Also  according  to  c  with 
different  shades  of  meaning:  Ich  habe  mich  über'laufen  I  have  exhausted  myself  with  running. 
Tränen  über'liefen  sein  Antlitz  Tears  flowed  fast  down  his  cheeks. 

c.  The  separable  verb  is  intrans.  with  literal  or  figurative  meaning:  Er  reiste  durch  He  trav- 
eled right  thru.  Er  geht  mit  diesem  Plane  um  He  entertains  this  project.  The  inseparable 
verb  is  trans,  with  literal  meaning  and  often  has  intensive  force:  Ich  um'ging  die  Stadt  in  einer 
Stunde  I  walked  around  the  town  in  an  hour.  Er  durch'reiste  die  Gegend  He  traveled  all  over 
that  part  of  the  country.  Er  ist  durch  das  Dickicht  'durchgedrungen,  but  Das  Öl  hat  das 
Holz  durch'drungen. 

d.  Few  inseparable  verbs  are  intransitive:  Sie  mußten  im  "Walde  übernachten.  Kurzum, 
er  konnte  sich  nicht  halten  und  übersiedelte  (also  separable)  .  .  .  nach  England  (Fontane's 
Cecile,  chap.  x).     Vier  Söhne  sind  hinterblieben  Four  sons  surv^ive  (the  deceased). 

e.  There  is  often  only  a  slight  shade  of  difference  between  separable  and  inseparable  verbs. 
The  trans,  inseparable  may  have  perfective  (denoting  the  outcome  or  result  of  an  action)  force, 
while  the  trans,  separable  compound  has  both  durative  (denoting  duration)  and  perfective  force: 
Der  Soldat  durch'bohrt  den  Feind  The  soldier  is  despatcJiing  the  enemy,  but  Der  Tischler  bohrt 
das  Brett  durch  TJie  joiner  is  boring  a  hole  thru  the  board.  The  first  sentence  represents  only 
the  final  point  in  the  action,  while  the  second  shows  the  action  as  continuing,  at  the  same  time, 
however,  intimating  that  the  hoped-for  result  will  be  attained.  Sometimes  there  is  little  or  no 
dift'erence  between  the  trans,  inseparable  and  trans,  separable. 

There  is  often  no  difi^erence  between  the  inseparable  trans,  verb  and  the  separable  intrans., 
except  that  they  require  after  them  a  different  grammatical  construction:  Das  Pferd  hat  den 
Graben  über'sprungen.  Das  Pferd  ist  hin'übergespnmgen  The  horse  has  jumped  over  (the 
ditch). 

There  is  often  no  difference  at  all  between  separable  and  inseparable  formations,  especially 
in  case  of  wider:  Die  Töne  haben  in  den  Räumen  'widergehallt  or  wider'hallt.  Die  Räume 
haben  die  Töne  'widergehallt,  or  wider'hallt.  Die  Sonnenstrahlen  leuchteten  von  dem  oberen 
Teil  der  harzigen  Stämme  wider  {Daheim,  15,  7s.5a).  Die  offenen  Fenster  wider'leuchteten 
im  Winde  winkend  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Zwölf  aus  der  Steiermark,  p.  46).  ,, Faust"  klingt  von 
diesen  Eindrücken  wider  (Guhrauer,  1,  75).  In  Ruprechts  Herzen  wider'klangen  des  Bruders 
bitter  gemeinte  Worte  mit  der  Freudigkeit  einer  Offenbarung  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Hai  ndl  kin  der, 
p.  140).  Dann  wider'klang  das  Dorment  von  saf  igen  Lufthieben  (Hermann  Hesse's  Unterm 
Rad,  p.  112).  Likewise  widerschallen,  widerspiegeln  (more  commonly  sep.),  and  widerstrahlen, 
but  wider'fahren,  wider'legen,  wider'raten,  wider'reden,  wider'rufen,  wider'setzen,  wider- 
'sprechen,  wider'stehen,  wider'streben,  and  wider'streiten  are  always  inseparable.  Compare 
258,  1.  B.  a  (near  end). 

Über  in  überfahren  to  drive  over,  run  over  or  down  (with  a  carriage),  überreiten  to  ride  over 
ivith  a  horse  is  usually  felt  as  a  preposition  and  hence  these  compounds  are  usually  inseparable, 
but  the  über  is  sometimes  felt  as  an  adverb  and  is  stressed,  when  of  course  the  compound  becomes 
separable:  Er  hat  das  Kind  über'ritten,  but  sometimes  separable:  Wiebke  "Wiese  (name),  geh 
weg  da;  sonst  werm  mein  "Vater  kommt,  reitet  er  dich  über!  (Otto  Ernst's  Asmus  Sempers  Jugend- 
land, p.  29).  In  a  number  of  other  compounds  the  über,  tho  felt  as  an  adverb  with  literal  mean- 
ing, has  lost  so  much  of  its  original  concrete  force  that  it  is  often  unstressed,  so  that  the  com- 
pound becomes  inseparable:  Als  Kathi  Fröhlich  starb,  überführte  man  seine  (i.e.  Grillparzer's) 
sterblichen  Reste  in  ein  Grab  neben  ihr  (Ehrhard-Xcckcr's  Franz  Grillparzer,  p.  35),  but  also 
often  separable:  Die  ersten  großen  Transporte  Verwundeter,  die  dank  der  ausgezeichneten 
Vorbereitung  in  voller  Ordnung  und  Schnelligkeit  nach  den  Lazaretten  übergeführt  werden 
konnten  {Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Aug.  24,  1914).  In  some  of  these  compounds  the  force  of  the  über 
is  so  faint  that  it  is  never  stressed,  so  that  the  compounds  are  always  inseparable:  Er  hat  mir 
den  Brief  über'bracht.  Likewise  über'geben,  über'tragen,  and  über'lassen,  which  earlier  in 
the  period  were  also  separable. 

/.  Sometimes  the  separable  verb  takes  on  figurative  meaning,  and  yet  remains  separable 
where  the  force  of  the  prefix  is  more  vividly  felt  than  that  of  the  verb,  and  hence  is  too  prominent 
to  be  united  with  the  verb  and  lose  its  identity:  Das  "Wetter  schlägt  um  There  is  a  sudden  change 
in  the  weather.  Die  Krankheit  schlägt  um.  Er  schlägt  um  He  changes  his  whole  nature. 
Er  setzte  seinen  Plan  durch  He  carried  his  plan  thru. 

g.  Sometimes  the  separable  verb  that  is  usually  intrans.  may  become  trans,  with  different 
meanings  according  as  it  is  used  literally  or  figuratively:  Das  Pferd  ist  'durchgegangen  The  horse 
has  run  away.  Die  Sohlen  waren  so  dünn,  daß  ich  sie  gleich  'durchgegangen  habe  The  soles 
of  the  shoes  were  so  thin  that  I  soon  wore  them  thru.  Ich  habe  die  Arbeiten  meiner  Schüler 
oft  'durchgegangen  I  have  often  gone  over  or  looked  over  the  exercises  of  my  pupils. 

B.  When  one  of  these  prefixes  stands  unaccented  before  an  accented  prefix,  usage  varies. 
According  to  the  analogy  of  the  prefixes  which  are  always  inseparable,  as  described  in  2.  d  above, 


218.  1. REFLEXIVE  VERBS 329 

such  compounds  ought  to  be  inseparable,  and  they  are  generally  so,  but  they  often  take  a  ge  or 
zu  after  the  accented  prefix:  Er  über'anstrengt  sich.  Er  hat  sich  über'anstrengt  or  über'ange- 
strengt.  Sie  sind  über'anstrengt  (Anselm  Heine's  Eiiie  Gabe,  Am  13.  Juni).  Ich  war  immer 
ein  üb  er 'angestrengter,  geplagter  Mann  (Fulda's  Die  wilde  Jagd,  4,  5).  Ich  fürchte,  mich  zu 
über'anstrengen,  or  sometimes  über'anzustrengen  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  III,  10). 

NOUNS  MADE  FROM  COMPOUND  VeRBS. 

216.  Nouns  made  from  verbs  of  course  retain  the  accent  of  the  verb:  'aus- 
gehen, der  'Ausgang  outcome;  be'fehlen,  der  Be'fehl  command;  'übersetzen, 
die  'Übersetzung  transportation;  iiber'setzen,  die  Über'setzung  translation. 
For  notable  exception  see  art.  47.  3.  B.  a. 

Verbs  Indirectly  Compounded. 

217.  There  is  a  class  of  verbs  (see  206)  that  seem  to  be  compounded  by 
prefixing  a  noun  or  adjective  to  a  simple  verb,  but  they  are  in  reality  made 
from  compound  substantives  or  adjectives.  Verbs  that  have  received  their 
compound  form  in  this  indirect  way  have  noun  accent,  i.e.,  accent  on  the  first 
syllable,  and  are  treated  as  simple  verbs :  das  'Frühstück  breakfast,  'frühstücken 
to  take  breakfast,  'frühstückte,  ge 'früh  stückt ;  der  'Ratschlag  counsel,  'rat- 
schlagen to  take  counsel  with,  'ratschlagte,  ge 'ratschlagt;  die  'Handhabe 
handle,  'handhaben  to  handle,  'handhabte,  ge'handhabt,  &c. 

a.  In  some  cases  the  noun  or  adj.  from  which  the  verb  was  made  has  gone  out  of  use:  'wetter- 
leuchten to  sheet-lighten  from  M.H.G.  weterleich.  Thus  also  'rechtfertigen  to  justify,  'brand- 
schatzen to  lay  under  contribution,  'weissagen  to  prophesy,   &c. 

b.  This  class  of  words  has  been  productive  in  that  other  words  have  been  formed  after  analogy 
with  these,  by  simply  welding  two  words  which  together  form  one  idea  into  one  word,  and  treat- 
ing them  then  as  a  simple  verb :  liebäugeln  to  ogle,  'lobpreisen  to  praise  in  song,  'lobsingen  (w.  dat. ) 
to  sing  praises  to,  'willfahren  (w.  dat.)  to  humor  a  person  or  gratify  his  wishes,  'liebkosen  to 
caress,  &c.  The  last  two,  however,  and  also  frohlocken  may  also  be  accented  on  the  second 
syllable,  and  hence  may  be  treated  as  inseparable  verbs  and  drop  ge-  in  the  perf.  part.  See 
178.  2.  A.  b.  (3).  On  the  other  hand,  lobsingen  and  lobpreisen  are  sometimes  in  the  infinitive 
and  perf.  part,  treated  as  separable  verbs:    lobzupreisen,  lobgepriesen. 

Note  1.  The  verb  ehebrechen  is  only  used  in  the  pres.  part,  and  the  simple  infinitive  form  without  zu,  elsewhere 
being  replaced  by  the  verb  brechen  and  the  noun  die  Ehe:  eine  ehebrechende  Frau.  Du  sollst  nicht  ehebrechen. 
But  Gott  verbietet,  die  Ehe  zu  brechen. 

Nole  2.  Present  usage  fluctuates  with  regard  to  the  inflection  of  the  basal  component  of  some  of  these  verbs, 
the  strong  or  the  weak  form  or  both  occurring.  The  strong  form  asserts  itself  sometimes  contrary  to  the  rule  of  the 
grammarian,  as  the  compound  noun  is  not  now  in  use  while  the  force  of  the  simple  strong  verb  is  distinctly  felt:  der 
sie  (i.e.  die  Sprache)  .  .  .  radebricht  (P  Heyse,  iii.  220).  In  early  N.H.G.  we  find  strong  forms  even  where  the  com- 
pound noun  is  in  common  use:    Von  dem  tage  an  ratschlugen  sie  |  wie  sie  jn  tödten  (John  xi.  5.3). 

Fluctuation  also  prevails  with  regard  to  the  firmness  of  some  of  these  compounds,  inseparable  and  separable  forms 
occurring.  The  separable  forms  are  in  most  part  confined  to  the  perf.  participle  and  the  infinitive  with  zu,  the  accent 
upon  the  first  element  suggesting  the  insertion  of  ge  or  zu  after  analogy  of  separable  compounds,  which  are  likewise 
accented  upon  the  first  element:  Ich  habe  erbgeschlichen  (Hillern's  ÄrzI,  1,  1S6);  um  erbzuschleichen;  wettge- 
laufen, wettgerannt,  but  gewetteifert.  Usually:  Es  ist  schon  fürgesorgt,  daß  dieser  Fall  nicht  eintreten  kann.  Some- 
times complete  separation:  Er  wandelt  nacht,  also  weck  ihn  nicht!  (Hauptmann's  Und  Pippa  tanzt,  p.  78). 


REFLEXIVE  VERBS 

218.  1.  The  verb  may  be  connected  with  the  reflexive  pronouns  (see  142) 
in  much  the  same  way  as  in  English.  Most  reflexive  verbs  govern  the  ace., 
but  a  few  govern  the  dat.  and  a  still  smaller  number  the  gen. : 

Present  Tense  Indicative. 

sich  irren  (w.  ace),  schmeicheln  (w.  dat.),  spotten  (w.  gen.), 

to  be  mistaken.  to  flatter.  ^    to  ridicule.  ^ 

ich  irre  mich  ich  schmeichele  mir  ich  spotte  meiner 

du  irrst  dich  f  du  schmeichelst  dir  f  du  spottest  deiner 

Sie  irren  sich  \  Sie  schmeicheln  sich  \  Sie  spotten  Ihrer  selbst 
er  irrt  sich                          er  schmeichelt  sich  er  spottet  seiner  selbst 

wir  irren  uns  wir  schmeicheln  uns  wir  spotten  unser  (er) 

ihr  irrt  euch  f  ihr  schmeichelt  euch  fihr  spottet  euer(er) 

Sie  irren  sich  \  Sie  schmeicheln  sich  \  Sie  spotten  Ihrer  selbst 
sie  irren  sich                     sie  schmeicheln  sich  sie  spotten  ihrer  selbst 


330 REFLEXIVE  VERBS 218.  1.  a. 

a.  In  all  tenses,  the  reflexive  usually  stands  first  in  order  of  words  among 
the  modifiers  of  the  predicate,  preferring  especially  the  place  next  to  the  verb, 
and  in  compound  tenses  next  to  the  auxiliary:  Das  Kind  hat  sich  vor  der  Strafe 
gefürchtet,  or  in  the  question  order:  Hat  sich  das  Kind  vor  der  Strafe  gefürchtet? 
However,  in  the  question  order  the  reflexive  must  follow  the  subject  if  the  subject 
be  a  pronoun:  Wie  befinden  Sie  sich?  How  do  you  do? 

b.  As  indicated  by  its  position  the  reflexive  pronoun  is  entirely  without 
accent.  If  it  is  to  be  made  prominent,  the  word  selbst  must  be  added,  which 
bears  the  accent:  Der  leidenschaftlich  erregte  Jüngling  tötete  sich  selbst, 
nicht  seinen  Beleidiger. 

2.  There  is  a  difference  in  reflexive  verbs.  Some  are  usually  reflexive,  pro- 
noun and  verb  together  forming  one  idea:  sich  schämen  to  be  ashamed,  sich 
sehnen  to  long  (for),  sich  freuen  to  rejoice,  sich  wundern  to  be  surprised,  sich 
erkälten  (N.G.  and  in  parts  of  the  South),  sich  verkälten  (S.G.),  or  sich  ver- 
kühlen (Austrian)  to  catch  a  cold,  sich  schnauben  (N.G.)  or  sich  schneuzen 
(S.G.)  to  blow  the  nose,  sich  ausschnauben  (N.G.)  to  blow  the  nose  thoroly, 
sich  ausschweigen  to  keep  perfectly  still,  i.e.  refrain  from  making  the  slightest 
expression  of  opinion  (as  in  Hierüber  schweigt  Ludendorff  sich  aus  —  Hans 
Delbrück  in  Preußische  Jahrbücher,  Oct.  1919,  p.  92),  &c.  Some  trans,  and 
intrans.  verbs  are  also  used  reflexively:  baden  to  bathe,  ich  bade  mich;  gehen 
to  walk,  ich  gehe  mich  müde  I  walk  myself  tired. 

a.  The  reflexive  pronoun  in  genuine  reflexive  verbs  is  not  felt  as  an  object 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term  and  hence  is  not  treated  as  an  independent  ele- 
ment in  the  sentence,  but  merely  as  a  part  of  the  verb,  and  consequently  the 
predicate  complement  does  not  agree  with  it  in  case,  but  refers  back  to  the 
subject  with  which  it  agrees:  Er  wundert  sich  als  unerfahrener  (not  uner- 
fahrenen) Neuling  über  alles. 

b.  The  predicate  complement  of  verbs  not  really  reflexive  but  used  reflex- 
ively agrees  sometimes  with  the  subject  and  sometimes  with  the  reflexive  object, 
as  usage  has  not  yet  become  fixed  at  this  point:  Ich  fühle  mich  als  der  Apostel 
eines  verfeinerten,  veredelten  Menschenvolks  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Glaubens- 
los, chap.  viii).  Der  Westwind  stürzte  sich  vom  Meer  her  über  den  Winter 
im  Land  und  fing  an,  sich  als  den  Stärkeren  zu  fühlen  (Frenssen's  Die  drei 
Getreuen,  III,  8).  Briest  gab  sich  als  zärtlicher  Großvater  (Fontane's  Effi, 
chap.  xxiv).  Es  ist  anstrengend,  einem  Gefühlsschwärmer,  als  welchen 
Paderewski  sich  ausschließlich  gab,  einen  langen  Abend  hindurch  zu  folgen 
(Tägliche  Rundschau).  Du  nennst  dich  einen  Teil,  und  stehst  doch  ganz  vor 
mir  (Goethe's  Faust,  1).  Ich  denk',  er  nennt  mein  guter  Freund  sich  noch 
(Kleist's  Der  zerbrochene  Krug,  10).  Der  sich  wähnte  den  Herrscher  der  Welt 
(Freiligrath,  Volksztg.,  18,  191).  Es  ist  nichts  Geringes,  an  der  goldenen 
Tafel  der  Olympier  zu  sitzen,  sich  wohl  gar  einer  ihrer  zu  wähnen  (Spielhagen's 
Selbstgerecht,  p.  G4). 

Note.  There  is  a  tendency  to  make  a  distinction  here  between  nom.  and  ace.  The  former  is  an  objective  state- 
ment of  the  outcome  of  an  act  or  activity,  often  also  a  simple  predication  of  a  fact  known  and  acknowledged,  the 
latter  indicates  a  desire  or  intention  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  or  someone  else  to  show  himself  in  the  capacity  men- 
tioned in  the  predicate  complement,  and  in  general  calls  attention  to  a  fact  not  before  known  to  the  person  in  question: 
Herr  B.  erwies  sich  als  fertiger  Pianist,  aber  als  ziemhch  gewöhnlicher  Komiker,  but  Die  Folge  ist  weiter,  daß  so- 
bald sich  der  deutsche  Arbeiter  oder  Handwerker  (who  in  Paris  for  sake  of  personal  security  does  not  desire  to  be 
known  as  a  German)  aklimatisiert  hat,  er  sich  als  Franzosen  entdeckt  i Franz  Wuuk  in  IJamburficy  Nachrichlen,  Feb. 
2ö,  19()ö)  and  Er  (Dr.  \'oiS  of  Cologne)  bekennt  sich  als  grundsätzhchen  Anhänger  der  konfessionellen  Schule  (Die 
Frankfurter  Zt-il.,  June  16,  1920).  Er  zeigt  sich  als  ein  gebildeter,  unterrichteter  Mann,  but  Traue  nicht  jedem, 
der  sich  dir  als  deinen  Freund  zeigen  will.  Man  kann  sich  empfehlen  als  jemandes  aufrichtigen  Verehrer,  erge- 
bensten Diener  (He  desires  to  show  himself  in  these  capacities),  aber  nur  als  sein  dankbarer  Schüler  (He  is  already 
known  as  a  student  and  hence  need  not  make  known  his  desire  to  appear  in  this  capacity,  but  simply  states  it  as 
a  fact  by  using  the  nom.). 

c.  Because  the  reflexive  is  not  felt  as  object,  it  cannot  in  the  passive  voice 
become  subject.  Hence  reflexive  verbs  should  not  form  a  passive,  but  the 
people  insist  nevertheless  on.  forming  one,  however  an  impersonal  (never  a 
personal)  passive  (see  219.  5.  B):  Da  wird  sich  gerudert  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde, 
ii,  p.  24).  The  reflexive  is  also  omitted  in  this  construction:  Hier  wird  hin- 
gesetzt! 's  ist  Platz  genug  für  'n  lustiges  Kleeblatt  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjährige 
Reich,  p.  133). 


218.  3.  B.  a.     REFLEX.  WITH  ACTIVE  OR  PASSIVE  FORCE 331 

3.  The  reflexive  verb  in  German  has  a  wider  field  of  usefulness  than  in 
English.     It  occurs  in  the  following  groups: — 

A.  With  Passive  Force.  In  a  large  number  of  cases  where  things  come  about 
of  themselves  Germans  hesitate  to  use  a  passive,  hence  they  employ  reflexive 
form,  which  is  so  often,  as  in  B,  associated  with  intransitive  meaning.  But  as 
this  apparent  intransitive  force  here  always  represents  something  as  developing 
into  a  new  state,  consequently  as  affected,  it  usually  develops  into  passive 
meaning,  as  often  also  in  B.  In  English  the  strong  passive  idea  here  usually 
calls  forth  passive  form,  but  sometimes,  as  in  B,  intransitive  form.  Examples: 
Zwischen  den  Augen  hatte  sich  eine  tiefe  Falte  gegraben  A  deep  wrinkle  had 
been  formed  or  had  formed  (as  the  result  of  care)  between  his  eyes.  Der  Mut 
verlernt  sich  nicht,  wie  er  sich  nicht  lernt  Courage  is  a  natural  gift  that  cannot 
be  acquired  or  lost.  Der  Wiesengrund  ist  schon  so  bunt  und  malt  sich  täglich 
bunter  The  meadow  is  already  resplendent  with  many  colors  and  is  daily  adorned 
with  still  brighter  ones.  Der  Saal  füllte  sich  allmählich  The  great  room  was 
gradually  filled  with  people.  So  etwas  spricht  sich  schnell  herum  Such  a  thing 
is  soon  spread  about,  or  soon  spreads.  Der  Schlüssel  wird  sich  finden  The  key 
will  be  found,  or  ivill  turn  up.     Das  begreift  sich  leicht  That  is  easily  understood. 

a.  Especially  frequent  is  the  reflexive  use  of  lassen  with  a  dependent  infinitive  which  has 
passive  force:  Das  läßt  sich  leicht  machen  That  is  easily  done.  Das  läßt  sich  leicht  sagen 
That  is  easily  said.  Er  läßt  Holz  auf  sich  hacken  He  is  easily  imposed  upon,  He'll  stand  anything, 
lit.  He  allows  wood  to  be  chopped  upon  himself.  Er  läßt  sich  leicht  abschrecken  He  is  easily 
deterred. 

B.  With  Intransitive  or  Passive  Force.  In  German,  reflexive  form  often 
corresponds  to  intransitive  in  English.  In  one  large  group  the  reflexive  verb 
represents  a  person  or,  by  way  of  personification,  a  thing  as  acting  on  him- 
self or  itself:  Sie  kleidet  sich  einfach  She  dresses  plainly.  Die  Erde  dreht 
sich  um  ihre  Achse  The  earth  turns  on  its  axis.  Der  Wind  hat  sich  gedreht 
The  wind  has  turned.  Das  Yolk  sammelt  sich  auf  dem  Rathaus  The  people 
are  assembling  at  the  city  hall.  In  another  group  reflexive  form  has  a  force 
closely  related  to  intransiti^'e  use,  so  that  the  subject  is  not  thought  of  as  acting 
upon  himself:  Die  Ohnmächtige  erholt  sich  is  coming  to  (herself  again).  Der 
Kranke  soll  sich  erheblich  gebessert  haben  is  said  to  have  improved.  Er  hat 
sich  nicht  gezeigt  He  didn't  show  up.  Das  kleine  Mädchen  hat  sich  zu  einem 
Fräulein  ausgewachsen  has  developed  into.  In  another  group  of  reflexive 
verbs  passive  develops  out  of  intransitive  force:  Der  Dampf  verflüssigt  sich 
The  steam  is  becoming  a  liquid,  hence  is  passing  into  a  new  state,  which  clearly 
indicates  that  it  is  being  acted  on.  Similarly  with  passive  force:  Solche  Häuser 
vermieten  sich  leicht  Such  houses  rent  or  are  rented  easily.  Salz  löst  sich  auf 
Salt  dissolves,  or  can  be  dissolved.  English  in  a  few  cases  clings  here  to  in- 
transitive form  where  in  German  the  passive  form  is  so  clearly  felt  that  passive 
form  is  used:  Die  erste  Sendung  wurde  in  einer  Woche  ausverkauft  The  first 
consignment  sold  out  or  was  sold  out  in  a  week.  Sein  Hut  wurde  in  den  Fluß 
geweht  His  hat  blew  into  the  river. 

The  line  of  development  here  is  clear.  Reflexive  force  often  develops  into 
intransitive  and  intransitive  into  passive.  When  intransitive  force  develops, 
English  often  discards  the  old  reflexive  pronoun:  I  met  a  fool,  who  laid  him 
down  and  basked  him  (now  simply  basked)  in  the  sun  {As  You  Like  It,  2,  7,  15). 
As  can  be  seen  by  the  examples  given  above,  English  still  often  retains  intransi- 
tive form  after  it  has  acquired  passive  force.  It  sometimes  even  retains  the 
original  reflexive  form  after  the  development  of  active  and,  still  later,  passive 
force:  The  fire  communicated  itself  to  the  next  house.  German  is  usually 
tenacious  of  reflexive  form  even  after  its  meaning  has  changed. 

a.  A  few  verbs  are  used  intransitively  or  reflexively:  eilen  or  less  commonly  sich  eilen  to 
hasten,  endigen  (or  less  commonly  enden)  or  less  commonly  sich  endigen  (or  enden)  to  end, 
flüchten  or  perhaps  more  commonly  sich  flüchten  to  flee,  gebaren  or  more  commonly  sich  ge- 
baren to  act,  behave,  irren  or  sich  irren  to  err,  make  a  mistake,  nahen  or  more  commonly  sich 
nähern  (or  less  commonly  sich  nahen;  258.  1.  A.  d)  to  approach,  verbluten  or  perhaps  more 
•commonly  sich  verbluten  to  bleed  to  death.  &c. 


332 IMPERSONAL  VERBS 218.  3.  B.  a. 

There  is  sometimes  a  differentiation  of  meaning:  ausruhen  to  rest,  as  in  Er  ruht  auf  seinen 
Lorbeeren  aus,  but  to  indicate  purpose  sich  ausruhen,  as  in  Ich  habe  mich  ausgeruht  and  Er 
setzte  sich,  um  sich  auszuruhen;  erübrigen  to  remain,  as  in  Es  erübrigt  noch,  auf  den  letzten 
Punkt  der  Tagesordnung,  einzugehen,  but  sich  erübrigen  to  be  siiperjliwus,  unnecessary,  as  in 
Es  erübrigt  sich,  auf  diese  Frage  einzugehen. 

b.  Correspondinir  to  the  (icrman  reflexive  verb  we  often  have  in  EngHsh  a  transitive  with 
an  object  of  the  thinjj:  Er  bessert  sich  He  is  mending  his  ways.  Er  hat  sich  erkältet  He  has 
caught  a  cold.  Er  räusperte  sich  He  cleared  his  throat.  Lowell  versuchte  sich  einmal  an 
einem  Roman  Lowell  once  tried  his  hand  at  a  novel.  Er  schlägt  sich  mit  ihm  He  is  having  a 
fight  with  him.  Er  schreibt  sich  mit  ihm  He  is  carrying  on  a  correspondence  with  him.  Er 
küßte  sich  mit  ihr  He  exchanged  kisses  with  her. 

c.  In  many  common  cases  the  use  of  a  transitive  verb  reflexively  gives  the  verb  intransive  in- 
gressive  force.     See  164. 

C.  With  intransitives  (or  transitives  used  like  intransitives  without  an  ob- 
ject) in  the  impersonal  construction,  to  show  that  the  action  is  proceeding,  or 
is  able  to  proceed  in  a  certain  manner,  which  is  represented  as  the  natural  result 
of  the  given  circumstances :  Es  tanzt  sich  gut  in  diesem  Saal  This  room  is  good 
for  dancing.  Es  fährt  sich  bequem  in  diesem  Wagen  It  is  pleasant  riding  in 
this  carriage.  Wie  ritt  es  sich  lustig  durch  die  gebirgigen  Wege!  What  jolly 
riding  that  was  over  the  mountain  roads!  Es  schreibt  sich  schlecht  auf  diesem 
Papier  This  paper  is  bad  for  writing  on.  Mit  der  Eisenbahn  fährt  es  sich 
rasch.  Von  eurer  Fahrt  kehrt  sich's  nicht  immer  wieder  From  journeys  like 
yours  it  is  in  the  nature  of  things  that  one  does  not  always  return, 

c.  Sometimes  a  trans,  verb  and  its  object  are  conceived  of  as  forming  together  an  intrans. 
verb,  and  can  thus  form  this  impersonal  reflexive  construction:  Wie  hübsch  spielt  sich's  den 
Vater,  wenn  man  so  allerliebste  Geständnisse  zu  hören  bekommt  (Schiller)  How  nice  it  is  to 
play  the  father  when  one  gets  to  hear  such  charming  confessions. 

D.  Frequent  is  the  use  of  a  reflexive  in  connexion  with  a  prep,  phrase  or 
an  objective  predicate  to  denote  a  change  of  place  or  condition,  or  the  result 
of  an  action,  often  corresponding  in  English  to  a  transitive  verb  with  an  object 
of  the  thing:  Ich  lief  mich  in  Schweiß  I  began  to  perspire  from  running.  Ich 
fiel  mich  wund  I  became  sore  from  a  fall.  Er  drängte  sich  herein  He  pushed 
his  way  in.  Er  schlug  sich  durch  den  Feind  durch  He  fought  his  way  thru  the 
enemy.  Er  tastete  sich  zum  Fenster  He  groped  his  way  to  the  window.  Er 
hat  sich  um  vier  Mark  verrechnet  He  made  a  mistake  of  four  marks  in  counting. 

E.  Haben  is  often  used  reflexively  as  a  strong  negative  reply  to  a  preceding 
statement,  but  is  in  fact  an  affirmative  assertion,  uttered  in  an  ironical  tone: 
Und  das  Geschäft  blüht?  Jawohl,  blüht!  Hat  sich  da  was  zu  blühen!  (Eck- 
stein) Is  your  business  flourishing?     Oh  yes,  it  is  flourishing  finely  (ironically). 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS 

219.  Impersonal  verbs  are  conjugated  like  other  verbs  thruout  the  different 
moods  and  tenses,  but  are  defective  in  having  only  a  third  person  sing,  and 
no  passive  at  all  (for  exception  see  5  below).  The  impersonal  construction 
in  German  is  a  favorite  one  and  has  been  very  productive,  and  many  verbs 
are  now  used  impersonally  which  with  other  meanings  are  also  personal.  The 
es  is  not  absolutely  necessary  here  as  the  activity  or  state  represented  by  the 
verb  is  not  felt  as  standing  in  a  relation  to  a  subject,  as  explained  in  250.  a 
(2nd  par.):  Mich  hungert.  The  es  was  first  inserted  in  such  forms  of  the 
sentence  where  the  verb  stood  in  the  first  place:  Es  hungert  mich.  The  es 
was  thus  first  employed  here  to  distinguish  the  declarative  from  the  interrogative 
form  of  sentence.  Another  influence  helped  establish  es  as  subject  in  these 
impersonal  constructions.  Even  early  in  O.H.G.  there  was  already  a  strong 
tendency  to  conform  German  expression  here  to  the  normal  type  of  sentence 
structure  with  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  hence  to  use  a  mere  formal  subject 
without  meaning  rather  than  to  leave  the  sentence  entirely  without  a  subject. 
This  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  frequent  use  of  es  where  it  was  not  needed  to 
distinguish  the  declarative  from  the  interrogative  form:  Thar  was  fiur  thuruh 
da?,  wanta  i?  filu  kalt  was  (Otfrid,  IV.  18.  11)  Es  brannte  nun  ein  Feuer  dort, 


219.  2. IMPERSONAL   CONSTRUCTIONS 333 

weil  es  sehr  kalt  war.  The  employment  of  the  formal  subject  es  here  was 
suggested  by  the  use  of  anticipative  es  (251.  I.  2.  B)  which,  tho  it  had  a  little 
concrete  meaning  in  that  it  pointed  forward  to  a  following  clause,  the  real 
subject  of  the  sentence,  was  nevertheless  a  mere  formal  element  and  as  such 
could  be  omitted  and  can  sometimes  even  still  be  omitted,  as  illustrated  in 
251.  I.  2.  B.  Note.  Present  usage  with  regard  to  the  use  or  omission  of  imper- 
sonal es  is  defined  in  detail  below. 

The  following  groups  are  very  common: 

1.  Verbs  which  alone  or  in  connection  with  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective 
express  phenomena  of  nature,  the  time  of  day,  seasons  of  the  year,  divisions 
of  the  month,  week,  &c.,  distances  in  space  and  time,  &c.,  where  the  situation 
makes  the  thought  clear  without  the  aid  of  a  definite  subject:  es  regnet  it 
rains;  es  schneit  it  snows;  es  hagelt  it  hails;  es  friert  it  freezes;  es  dämmert 
it  is  twilight;  es  düstert  it  is  growing  dusky;  es  tagt  it  is  dawning;  es  taut  auf 
it  thaws;  es  donnert  it  thunders;  es  blitzt  it  lightens,  es  blitzte  schelmisch  in 
ihren  Augen  there  was  a  sly  look  in  her  eyes;  es  wird  Nacht  it  is  getting  quite 
dark;  es  ist  gutes,  schlechtes  Wetter;  es  ist  zu  spät;  es  ist  kalt,  warm,  heiß, 
and  sometimes  after  the  manner  of  the  French  macht's  heiß?  (Grillparzer's 
Libussa,  2),  es  macht  kalt;  wieviel  Uhr  ist  es?  what  time  is  it?;  es  ist  elf  it  is 
eleven  o'clock;  es  geht  auf  elf;  es  schlägt  elf;  es  ist  dunkel,  es  ist  Sommer, 
es  lenzt  spring  is  coming,  has  come,  es  herbstet.  Es  ist  heute  Feiertag  It's  a 
holiday  to-day.  Es  ist  Montag  It  is  Monday.  Es  ist  der  erste  Juni  It  is  the 
first  of  June. 

Often  in  German  and  sometimes  in  English  there  is  still  as  in  oldest  German 
no  es  here  in  case  of  a  predicate  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb  where  some  other 
word  than  es  introduces  the  sentence,  or  where  the  predicate  noun  stands  in  a 
subordinate  clause:  Heute  ist  der  erste  Juni  To-day  is  the  first  of  June.  Morgen, 
ist  Feiertag  To-morrow  is  a  holiday.  Morgen  ist  bei  uns  frei,  auf  der  Mädchen- 
schule nicht  To-morrow  is  a  holiday  with  us,  but  not  at  the  girls'  school.  Heute 
morgen  hat  es  gefroren,  jetzt  ist  Tauwetter.  Er  trug  immer  eine  braune 
Kutte  mit  einer  Kapuze  daran,  die  er  über  den  Kopf  stülpte,  wenn  schlecht 
Wetter  war  (V.  Blüthgen's  Das  Peterle  von  Nürnberg,  chap.  II).  Der  wie- 
vielte ist  heute?  What  day  of  the  month  is  to-day,  or  is  it  to-day?  Compare 
219  and  also  4.  B.  a.  Note  and  5.  B.  a  below.  In  English  the  preservation  of 
the  old  impersonal  form  without  a  subject  has  been  rendered  easy  by  the  now 
common  simple  device  of  placing  the  expletive  there  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence:  There  was  a  heavy  frost  last  night.  Also  in  German  there  is  a  ten- 
dency in  lively  modern  as  well  as  older  colloquial  speech  to  omit  es,  as  there 
is  still  a  distinct  feeling  that  the  activity  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb  does 
not  stand  in  relation  to  a  subject:   1st  kalt  heute!     Compare  250.  a. 

The  impersonal  es  here  and  elsewhere  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  es 
which  points  to  something  definite  which  is  more  or  less  clearly  defined  by 
the  situation:  Kommst  du  heute  zu  mir?  Es  (i.e.  the  way,  distance)  ist  mir 
zu  weit,  or  Es  ist  mir  zu  weit  zu  dir.  Warten  Sie  bis  nächste  Woche.  Es 
(i.e.  this  period  of  waiting)  ist  mir  zu  lange  bis  dahin.  This  situation  es, 
provided  it  does  not  stand  in  the  first  place  in  sentence  or  clause,  is  still  often 
omitted  in  certain  set  expressions  where  the  situation  makes  the  thought  clear: 
Zu  dir  ist  (or  ist  es)  mir  zu  weit.  Bis  dahin  ist  ( or  ist  es)  mir  zu  lange.  Com- 
pare 3  (last  par.)  below.  In  Iwely  colloquial  speech  also  the  es  which  stands 
in  the  first  place  may  still  drop  out:  1st  mir  zu  weit! 

2.  Many  reflexive  verbs  or  verbs  used  reflexively:  Es  klärt  sich  auf  It  is 
clearing  up.  Es  geht  sich  (218.  3.  C)  sehr  gut  The  walking  is  very  good.  Es 
tritt  sich  auf  dem  Pflaster  der  Straße  unangenehm.  Auf  diesem  Wege  fährt 
es  sich  gut.  Es  tanzt  sich  gut  in  diesem  Saale.  Es  Uest  sich  in  der  Dämmerung 
schlecht  It's  bad  reading  in  the  tivilight,  but  the  es  does  not  belong  here  at  all 
where  the  reference  is  to  something  definite:  Es  (referring  to  a  book  under 
consideration)  liest  sich  angenehm  It  is  pleasant  reading,  or  Es  liest  sich, 
als  wäre  es  wahr  //  reads  like  truth. 


334 IMPERSONAL    CONSTRUCTIONS  219.  2. 

Es  is  not  omitted  in  this  modern  category  which  has  developed  under  the 
domination  of  formal  grammar,  which  requires  a  subject  for  every  sentence. 

3.  Within  the  present  period  in  both  English  and  German  the  impersonal 
construction  has  come  into  much  wider  use  than  formerly  as  it  seemed  ever 
more  desirable  not  to  bring  the  activity  or  state  into  relation  to  a  definite  sub- 
ject but  to  direct  the  attention  solely  to  the  activity.  In  German  an  impersonal 
transitive  or  intransitive  verb  with  its  formal  subject  es  is  employed,  while 
in  English  the  older  form  without  a  formal  subject  is  preferred,  introduced  here 
as  so  often  elsewhere  by  the  expletive  there,  usually  in  connection  with  a  predi- 
cate in  the  form  of  a  verbal  noun:  Es  klopft  There  is  a  knock  at  the  door.  In 
the  English  sentence  knock  is  not  a  subject,  so  that  the  idea  is  not  "A  knock  is 
at  the  door,"  but  knock  is  a  predicate,  i.e.  a  knocking  is  predicated,  and  is  is 
the  formal  sign  of  predication,  just  as  the  t  in  the  German  verb  klopft.  The 
German  and  English  sentences  are  exactly  alike  in  form  and  meaning.  In 
both  the  attention  is  merely  called  to  an  activity  without  any  desire  of  bringing 
it  into  relation  to  a  definite  subject.  Altho  the  impersonal  construction  is  very 
common  in  English  the  personal  construction  with  the  name  of  a  person  or 
thing  in  the  nominative  is  sometimes  found  where  the  German  construction 
is  impersonal,  so  that  in  the  following  examples  the  two  languages  do  not  always 
coincide:  Es  brennt!  Fire!  Fire!  Es  zuckte  um  seinen  Mund  There  was  a 
twitching  about  his  mouth.  Es  reißt  mir  in  allen  Gliedern  I  feel  racking  pains 
in  all  my  limbs.  Es  kocht  in  ihm  He  is  boiling  with  rage.  Da  wallte  es  in 
ihm  auf  Then  his  blood  began  to  boil.  Manchmal  lief  es  ihm  kalt  den  Rücken 
herab  Many  a  time  a  cold  thrill  ran  down  his  back.  Es  setzt  Schläge  It  has 
come  to  blows.  Es  wogte  und  tobte  There  was  a  heaving  and  raging,  i.e.  their 
minds  were  in  violent  commotion.  Es  zieht  hier  There  is  a  draught  here. 
Es  schallt  sehr  in  diesem  Saale  There  is  a  strong  resonance  in  this  hall.  Es 
riecht  hier  nach  Talg.  Es  geht  bergab  mit  seiner  Gesundheit.  Es  braucht 
keines  weiteren  Wortes.  Es  bedarf  nur  eines  Wortes.  Es  hapert  irgendwo 
There  is  a  hitch  somewhere. 

Sometimes  the  es  seems  to  indicate  an  indefinite,  indescribable  something 
and  sometimes  it  imparts  a  weird,  ghostly  impression:  Es  läßt  mir  keine  Ruhe 
A  queer  undefinable  feeling  of  unrest  disquiets  me.  Oft  ergriff  es  ihn  mit  dämo- 
nischer Gewalt  (Raabe's  EinFrüJiUng,  chap.  vi).  Es  geht  im  Hause  um  The  house 
is  haunted.  Und  als  er  im  willigen  Schlummer  lag,  bewegt  es  sich  unter  dem 
Bette  And  when  he  was  about  to  go  to  sleep  something  stirred  under  the  bed. 
The  verbs  used  here  are  such  as  usually  have  a  personal  subject.  The  vague, 
indefinite  impression  so  often  conveyed  here  by  this  construction  seems  to  come 
from  the  fact  that  no  definite  person  is  mentioned  with  verbs  that  are  usually 
associated  with  definite  reference.  The  idea  of  indefiniteness  thus  attaches 
here  to  es,  which  altho  subject  does  not  reveal  anything  about  the  person  or 
persons  engaged  in  the  activity. 

The  es  is  regularly  expressed  in  this  large  modern  category  which  has  de- 
veloped under  the  domination  of  formal  grammar,  which  requires  a  subject 
for  every  sentence.  Moreover  the  es  is  here  often  absolutely  necessary  to 
distinguish  the  declarative  from  the  interrogative  form  of  statement,  for  the 
verb  here  is  usually  important  and  naturally  comes  to  the  front  by  reason  of 
its  emphasis,  or  its  prominence  in  the  narrative  style  which  markedly  charac- 
terizes many  of  these  sentences  naturally  brings  it  forward,  as  described  in  251. 
II.  B.  a.  bb.     Compare  219  and  250.  a  (2nd  par.). 

The  impersonal  es  here  and  elsewhere  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  es 
or  das  which  points  to  something  definite  which  is  more  or  less  clearly  defined 
by  the  situation:  Wird's  bald?  Are  you  ever  going  to  get  thru?,  lit.  Will  it  (the 
work  in  hand)  soon  come  into  being?  Es  geht  nicht  It  can't  be  done.  Es 
(or  das)  ist  mir  recht.  Es  ist  mir  einerlei.  Es  steht  schlecht  Things  are  in 
bad  condition.  Das  regnet  ja  heut  in  einem  fort!  Das  gibt  ein  Unglück. 
Es  ist  Hans  (uttered  by  someone  who  has  just  heard  approaching  steps).  Es 
(i.e.  the  waiting)  dauerte  lange,  ehe  er  kam.     Es  brennt  (spoken  in  the  house 


219.  4.  A.  a. IMPERSONAL   CONSTRUCTIONS 335 

with  reference  to  the  fire  in  the  stove),  but  es  is  impersonal  in  Es  brennt!  (a  cry 
upon  the  street).  This  situation  es,  provided  it  does  not  stand  in  the  first  place 
in  sentence  or  clause,  is  still  often  omitted  in  certain  set  expressions  where  the 
situation  makes  the  thought  clear:  Er  kommt  so  bald  als  möglich  —  so  bald 
als  es  (i.e.  das  Kommen)  möglich  ist.  Er  benahm  sich  nicht,  wie  sich  schickte, 
or  wie  es  sich  schickte.     Compare  251.  II.  A.  d.     See  also  1  and  2  above. 

a.  The  impersonal  es  gibt  there  is,  there  are  from  its  unusual  frequency  demands  a  care- 
ful study.  It  simply  calls  attention  to  a  giving,  causing,  producing  without  any  attempt  to 
bring  the  activity  into  relations  to  a  definite  subject,  hence  it  closely  resembles  in  construction 
es  regnet,  differing  from  it  only  in  verbal  meaning  and  of  course  also  in  grammatical  function 
in  that  it  is  a  transitive  and  takes  an  accusative  object  indicating  the  result  of  the  verbal  activity: 
Es  gibt  viel  Elend  im  Lande  There  is  much  misery  in  the  land.  In  the  English  form  of  this  imper- 
sonal construction  misery  is  not  an  object  as  in  German  but  a  predicate  nominative,  so  that 
misery  is  simply  predicated  without  being  represented  as  a  result  of  active  forces  as  in  German. 
When  the  idea  of  active  natural  forces  disappears  we  find  also  in  German  the  English  form, 
but  with  es  instead  of  there:  Es  gibt  Löwen  in  Afrika,  aber  nicht  in  Europa  There  are  lions  in 
Africa  but  not  in  Europe,  which  is  a  natural  result  of  the  different  state  of  civilization,  but  Es 
sind  weiße  Elefanten  in  dieser  Menagerie  There  are  ivhite  elephants  in  this  menagerie,  where 
the  reference  is  merely  to  a  state  of  things,  not  to  active  natural  forces  producing  results.  Notice 
that  the  es  of  the  es  ist  (sind)  construction  drops  out  if  it  is  not  the  first  word,  while  there  in 
English  always  remains:  In  dieser  Menagerie  sind  weiße  Elefanten  hi  this  menagerie  there 
are  white  elephants,  but  In  Afrika  gibt  es  Löwen  In  Africa  there  are  lions.  The  German  is  very 
fond  of  the  es  gibt  form:  Es  gibt  eine  Vergeltung  im  Leben  There  is  such  a  thing  in  life  as  retri- 
bution. Es  gab  keinen  größeren  Meister  in  der  Kunst  des  Halbdunkels  als  den  Doktor  Theo- 
phile Stein  (Raalie's  Hungerpastor,  chap.  xx).  Es  gibt  solche  Menschen  There  are  such  people. 
Es  gibt  nichts  Dümmres  als  ihn  There  is  nothing  more  stupid  than  he  is.  Was  gibt's  Neues? 
Es  gibt  nichts  Neues.  What's  the  news?  There  is  no  news.  Es  gibt  Streit  und  Lärm  There  is 
contention  and  noise  going  on. 

After  the  analogy  of  a  number  of  the  above  sentences  where  es  gibt  is  used  in  a  broad  general 
statement  it  is  sometimes  employed  to  avoid  particular  mention,  and  to  state  something  in  a 
vague, _  general  way:  Es  gibt  hier  einen  jungen  Menschen,  der  seine  Äußerungen  ein  wenig 
mehr  bewachen  könnte  There  is  here  a  young  fellow  (I  do  not  desire  to  point  him  out)  who  might 
be  a  little  more  guarded  in  his  remarks. 

In  English  we  sometimes  find  a  personal  construction  where  in  German  the  impersonal  iorvj 
of  statement  is  used:  Was  gibt's  heute?  Es  gibt  heute  noch  Schnee  What  shall  we  get  to-day? 
We  shall  get  some  snow  yet  to-day.  Gestern  zu  Mittag  gab  es  Kohl  Yesterday  we  had  cabbage 
for  dinner. 

Note.  The  real  nature  of  this  construction  is  sometimes  little  felt,  as  in  dialect  the  object  of  geben  sometimes 
becomes  the  subject  and  this  incorrect  usage  appears  occasionally  in  the  literary  language:  Es  ist  ein  Kauz,  wie's 
mehr  noch  geben  (Goethes   Urfausl,  1.  H7ö).     Es  müssen  auch  solche  Käuze  geben  (Kölnisclie  Zeitung). 

4.  A.  Some  verbs  expressing  states  of  the  mind  or  body.  There  is  here 
still,  as  in  earlier  periods,  considerable  fluctuation  of  usage  as  there  often  pre- 
vails the  desire  to  call  attention  merely  to  an  activity  as  going  on  in  the  body 
or  mind  without  bringing  it  into  a  relation  to  a  definite  subject,  when  of  course 
the  impersonal  construction  is  employed,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  often 
desired  to  call  attention  to  a  definite  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  and  thus 
indicate  that  the  person  is  felt  as  passing  thru  an  experience,  or  a  definite 
person  or  thing  is  conceived  as  affecting  the  person:  Es  erbarmt  mich  deiner 
/  pity  you,  Mich  erbarmt  deiner,  Du  erbarmst  mich,  Dein  Unglück  erbarmt 
mich,  or  more  commonly  Ich  erbarme  mich  über  dich.  The  impersonal  idea 
which  has  proved  useful  in  modern  as  well  as  older  life  and  hence  is  well  pre- 
served in  the  other  groups  and  has  there  even  been  spreading  has  in  this  group 
in  general  since  O.H.G.  been  slowly  yielding  to  the  personal  idea.  In  this 
group  as  in  others  impersonal  es  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  situation 
es  (see  3,  last  par.),  which  points  to  something  definite  which  is  more  or  less 
clearly  defined  by  the  situation:  Es  (referring  to  a  misfortune  at  hand)  betrübt 
mich  tief.  Es  (life)  gefällt  mir  in  Berlin.  Es  or  das  verschlägt  mir  nichts 
It  or  that  (the  issue,  matter  at  hand)  is  quite  immat  rial  to  me. 

On  the  basis  of  grammatical  form  this  impersonal  group  falls  into  three 
classes : 

a.  Those  that  take  an  ace.  of  the  person:  es  dünkt  (rare  form  dunkelt)  or 
bedünkt  (bedünkelt)  mich  or  mir  it  seems  to  me;  es  brennt  mich  it  smarts; 
es  durstet  or  dürstet  mich,  or  ich  bin  durstig  I  am  thirsty,  ich  dürste  nach; 
es  friert  mich  I  am  cold,  es  friert  mich  an  (w.  dat.  of  the  part  affected,  as  den 


336 IMPERSONAL   CONSTRUCTIONS 219.  4.  A.  a. 

Füßen,  sometimes  also  w.  ace.  die  Füße),  or  with  a  little  different  meaning  in 
with  ace.  ( :  es  friert  mich  bis  in  die  Fingerspitzen),  or  ich  friere  an  (den  Füßen), 
or  mir  frieren  die  Füße;  es  fröstelt  mich  or  sometimes  mir,  also  ich  fröstele 
I  feel  chilly;  es  hungert  mich,  or  ich  bin  hungrig  I  am  hungry;  es  juckt  mich 
I  itch,  es  juckt  mich  auf  dem  ganzen  Körper,  im  Ohr,  in  den  Zehen,  die  Zehen 
jucken  mir,  or  meine  Zehen  jucken;  es  kitzelt  mich  (or  sometimes  mir),  es 
kitzelt  mich  am  Leibe,  am  ganzen  Leibe;  es  kratzt  or  kitzelt  mich  im  Halse; 
es  schläfert  mich  I  am  sleepy;  es  schmerzt  mich  it  pains  me;  es  schüttelt 
mich  it  sends  a  shiver  thru  me,  I'm  shivering;  es  schwitzt  mich,  or  more  com- 
monly ich  schwitze  I  am  perspiring;  es  würgt  mich  I'm  choking,  I  have  a 
choking  sensation;  es  wurmt  mich  (or  now  less  commonly  mir)  it  vexes  me 
inwardly. 

b.  Those  that  take  a.  dative  of  the  person:  es  ist  mir  bekehrt,  common  in 
colloquial  language  in  the  expression  Ich  weiß  selber  nicht  recht,  wie  mir  bekehrt 
ist  (Telmann's  Wahrheit,  XIII),  or  Ich  weiß  nicht,  wie  ich  bekehrt  bin  I  am 
sorely  puzzled;  es  behebt  it  pleases  in  certain  set  expressions,  as  wie  es  Ihnen 
beliebt  as  yon  please,  also  es  geliebt  it  pleases  in  a  few  expressions,  as  geliebt 
es  Gott  if  God  wills,  geliebt's  den  Göttern  (Grillparzer's  Libussa,  2);  es  däm- 
mert mir  it  dawns  upon  my  mind,  as  in  Es  dämmerte  mir  in  der  Seele  wunder- 
bar bei  seiner  Rede,  but  often  also  with  a  nom.  subject  of  the  thing,  as  in  Mir 
dämmert  ein  Strahl  von  Hoffnung;  es  eilt  mir  I  am  in  a  hurry,  es  eilt  Ihnen 
ja  auf  einmal  ganz  gewaltig,  Herr,  mir  gute  Nacht  zu  wünschen  (Wilbrandt's 
Vater  Robinson,  II.  chap,  ii),  also  ich  habe  Eile  and  es  pressiert  mir:  Aber 
es  ist  doch  besser,  als  daß  Sie  bis  morgen  warten  müssen,  wenn  es  Ihnen 
schon  so  pressiert  (Spielhagen's  Faust ulus,  p.  60),  or  ich  bin  pressiert;  es 
fehlt  mir  an  (w.  dat.)  I  lack;  es  geht  mir  gut  I'm  well;  es  gelingt  mir  I  succeed, 
still  sometimes  used  impersonally,  as  in  Es  ist  ihm  damit  gelungen,  but  more 
commonly  with  a  nom.  subject  of  a  thing,  as  in  Es,  alles,  nichts,  der  Versuch 
ist  ihm  gelungen,  or  with  an  infinitive  as  logical  subject,  as  in  Es  ist  mir  gelungen, 
ihn  zu  besänftigen;  es  graut,  grauelt,  grauselt,  graust,  gruselt  mir  or  mich 
(vor  w.  dat.),  or  ich  graue,  grau[e]le,  &c.  mich  (vor)  I  shudder  (at),  es  ist, 
wird  mir  angst,  bange,  or  sometimes  ich  bin  angst  (originally  a  substantive, 
now  sometimes  construed  as  a  predicate  adjective)  and  more  commonly  ich 
bin  bange  (originally  an  adverb,  now  quite  commonly  felt  as  an  adjective), 
bist  du  bange?  (Otto  Ernst's  Jugend  von  heute,  4,  6),  or  es  bangt  mir  or  mich 
I  am,  am  getting  anxious,  afraid,  es  bangt  mir  or  mich  für  (um)  mein  Leben, 
meinen  Freund,  vor  dem  Tode,  or  ich  bange  mich  or  ich  bange  für  etwas  (or 
einen)  or  vor  etwas,  es  fürchtet  mir  (Swiss  =  ich  fürchte  mich) ;  es  liegt  mir 
daran  it  is  of  importance  to  me;  es  rappelt  ihm  or  more  commonly  bei  ihm 
something  is  wrong  with  him  in  his  upper  story;  es  schaudert  mir  or  mich  I 
shudder,  mir  schaudert  (vor  +  dat.),  or  ich  schaudere  (vor  +  dat.);  es 
schwindelt  mir  (sometimes  mich)  I  am  giddy,  dizzy;  sein  in  connection  with 
certain  adjectives  and  adverbs,  as  es  ist  mir  kalt,  warm  I  am  cold,  warm,  or 
sometimes  after  the  manner  of  the  French:  Hast  du  kalt?  (Wildenbruch's 
König  Heinrich,  2,  4);  es  ist  mir  schwach  I  feel  faint,  es  ist  mir  übel  I  feel 
sick  at  the  stomach;  es  ist  mir  wohl  zu  Mut  I  am  in  good  humor;  es  träumt 
mir  (only  rarely  mich),  or  ich  träume  I  dream;  es  widert  mir  vor  etwas,  or 
etwas  zu  tun  I  loathe  something,  or  to  do  something,  also  with  ace. ;  mir  zweifelt 
nicht  daran  I  have  no  doubt  about  it,  now  usually  ich  zweifle  nicht  daran. 

c.  There  is  a  group  of  impersonal  verbs  with  an  ace.  or  dat.  and  a  gen.: 
Es  erbarmt  mich  seiner  or  Mich  erbarmt  seiner  /  pity  him.  These  verbs  are 
given  in  262.  II.  A.  c.  In  early  N.H.G.  they  formed  a  flourishing  group,  but 
since  that  time  they  have  entirely  or  in  part  abandoned  the  impersonal  con- 
struction and  where  it  is  retained  the  original  form  of  expression  has  been 
considerably  changed,  as  described  in  detail  in  262.  II.  B.  d. 

B.  a.  The  constructions  a,  b,  c  under  A  may  be  varied  by  changing  the 
order,  either  placing  the  dat.  or  ace.  object  before  and  the  es  after  the  verb, 
or  by  thus  inverting  the  object  but  suppressing  the  es:    es  graut  mir,  or  mir 


219.  5.  A. IMPERSONAL    PASSIVE 337 

graut  es,  or  mir  graut.  Some  verbs  only  take  the  es  in  the  inverted  word- 
order,  when  no  other  modifiers  follow:  Ihn  jammert  es  It  causes  him  pity,  but 
Ihn  jammert  des  Volkes  He  pities  the  people.  After  a  number  of  the  verbs 
describing  a  state  of  mind  or  body  the  es  can  usually  only  stand  as  the  first 
word  in  this  construction  in  the  principal  proposition  and  in  the  subordinate 
clause  is  usually  omitted  altogether:  Mich  dünkt,  er  wird  alt.  Mich  hungerte. 
Selig  sind  die  da  hungert  vnd  dürstet  nach  der  Gerechtigkeit  (Matth.  v.  G). 
Es  ist,  als  ob  jemand  anders  das  Wasser  trinkt,  nach  dem  mich  dürstet  (Spiel- 
hagen's  Sonntagskind,  II.  ö).  Es  ist  nicht  kalt,  wie  mich  dünkt  (M.  Heyne, 
Wörterbuch).  Wie  mir  ekelt .  .  .  wie  mir  ekelt!  (delle  Grazie's  Vineta).  Notice 
also  the  sentence  from  Telmann  in  A.  b  above.  More  and  more,  however,  the 
formal  subject  es  is  gradually  forcing  its  way  into  these  positions:  Mir,  mich 
ekelt  (es)  (Daniel  Sanders). 

■  Note.  Originally  such  verbs  did  not  take  a  formal  subject,  as  the  activity  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb  was  not 
felt  as  standing  in  a  relation  to  a  subject.  Thus  the  omission  of  the  es  in  the  inverted  and  the  transposed  order  is 
the  survival  of  a  once  general  usage.     Compare  219  and  also  250.  a. 

b.  Observe  that,  tho  the  impersonal  construction  may  sometimes  be  re- 
placed by  the  personal,  as  in  Es  friert  ihn,  or  er  friert  He  is  freezing,  sometimes 
there  is  a  sharp  distinction  between  them.  The  impersonal  construction  in- 
dicates that  the  force  exerted  comes  from  without,  while  the  personal  subject 
indicates  that  the  act  comes  from  the  subject :  Er  friert  und  hungert  aus  Geiz 
He  freezes  and  goes  hungry  from  pure  stinginess.  Here  the  impersonal  con- 
struction could  not  be  used. 

5.  An  impersonal  construction  with  es  either  expressed  or  understood  is 
found  in  the  passive  of  verbs  that  govern  the  gen.  or  dat.,  and  with  many  other 
intransitives,  an  idiom  that  is  quite  foreign  to  our  language.  Note  the  fol- 
lowing points: 

A.  In  transferring  a  sentence  from  the  active  to  the  passive,  the  ace.  as 
in  English  becomes  nom.,  but  the  gen.,  dat.,  and  a  prep,  phrase  remain  unchanged 
and  the  subject  becomes  es  expressed  or  understood:  (active)  er  spottet  meiner; 
(passive)  es  wird  meiner  gespottet,  or  meiner  wird  gespottet;  er  schmeichelt 
mir,  es  wird  mir  von  ihm  geschmeichelt,  or  mir  wird  von  ihm  geschmeichelt. 
Er  schickte  mich  nach  dem  Arzt  He  sent  me  for  the  physician.  Es  ist  nach 
dem  Arzt  geschickt  worden  The  physician  has  been  sent  for.  Ich  habe  an  ihn 
geschrieben  I  have  written  to  him.  Es  ist  an  ihn  geschrieben  worden  He  has 
been  written  to.  When  the  agent  is  not  expressed  as  in  the  last  sentence,  this 
impersonal  passive,  as  in  B  below,  represents  an  activity  only  in  a  general 
way  without  reference  to  a  definite  agent.  For  fuller  description  of  this  con- 
struction, see  258.  1. 

This  construction  is  not  only  found  with  the  regular  passive  forms  but  also 
with  predicate  modal  verbals  (180.  A)  which  take  a  dative  or  a  prepositional 
phrase,  as  this  construction,  i.e.  a  prepositional  infinitive  after  the  copula  sein, 
is  now  felt  as  a  passive  form,  since  with  transitive  verbs  it  has  passive  force: 
Es  ist  ihm  (or  Ihm  ist)  nicht  zu  trauen  He  is  not  to  be  trusted.  Es  ist  ihm  (or 
Ihm  ist)  nicht  beizukommen  There  (formerly  it)  is  no  getting  at  him.  Es  ist 
nicht  mit  ihm  auszukommen,  or  Mit  ihm  ist  nicht  auszukommen. 

As  actional  passive  (194.  4)  forms  are  used  in  all  the  examples  given  above 
the  reference  is  to  an  act.  The  statal  passive  (194.  4)  must  be  used  here  when 
the  reference  is  to  a  state:  Ihr  ist  (or  Es  ist  ihr)  geholfen  She  is  cared  for.  Here 
the  participle  is  always  the  predicate,  but  there  is  no  actual  subject,  at  most 
only  a  formal  subject,  es,  which  can  only  be  expressed  when  it  stands  in  the 
first  place.  In  the  objective  predicate  construction  the  object  of  the  principal 
verb  is  the  subject  of  the  clause  and  the  participle  is  the  predicate:  Ich  glaubte 
ihn  geheilt  I  believed  him  to  be  cured.  In  the  impersonal  objective  predicate 
construction  there  can  be  no  accusative  object  as  there  is  no  subject  in  the 
clause.  The  dative  or  prepositional  object  of  the  active  is  simply  retained  in 
the  passive:  Ich  glaubte  ihr  geholfen  I  believed  her  to  be  cared  for.  Ich  fühle 
mir  (often  mich)  durch  Ihren  Brief  geschmeichelt.  Compare  262.  III.  2.  B 
(last  par.). 


338 FUNCTION    &    FORM    OF   ADVERBS 219.  5.  B. 

B.  The  impersonal  passive  of  such  intransitives  as  have  no  object  at  all  and 
such  transitives  as  are  used  like  intransitives  without  an  object  does  not  repre- 
sent the  subject  (see  a  below)  as  acted  on,  but  denotes  in  quite  a  general  way 
an  activity  or  a  state  in  and  of  itself  without  reference  to  a  definite  subject, 
and  with  no  reference  whatever  to  a  direct  object:  Es  wird  gelaufen  There 
(compare  3  above,  1st  par.)  is  running  going  on;  Es  wurde  immer  viel  ge- 
plaudert, gescherzt  und  gelacht  There  was  always  a  good  deal  of  chatting,  joking 
and  laughing.  Oben  wird  getanzt  There  is  dancing  going  on  upstairs.  Es 
wird  noch  geschlafen  Some  people  are  still  asleep.  Für  den  lieben  König  und 
Herrn  wird  [personal  passive]  alles  getan,  wird  [impersonal  passive]  treulich 
gekämpft,  wird  [impcrs.]  willig  geblutet,  wird  [impers.]  freudig  in  den  Tod 
gegangen,  für  ihn  wird  [impers.]  mehr  als  gestorben:  für  ihn  werden  [pers.] 
starken  Herzens  auch  die  Kinder  geopfert  (Vilmar's  Literaturgeschichte) .  Man 
muß  Soldat  sein  für  sein  Land  oder  aus  Liebe  zu  der  Sache,  für  die  gefochten 
wird. 

a.  In  principal  propositions  in  both  A  and  B  es  must,  according  to  219,  be  used  when  the 
verb  is  not  preceded  by  a  modifier,  for  it  is  then  needed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  to  distinguish 
the  declarative  from  the  interrogative  form  of  sentence,  but  drops  out  when  some  other  word 
takes  the  first  place.  It  is  also  omitted  as  a  rule  in  subordinate  clauses  with  transposed  word- 
order. 

b.  This  construction  can  only  be  used  with  intransitives  which  express  an  activity  or  con- 
dition that  stands  in  a  relation  to  a  free  moral  agent:  Es  wird  gegessen,  geschlafen  They  (in- 
definite) are  eating,  sleeping,  but  not  Es  wird  gefunkelt,  geblitzt,  gerauscht  There  is  a  sparlding, 
it  is  lightening,  there  is  a  rushing  of  water. 

Note.  This  construction  arose  with  transitives  that  can  be  used  in  the  active  without  an  expressed  object  and  hence 
in  the  passive  without  an  expressed  subject:  Bittet  I  so  wird  euch  gegeben  |  Suchet  so  werdet  jr  finden  |  Klopfet  an 
I  so  wird  euch  aufgethan  fLuke  xi.  !>).  The  original  passive  force  can  here  still  be  felt,  but  as  there  is  in  the  active 
no  object  and  in  the  passive  no  subject  the  transitive  idea  is  overshadowed  by  the  conception  of  an  activity  pure 
and  simple,  an  activity  th?.t  is  conceived  as  proceeding  without  reference  to  any  agent  at  work  or  to  any  definite 
subject  as  acted  upon,  so  that  the  force  is  usually  felt  as  intransitive  and  the  construction  is  extended  to  intransitives. 
Heute  wird  gelacht.     This  passive  construction,  already  in  use  in  Gothic  and  O.K.G.,  became  common  in  M.H.G. 

c.  In  certain  set  expressions  a  trans,  verb  and  its  object  are  conceived  of  as  together  forming 
the  idea  of  an  activity,  and  hence  the  verb  with  its  object,  both  together  being  treated  as  a  simple 
intrans.,  may  form  this  impersonal  passive:  Es  wurde  Kegel  (ace.  pi.)  geschoben  There  was 
playing  at  ninepins  going  on.  Rastlos  wurde  fortgewirkt,  gewaffnet,  geübt,  gekleidet  und 
Verwundete  (acc.  pl.)  geheilt  (Kohlrausch).  Unter  diesen  wurde  fleißig  Karten  gespielt, 
gemäßigte  Parkpromenaden  gemacht,  den  Tafelfreuden  gehuldigt  und  unabsehbar  viel ,, kanne- 
gegossen" (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder!,  III).  In  the  same  manner  a  verb  and  its  reflexive 
object  is  sometimes  treated  as  a  simple  intransitive:  Da  wurde  geknufft  und  geprügelt,  in  zit- 
ternder Angst  sich  verkrochen  und  mit  lautem  Hallo  losgestürmt  (C.  Viebig's  Die  Wacht  am 
Rhein,  p.  48).  Compare  177.  I.  B.  h  (last  par.).  The  reflexive  construction  has  not  found 
favor  with  grammarians,  altho  it  is  widely  used  in  dialect  and  colloquial  speech  and  for  hundreds 
of  years  has  from  time  to  time  occasionally  appeared  in  the  literary  language. 

PARTICLES. 

220.  A  particle  is  a  word  that  cannot  be  inflected  at  all.  Particles  are 
divided  into  adverbs,  prepositons,  conjunctions,  and  interjections,  but  these 
classes  cannot  always  be  sharply  defined,  as  many  prepositions  and  conjunctions 
are  also  reckoned  among  adverbs. 

ADVERBS. 

221.  Definition.  The  adverb  (i.e.  belonging  to  a  verb)  is  true  to  its  name, 
a  particle  principally  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  but  it  may  also 
modify  an  adjective  or  another  adverb:  Der  Sturm  tobt  sehr;  ein  sehr  heftiger 
Sturm;    ein  sehr  heftig  tobender  Sturm. 

o.  The  adverb  is  often  used  alone  without  reference  to  a  verb,  adjective,  or  other  adverb: 
herein!  come  in!  vorwärts!  forward!  auf,  auf,  Kameraden! 

The  Function  and  Form  of  Adverbs,  Adjectives,  and  Prepositions 

Compared. 

222.  1.  The  adverb  borders  very  closely  in  its  nature  upon  the  adjective.  It  modifies  a 
verb,  adjective,  or  other  adverb  in  the  same  manner  as  an  adjective  modifies  a  noun.     Thus  in 


222.  2.  E. FUNCTION    &   FORM    OF   ADVERBS 339 

general  out  of  any  adjective  an  adverb  can  be  formed  and  there  results  a  large  number  of  parallel 
forms — an  inflected  one  modifying  a  noun  and  an  unintiected  one  modifying  a  verb,  adjective, 
or  other  adverb. 

2.  The  adverb  has  usually  exactly  the  same  form  as  the  uninflected  form  of  the  adjective. 
Only  in  earlier  periods  of  the  language  were  they  distinguished  in  form.  Thus  as  the  adverb 
has  to-day  usually  the  same  form  as  the  predicate  adjective,  and  as  both  often  approach  each 
other  closely  in  nature,  the  boundary  between  their  respective  functions  is  not  always  sharply 
defined,  as  illustrated  in  E  below.  Hence  an  adverb  is  often  used  for  an  adjective,  where  there 
is  no  corresponding  adjective.  Many  adverbs  which  are  now  used  adjectively  were  originally 
used  as  true  adverbs,  modifiers  of  a  verb,  and  did  not  take  on  adjective  function  until  after  the 
verb  (i.e.  participle)  had  been  dropped  and  they  themselves  stood  alone  in  the  predicate,  and 
were  felt  as  the  real  predicate  complement:  Die  Tür  ist  zu(gemacht).  It  will  be  noticed  in  the 
articles  below  that  these  adverbs  assumed  adjective  function  first  in  the  predicate.  That  they 
later  were  also  used  attributively  and  have  taken  on  adjective  inflection  is  only  a  natural  de- 
velopment. The  following  cases  of  interchange  of  function,  or  form,  or  of  both  between  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs  occur: 

A.  An  adverb  or  adverbial  phrase  often  takes  on  adjective  function  when  there  is  no  cor- 
responding adjective: 

a.  In  the  predicate  to  express  rest  in  a  place  or  a  condition,  often  with  the  verb  sein,  and 
sometimes  as  objective  predicate  after  the  verbs  lassen  and  wissen,  and  sometimes  when  no 
verb  is  expressed:  Er  ist  da.  Die  Tür  ist  zu.  Ich  weiß  ihn  dort,  laß  ihn  dort  I  know  that  he 
is  there,  leave  him  there.  Hier  [ist]  der  ergrimmte  Feldherr,  dort  [ist]  die  Fürchterliche  (Schil- 
ler's Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  2,  0).     Er  ist  zu'frieden  (lit.  in  peace). 

b.  In  the  predicate  to  express  motion  to  or  from  a  place,  lit.  or  figuratively,  usually  with 
the  verb  sein:  Sie  sind  fort  They  are  gone.  Die  Wintersaat  ist  zwar  (he)rein  (in).  Er  ist 
von  dort  He  is  from  that  place.  Er  ist  aus  (from)  Frankreich.  Es  ist  aus  mit  ihm  It  is  all  over 
with  him. 

c.  In  the  predicate  to  express  time:  Es  war  im  März.  Das  Konzert  ist  aus.  Das  ist  nun 
vorbei. 

d.  Attributively,  following  the  noun  that  it  limits,  in  the  case  of  those  classes  of  adverbs 
described  in  a,  b,  c:  der  Mann  da  the  man  yonder;  der  da  oben  He  on  high;  der  Berg  dort 
the  mountain  yonder;  die  Fahrt  hierher  the  journey  to  this  place;  die  Aussicht  auf  den  Fluß; 
ein  Wort  fürs  Herz;   der  Baum  drüben;   die  Kämpfe  in  den  Jahren  1813-15,  &c. 

e.  Sometimes  in  the  predicate,  in  case  of  adverbs  of  manner  after  sein  and  sometimes  werden: 
Es  ist  so,  anders  It  is  thus,  different.  Es  ist  umsonst,  or  vergebens  It  is  in  vain.  Er  ist  rechts, 
links  He  is  right-handed,  left-handed.     Er  wird  mir  zuwider  He  is  becoming  disagreeable  to  me. 

/.  In  dialect  or  popular  language  in  case  of  an  adverb  of  manner,  when  it  stands  before  a 
noun  in  the  attributive  relation:  Es  gibt  so  Gänschen  (i.e.  girls),  die  hübsch  weiche  Schnäbel 
haben  (H.  Hoft'mann's  W-ider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap.  i). 

g.  In  the  superlative  (112.  .3.  B)  in  the  predicate.  Instead  of  a  superlative  adjective:  Der 
Sturm  war  am  heftigsten  gegen  Abend. 

B.  As  a  number  of  adverbs  (as  those  in  A.  a,  b,  c,  e)  could  stand  as  an  adjective  in  the  predi- 
cate, it  was  only  a  natural  development  for  them  to  assume  adjective  function  also  in  the  at- 
tributive relation.  Thus  nahe,  fem,  selten,  zu'frieden,  vor'handen,  be'hende,  einzeln,  täglich, 
ungefähr,  teilweise,  anderweit,  &c.,  have  developed  into  full  adjectives  with  adjective  inflec- 
tion. Other  adverbs  which  have  not  proceeded  so  far  in  this  development  are  thus  used  in 
colloquial  speech  and  dialect  and  occasionally  appear  in  the  literary  language:  Ich  mußte  also 
den  ganzen  Tag  Einladungen  an  allerhand  uninteressante  und  zuwidere  (see  A.  e)  Menschen 
verfassen  (Hermann  Bahr  in  Theater,  chap.  ix).  Dialect  goes  much  farther,  and  uses  other 
adverbs  adjectively:  ein  zues  or  zuenes  Fenster  a  closed  window,  der  entzweie  Topf  the  broken 
pot;  der  hinene  Stuhl  the  broken  chair,  &c.  Notice  here  that  the  adverbs  zu  and  hin  usually 
become  zuen  and  hinen  in  adj .  function.  Quite  a  number  of  other  adverbs  can  also  in  the  literary 
language  take  on  adjective  function  and  inflection  when  they  add  the  suffix  ig.  See  245.  II. 
9.  2.  B. 

C.  In  the  case  of  verbal  nouns  in  -ung  and  nouns  denoting  agents  in  -er  the  adjective  in 
fact  fills  the  office  of  the  adverb,  as  these  nouns  have  in  reality  the  meaning  and  force  of  verbs. 
Thus  in  eine  gute  Erzählung  a  good  story  and  ein  guter  Erzähler  a  good  story-teller  the  adjective 
marks  the  eft'ectiveness  of  an  action  and  not  the  quality  of  an  object.  In  some  cases  such  ex- 
pressions may  be  ambiguous,  as  the  adjective  may  also  refer  to  the  author  of  the  action,  and 
not  the  action.  Hence  such  expressions  cannot  be  freely  formed.  We  may  say  ein  schwacher 
(or  kein  starker)  Esser,  ein  starker  Trinker,  ein  langjähriger  Mitarbeiter,  ein  guter  Beobachter, 
Redner,  Reiter,  Schachspieler,  Schwimmer,  &c.,  but  not  ein  schöner  Schreiber,  ein  guter, 
schlechter  Schläfer,  &c.  In  such  cases  in  German  we  must  usually  take  recourse  to  compounds 
or  group-words:  ein  Lebemann  a  fast  liver,  der  Frühaufsteher  or  Frühauf  early  riser,  Schön- 
schreiber good  penman,  Feinschmecker  one  with  a  fine  sense  of  taste,  Langschläfer  late  sleeper, 
&c.  It  is  often  necessary  in  German  to  use  a  substantive-participle  or  a  pure  verbal  form  here: 
Der  richtig  Ratende  the  right  guesser;  der  Höchstbesteuerte  the  highest  taxpayer;  einer,  der 
spät  kommt  a  late  comer,  &c. 

D.  In  dialect  the  adverb  standing  before  an  adjective  is  often  erroneously  taken  for  an 
adjective,  and  hence  assumes  adjective  inflection:    ein  ganzer  (instead  of  ganz)  guter  Mann. 

E.  On  account  of  the  dimness  of  the  line  dividing  adverb  and  predicate  adjective  the  adverb 
has  in  N.H.G.  given  up  in  the  positive  and  comparative  the  special  form  which  it  had  in  earlier 


340 CLASSIFICATION   OF  ADVERBS 222.  2.  E. 

periods,  and  assumed  the  exact  form  of  the  predicate  adjective.  However  in  poetry,  elevated 
diction,  and  in  case  of  a  few  isolated  adverbs  even  in  prose  we  still  find  occasionally  the  old 
adverbial  form.  See  Note.  In  the  superlative  the  adverb  has  in  N.H.G.  developed  new  special 
forms  (see  114.  2.  3),  one  of  which  is,  however,  also  used  adjectively  in  the  predicate  (see  112. 
3.  B). 

Note.  In  M.H.G.  the  positive  of  the  adverb  was  often  distinguished  from  the  adjective  by  the  ending  -e  or  -liehe 
(cognate  with  English  -ly),  and  even  to-day  some  adverbs  have  alongside  of  their  short  form  also  the  M.H.G.  form 
in  -e,  especially  lange,  feme,  gerne,  stille,  and  in  poetry  and  elevated  diction  also  others  as  balde,  &c.  For  sur- 
vivals of  the  older  adverbial  form  in  -lieh  see  245.  IV.  2.  b.  In  M.H.G.  some  adverbs  were  distinguished  from  the 
uninfiected  form  of  mutated  adjectives  by  taking  no  mutation,  and  this  usage  is  still  found  in  the  classics,  and  even 
to-day  in  poetry:  Wir  haben  keine  Magd;  muß  kochen, fegen,  stricken  |  und  nähen,  und  laufen  früh  und  spat  (now 
spät). — Goethe's  Faust.  3111-2.  Was  beginnt  ihr  morgen  frnh?  (for  früh)  (.Geibel).  -A.U  feeling  for  this  differen- 
tiation of  form  has  in  general  disappeared,  so  that  in  the  few  cases  in  prose  where  double  forms,  one  for  the  adverb, 
one  for  the  adjective,  still  exist,  each  form  has  taken  on  a  different  meaning:  schon  already,  but  schön  beautiful; 
fast  almost,  but  test  firm.  Schön  and  fest  are  now  also  used  adverbially  and  then  take  the  meaning  of  the  adjectives 
schön  and  iest^beaulifiilly.  firmly .  .^.s  here  in  case  of  schon  and  schön,  fast  and  fest,  so  also,  in  general,  related  forms 
which  have  become  separated  from  each  other  in  speech-feeling  may  soon  drift  apart  in  meaning.  For  cases  of  the 
survival  of  the  older  meaning  of  schon  see  223.  II.  3.  a  and  XI.  A.  e  and  J.  In  M.H.G.  the  comparative  of  the  adverb 
differed  from  the  uninflected  comparative  form  of  the  adjective  in  that  it  lacked  mutation.  For  a  survival  of  this 
older  usage  see  117.  1.  d. 

3.  Many  adverbs  approach  close  to  the  nature  of  prepositions.  Their  form  and  function 
are  explained  at  length  in  223-.  I.  9  and  the  articles  there  referred  to. 

Classification  of  Adverbs. 
223.     Adverbs  an(i   adverbial   constructions   may   be  divided   according  to 
their  meaning  into  the  following  classes: 

I.     Adverbs  of  Place  which  fall  into  the  following  subdivisions,  indicating: 

1.  Rest  in  a  place  near  the  speaker:  hier  here,  in  early  N.H.G.  hie,  still  used  in  poetry,  also 
in  prose,  in  the  set  expression  hie  und  da  here  and  there;  hier  accompanied  by  other  adverbs 
which  mark  some  place  near  the  speaker  more  accurately,  as  hier  oben  here  above,  hier  unten  here 
below,  hier  außen  outside  here,  here  in  a  foreign  land,  hier  üben  (always  contracted;  see  below) 
here  on  this  side  (of  the  ocean,  river,  question,  &c.),  hier  vorne  here  in  front,  written  together 
in  hie'nieden  here  below,  on  earth,  &c. ;  contractions  of  the  preceding,  as  hoben  for  hie  oben, 
haußen  for  hie  außen,  were  formerly  in  use,  but  are  now  common  only  in  dialect  except  hüben 
for  hie  üben:  Wackere  Männer  standen  hüben  und  drüben  Brave  men  stood  on  this  side  (of 
the  question)  and  on  the  other  side. 

2.  Rest  or  motion  near  the  speaker  according  to  the  verb  used,  in  adverbs  compounded 
of  hier  and  some  prep,  (see  141.  5.  A.  b  and  c  for  the  accent):  hieran  near  this,  hierbei  by  this, 
hierauf  upon  this,  hierunter  under  this,  hieraus  out  of  this,  hierin  in  this,  hierüber  over  this, 
concerning  this,  hierum  around  this,  hierzu  to  this,  to  this  end,  hierneben  beside  this;  with 
preposition  preceding  and  written  apart:  von  hier  or  (in  elevated  diction)  von  hiimen  from 
here,  &c. 

3.  Motion  toward  the  speaker  either  in  a  general  way  expressed  by  her  or  in  a  specific  way 
expressed  by  a  preposition  in  composition  with  her,  ver>'  frequently  with  contraction,  as  (he)'run- 
ter,  (he)'raus,  (he)'rein  (the  one  prep,  in  changes  its  form  to  ein  in  these  adverbial  compounds), 
(he) 'rüber,  her'vor,  (he) 'rum,  her'zu,  her'nieder,  (he) 'ran,  her'bei,  (he) 'rauf,  (he)'rab;  with 
preceding  prep,  and  adverb,  as  von  oben  her,  von  oben  herunter;  the  indefinite  irgend  woher 
from  somewhere,  &c.:  Komm  her  Come  here.  Er  steigt  von  der  Anhöhe  herunter  He  is  de- 
scending from  the  height  (towards  the  speaker). 

In  oldest  German  the  adverbial  compounds  heraus,  &c.,  were  quite  rare.  Just  as  In  modern 
English,  the  mere  preposition  or  rather  adverb  aus,  &c.,  was  sufficient:  Lazarus,  cum  uz,  (Tatian, 
135,  26),  now  komm  heraus,  but  In  English  as  in  older  German,  come  forth  or  out.  In  German 
the  adverb  aus,  &c.,  has  in  large  part  lost  its  older  concrete  meaning  and  thus  her  is  usually 
needed  to  bring  out  the  concrete  Idea.     Compare  7.  G.  d  below. 

a.  In  many  cases  the  Idea  of  motion  towards  the  speaker  contained  in  her  disappears,  and 
then  this  particle  simply  means  motion  or  rest  with  reference  to  some  other  person  or , thing  which 
is  represented  as  the  point  of  departure,  centre  of  attraction,  or  as  Itself  being  In  motion,  some- 
times implying  In  case  of  motion  that  the  person  preceding  or  following  the  person  In  question 
keeps  step  with  him  or  goes  at  the  same  rate  of  speed,  sometimes  implying  that  the  one  party 
is  in  pursuit  of  the  other:  Er  ist  von  Berlin  her  He  is  from  Berlin.  Sie  standen  alle  neugierig 
um  ihn  her.  Der  Heiduck  läuft  neben  dem  Wagen  her.  Die  Musik  geht  vor,  der  Troß  hinter 
dem  Zuge  her.  Sie  waren  schnell  hinter  (in  hot  pursuit  of)  dem  Ausreißer  her.  Er  ist  sehr 
hinter  dem  Gelde  her  He  is  after  money. 

It  sometimes  represents  an  action  merely  as  proceeding  In  a  given  way  without  reference  to 
direction  toward  a  definite  object:  Es  geht  lustig  her  They  are  having  a  gay  time.  Der  Zug 
ritt  still  und  ernst  ein'her  {along)  or  da'her.  In  N.G.  colloquial  language  the  force  of  her  has 
become  so  faint  that  its  original  meaning  is  now  no  longer  felt,  and  hence  It  is  even  used  Instead 
of  hin  to  denote  motion  from  the  speaker:  Gehen  Sie  rüber  (for  herüber  Instead  of  the  literary 
hinüber)  und  fordern  Sie  ihn  auf,  er  soll  den  Wiesenweg  sofort  freigeben  (Halbe's  Haus  Rosen- 
hagen, ill,  p.  124). 

b.  He'ran  denotes  near  approach  to  or  movement  tqward  the  speaker  on  a  plane  surface  or 
with  upward  movement,  while  he'rauf  Implies  direction  toward  the  speaker,  but  only  with 
upward  movement:  Ich  winkte  ihn  zu  mir  heran.  Er  kletterte  zu  mir  heran.  Kommen  Sie 
herauf  Come  upstairs. 


223.  I.  7. ADVERBS   OF   PLACE 341 

4.  Motion /row  the  speaker  either  in  a  general  way  expressed  by  dar  (see  D  below)  or  more 
commonly  hin  or  in  a  specific  way  expressed  by  a  prep,  in  composition  with  hin,  very  frequently 
with  contraction,  as  (hi) 'nan,  (hi)'nauf,  (hi) 'nab,  (hi) 'nunter,  (hi) 'naus,  (hi) 'nein  (the  one  prep, 
in  changes  its  form  in  these  adverbial  compounds  to  ein),  (hi)'nüber;  with  preceding  adverb, 
as  oben  hin  superficially,  touching  upon  a  topic  lightly  in  passing,  oben  hi'naus  (see  example 
below),  irgend  wo'hin  somewhere:  Gehe  rechts  hin  Turn  to  the  right.  Er  polterte  einen  Stein 
in  die  Tiefe  hinab.  Ich  weif5  nicht,  worauf  er  hinaus  will  I  do  not  know  what  he  is  driving  at. 
Er  hat  sich  nur  so  obenhin  darüber  geäußert  He  did  not  express  himself  fully  concerning  the 
matter.     Er  will  oben  hinaus  He  is  haughty,  gives  himself  airs. 

Here  as  in  3  above  the  adverbial  compounds  hinaus,  &c.,  were  rare  in  oldest  German:  inti 
wurpfun  in  uz,  (Tatian,  132,  20),  now  und  warfen  or  stießen  ihn  hinaus,  but  in  Engüsh  as  in 
older  German  and  threw  him  out. 

A.  Besides  hin  also  los  and  zu  can  be  used  with  reference  to  movement  towards  a  goal,  but 
with  different  shades.  Hin  simply  points  to  the  goal,  while  zu  implies  a  lively  unceasing  exertion 
to  reach  the  desired  end,  and  los  emphasizes  the  beginning  of  the  action  and  often  implies  that 
up  to  this  time  something  has  prevented  action  tho  all  was  in  readiness,  and  hence  often  denotes 
a  sudden,  violent  breaking  forth:  Nun  schießt  nur  hin,  daß  es  alle  wird  Now  fire  away  at  the 
mark  that  the  matter  (as  to  who  would  turn  out  to  be  the  best  marksman)  may  have  an  end! 
Schießt  zu!  Shoot  away  with  all  your  skill,  and  don't  stop  till  you  hit  it!  Immer  zu!  Go  right 
ahead  with  all  your  might!  Schießt  los!  Don't  wait  longer,  fire  away!  Er  hat  Jahre  lang 
bedächtig  und  stetig  auf  dies  Ziel  hingearbeitet;  wähnst  du,  wenn  du  nun  ohne  Bedacht  darai5 
los  arbeitest,  es  ihm  gleich  tun  zu  können?     Der  Zorn  des  Generals  brach  los. 

B.  Hin  may  not  only  denote  motion /row,  on  a  level  surface,  but  may  also  denote  movement 
downward  towards  a  point  at  some  distance  away  from  the  speaker.  In  this  sense  it  is  synonymous 
with  unter,  nieder,  and  he'rab  or  hi'nab,  he'runter  or  hi'nunter,  according  to  the  relation  to 
the  speaker. 

a.  Hin  simply  denotes  direction  downward  toward  a  point  at  some  distance  from  the  speaker, 
ab  and  nieder  without  any  suggestion  of  distance,  indicating  only  a  relative  direction  with  reference 
to  the  speaker,  emphasizes  the  idea  that  the  direction  is  from  above  downward,  unter  often 
adds  to  the  idea  of  nieder  that  in  the  course  of  the  downward  motion  the  object  disappears  below 
something:  Der  Apfel  fiel  auf  die  Erde  hin  or  nieder.  Der  Reiter  sitzt  ab.  Ein  ins  Wasser 
geworfener  Stein  sinkt  nieder  or  (to  express  out  of  sight,  below  the  surface)  unter. 

b.  Moreover,  nieder  seems  more  suitable  for  elevated  diction  where  the  idea  of  slow  and 
gradual  motion  enters  into  it:  [Der  Schiffende]  sieht  die  Berge  schon  blau,  die  scheidenden, 
sieht  in  das  Meer  sie  niedersinken  (Goethe). 

c.  (Hi)'nab  or  (he)'rab  simply  denote  motion  downward,  while  hi'nunter  or  he'runter  add 
to  this  conception  that  the  whole  distance  in  question  is  passed  over:  Er  glitt  einige  Stufen 
herab,  kam  dann  ins  Stürzen  und  fiel  so  die  ganze  Treppe  herunter.  Er  läßt  sich  herab  He 
condescends  (lets  himself  down  a  little),  but  Er  ist  in  seinen  Vermögensverhältiüssen  ganz 
heruntergekommen  He  is  in  very  straitened  circumstances  (dropped  clear  down  from  wealth 
to  poverty). 

C.  (Hi) 'nan  with  a  prep,  denotes  a  general  movement  foru^ard  on  a  plane  surface  with  the 
intention  of  approaching  something,  with  an  adverbial  ace.  it  may  also  add  to  the  idea  of  pushing 
forward,  the  conception  of  an  upward  movement,  and  can  refer  to  the  whole  distance  in  question 
or  a  part,  while  hi'nauf  denotes  only  movement  upward,  and  implies  usually  that  the  whole 
distance  in  question  is  passed  over:  Wir  ritten  an  den  Feind  hinan.  Er  fuhr  den  Strom  hinan 
(up  stream).  Ich  stieg  die  Quademtreppe  hinan  und  trat  in  eine  Vorhalle.  Er  geht  den  Berg 
hinan  (is  ascending).  Er  geht  manchmal  den  Berg  hinauf  (to  the  top).  Er  ist  auf  das  Dach 
hinaufgestiegen. 

D.  In  early  N.H.G.  dar  (O.H.G.  dara)  was  used  with  the  force  of  dahin,  i.e.  with  reference 
to  a  definite  place:  Die  Diener  aber  kamen  dar  (Acts  v.  22).  To-day  it  is  employed  less  def- 
initely with  the  force  of  hin,  but  is  used  only  in  a  few  compounds:  darbieten,  darbringen,  dar- 
geben, darlegen,  darreichen,  darstellen,  dartun. 

5.  Motion,  action,  or  change  in  a  figurative  or  moral  sense,  without  expression  of  a  definite 
direction  to  or  from  the  speaker,  or  at  least  with  no  conscious  feeling  of  such  on  the  part  of  the 
speaker,  is  always  expressed  by  her  simple  and  in  compounds:  Er  blickt  auf  uns  herab  He  looks 
down  on  us.  Er  hat  den  Preis  herabgesetzt  He  has  lowered  the  price.  Er  ist  (he )reingef allen 
He  has  been  taken  in  (lit.  fallen  in).  Thus  also  many  other  figurative  expressions:  ein  Buch 
herausgeben  to  edit  a  book,  jemand  von  oben  herab  behandeln  to  treat  somebody  as  an  inferior, 
einen  herunter  machen  to  take  somebody  down  (from  his  high  horse). 

6.  Rest  or  motion  with  the  idea  of  distance  from  the  speaker: 

a.  Rest  in  a  place  at  some  distance  from  the  speaker,  as  dorten  (poetic)  or  dort  yonder; 
in  connection  with  other  adverbs,  as  dort  oben  up  yonder,  dort  unten  down  yonder.  &c. 

b.  Motion  from  the  speaker  to  some  point  distant:  Dorthin  yonder,  to  that  place,  with 
accent  upon  the  first  syllable  to  emphasize  the  place  and  on  the  second  syllable  to  emphasize 
motion:  dort  (hi)nauf  up  yonder,  dort  (hi)nunter,  &c.  Exs.:  'Dorthin  zu  sieht  man  noch 
Türme  von  Madrid.  Da  wird  dort'hin  das  Ohr  lieblich  gezogen  The  ear  is  charmed  and  at- 
tracted in  that  direction.     Dort  hinunter  müssen  wir. 

c.  Motion  toward  the  speaker  from  some  point  distant:  Dorther  (accented  as  dorthin;  see 
b  above),  or  von  dorther,  or  von  dorten  (poetic)  from  yonder,  &c.  Ich  komme  'dorther. — 
Kommst  du  wirklich  dort'her? 

7.  Rest  or  motion  without  expressing  definitely  nearness  to  the  speaker  or  distance. 


342 ADVERBS   OF   PLACE 223.  I.  7.  A. 

A.  Da  there,  da'selbst  (demon,  and  rel.)  at  that  place,  at  which  place,  da'her,  ein'her  along, 
von  da  from  there,  da'her  (accented  upon  the  last  syllable  except  to  emphasize  especially  the 
place),  or  von  da'her,  or  (in  elevated  diction)  von  dannen  from  that  place,  dahin  (accented  in 
the  same  manner  as  daher)  or  in  early  N.H.G.  dar  (see  4.  D  above)  to  that  place:  Er  ist  schon 
da.  Er  eilt  da'her  He  is  speeding  along.  Ich  komme  eben  da'her,  or  Da  komme  ich  eben  her! 
Von  Weißenfels?  'Daher  bin  ich  Are  you  from  Weissenf  els?  That  is  the  place  I  come  from. 
'Daher  kommt  die  ganze  Verwimmg. 

B.  Da  accompanied  by  adverbs:  da  oben  up  there,  in  heaven,  da  xmten  down  there,  da 
außen  out  there,  out  of  doors,  da  innen  inside  there,  darüben  (usually  contracted;  see  below) 
over  on  that  side,  on  the  other  side  of  the  ocean,  in  the  other  world,  &c. ;  the  preceding  very 
frequently  contracted  as  droben,  drunten,  draußen,  drinnen,  drüben,  &c.;  also  with  a  double 
da,  as  da  d(a)roben,  da  drunten,  &c. 

C.  Da  (dar  before  a  vowel)  in  composition  with  prepositions,  with  accent  usually  upon 
the  prep.,  except  to  especially  emphasize  the  place,  hence  usually  contracted  (see  141.  5.  A): 
d(a)'ran,  da'bei,  d(a)'rauf,  d(a)'runter,  d(a)'raus,  d(a)'rein,  d(a)'rin,  d(a)'rüber,  da'vor,  da'hin- 
ter,  da'zwischen,  d(a)'rum,  &c.  Er  trug  eine  Kette;  da'ran  war  eine  alte  Münze.  Ich  fahre 
'hieran  und  du  fährst  'daran  I'll  drive  up  here  and  you  drive  up  there. 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in  colloquial  and  popular  language  these  compounds  are 
separated,  and  often  the  da  is  lacking  altogether.     See  141.  5.  A.  b.  Note. 

b.  The  O.H.G.  had  two  forms  corresponding  to  N.H.G.  da,  namely  dara  (now  dar,  still 
preserved  in  the  group  in  4.  D  above)  and  dar,  the  latter  of  which  now  takes  the  place  of  both 
in  this  construction,  usually  in  the  reduced  form  da,  but  in  its  former  full  form  in  compounds 
the  second  element  of  which  begins  with  a  vowel:  darin,  &c.  The  vowel,  however,  becomes 
short  when  the  accent  is  shifted  upon  the  second  element:   'darin,  but  dä'rin. 

D.  The  relative  and  interrogative  wo  where,  the  indefinite  irgendwoher  from  somewhere, 
irgendwo  somewhere,  anderswo  somewhere  else,  &c. ;  the  relative  and  interrogative  wo  (wor 
before  a  vowel)  in  compounds,  as  wo'bei  near  which,  wo'runter  among  which,  wo'hin  whither, 
wo'her  whence,  &c.,  or  sometimes  demonstrative  compounds  in  their  stead:  da'bei,  da'runter, 
&c.  .  See  153.  2.  B. 

Earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in  colloquial  speech  these  compounds  are  separable.  See  153.  2. 
and  B  thereunder. 

a.  Corresponding  to  N.H.G.  wo  we  find  in  older  German  two  forms  wo  (O.H.G.  hwär)  and 
war  (O.H.G.  hwara),  the  latter  of  which  survives  in  only  one  word  wa'rum  alongside  of  wo'rum. 
The  older  language  often  makes  no  distinction  between  wortim  and  warum,  using  both  forms 
relatively  and  interrogatively  in  the  sense  oi  for  or  on  account  of  which,  what:  Erhabner  Geist, 
du  gabst  mir,  gabst  mir  alles, !  warum  (now  worum)  ich  bat  (Goethe's  Faust,  Wald  und  Höhle). 
Wanmi  (now  worum)  soll  ich  bitten?  (Herder).  These  forms  still  occur  occasionally  in  elevated 
diction  without  differentiation,  but  present  prose  usage  distinguishes  sharply  between  the  two 
forms,  employing  worum  in  the  meaning  for  or  on  account  of  which,  what,  wamm  as  an  adverb 
in  the  meaning  why. 

E.  The  adverbs  denoting  a  relative  position  or  direction  in  space  with  reference  to  the  speaker: 
oben  above,  imten  below,  außen  outside,  &c.;  aufwärts  upward,  abwärts  downward,  to  one  side, 
heimwärts  homeward,  auf  up,  unter  (see  4.  B.  a  above)  down,  ab  (see  4.  B.  a  above)  down,  an  (see 
a  below). 

a.  An  denotes  a  general  forward  movement  or  a  steady  continuation:  Das  Heer  rückt  gegen 
den  Feind  an.  Der  Lehrer  spornt  den  Schüler  an.  Die  Kälte  hält  an.  Where  the  goal  is  more 
prominent  than  the  idea  of  a  forward  movement  he'ran  and  hi'nan  must  be  used:  Das  Heer 
rückt  heran.  Ihr  Jungen,  kommt  'mal  heran.  Er  reift  zum  Manne  heran.  As  motion  for- 
ward on  an  inclined  plane  leads  to  the  idea  of  motion  upward  an  now  in  some  words  has  assumed 
the  idea  of  upward:  Der  Pfad  steigt  an.  Der  Fluß  schwillt  an.  Where  the  idea  of  a  goal  be- 
comes more  important  than  that  of  an  upward  movement  heran  and  hinan  must  be  used:  Das 
Wasser  steigt  jedes  Jahr  bis  zu  einer  beträchtlichen  Höhe  heran.  Der  Pfad  steigt  steil  bis  zu 
dem  hoch  aufragenden  Felsen  hinan. 

b.  An  often  loses  its  concrete  meaning,  which  fades  away  into  mere  abstract  perfective  (see 
246.  n.  3.  b)  force,  indicating:  (1)  the  beginning  of  an  activity:  (Das  Brot)  anschneiden  to 
make  the  first  cut  into,  cut  into,  (ein  Lied)  anstimmen  to  strike  up.  Lassen  Sie  die  Maschine 
anlaufen  Start  the  machine.  Die  Schraube  zieht  an  The  screw  begins  to  take  hold.  Das 
Dienstmädchen  wird  morgen  antreten  The  maid  will  enter  service  to-morrow.  Einen  Dienst, 
ein  Amt,  eine  Reise,  sein  Erbe,  den  Beweis  der  Wahrheit,  sein  zehntes  Jahr  antreten;  (2) 
the  affecting  of  the  object  only  a  little:  (einen  Apfel)  anbeißen  to  take  a  bite  of,  eat  some 
of,  etc. 

c.  Auf  often  loses  its  concrete  meaning,  which  fades  away  into  mere  abstract  perfective 
(see  246.  IL  3.  b)  force,  indicating:  (1)  the  beginning  of  an  action  or  state:  aufblühen  to 
come  out  into  bloom,  aufmuntern  to  cheer  up  (trans.),  aufwachen  to  wake  up  (intrans.), 
aufwecken  to  wake  up  (trans.);  (2)  the  end  of  an  action:  aufbrauchen  to  use  up,  aufessen  to 
eat  up,  &c. 

F.  Weg  away,  disappearance  in  any  direction,  used  only  of  objects  in  space,  fort  on,  forth, 
movement  forward  in  time  or  space,  in  one  continuous  direction;  Der  Bruder  sagt  zur  Schwester: 
setze  deine  Malerei  jetzt  weg  (aside),  wir  wollen  Klavier  spielen.  Nach  einer  Stunde  aber 
sagt  er:  Es  ist  genug,  setze  deine  Malerei  fort  (Go  on  with  your  painting).  However,  this 
distinction  is  very  often  disregarded:   Er  ist  fort  (better  weg). 

G.  Movement  from  a  place  is  expressed  by  ab  and  aus  with  different  shades. 


223.  I.  9.  B.  I.e. ADVERBS   OF   PLACE 343 

a.  Ab  expresses  the  opposite  of  an  and  auf,  hence  movement  from  a  surface,  while  aus,  which 
is  the  opposite  of  in,  expresses  movement  oul  from  within  something:  Wer  auf  dem  Pferde  sitzt, 
steigt  ab,  but  Wer  im  Wagen  sitzt,  steigt  aus. 

b.  What  moves  from  the  surface  of  a  thing  leaves  it  altogether,  but  what  comes  out  from 
within  a  thing  may  depart  from  it  as  from  a  base  and  thus  may  still  remain  in  close  connection 
with  it;  hence  ab  and  aus  may  sometimes  differ  materially:  Er  bog  links  vom  Wege  ab  (left 
the  road  entirely),  but  Er  bog  aus  (turned  to  one  side,  out),  um  nachher  wieder  in  den  Weg 
einzubiegen.  Wer  von  einem  Grundsatz  ausgeht  (Whoever  is  guided  by  a  certain  principle), 
hält  an  demselben  fest,  bei  allem,  was  daraus  folgt,  but  Wer  von  dem  Grundsatz  abgeht,  verläßt 
ihn. 

c.  As  ab  and  aus  (see  a  above)  express  motion  from,  they  also  may  naturally  express 
separation,  to  which,  however,  a  third  adverb  or  inseparable  verbal  prefix  must  be  added,  namely, 
ent.  Ab  denotes  surface  separation,  aus  separation  from  a  position  within  something,  and 
ent  a  separating  something  from  that  which  entirely  envelops  it  and  is  closely  attached  or  inti- 
mately related  to  it.  One  says:  Ich  balge  das  Tier  ab,  when  he  is  thinking  of  taking  off  the  pelt. 
Ich  balge  es  aus,  when  he  is  thinking  of  taking  the  animal  out  of  its  pelt,  Ich  entbalge  es  when  he 
is  thinking  of  the  rather  difficult  task  of  stripping  off  the  tightly  fitting  pelt.  Ich  entgehe  einer 
drohenden  Gefahr,  die  mich  fast  schon  gepackt  hielt.  Ent  represents  also  a  more  complete 
separation  than  aus:  Wer  sich  aus  dem  Staats-  in  den  Hausrock  geworfen,  hat  sich  ausge- 
kleidet, ohne  doch  entkleidet  zu  sein,  wie  der,  der  ins  Bad  steigen  will. 

The  difference  between  aus  and  ent  is  sometimes  only  a  grammatical  one.  Aus  is  used  in 
an  adverbial  phrase,  and  ent  is  compounded  with  the  verb:  Und  unsre  Reisenden  entstiegen 
ihrem  Waggon  (Fontane's  Cecile,  chap,  vii),  or  stiegen  aus  dem  Waggon.  Sometimes  aus  is 
used  where  there  is  only  one  simple  case  object,  and  ent  where  there  are  two  simple  case  objects, 
a  dative  and  an  accusative:  Der  Kooperator  zog  die  Lade  heraus  und  entnahm  ihr  einen  großen, 
halb  beschriebenen  Bogen   (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Glaubenslos,  chap.  ix). 

d.  Both  ab  and  aus  often  lose  their  concrete  meaning,  which  fades  away  into  mere  abstract 
perfective  (see  246.  II.  3.  b)  force,  indicating  the  end  of  an  action:  Die  Sache  ist  gut  abgelaufen 
or  with  the  same  meaning  ausgelaufen.  Der  Sturm  hat  abgetobt  or  more  commonly  aus- 
getobt. There  is  a  tendency  to  differentiate  the  two  particles.  The  former  indicates  merely 
the  end  of  an  action,  while  the  latter  implies  that  the  end  is  an  appropriate  conclusion  of  a  devel- 
opment: Die  vom  Wurm  zernagte  Rose  blüht  ab,  ohne  daß  sie  ausblüht.  Ab  often  contains 
the  idea  of  excess  or  injury,  while  aus  denotes  an  appropriate  completeness:  Er  arbeitete  sich 
ab,  but  Er  arbeitete  seine  Pläne  sorgfältig  aus.  Er  hat  seine  Wäsche  abgenutzt,  but  Er  hat 
seinen  Vorteil  ausgenutzt. 

H.  The  word  together  is  represented  in  German  by  three  words  with  different  shades  of  mean- 
ing. Bei'sammen  is  only  used  with  verbs  expressing  rest  or  an  activity  which  is  confined  to  a 
given  place,  and  never  with  verbs  of  motion  to  or  from,  and  hence  it  merely  denotes  that  a  num- 
ber of  objects  are  found  in  the  same  enclosed  space,  or  in  a  merely  local  sense  near  together. 
Mit'sammen  adds  to  this  idea  that  of  common  participation  in  an  activity  with  mutual  relations, 
and  zu'sammen,  much  more  commonly  used  than  either,  may  contain  the  meaning  of  either  or 
of  both:  In  den  Spinnstuben  arbeiten  viele  Mädchen  beisammen  (working  in  one  room,  but 
entirely  independently  at  different  wheels).  Es  fließen  wohl  die  Wellen  niitsammen  in  das 
Meer,  |  es  fliegen  wohl  mitsammen  die  Vögel  drüber  her  (Geibel's  Die  junge  Nonne).  Die 
Menschen  sind  nicht  nur  zusammen,  wenn  sie  beisammen  sind;  auch  der  Entfernte,  der  Ab- 
geschiedene lebt  uns  (Goethe's  Egmont,  5,  Gefängnis).  Man  hat  sie  in  ein  Grab  zusanimen 
gelegt  (here  beisammen  could  not  be  used).  Zwei  Schriftsteller  arbeiten  zusammen  an  einem 
Buch. 

8.  General  diffusion  thruout,  or  extension  thru  or  around  a  given  space:  über'all  everywhere, 
durch'weg  or  'durchweg  thruout,  hence  usually  as  an  adverb  of  degree  entirely,  rings  round  about, 
um'her  around,  nirgends  nowhere. 

9.  Adverbial  forms  with  prepositional  force: — 

A.  A  number  of  prepositions  enter  into  compounds  with  da,  hier  and  wo  to  form  prepositional 
adverbs  with  the  force  of  a  preposition  and  a  pronoun,  as  illustrated  at  length  in  141.  5.  A  and  B, 
147.  1.  C.  b,  153.  2  above,  also  in  2  and  7.  C.  D  of  this  article. 

B.  A  number  of  adverbs,  all  verbal  prefixes,  have  also  prepositional  force.  The  more  diffi- 
cult idiomatic  constructions  are  here  treated  briefly.  Compare  these  articles  with  225,  258. 
1.  B,  and  262.  I.  b. 

1.     The  prefix  an  is  used: 

a.  With  intrans.  verbs  to  indicate  rest  at  a  permanent  goal,  where  it  takes  a  dat.  obj.  when 
the  reference  is  to  persons;  with  reference  to  things  it  is  replaced  by  the  prepositional  construc- 
tion, but  may  be  retained  if  there  is  no  object  at  all:  Ein  Makel  klebt  ihm  an.  Das  Pflaster 
klebt  an  dem  Finger,  but  Das  Pflaster  klebt  an.  A  prep.  obj.  is  used  when  an  indicates  arrival 
at  a  goal:   Er  kam  in  der  Stadt  an. 

b.  To  express  rest  with  trans,  verbs  an  takes  the  prep,  an  with  the  dat.  in  case  of  things, 
but  with  reference  to  persons  it  takes  the  simple  dat.,  expressed  with  reference  to  a  person  other 
than  the  subject,  unexpressed  with  reference  to  the  subject:  Er  bringt  einen  Haken  an  der  Wand 
an.  Man  sieht  ihm  Armut  an.  Man  fühlt  ihm  seine  Erregung  an.  Man  hört  ihm  den  Aus- 
länder an.  Sie  hatte  gestern  ihr  neues  Kleid  an.  Often  with  a  prep.  obj.  in  case  of  persons: 
Ich  will  eine  Bitte  bei  ihm  anbringen. 

c.  With  intrans.  verbs  of  motion  it  denotes  motion  toward,  which  is  usually  expressed  again 
by  a  preposition,  as  gegen,  &c. :  gegen  jemanden,  gegen  etwas  anlaufen. 


344 ADVERBS   OF   PLACE 223.  I.  9.  B.  l.d. 

d.  With  trans,  verbs  of  motion  it  denotes  motion  toward  a  person  or  goal  and  governs  a  dat. 
in  case  of  a  living  object,  while  in  case  of  the  object  of  a  thing  the  idea  of  direction  toward  is 
expressed  again  by  the  prep,  an  (with  ace.) :  dem  Gefangenen  Fesseln  anlegen,  dem  Pferde  den 
Zaum  anlegen,  but  den  Hund  an  die  Kette  anlegen.  The  object  of  an  is  not  expressed  when  it 
refers  to  the  subject:    Er  legte  das  Gewehr  an.     Likewise  other  prepositional  adverbs:   Er  warf 

einen  Mantel  über.  ,  .  r  ,       ,  •         r   , 

e.  With  many  trans,  and  intrans.  verbs  the  ace.  obj.  is  the  object  ot  an,  not  the  object  ot  the 
veria:  den  Feind  angreifen,  jemanden  anflehen,  jemanden  anbetteln,  Lilcewise  über,  be- 
(246.  II.  1),  ver-  (246.  II.  5.  B.  b  and  Note):   jemanden  über'fahren,  ^:c. 

2. '  The  prefix  auf  often  has  the  force  of  a  preposition,  expressing  rest  upon  or  direction  toward 
an^object,  which  must  often  be  suppHed  in  thought:  Hier  liegen  Bücher  auf  Books  are  lying  on 
the  tables  here  for  reference.  Das  Schiff  sitzt  auf  The  ship  is  aground.  Er  horchte  auf  He 
listened  intently  (in  the  direction  of  the  object  in  question).  Man  setzt  das  Essen  auf  (i.e.  auf 
den  Tisch).  Er  setzt  sich  auf  (i.e.  auf  das  Pferd),  but  also  with  adverbial  force:  Er  setzt  sich 
[im  Bettel  auf.  .\  living  object  is  usually  in  the  dat.:  Er  drängte  ihm  seine  Ansichten  auf. 
The  object  of  auf  is  not  expressed  when  it  refers  to  the  subject:  Er  setzte  [sich]  den  Hut  auf. 
Compare  141.  5.  A  (next  to  last  par.). 

3.  For  examples  illustrating  the  use  of  the  prefixes  durch,  ent,  entgegen,  nach,  unter,  vor, 
wider  see  215.  II.  3.  A.  b.  c  and  258.  1.  B  (and  a  thereunder). 

4.  One  prepositional  adverb  and  prefix  has  a  different  form  according  as  it  expresses  rest  or 
motion.  Rest  or  motion  within  a  given  space  is  expressed  by  in,  and  motion  into  a  place  is 
expressed  by  ein,  both  of  which  words  are  only  found  in  compounds,  especially  with  adverbs 
belonging  to  the  preceding  classes,  verbs,  and  sometimes  with  substantives:  Ich  habe  mich 
da'rin  geirrt  /  have  been  mistaken  in  that,  but  Mische  dich  nicht  da'rein  Do  not  mix  yourself  up 
in  the  affair.  Wo'rin  hat  er  sich  geirrt?  Wo'rein  hat  er  sich  gemischt?  Der  'inliegende 
Brief  the'inclosed  letter,  but  Er  legte  den  Brief  ein  He  -inclosed  the  letter.  Feld'ein  into  the  fields, 
wald'ein  into  the  woods,  'hafenein  (accent  shifting  forward  in  dissyllables)  into  the  harbor, 
jahr'aus  jahr'ein  year  in  year  out;  Inhaber  bearer,  Inhalt  contents,  but  Eintritt  entrance,  Einfuhr 
importation,  &c.  Ein  is  much  used  figuratively  to  form  compound  verbs  which  are  ernployed 
reflexively  to  indicate  a  practising  of  some  activity  for  the  purpose  of  attaining  to  (literally 
entering  into)  proficiency:  sich  einschießen,  sich  einüben,  sich  einfliegen  to  practise  Hying  in 
an  aeroplane,  &c.  It  is  similarly  used  in  transitive  compounds:  ein  Pferd  einreiten,  einen 
einüben,  &c. 

a.  In  M.G.  and  N.G.  dialects  and  often  in  colloquial  speech  in  is  used  for  both  in  and  ein. 
Schlagen  Sie  in  (instead  of  ein)  (Rauchhaupt  in  Hauptmann's  Der  rote  Hahn,  Act  4).  Even 
in  the  literary  language  inbegriffen  is  often  used  instead  of  einbegriffen.  Frorn  this  failure  on 
the  part  of  dialect  and  colloquial  speech  to  distinguish  different  forms  for  the  different  meanings 
there  have  also  arisen  in  the  literary  language  several  cases  where  the  two  forms  have  been 
confounded,  ein  being  used  for  in:  eingedenk  miitdful  of,  Eingeweide  entrails,  and  earlier  in 
the  period  still  others. 

In  some  dialects  we  find  the  opposite  usage — ein  for  in:  Jenseits  der  Alpen  steht  ein  Grab,  | 
gegraben  am  grünen  Rheine,  |  drei  wilde  Rosen  blühen  drauf,  !  seine  Liebe  liegt  dareine  (Schef- 
fel's  Trompeter,  Werner's  Lieder  aus  Welschland,  v).  's  wird  dir  schier  drein  zu  naß  sein  (Anzen- 
gruber's  Wolken  und  Sonn' schein,  p.  238). 

b.  Instead  of  N.H.G.  in  for  the  preposition  and  adverb,  M.H.G.  had  a  differentiation  of  forms, 
in  for  the  preposition,  and  inne  or  innen  for  the  adverb.  These  adverbial  forms  are  still  sometimes  . 
found,  inne  especially  in  compounds,  and  innen  both  in  compounds  and  uncompounded:  inne- 
halten, innehaben,  innewohnen,  &c. ;  d(a)rinnen,  von  innen,  &c.  In  other  instances,  however,  the 
adverbial  forms  have  been  contracted  to  in,  in  which  case  preposition  and  adverb  cannot  be 
distinguished  in  form:  in  (prep.)  dem  Buch;  darin  (adv.),  common  N.H.G.  form  for  AI.H.G. 
darinne  or  darinnen.  In  M.H.G.  in  had  already  begun  to  replace  inne  and  innen.  Later 
the  long  forms  gradually  kept  yielding  to  the  contracted  one.  The  form  -inne,  as  iri  darinne, 
is  now  restricted  to  poetry  and  popular  language,  and  -innen,  as  in  d(a)rinnen,  is  only  in 
limited  use,  tho  more  commonly  employed  than  -iime.  In  one  meaning,  in  the  room,  in  the 
house,  with  reference  to  some  inclosed  space,  drinnen  is  quite  common:  Struppmann  (nach 
hinten  weisend):   Er  ist  drinnen  (Otto  Ernst's  Die  Gerechtigkeit,^!,  4). 

c.  The  words  offen  and  auf  have  about  the  same  relation  to  each  other  as  in  and  ein:  Die 
Tür  war  offen  The  door  was  open,  but  Hans  machte  die  Tür  auf  John  opened  the  door. 

10.  Place  with  its  varied  relations  is  also  expressed  by  the  case  of  a  noun  or  by  a  preposition 
with  its  dependent  noun  as  follows: 

a.  Place  where  or  position  are  expressed,  in  certain  adverbial  expressions,  by  the  gen.  of  a 
noun  (fem.  words  often  ending  in  s  after  the  analogy  of  masc.)  or  by  some  expression  formed 
after  the  model  of  such:  gehörigen  Orts  fjefore  the  proper  authority,  höhern  Orts  before  a  higher 
authority,  linker  (or  zu  linker)  Hand  to  the  left  hand,  'aller'orts  (see  249.  II.  2.  A.  a)  everywhere, 
seines  Orts  in  the  proper  place,  'jeden'orts  everywhere,  hierlands  (or  more  commonly  hierzu- 
lande) in  the  country,  unter'wegs  (an  incorrect  gen.  formed  after  the  analogy  of  the  preceding, 
now,  however,  replacing  the  older  correct  dat.  unter'wege  or  in  pi.  form  unter'wegen)  on  the  way 
or  road,  'halbwegs  (245.  iv.  2.  f'),  seinerseits  upon  his  part,  mütterlicherseits  upon  the  mother's  side, 
'anderseits  on  the  other  side,  'beiderseits  on  both  sides,  seitens  (now  used  as  a  prep,  with  gen.) 
upon  the  part  of.  Ich  bekam  ein  Zimmer  in  der  Buchstraße,  nächster  Tür  mit  Kings  (next  door 
to  King's).  Halben  Weges  (or  auf  halbem  Wege)  zwischen  Brückenberg  und  der  Obermühle 
trat  er  von  dem  tiefergelegenen  Wolfshau  her  auf  den  eine  lange  Schräglinie  bildenden  Fahrweg 


223.  II.  1.  B.g. ADVERBS   OF   TIME 345 

(Fontane's  Qiiitt,  chap.  xiii).  Inoslawski  (name)  ließ  sich  als  Reiter  erträglich  an  und  hatte 
den  „alten"  Fahrern  bald  die  Kniffe  abgesehen,  mit  denen  man  beim  Stalldienst  die  Vorge- 
setzten hintergeht,  aber  im  Fußexerzieren  fehlte  es  aller  Enden  (in  every  direction,  every  respect) 
(Beyerlein 's  Jena  oder  Sedan.'',  iv).  In  a  few  set  expressions  after  woher:  Woher  des  Weges 
tind  wohin?  (Rudolf  Herzog's  Der  Graf  von  Gleichen,  p.  7),  lit.  Where  on  your  way  did  you  come 
from  and  whither  are  you  going?     Woher  der  Fahrt?  (Lienhard's  T-ill  Eulenspiegel,  Der  Fremde). 

b.  Separation  is  expressed  by  the  gen.  with  certain  verbs.     For  full  treatment  see  262.  II. 

c.  The  use  of  the  simple  dative,  or  rather  locative  (258.  1),  to  express  place,  once  more  fre- 
quent, is  now  rare  except  in  a  few  common  adverbs  whose  origin  is  not  felt:  allent'halben  (dat. 
pi.  of  the  M.H.G.  halb  side,  preceded  by  the  modifying  adjective  all,  which  here  has  an  excrescent 
t  appended  to  its  regular  case  ending)  on  all  sides,  everywhere.  For  other  examples  see  140.  d. 
Note. 

d.  In  earlier  periods  and  in  part  still  the  ace.  heim  home  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion  to 
express  the  goal.  The  dat.,  or  rather  locative  (258.  1),  heime  at  home  was  formerly  and  in 
dialect  is  sometimes  still  used  to  denote  the  place  of  rest  or  the  place  where  an  activity  is  going 
on.  The  modern  literary  form  of  the  older  heime  is  heim,  and  thus  dat.  and  ace.  are  not  now 
formally  distinguished.  This  has  led  to  the  use  of  daheim  in  the  sense  of  the  older  heime.  Heim 
(acc.^  and  daheim  (  =  older  heime)  are  in  common  use  in  S.G.,  but  are  in  N.G.  more  commonly 
replaced  by  nach  Hause  and  zu  Hause.     The  dat.  heim  still  lingers  on  in  poetry. 

e.  In  addresses  and  in  references  to  books,  magazines,  &c.  the  place  where  is  often  expressed 
in  colloquial  speech  and  often  even  in  the  literary  language  by  the  uninflected  form  of  a  noun: 
Ecke  der  Schadowstraße  ist  der  Eingang  zum  Aquarium.  Wo  wohnst  Du?  Halbdorfstraße 
fünfzehn.  Das  Gedicht  findet  sich  Bd.  (Band)  VI,  S.  (Seite)  4.  For  the  origin  of  such  ex- 
pressions see  228.  1.  b.  The  nominative  is  often  used  here  to  preserv'e  the  exact  form  of  the 
name:  Er  wohnt  Grüner  Markt.  Beitr.  41,  74  (i.e.  Beiträge  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Sprache  und  Literatur,  vol.  41,  p.  74)  wurde  festgestellt  usw.  Vergl.  (vergleiche)  Graff 
(author).  Altdeutscher   Sprachschatz  2,   203. 

/.  The  place  where  and  the  goal  or  destination  are  more  commonly  expressed  by  means  of 
some  prep,  with  its  dependent  noun:  Er  sitzt  am  Tische.     Die  Kinder  gehen  zu  Bette. 

11.  One  of  the  marked  features  of  German  is  the  use  of  an  adverbial  element  indicating 
the  direction  of  an  activity  in  connection  with  a  verb  that  in  its  simple  unmodified  form  does 
not  express  motion  from  one  place  to  another:  Sie  schrak  auf  She  started  up  with  fright.  Sie 
schrak  vor  ihm  zurück.  Sie  zitterte  einen  Schritt  zurück.  Eben  hörte  sie  jemand  von  weitem 
heranschluchzen.     Er  zitterte  in  das  Wirtshaus  hinein. 

II.     Adverbs  of  Time  fall  into  the  following  subdivisions,  indicating: 

1.  Definite  time,  expressed  by  an  adverb,  the  ace.  or  the  uninflected  form  of  a  noun,  a  prep, 
phrase,  or  the  gen.  in  case  of  'derzeit  at  present  (with  a  present  tense),  at  that  time  (with  a  past 
tense):  heute  to-day,  jetzt  now,  nun  (see  A  below)  now,  noch  yet  and  a  number  of  derived 
meanings  (see  B  below);  morgen  (originally  a  dat.,  but  now  felt  as  an  ace.)  to-morrow,  diesen 
Morgen  or  heute  morgen  this  morning,  diesen  Abend  or  heute  abend  this  evening,  diese  Woche 
this  week,  vorige  Woche  last  week,  Montag  abend  Monday  evening,  Montag,  Donnerstag, 
Montag  den  9.  September.  Schließlich  verabredete  ich  Ostern  1899  mit  A.  Socin,  der  mich 
Herbst  1893  zu  einer  erneuten  Besprechung  über  Rotwelsch  hier  besucht  hatte,  gemeinsame 
Arbeit,  aber  der  Tod  entriß  den  schon  damals  schwer  leidenden  Gelehrten  Pfingsten  1899 
(Kluge's  Rotwelsch,  Vorw.).  Der  wird  wohl  die  Ostern  Quintaner?  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Krafft, 
I.  1,  p.  35).  Herbst,  Ostern,  Pfingsten  are  now  felt  as  accusatives,  but  they  in  fact  represent 
the  older  prepositional  expressions  given  below,  which  are  still  much  more  frequently  used. 
Sometimes  as  in  older  usage  the  genitive  is  still  used  for  definite  time:  Wenn  er  den  ersten  Zug 
erreichte,  könnte  er  mittags  ( =  vmi  Mittag)  am  Walchensee  sein  (Fulda's  Lebensfragmente, 
p.  82). 

To  mark  time  exactly,  the  hour  is  often  accompanied  by  uninflected  Schlag  or  Punkt:  Schlag 
(or  Punkt)  sieben  seven  o'clock  sharp. 

With  prepositions:  'übermorgen  (with  the  accent  shifted  upon  the  first  element,  as  the  word 
often  stands  in  contrast  to  simple  morgen)  day  after  to-morrow,  gegen  Abend  towards  evening, 
heute  über  acht  Tage  a  week  from  to-da>',  in  vierzehn  Tagen  in  two  weeks,  im  Herbst  des  näch- 
sten Jahres,  zu  (at)  Ostern,  zu  Pfingsten. 

The  gen.  may  be  used  to  denote  the  definite  period  within  ivhich  in  answer  to  the  question 
how  often  or  how  much.     See  IV.  2.  B.  d  below. 

A.  Nun  represents  the  present  in  the  light  of  its  relation  to  the  past  and  its  complications 
in  the  present,  but  jetzt  calls  attention  only  to  the  present:  Ich  habe  mein  Versprechen  erfüllt, 
nun  erfüllen  Sie  das  Ihrige,  und  tun  Sie  es  jetzt  I  have  fulfilled  my  promise,  now  (since  I  have 
done  this)  fulfil  yours,  and  do  so  now. 

B.  a.  Noch  (or  negatively  noch  nicht)  means  primarily  just  now,  now,  however,  usually 
indicates  a  continuation  at  the  present  time  of  an  action  or  a  state  of  things,  or  in  connection 
with  a  past  or  future  tense  a  point  in  the  past  or  future  at  which  some  act  or  condition  was  or 
will  be  continuing,  or  was  or  will  be  yet  possible.  It  is  translated  by  yet,  as  yet,  still,  up  till  now, 
only  or  but  (with  a  past  tense):  Das  alte  Haus  steht  heute  noch  (still).  Damals  lebte  mein 
Vater  noch  (still).  Er  befand  sich  noch  nicht  wohl  (not  well  yet),  als  ich  ihn  zuletzt  sah.  Das 
wird  in  Europa  auch  noch  Mode  werden  That  will  even  yet  become  a  fashion  in  Europe.  Noch 
vor  einem  Jahre  (only  a  year  ae:o,  or  but  a  year  ago),  da  er  sich  doch  gar  nicht  um  das  Gemein- 
wohl kümmerte,  war  es  das  süßeste  Travmibild  seines  Ehrgeizes,  einmal  Ratsherr  zu  werden. 


346 ADVERBS   OF   TIME 223.11.  1.  B.  a. 

We  often,  especially  in  the  Southeast,  find  nur  mehr  instead  of  nur  noch  only,  merely,  but:  Wir 
sahen  den  Park  nur  mehr  als  einen  dunklen  Fleck  in  der  Feme  liegen  (Stifter).  Bis  zum 
Anbruch  des  Morgens  hatten  die  Flammen  gelodert,  nun  lag  nur  mehr  ein  Haufen  von  rauchen- 
dem Schutt  (Jensen's  Das  Bild  im  Wasser,  p.  410). 

b.  From  the  idea  of  continuation  it  has  developed  the  idea  of  intensity,  multiplication,  addi- 
tion, repetition,  survival,  contrast  to  a  former  situation:  noch  einmal  so  schön  twice  as  beautiful, 
noch  einmal  so  viel  as  much  again,  noch  größer  larger  still,  noch  zwei  Jahre  two  years  more, 
noch  mehr  still  more,  noch  einmal  once  more.  Haben  Sie  nicht  noch  Mittel?  Have  you  no  means 
left?  Der  Hund  knurrt  nur  noch  ganz  leise,  er  bellt  nicht  mehr  im  Kaufladen  und  denkt  nicht 
von  weitem  ans  Beißen. 

c.  From  the  idea  of  continuing  to  a  certain  point  of  time  comes  the  idea  of  reaching  a  cer- 
tain limit  in  a  scale  or  a  certain  goal:  Das  geht  noch  an  That  will  work  all  right  up  to  this  point. 
Du  unterstehst  dich  noch,  ihn  zu  entschuldigen?  You  even  dare  to  excuse  him? 

d.  Noch  is  much  used  in  concessive  clauses:  Sei  es  auch  noch  so  wenig  be  it  ever  so  little; 
sei  er  noch  so  vorsichtig  be  he  ever  so  cautious. 

e.  It  is  often  translated  by  very:  noch  diese  Woche  this  very  week.  Noch  am  Abend  nach 
der  Schlacht  (on  the  very  evening  after  the  battle)  ließ  Graf  Otto  die  gefangenen  Ritter  .  .  . 
enthaupten. 

2.  Indefinite  time,  expressed  by  an  adverb,  the  gen.  or  in  a  few  cases  the  dat.  of  a  noun,  or 
a  prep,  phrase:  dann  und  wann  now  and  then,  immer  always,  nie  never,  nimmer  in  poetry  with 
the  force  of  nie,  or  in  S.G.  =  nicht  mehr  no  more,  no  longer;  heutigestags  in  these  times, 
jederzeit  at  any  time,  always,  dieser  Tage  recently  (with  a  past  tense),  within  a  few  days  (with 
future  tense),  letzterzeit,  letzterer  Zeit,  letztens,  letzthin,  or  letztlich  of  late,  nächster  Tage 
some  time  soon,  eines  Tages  one  day,  eines  schönen  Tages  one  fine  day,  eines  Mittwochs  on 
a  certain  Wednesday;  in  einer  dunkeln  Nacht  on  a  dark  night,  an  einem  herrlichen  Sommer- 
morgen. 

In  the  classical  period  we  still  find  the  following  participial  gen.  construction:  Aber  so  lebten 
die  Herren  währendes  Krieges  (while  the  war  tuas  going  on),  als  ob  ewig  Krieg  bleiben  würde 
(Lessing's  Minna,  2,  2).     See  während,  228.  4. 

ö.  This  genitive  is  often  used  in  a  general  indefinite  way  to  designate  the  time  of  day  in 
which  something  happens:  Kommst  du  nachmittags  (sometime  in  the  afternoon)  zurück? 
Nein,  ich  komme  erst  abends  (sometime  in  the  evening)  zurück.  This  general  designation  is 
often  accompanied  by  a  precise  date,  day,  or  hour:  am  16.  Oktober  abends  on  October  the  16th 
in  the  evening,  um  acht  Uhr  morgens  at  about  eight  in  the  morning.  Ich  kam  Dienstag  nachts 
(old  gen.;  also  the  ace:   Dienstag  nacht)  an. 

b.  In  elevated  discourse  the  dat.  is  occasionally  found  in  accordance  with  older  usage  instead 
of  the  gen.  or  a  prep,  phrase:  Nacht  (old  dat.,  last  night,  in  the  night)  ist  in  unsern  Trieb  I  der 
gleißend'  Wolf  gefallen  (Uhland's  Graf  Eberhard,  4).  Nächten  (dat.  pi.  =  nacht)  sah  ich 
ihn  im  Traume  (Weber's  Dreizehnlinden).  The  gen.  ending  s  is  also  added  to  the  dat.  pi.:  So 
sind  wir  nächtens  in  dies  Land  gekommen  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  2,  2).  The 
dative  plural  of  Weile  is  regularly  used  in  a  few  adverbs:  bis'weilen  sometimes,  einst'weilen 
for  the  present,  je'weilen  from  time  to  time,  and  the  corrupted  form  'weiland  once,  formerly. 

3.  Relative  time,  expressed  by  an  adverb,  a  gen.  in  earlier  periods,  and  still  in  a  few  expres- 
sions, or  more  commonly  by  an  ace,  or  a  prep,  phrase:  vor'her  before,  before  that  (with  reference 
to  another  act  or  time),  before  hand,  vor'hin  a  few  minutes  ago,  a  short  time  ago,  hier'auf  here- 
upon, nach'her  (also  colloquially  her'nach)  afterwards,  seit'dem  from  that  point  on,  seit'her 
from  that  point  to  the  present,  bis'her  up  to  the  present,  schon  (see  a  below);  Vnd  des  nehesten 
tages  kamen  wir  gen  Mileto  (.Acts  xx.  15);  anderen  Tags  on  the  next  day,  tags  drauf  the  day 
after  this,  tags  vor'her  or  tags  zu'vor  the  day  before  this,  mittler'weile,  or  less  commonly  der- 
'weile,  in  the  meantime;  den  nächsten  Morgen,  den  Tag  drauf,  den  Tag  vorher;  am  nächsten 
Morgen,  am  Tage  vorher,  am  andern  Tag,  unter'dessen  in  the  meantime,  rn'dessen  in  the  mean- 
time, but  now  more  commonly  with  adversative  force,  hoivever,  yet;  im  Anfang  or  anfangs  at 
(or  in)  the  beginning,  at  the  outset,  am  Ende  or  letzten  Endes  in  the  end,  after  all,  in  fact,  in 
reality,  if  you  go  to  the  bottom  of  it,  if  you  come  down  to  facts. 

a.  The  adverb  schon  as  explained  in  222.  2.  E.  Note  was  originally  the  adverb  corresponding 
to  the  adjective  schön,  and  hence  meant  beautifully.  This  idea  led  to  that  of  completeness, 
which  was  once  common,  and  is  still  not  infrequent.  The  original  idea,  however,  is  now  some- 
what faded  or  indistinct.  We  often  translate  it  by  quite,  of  itself ,  sufficient,  without  going  farther: 
Das  war  schon  (quite)  ein  ander  Ding.  Der  von  Folterqualen  gebrochene  Körper  eines  solchen 
Opfers  würde  schon  (of  itself)  euer  Mitleid  erregen.  Das  ist  schon  gut  That  will  do  (enough 
as  it  is  without  going  farther).  The  older  meaning  is  also  perceptible  in  the  uses  described  in 
XI.  A.  e  and  J  below. 

The  older  idea  of  completeness  applied  to  time  led  to  the  newer,  now  more  common  meanings 
already,  yet,  even,  the  very,  as  early  as,  first,  often  difficult  to  translate  by  any  word.  In  all  these 
meanings  it  should  be  noticed  that  schon  often  only  strengthens  some  other  more  important 
word,  and  hence  is  then  unaccented:  1st  der  Brief  schon  fertig?  Is  the  letter  ready  yet?  but 
1st  der  Brief  schon  fertig?  Is  the  letter  ready  so  soon?  Hatte  sich  der  Meister  vorher  schon 
(strengthening  vorher;  translate  by  even)  wenig  um  Haus  und  Beruf  bekümmert,  so  tat  er 
es  jetzt  noch  viel  weniger.  Mit  furchtbarem  Schelten  wurden  sie  hinauf  zur  Mutter  geschickt 
und  die  beiden  Knaben  schon  anderen  Tages  (the  very  next  day)  dem  Schulmeister  zur  schär- 
feren Zucht  übergeben.  In  Versailles  haben  nicht  niur  die  Prinzessinnen  schon  von  zehn 
Jahren  (as  early  as  the  tenth  year  of  their  age),  sondern  sogar  die  Puppen  ihren  Hofstaat.     Da 


223.  IV.  1. ADVERBS   OF   MANNER   &   DEGREE 347 

muß  man  schon  mit  vieren  fahren,  in  Gold  und  Seide  gekleidet  sein,  wenn  sie  es  der  Mühe 
wert  finden,  einen  tot  zu  schlagen  You  must  first  be  rich  enough  to  ride  in  a  coach  and  four,  &c. 
Heda!  schon  wieder?  Hollo!  at  it  again? 

4.  Customary  time  or  repeated  occurrence,  indicating  the  time  at  which  something  takes  place 
according  to  custom  or  habit,  or  when  something  is  repeated,  is  usually  expressed  by  the  gen. 
or  by  a  prep,  phrase  in  the  singular  and  by  an  ace.  or  a  prep,  phrase  in  the  plural:  Ich  esse 
mittags  zu  Hause,  abends  pflege  ich  auswärts  zu  essen.  Mittwoch  und  Sonnabend  nach- 
mittags (every  Wednesday  and  Saturday  afternoon)  ist  kein  Unterricht.  Des  Tags  or  tags 
in  the  daytime,  vormittags  or  des  Vormittags  in  the  forenoon,  Montags  Mondays,  nachts  (old 
gen.)  or  des  Nachts  (after  the  analogy  of  masc.  nouns)  in  the  night.  Und  aller  (more  com- 
monly ace.  here;  see  IV.  2.  B.  a  below)  Augenblicke  muß  sie  sich  jetzt  schon  hinlegen  (Haupt- 
mann's  Einsame  Menschen,  Act  4)  Her  health  has  reached  such  a  state  that  she  must  lie  down 
every  few  minutes.  Also  prepositional  constructions  are  common:  am  Tage  in  the  daytime, 
in  der"  Nacht.  The  prepositional  construction  is  the  usual  one  in  im  Herbst,  im  Frühling  (but 
quite  commonly  winters  or  des  Winters,  sommers  or  des  Sommers),  and  in  the  more  accurate 
designations,  as  um  zehn  Uhr,  um  Mittemacht.  Sie  wußte  nicht,  weshalb  ihr  solche  Erinne- 
rungen gerade  am  Sonntag  Vormittag  kamen. 

III.  Adverbs  of  Manner  (manner,  specificat'on,  conformity,  fitness):  so 
(or  earlier  in  the  period  also  or  in  contracted  form  alg)  so,  leicht  easily,  schnell 
fast,  &c. 

Manner  is  also  expressed  by: 

c.  A  noun  or  adjective  in  the  gen.:  derart  or  dergestalt  (see  IV.  2.  A.  c  below)  in  such  a 
manner,  to  such  a  degree.  Er  ist  eines  gewaltsamen  Todes  gestorben.  The  genitive  in  this  sen- 
tence is  the  old  genitive  described  in  260.  In  such  a  sentence  as  Er  kam  schweren  Herzens  zu- 
rück the  genitive  is  a  genitival  predicate  appositive,  which,  tho  known  in  M.H.G.,  has  for  the 
most  part  developed  in  the  present  period  under  the  influence  of  the  predicate  genitive  described 
in  252.  2.  A.  c.  From  these  two  starting  points  the  genitive  has  spread  and  has  come  into  wide 
use  as  a  genitive  of  manner:  So  leichten  Kaufs  kommst  du  nicht  fort  You  will  not  get  off  so 
easily.  Wir  fahren  dritter  Klasse  (Storm)  We  travel  third  class.  Sie  kamen  unverrichteter 
Sache  zurück  They  came  back  without  accomplishing  anything.  Indem  ich  nach  besten  Kräf- 
ten das  Fräulein  unterhielt,  horchte  ich  doch  stets  halben  Ohrs  auf  diesen  schwarzen  Mohren 
(Raabe's  Meister  Autor,  chap.  xxii).  Er  beugte  sich  halben  Leibes  über  die  Reling  vor  (Schulze- 
Smidt's  O  Tannebaum,  I).  Trocknen  Fußes  dry-shod,  begreiflicherweise  as  may  easily  be 
conceived,  glücklicherweise  fortunately,  notwendigerweise  necessarily,  törichterweise  foolishly, 
and  many  similar  formations  in  weise;  anerkanntermaßen  as  generally  acknowledged,  besagter- 
maßen as  mentioned  before,  and  many  similar  formations  in  -maßen  (wk.  gen.  of  Maße;  see 
also  IV.  2.  A.  c  below);  kurzer  Hand  or  kurzerhand  without  any  formalities,  abruptly.  Er 
ließ  sich  des  weiteren  darüber  aus  He  explained  himself  at  some  length.  Ich  danke  bestens 
I  thank  you  heartily. 

To  this  general  head  belongs  the  gen.  of  specification,  once  a  common  construction,  but  now 
reduced  to  a  few  expressions:  Seines  Zeichens  (with  respect  to  or  by  trade,  profession)  ist  er 
Schneider,  Jurist.  Compare  M.H.G.:  Der  war  des  libes  schoene  with  So  war  sie  schon  seit 
zehn  Jahren,  schlank  von  Leib  und  hoch  von  Brust  und  blank  von  Augen  (Frenssen's  Jörn  Uhl, 
chap.  viii).  This  gen.  was  more  freely  used  in  early  N.H.G.:  (Paulus)  fand  einen  Juden  mit 
namen  Aquila  |  der  Geburt  ( =  der  Geburt  nach)  aus  Ponto  (Acts  xviii.  2).  This  old  gen.  is 
still  found  after  certain  verbs,  adjectives,  and  participles,  altho  its  force  is  no  longer  felt.  See 
260  and  3  thereunder  and  262.  II.  A.  In  compounds  it  is  still  quite  common:  segensreich, 
handelsklug,  geisteskrank,  &c.  Compare  with  M.H.G.  ein  ellens  (=  Muts)  richer  man  {Ni- 
belungenlied, I.  7). 

b.  A  noun  or  adjective  after  a  preposition:  Er  sprach  mit  Gelassenheit.  Er  hörte  mit  ge- 
spanntem Ohre  zu.  Die  Vögel  singen  des  Morgens  am  schönsten  (114.  2).  Pestalozzi  war 
aufs  eifrigste  (114.  3)  bemüht,  seinen  armen  Mitmenschen  zu  helfen.  Er  ist  seinem  Hand- 
werke nach  ein  Schneider.     Es  ist  sechs  nach  meiner  Uhr. 

c.  A  dative  of  reference  indicating  the  thing  with  regard  to  which  some  statement  is  made 
survives  in  a  few  set  expressions  after  the  verb  sein,  now  limited  to  pronouns,  but  in  M.H.G. 
of  broader  application:  Wenn  dem  so  ist  If  it  is  thus  with  respect  to  that.  1st  dem  nun  so 
If  it  is  now  thus  with  respect  to  that.  Wie  dem  auch  sei  However  that  may  be.  Dem  sei, 
wie  ihm  wolle  Let  that  be  as  it  may.  Die  Geschichte  ist  gut;  wenn  ihr  nur  so  wäre  (Raabe's 
Höxter  und  Corvey,  chap.  ix).  In  M.H.G.  Wie  ist  disem  mtere?  What  is  the  state  of  things 
with  regard  to  this  story?  In  all  these  sentences  es  understood  is  the  subject.  Usually  this 
dat.  must  be  replaced  by  a  preposition  except  in  case  of  the  few  survivals  of  older  usage  men- 
tioned above:  Wie  ist  es  mit  dieser  Geschichte?  (modern  expression  for  the  above  M.H.G. 
sentence).  There  is  another  somewhat  similar  dative  of  reference  which  is  still  quite  common. 
See  258.  3.  A. 

IV.  1.  Adverbs  of  Degree  (degree,  order,  measure,  extent,  price):  sehr, 
arg  (S.G.),  überaus  very,  höchst,  äußerst  extremely,  zu  too,  ziemUch  tolerably, 
fast  almost,  schier  (see  a)  well-nigh,  entirely,  etwa  or  ungefähr  (in  the  South 
also  beiläufig,  which  in  the  North  has  the  meaning  of  hy  the  ivay,  in  passing) 
about,  erst  (see  b),  nur  (replaced  often  in  the  North  colloquially  by  man;    see 


348 AD\^ERBS   OF   DEGREE 223.  IV.  1. 

{b.  (2).  Note)  only,  zu'erst  first,  viel  much,  wenig  little,  iiber'haupt  (see  c)  in 
general,  &c. 

a.  Schier.     This  word  is  of  double  origin,  and  hence  has  two  different  groups  of  meanings: 

(1)  Schier  (M.H.G.  schiere  fast,  soo7t)  in  early  N.H.G.  soon,  now  almost,  confined  largely  to 
poetic  language. 

(2)  Schier  (Old  Saxon  skiri  clean,  pure)  common  in  N.G.  and  M.G.,  as  an  adverb,  entirely, 
thoroly,  as  an  adjective,  pure,  clean,  nothing  but,  sheer:  Das  leicht  Errungene  |  das  widert  mir,  |  nur 
das  Erzwungene  ;  ergetzt  mich  schier  (Goethe's  Faust,  II,  11.  5169-73).  Gerd  blickte  ihn 
verdutzt  und  schier  ohne  Verständnis  an  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap.  xi). 
Nun  findet  man  dich  und  freut  sich  schier,  j  da  schimpfst  du  uns  Pack  und  Diebsgelichter 
(Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  1,  6j.  Da  ist  alles  so  klar  und  schier  wie  ...  in  Ihrer 
jungen  siebzehnjährigen  Seele  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  34).  Schieres  Fleisch  pure  meat 
(i.e.  without  bones  and  fat),  eine  schiere  Unmöglichkeit  a  sheer  impossibility. 

b.  The  adverb  erst  first  has  a  number  of  derived  meanings: 

(1)  Not  until,  not  before,  no  farther  back  than,  only,  but,  once:  Er  (der  Hund)  schlich  erst 
{not  until)  spät  nach  Hause  zurück.  Ein  stattlicher  Holzbau,  erst  {only  or  but)  vor  zehn  Jahren 
von  Grund  aus  neu  aufgeführt.  Und  hat  er  uns  erst  {once  or  o)ily)  am  kleinen  Finger,  so  hat 
er  uns  auch  ganz.  Often  still  more,  much  more:  Er  ist  sehr  stolz  und  erst  seine  Frau!  Er  ist 
schon  erbittert,  wie  wird  er  erst  toben,  wenn  er  das  erfährt!  Kspecially  frequent  with  recht 
in  the  meaning  all  the  more:    Ich  rief  ihm  zu,  er  solle  zurückkommen,  aber  da  lief  er  erst  recht. 

(2)  The  adverb  erst  only  should  be  distinguished  from  nur  only.  The  former  marks  a  point 
just  reached  in  a  supposed  progress,  while  the  latter  represents  the  limit  as  fixed  or  final:  Ich 
hatte  erst  wenige  Seiten  gelesen,  als  er  zurückkam.  Ich  bin  erst  an  der  dritten  Seite  I  am  only 
at  the  third  page.  Warte  nur  bis  Morgen.  Es  kostet  nur  einen  Taler.  Thus  erst  often  implies 
that  there  is  more  to  follow,  while  nur  suggests  that  the  progress  is  a  limited  one:  Er  ist  erst 
(only  as  yet)  Hauptmann,  but  Er  ist  nur  (only,  which  is  not  much)  Hauptmann.  Ich  habe 
erst  (more  to  follow)  drei  Briefe  gelesen,  but  Ich  habe  nur  (not  many)  drei  Briefe  erhalten. 
Nur  and  erst  may  be  combined:  Wie  klein,  wie  armselig  ist  diese  große  Welt!  Sie  kennen 
sie  nur  erst  {as  yet)  von  ihrer  Flitterseite  (Lessing's  Minna,  5,  9). 

Note.  Nur  is  a  contraction  of  O.H.G.  ni  (=  nicht)  wäri  (=  N.H.G.  wäre,  past  subj.)  and  thus  means  unless  it 
were.  Its  original  use  can  still  be  found:  Er  sieht  nich',  er  hört  nich'.  Nur  diese  Person  (Hauptmann's  Einsame 
Menschen,  4)  He  sees  nothing,  he  hears  nothing  unless  it  be  this  person.  From  this  original  use  has  sprung  up  the 
general  idea  of  limitation,  as  described  above,  and  also  the  common  use  of  limiting  a  preceding  proposition:  Er  mag 
zuhören,  nur  soll  er  schweigen  He  may  listen  if  he  desires,  but  he  must  keep  still.  Tlie  advi-rb  bloß  is  also  used  with 
the  force  of  nur  and  sometimes  both  are  combined:  Kennst  du  mehr  als  nur  den  Namen  bloß  von  meinem  Hause? 
(Schiller).  In  N.G.  dialect  and  colloquial  language  man  bloß  are  often  combined:  Es  is  ja  man  bloß  von  Fritze  Belkow 
wegen,  daß  ich  gefragt  gehabt  habe  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Quilzows,  1,  2). 

c.  überhaupt  expresses,  as  its  parts  signify  {passing  over  without  counting  the  heads,  used  in 
buying  cattle  by  the  lot  without  counting  the  heads),  a  statement  in  general  without  taking 
into  consideration  the  limitations  and  conditions  of  a  particular  case.  It  may  in  part  be  trans- 
lated by  in  general,  generally,  as  a  rule,  anyhoiv,  really,  after  all,  in  any  event,  altogether,  absolutely, 
with  negatives,  after  wenn,  and  in  questions  translated  by  at  all  and  often  difiicult  to  render 
into  English:  Gutes  Wetter  wäre  nicht  nur  unserer  Reise  halber,  sondern  überhaupt  (in  general) 
zu  wünschen.  Wie  karm  man  überhaupt  (anyhow)  umtobt  von  so  wilden  Kindern  einen  jungen 
Hund  erziehen?  (Loth)  Es  sind  die  ersten  Austern,  die  ich  esse  —  (Frau  Kruse)  In  dar  (der) 
Seisong  (Saison)  mein'n  (meinen)  Se  (Sie)  woU  (wohl)?  —  (Loth)  Ich  meine  überhaupt  (ab- 
solutely) —  Hauptmann's  Vor  Sonnenaufgang,  1.  Ich  habe  überhaupt  (at  all)  kein  Vergnügen 
an  der  Musik. 

2.  Instead  of  an  adverb  of  degree,  the  ace.  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  less  com- 
monly a  gen.,  may  be  used  to  express: 

A.  Extent  or  degree:  Das  Dorf  liegt  eine  Stunde  (an  hour's  walk  or  ride,  according  to  the 
connection)  von  der  Stadt.  Gehen  wir  einen  Schritt  weiter  Let  us  go  one  step  farther.  Der 
See  ist  ein  Kilometer  lang  und  ein  halbes  breit.  Er  stand  nur  einen  Fuß  von  mir  entfernt.  So 
geht  das  vier  enggeschriebene  Seiten  fort  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  13S)  And  so  it  (i.e.  the 
letter)  goes  on  for  four  closely  written  pages.  Das  kümmert  mich  kein  Haar  That  doesn't 
worry  me  in  the  least.  Du  glaubst  nicht,  was  (to  what  extent)  dies  Tier  mein  Freund  geworden 
ist  (Mörike).  Das  Thermometer  ist  einen  Grad  gefallen.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  gen.  was  com- 
mon here:  nicht  eines  fusses  breit  (Acts  vii.  5).  Sometimes  in  our  own  day:  eines  Stroh- 
halmes breit  (P.  Heyse's  Gesammelte  Werke,  5,  108). 

a.  The  simple  acc.  or  the  ace.  after  the  prep,  urn  may  stand  after  a  comparative  to  express 
the  measure  of  difference:  Friedrich  ist  einen  halben  Kopf  or  um  einen  halben  Kopf  größer 
als  Wilhelm. 

In  early  N.H.G.  the  gen.  was  here  quite  common:  Da  er  vnter  das  Volck  trat  I  war  er  eins 
heubts  lenger  denn  alles  Volck  (1  Sam.  x.  23).  It  is  still  occasionally  used:  Damit  ist  gesagt, 
daß  er  eines  Hauptes  länger  als  alle  vorigen  Heiderieter  (name)  ist  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen, 
III.  10). 

b.  The  gen.  is  now  often  used  to  denote  that  something  takes  place  at  fixed  intervals  of  space: 
Und  namentlich  in  Zeitungen  ist  aller  paar  Zeilen  Ähnliches  zu  finden  (Theodor  Matthias's 
Sprachleben  und  Sprachschäden,  p.  334,  1st  ed.).  The  older  acc.  is  still  more  common  here. 
Compare  II.  4  above  and  B.  a  below. 

c.  The  gen.  of  extent  or  degree  is  found  in  a  number  of  idiomatic  expressions:  dermaßen 
(maßen,  an  old  wk.  gen.  sing,  of  Maße)  to  such  an  extent,  also  in  such  a  manner,  diesermaßen 


223.  \\ ADVERBS   OF    CAUSE   OR    REASON 349 

to  such  an  extent,  sometimes  in  this  matiner,  einigermaßen  to  some  extent,  solchermaßen  to  such 
an  extent,  sometimes  in  such  a  manner;  derart,  dergestalt,  solchergestalt  =  dermaßen,  solcher- 
maßen. The  gen.  is  used  here  under  the  influence  of  the  gen.  of  manner  which  is  employed 
with  these  words  when  they  denote  the  manner  of  the  activity.  In  most  of  these  words  the 
idea  of  manner  is  not  now  so  common  as  formerly  and  in  some  cases,  perhaps,  not  found  any 
more  at  all,  having  been  displaced  by  that  of  degree.  Earlier  in  the  period  a  prepositional  con- 
struction was  also  in  use:  ein  Vorwurf,  der  in  gewisser  Maßen  (in  2nd  edition  of  1801  with 
simple  gen.:  gewissermaßen)  allen  andern  Sekten  gilt  (Wieland's  Iloraz,  1,  37). 

B.  Duration  or  measure  of  time  answering  the  questions  hoiv  long,  hoiv  often,  &c.:  Er  liest 
den  lieben  langen  Tag  He  reads  the  whole  livelong  day.  Er  ist  zwanzig  Jahre  alt.  Ich  bin 
schon  drei  Tage  hier.  Ziehen  Sie  auf  uns  2  Monate  dato  (from  date)  für  die  Hälfte  des  Be- 
trags. Alle  Tage  every  day,  alle  zwei  Tage  every  other  day,  alle  acht  Tage  every  week,  alle 
zwei  Stunden,  einmal,  zweimal,   &c. 

a.  We  not  infrequently  find  also,  especially  in  the  Midland,  the  gen.  in  sentences  answering 
the  question  hoio  often^:  Bleib  doch  nicht  aller  (in  both  N.G.  and  S.G.  usually  alle)  zehn  Schritte 
stehen  (a  Leipzig  mother  to  her  child).     See  II.  4  above. 

b.  In  a  number  of  expressions  containing  numerals  the  gen.  is  only  seemingly  a  gen.  of  measure, 
while  in  fact  it  is  a  partitive  gen.  dependent  upon  the  numeral:  zwei  ganzer  Stunden  lang 
(Schiller)  or  now  more  commonly  with  the  numeral  after  ganz,  as  in  wie  er  denn  noch  ganzer 
drei  Monate  da  gewesen  ist  (Lessing).  The  words  zwei  and  drei  are  here  in  reality  in  the  ace. 
of  the  measurement  of  time,  but  are  now  felt  as  attributive  adjectives  modifying  the  genitives 
Stunden  and  Monate.  Also  in  such  expressions  the  ace.  of  the  noun  is  now  more  common: 
ganze  vier  Jahre  lang. 

c.  The  gen.  is  also  used  in  a  few  set  expressions  denoting  duration,  as  in  den  Tag  über  or 
tagsüber  all  day  long:  Hunderte  hatten  tagsüber  den  Platz  umlagert  (IL  Böhlau's  Adam 
und  Eva,  chap.  i).  Wer  das  mal  gesehen  hat,  vergißt's  seiner  jor  perhaps  more  commonly 
seine]  Lebtag'  nicht  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  14),  also  seine (r)  Lebtage  or  sein  Lebtag  (a  mu- 
tilated or  contracted  ace.  sing,  or  pi.). 

d.  In  answer  to  the  question  how  often,  or  how  much  within  a  given  time,  the  gen.,  or  perhaps 
more  commonly  ace,  of  the  noun  expressing  the  given  time  within  may  be  used  in  case  of  mascu- 
lines and  neuters,  with  feminines,  however,  only  the  ace,  or  both  constructions  may  with  all 
genders  be  replaced  by  a  prep,  phrase:  Das  Schiff  fährt  zweimal  des  Tags,  or  zweimal  den 
Tag,  or  jeden  Tag  zweimal,  or  an  jedem  Tage  zweimal.  Einigemal  des  Jahres  zog  die  ganze 
Familie  nach  Tivoli  (R.  Voss's  Psyche,  chap,  xviii).  Dreißig  Reichstaler  des  Jahres  ließen 
sie  ihm  (Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap.  ii).  Not  zweimal  der  Woche,  but  jede  Woche  zweimal,  or 
zweimal  die  Woche,  or  zweimal  in  der  Woche.  Der  Kutscher  muß  wenigstens  160  m.  (Meter) 
in  der  Minute  zurücklegen. 

C.  Weight,  amount,  price:  Es  ist  einen  Zentner  schwer.  Die  Rechnung  beträgt  einen 
Taler  The  bill  amounts  to  one  taler.  Es  kostet  mir  or  mich  viel  Geld.  Wie  viel  gilt  es?  Es 
gilt  meinen  Kopf  Ilow  much  is  at  stake?  My  head.  Ich  bin  ihm  10  Taler  schuldig  I  owe  him 
10  talers.  Mit  diesen  Kirschen  habe  ich  drei  Mark  den  Korb  verdient.  Diese  Kirschen 
kosten  drei  Mark  den  Korb.  Hast  du  mir  nicht  immer  den  lateinischen  Aufsatz  gemacht, 
einen  Silbergroschen  das  Stück?  (J.  Rodenberg's  Klostermanns  Grundstück,  p.  54).  Notice 
that  in  the  last  two  examples  we  have  the  accusative  of  price  and  also  that  of  amount  in  the 
same  sentence.  Instead  of  the  ace.  of  amount  we  perhaps  more  commonly  find  the  nom.  when 
the  noun  denoting  the  material  in  question  is  in  the  nom.:  Diese  Kirschen  kosten  drei  Mark 
der  Korb.  Das  Bier  gilt  14  Pfennig  der  Becher  (  Nene  Zürcher  Zeit.,  July  27,  1916).  The  two 
nominatives  are  in  apposition  with  each  other,  the  nom.  replacing  the  older  partitive  gen.  The 
construction  becomes  clear  by  changing  the  word-order:    der  Korb  Kirschen  kostet  drei  Mark. 

Instead  of  an  accusative  of  a  noun  we  often  find  the  ace.  of  a  pronoun:  Er  lief,  was  er  laufen 
konnte.  Sie  (i.e.  zwei  reitende  Batterien)  rasen  zu  mir  her,  was  das  Riemzeug  hält  (Liliencron's 
Kriegsnovellen).     Aber  was  kann  das  helfen!  (R.  Huch's  Aus  der  Triumphgasse,  I). 

a.  Instcad  of  the  ace.  the  gen.  is  still  used  in  a  few  expressions  denoting  a  part  of  a  whole: 
teils  in  part,  größtenteils  in  most  part.  Geh  ihm  gefällig  halben  Wegs  entgegen  (Goethe). 
Halbwegs  entschlossen  half-way  determined.     See  also  245.  IV.  2.  e. 

Earlier  in  the  period  we  find  the  gen.  of  the  amount  or  price  also  elsewhere:  Da  gilt's  Schwei- 
gens (Luther).  Wie  es  so  unsäglicher  Mühsal  gekostet  (Scheffel's  Ekkehard  [1855]  84).  With 
gelten  also  a  prepositional  construction  was  used:  und  soUt's  dem  Teufel  um  ein  Ohr  gelten 
(Schiller's  Räuber,  2,  3).  Sometimes  still:  Es  gilt  um  Tod  oder  Leben!  (Fritz  Lienhard's  Wieland 
der  Schmied,  p.  80).     Compare  185.  A.  I.  6.  Note  2. 

3.  Degree  can  also  be  expressed  by  a  prepositional  phrase:  teils  or  zum  Teil 
in  part.  Das  Schiff  wäre  auf  ein  Haar  gekentert  The  ship  came  within  a  hair's 
breadth  of  upsetting. 

V.  Adverbs  of  Cause  or  Reason,  usually  expressed  by  an  adverb  or  a 
prep,  phrase:  Man  kann  davon  krank  werden  One  can  get  sick  from  that. 
Er  ist  zornig  darüber  He  is  mad  about  it.  Das  Kind  zittert  vor  Frost.  Er 
starb  an  der  Schwindsucht. 

The  following  five  classes  may  also  be  considered  as  subclasses  under  the 
general  class  of  cause. 


350 SENTENCE   ADVERBS 223.  V.  a. 

a.  A  gen.  of  cause  was  once  common  in  the  language,  and  still  sun^ives  in  a  number  of  ex- 
pressions.    For  full  treatment  see  260  and  262.  II. 

VI.  Adverbs  of  Condition,  usually  introduced  by  a  gen.  or  a  prep,  phrase: 
nötigenfalls  if  it  is  necessary,  günstigenfalls  if  a  favorable  opportunity  offers 
itself,  schlimmstenfalls  if  worst  comes  to  worst.  Nur  bei  großem  Fleiße  kannst 
du  Fortschritte  machen  You  can  make  progress  only  on  condition  that  you  are 
very  diligent. 

VII.  Adverbs  of  Concession,  expressed  rarely  by  a  gen.,  usually  by  a 
prep,  phrase:  jedenfalls  in  any  event,  in  any  case  whatever,  auf  alle  Fälle  at 
all  events,  by  all  means.  Trotz  mancher  Widerwärtigkeiten  ist  das  Leben 
doch  reich  an  Freuden. 

VIII.  Adverbs  of  Purpose  or  End,  usually  expressed  by  an  adv.  or  prep, 
phrase:  Dazu  (for  that  purpose)  kam  ich  nicht  her.  Man  bestimmte  ihn 
schon  in  der  Jugend  dafür  (für  den  Soldatenstand).     Er  strebt  nach  Ehre. 

IX.  Adverbs  of  Means,  usually  expressed  by  an  adverb  or  a  prep,  phrase: 
Man  sprengt  damit  (mit  Pulver)  die  stärksten  Felsen.  Durch  falsches  Zeugnis 
glaubt  er  sich  zu  retten. 

X.  Adverbs  of  Material,  usually  expressed  by  an  adverb  or  prep,  phrase : 
Schönes  Tuch,  wir  wollen  einen  Rock  davon  machen  lassen. 

XI.  Modal  or  Sentence  Adverbs,  which  denote  in  what  manner  a  thought 
is  conceived  by  the  speaker.  They  are  thus  adverbs  of  manner,  and,  like  them, 
are  sometimes  expressed  by  the  gen.  of  a  noun  instead  of  a  simple  adverb,  but 
they  dilTer  from  them  and  all  other  adverbs  in  that  they  modify  the  thought  in 
the  sentence  as  a  whole  rather  than  any  one  word  in  it :  keineswegs  by  no  means, 
meinesteils  as  regards  me,  as  for  me,  meines  Wissens  as  far  as  I  know,  meines 
Erachtens  in  my  judgment,  unseres  Bedünkens  as  we  look  at  it,  in  our  opinion, 
(un)glücklicherweise,  vielleicht,  &c.  Of  these  adverbs  only  those  most  idio- 
matic and  difficult  of  comprehension  are  treated  below,  which  should  be  care- 
fully studied,  as  each  gives  a  distinct  complexion  to  the  sentence  in  which  it 
stands : 

A.     Expressing  an  affirmation: 

a.  Ja  indeed,  truly,  why,  don't  you  see,  you  know:  Das  ist  ja  nun  alles  vorbei  But  that  is 
now,  you  know,  all  past.  Was  ist  vorgefallen?  Sie  sehen  ja  ganz  bleich  aus  \\hat  has  hap- 
pened? You  look  very  pale  indeed.  See  also  g.  The  German  also  uses  this  adverb  in  the 
emphatic  form  of  statement  where  English  employs  a  stressed  auxiliary.  See  185.  B.  I.  2.  e.  (2), 
toward  end.  These  ja's  are  all  unaccented,  but  ja  is  strongly  stressed:  (1)  to  answer  affirmatively 
in  emphatic  language  an  expressed  doubt  or  negation:  Das  werden  wir  aber  ja  tun  But  we  most 
certainly  will  do  that.  (2)  To  add  force  to  a  command:  Sie  müssen  ja  eilen!  You  just  must 
hurry!  (3)  In  purpose  clauses  to  express  certainty  of  realization:  Wie  rückten  da  die  Mädchen 
knapp  zusammen,  um  ja  kein  Korn  des  Goldes  zu  verlieren!  {Gn\\pa.rzer's  Sappho,  1,  3)  so  as  to 
be  sure  not  to  miss  a  grain  of  the  gold.  Er  kehrt  um,  damit  er  uns  nur  ja  nicht  zu  grüßen  braucht. 
(4)  In  conditional  clauses  to  indicate  that  the  fulfilment  is  contrary  to  expectation,  or  with 
reference  to  the  future  will  be  contrary  to  expectation,  i.e.  unlikely:  Hast  du  es  ja  getan,  so 
gestehe  es  ein.  Wir  wollen  nicht  mehr  auf  ihn  warten;  wenn  er  ja  noch  kommen  sollte,  mag 
er  nachessen. 

b.  Ein'mal  or  colloquially  mal  used  to  give  emphasis  to  a  statement:  Das  ist  einmal  ein 
Bild!  That  is  a  picture /or  you!  or,  I  tell  you  that's  a  fine  picture!  Tyrannisieren  lasse  ich  mich 
einmal  nicht  I  want  you  to  know  that  I  cannot  be  tyrannized  over.  Nun  einmal  cannot  be 
helped:  Das  ist  nun  einmal  hin  That  is  lost  and  can't  now  be  helped.  Nicht  einmal  often  occurs 
in  the  meaning  not  even,  making  some  particular  word  in  the  sentence  emphatic:  Er  regierte 
selber,  und  nicht  einmal  sein  Kammerdiener  konnte  sich  persönlicher  Einflüsse  rühmen. 

c.  Doch  has  a  different  force  according  to  the  word-order  and  stress  used:  (1)  In  normal 
or  inverted  order  it  has  the  meaning  of  after  all,  tho,  just,  truly,  surely,  in  any  event,  any  way. 
It  is  used  to  strengthen  a  statement,  but  is  employed  advcrsatively  to  state  something  in  con- 
trast or  opposition  to  what  precedes,  or  it  may  be  used  in  elliptical  sentences,  the  doch  expressing 
a  contrast  to  something  implied  or  understood:  Sie  ist  nicht  wie  die  andern  Mädchen,  aber 
sie  ist  doch  nur  ein  Mädchen  She  is  not  like  the  other  girls  (afraid),  but  she  is  after  all  only  a 
girl.  Setz'  dich,  Robert;  ich  muß  dir  doch  etwas  erzählen  Be  seated,  Robert;  I  have  some- 
thing which  I  just  must  tell  you  (altho  you  may  not  want  to  hear  it).  Ich  will  doch  sehen, 
ob  man  auch  mich  hinauswirft  (The  last  man  I  sent,  they  put  out  of  the  house)  I  want  to  see 
tho  if  they  will  go  so  far  as  to  put  me  out  too.  Wo  die  (Büchse)  herumstehen  muß?  Die 
hat  doch  der  Andres  mit  1  wonder  where  that  gun  can  be!  Andrew  has  it  with  him  (didn't  you 
know  that?)  More  about  this  use  in  g  below.  (2)  It  is  also  used  in  sentences  with  question 
order  to  make  in  form  of  an  exclamation  some  statement  more  impressive:    Habe  ich  doch  oft 


223.  XI.B.g. NEGATIVE  ADVERBS 351 

schon  Undank  erfahren!  I  have  indeed  and  in  truth  met  with  unthanicfulness  often  enough 
already.  Hab'  ich  den  Markt  und  die  Straßen  doch  nie  so  einsam  gesehen!  I  declare  I  never 
before  saw  the  pubHc  square  and  the  streets  so  deserted!  Compare  287.  B.  (7).  (3)  In  the  pre- 
ceding cases  doch  is  unstressed.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  stressed  to  contradict  a  statement 
firmly:  „Das  ist  nicht  wahr."  „Doch!"  In  politer  expressions,  however,  it  is  not  stressed  here 
at  all:    „Die  Musik  ist  schreckHch."     „Na,  das  weiß  ich  doch  nicht." 

d.  Denn  evtdoitly,  as  is  well  known,  as  the  facts  indicate,  as  it  is  evident  from  the  preceding, 
as  I  learn,  perceive,  and  with  various  other  translations  of  similar  meaning:  Es  war  des  Grafen 
Taaffe  Wille,  das  Deutschtum  in  Österreich  niederzuhalten,  und  das  hat  er  denn  (as  is  well 
known)  auch,  soweit  es  in  seiner  Macht  lag,  gründlich  besorgt.  Er  ist  denn  (as  I  now  perceive) 
doch  (after  all)  ein  Narr!  Er  sagt  es,  und  so  muß  ich  es  denn  (seeing  that  he  says  it)  wohl 
glauben.    Das  ist  denn  (as  is  very  evident)  doch  (and  it  is  contrary  to  my  expectation)  zu  arg  (bad). 

e.  Schon  never  fear,  no  doubt,  surely,  as  a  matter  of  course,  used  to  express  great  assurance 
or  emphasis:  Es  wird  ihm  schon  geUngen.  Sie  werden  sich  schon  dort  treffen  They  will  no 
doubt  meet  there.  Er  wird  schon  kommen  He  will  doubtless  come.  Ihr  Herrn  vom  Handwerk 
kommt  in  allen  Ländern  herum  und  könnt  schon  (as  a  matter  of  course)  erzählen.  Often 
united  with  noch  to  express  assurance  of  a  future  event:  Ich  werde  ihn  schon  noch  (or  doch 
noch)  kriegen  I'll  get  him  yet.  In  all  these  sentences  we  have  the  original  idea  of  schon,  only 
somewhat  faded.     See  II.  3.  a  above.     Compare  j. 

/.  Ja  wohl  a  stronger  affirmative  than  ja,  but  often  used  without  any  difference  of  meaning 
from  it,  merely  to  avoid  the  too  laconic  ja.  Sometimes  used  after  a  question  expressing  doubt 
as  to  a  matter  or  expecting  a  negative  answer,  when  it  answers  strongly  in  the  affirmative  with 
adversative  force  as  doch:  Du  kommst  wohl  nicht?  Ja  wohl  You  are  not  coming,  are  you? 
Yes,  indeed,  I  am. 

g.  As  doch  is  nearly  synonymous  with  wohl  (see  h  and  D.  h),  so  it  often  has  the  same  general 
force  as  ja  in  a,  but  doch  here,  as  elsewhere,  asserts  its  adversative  nature,  and  thus  distinguishes 
itself  from  jar  Mit  Rat  dürfen  Sie  mich  doch  unterstützen  You  might  certainly  (even  if  your 
power  be  so  limited  as  not  to  help  me  more  directly)  support  me  with  advice.  The  substitution 
of  ja  for  doch  here  would  not  in  English  change  the  translation,  but  in  the  German  implies  that 
nothing  stands  in  the  way. 

h.  Wohl  strengthens  a  statement  much  as  doch,  but  lacks  its  adversative  force,  indeed, 
certainly:  Der  ist  wohl  dumm.  Wohl  war  es  eine  lange,  kalte  Nacht  (Uhland's  Ernst,  1,  1). 
In  popular  ballads  this  wohl  loses  much  of  its  force,  so  that  its  meaning  becomes  so  faint  that 
it  can  scarcely  be  rendered:  Es  zogen  drei  Bursche  wohl  über  den  Rhein  (Uhland's  Der  Wirtin 
Töchterlein).  Nur  strengthens  a  statement  in  that  it  emphasizes  the  idea  of  urgency:  Ich 
muß  nur  bald  meinen  armen  Herrn  aufsuchen   (Lessing's  Minna,  1,  1). 

i.  An  uncertain  affirmation  may  be  expressed  by  an  adverb  or  a  noun  in  the  gen.  such  as 
wahrscheinlich  probably,  vielleicht  perhaps,  etwa  possibly,  perhaps,  perchance,  wohl  used  to 
modify  the  direct  categorical  tone  of  a  statement,  likely,  probably,  I  think,  möglicherweise  (gen.) 
possibly:  Er  kommt  wohl  (I  think)  noch  heute.  Er  war  es  wohl  nicht  It  is  not  likely  that  it 
was  he.     Compare  the  use  of  wohl  in  h. 

j.  The  following  adverbs  are  often  used  with  concessive  force:  schon  I  admit,  wohl  may  be, 
freilich  or  zwar  to  be  sure,  'aller'dings  it  must  be  admitted.  Exs. :  Das  ist  schon  richtig,  aber  .  .  . 
That  is  correct,  I  admit,  but  .  .  .  „Fragst  du  deinen  Mann  nie  nach  seinen  Geschäften?" 
„Ich  frage  schon,  aber  er  antwortet  nicht."  Here  we  have  the  original  idea  of  schon,  only 
somewhat  faded.  See  II.  3.  a.  Er  ist  wohl  ein  geschickter  Mann,  doch  traue  ich  ihm  nicht 
He  may  be  a  very  clever  man,  but  I  don't  trust  him.  Er  ist  allerdings  reich,  allein  er  ist  nicht 
glücklich. 

B.  Expressing  a  Negation.  This  is  usually  expressed  by  an  adverb,  a  noun  in  the  gen.,  or 
a  prep,  phrase:  nein  no,  nicht  (in  careless  colloquial  language  often  nit  in  S.G.  and  nich  in  N.G.) 
not,  'keines'wegs  by  no  means,  auf  keinen  Fall  in  no  event,  nicht  etwa  not  as  you  might  be 
inclined  to  think,  by  no  manner  of  means;  the  adversatives  doch  and  ja  doch  (after  a  preced- 
ing negative  proposition  or  a  question  implying  a  negative  answer  to  affirm  the  contrary) ;  doch 
nicht  (affirming  the  contrary  of  that  which  is  expected  and  already  expressed  or  inferred  by  the 
preceding  speaker  or  questioner) ;  nicht  doch  (after  a  preceding  affirmative  sentence  or  a  question 
expecting  an  affirmative  answer,  for  the  purpose  of  correcting,  denying,  disavowing  its  contents, 
or  disapproving  of  the  thought  therein  advanced);  Gott  bewahre!,  behüte  Gott!,  or  simply  be- 
wahre! er  behüte!,  and  colloquially  i  wo!  (all  strong  negatives);  ich  dächte  gar!,  (ei  or  ach) 
warum  nicht  gar!,  lieber  gar!  nonsense!  what  an  ideal,  hat  sich  was  (see 218. 3.  E),  all  used  ironically 
in  fact  branding  some  statement  as  false:  Glauben  Sie  nicht  etwa,  daß  ich  morgen  wieder  komme 
Don't  think  (as  you  might  be  inclined  to  do)  that  I  shall  come  again  to-morrow.  O  bitte,  es 
eilt  nicht!  Doch;  es  eilt  Oh  please  don't  hurry  off,  there  is  no  need  for  it.  But  there  is  need 
of  haste.  Du  gehst  nicht  ohne  mich,  Vater,  du  kannst  nicht  ohne  mich  leben;  Vater,  das  fühl' 
ich  jetzt  an  mir.  (Der  Vater,  abwehrend)  Ja  doch  But  I  can  tho.  Sie  haben  wohl  keiie  Eile? 
Doch  You  are  not  in  a  hurry,  are  vou?  Yes,  I  am  tho.  „Ja,  Sie  denken  auf  Herrn  Radegast!" 
„Doch  nicht,  Herr  Ribezahl!"  ,",Doch  nicht?  Warum  doch  nicht?  Ist  an  dem  Mann  was 
auszusetzen?"  —  „Es  wird  wohl  regnen."  „Nicht  doch,  das  Barometer  ist  sehr  gestiegen." 
Meinst  du,  solchen  Burschen  sei  es  daran  gelegen?  Bewahre!  Die  wollen  nur  Zeit  gewinnen. 
Aber  hier  handelt  es  sich  um  eine  freche  Beschmutzung  meiner  Ehre.  Ach,  warum  nicht  gar! 
(Otto  Ernst's  Die  Gerechtigkeit,  1,  Verwandlung,  3). 

a.  Double  and  Pleonastic  Negation.  The  Latin  rule  that  two  negatives  make  an  affirmative 
has  gained  the  ascendency  in  the  literary  language,  but  in  the  language  of  the  common  people 


352 DOUBLE   &    PLEONASTIC    NEGATION         223.  XI.  B.  a. 

two  negatives  make  still,  as  in  the  literary  language  of  the  older  periods,  a  strong  negative: 
Er  war  nirgends  nicht  zu  finden  He  was  nowhere  to  be  found.  Compare  popular  English:  I 
haven't  got  none.  In  German  there  are  sometimes  even  three  negatives:  Hat  keiner  kein  Geld 
nicht?  The  double  negative  was  still  common  in  Luther's  language,  even  the  threefold  negative 
occurs.  The  old  Germanic  feeling  was  that  two  or  three  negatives,  like  two  or  three  nails,  are 
stronger  than  one.  This  old  Germanic  usage  has  under  foreign  influence  entirely  disappeared 
in  the  literar>'  language  in  both  German  and  English. 

In  the  literary  language  of  the  classical  period  and  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
a  pleonastic  negative  is  often  to  be  found,  especially  in  those  cases  where  the  clause  or  infin.  phrase 
is  logically  negative  without  a  formal  sign  of  negation.  Klotilde  schien  gegen  alle  zurückhaltend 
außer  gegen  ihren  Vater  nicht  (J.  Paul's  Hesp.,  63).  Here  nicht  gi\-es  a  clear  formal  expression 
to  the  negative  idea  that  is  contained  in  the  statement  and  is  indicated  logically  by  außer,  which 
however  is  not  felt  as  a  formal  negative.  Similarly  in  Wir  mußten  ihn  mit  Gewalt  hindern, 
daß  er  sich  nicht  ein  Leids  zufügte  We  had  to  keep  him  by  force  from  laying  hands  on  himself. 
Here  the  verb  hindern  has  negative  force,  but  the  speaker  is  conscious  of  the  strong  desire,  which 
he  had  that  his  friend  might  not  lay  hand  upon  himself,  and  hence  uses  nicht  to  bring  out  this 
idea,  tho  it  is  not  required  on  strictly  logical  grounds.  Thus  also  in  infin.  phrases:  Sorgfältig 
hüteten  wir  uns,  nicht  .  ,  .  uns  umzusehen  (Goethe). 

The  pleonastic  negative  is  found:  (1)  Very  commonly  earlier  in  the  period  and  sometimes 
still  after  verbs  or  expressions  containing  a  negative  idea,  such  as  abhalten,  abraten,  sich  in 
acht  nehmen,  ausbleiben,  sich  enthalten,  sich  verwehren,  fehlen,  es  fehlt  wenig  or  nicht  viel, 
fürchten,  sich  hüten,  leugnen,  verbieten,  verhindern,  verhüten,  warnen,  the  negative  conjunc- 
tion ohne  daß,  provided  usually  that  it  is  preceded  by  a  negative  or  a  question — in  all  these 
cases  not  only  as  in  M.H.G.  when  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposition  has  positive  form  with 
negative  meaning  and  the  subordinate  clause  is  negative  in  meaning  and  hence  in  a  certain  sense 
entitled  to  negative  form,  especially  originally  when  it  was  felt  as  an  independent  proposition 
with  negative  force,  as  in  the  finst  two  examples  below,  but  in  the  present  period  also  when  the 
subordinate  clause  has  positive  force  because  of  the  fact  that  the  principal  verb  with  negative 
meaning  stands  in  a  question,  as  in  the  sentence  from  Goethe,  or  is  accompanied  by  a  negative, 
as  in  the  quotation  from  Wilmanns  and  also  the  one  from  Muncker,  or  because  the  subordinate 
conjunction  ohne  daß,  which  of  itself  has  negative  force,  follows  a  negative  or  a  question:  Es 
fehlte  nicht  viel  or  nur  wenig,  daß  es  ihm  nicht  ebenso  erging  or  ergangen  wäre.  Wir  werden 
verhüten,  daß  ;kein  Schaden  geschehe  (IVeytag's  Der  Rittmeister  von  Altrosen,  II).  Was 
hindert  mich,  daß  ich  nicht  eine  der  grünen  Schnüre  ergreife  (Goethe).  Christs  (name)  Einwürfe 
konnten  ihn  nicht  abhalten,  daß  er  nicht,  nachdem  er  1746  den  ersten  Gesang  in  Hexameter 
umgesetzt  hatte,  während  des  folgenden  Jahres  die  zwei  nächsten  Gesänge  in  gleicher  Weise 
umarbeitete  (Muncker's  Gottlieb  Klopstock,  p.  67).  Es  konnte  nicht  ausbleiben  (or  unter- 
bleiben, or  fehlen),  daß  sie  sich  nicht  zuweilen  getroffen  hätten  (Wilmanns's  Deutsche  Gram- 
matik, III,  p.  284),  or  where  the  idea  of  actual  fact  is  prominent  daß  sie  sich  (nicht)  zuweilen 
trafen  (id.).  Nun  verging  kaum  eine  Woche,  ohne  daß  die  beiden  nicht  zusammen  in  lustiger 
Gesellschaft  einen  vergnügten  Abend  verbracht  hätten  (Paul  Lindau's  Spitzen,  p.  326).  Pleo- 
nastic nicht  is  least  common  after  fürchten  and  in  general  most  common  in  connection  with  an 
unreal  potential  subjunctive  where  the  subordinate  clause  has  positive  force,  as  in  the  example 
from  Wilmanns.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  after  hüten  and  words  of  similar  meaning  the  nega- 
tive is  still  quite  common  in  daß  clauses,  while  it  is  dropped  in  the  contracted  infinitive  clause: 
Hüte  dich,  daß  du  nicht  fällst,  but  Hüte  dich,  zu  fallen.  It  will  be  a  distinct  gain  to  the  language 
if  this  pleonastic  negative  entirely  disappears,  for  nicht  is  sometimes  needed  in  the  subordinate 
clause  to  make  the  statement  affirmative:  In  Ehrmanns  Hause  war  es  verboten,  nicht  zu  rau- 
chen (Simrock  an  Düntzer)  =  Jeder  war  gezwungen  zu  rauchen.  Of  course,  nicht  must  be  used 
when  it  is  not  pleonastic,  i.e.  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  a  distinct  grammatical  unit  and 
needs  an  independent  negative  for  the  expression  of  the  thought  which  it  contains:  Es  fehlt 
nichts,  als  daß  du  nicht  da  bist,  or  with  an  entirely  difTerent  construction:  Es  fehlt  nichts,  als 
daß  du  da  wärst  (subjunctive  of  modest  wish;  see  169.  1.  A  (3rd  par.).  (2)  In  clauses  of  degree 
after  a  comparative:  Es  ging  besser,  als  wir  nicht  dachten  (Goethe).  This  negative,  now 
rare,  but  common  a  little  earlier  in  the  period,  is  illogical,  but  it  once  found  favor  in  German 
and  is  still  found  in  other  languages,  as  it  gives  formal  expression  to  the  feeling  often  present 
that  the  state  of  things  in  question  is  not  in  harmony  with  the  statement  in  the  principal  propo- 
sition. See  also  277.  1.  B.  a.  (3)  The  pleonastic  negative  has  become  very  common  in  the 
literature  of  our  time  in  clauses  introduced  by  bis  or  ehe,  bevor,  when  they  depend  upon  a  nega- 
tive clause:  Ich  werde  keine  andere  Arbeit  begiimen,  bis  ich  nicht  diese  beendet  habe.  Ehe 
nicht  seine  Verhältnisse  geordnet  sind,  kommt  er  nicht  ziu-  Ruhe  (Fontane's  Poggenpuhls, 
chap.  xii).  Herr  Sasonoff  und  Herr  Viviani  und  jetzt  Herr  Briand  haben  übereinstimmend 
erklärt,  sie  würden  das  Schwert  nicht  in  die  Scheide  stecken,  bevor  nicht  der  preußische  oder 
der  deutsche  Militarismus  niedergekämpft  sei  (Reichskanzler  Bethmann  Hollweg  an  den 
Reichstag,  Dec.  9,  1915).  (4)  Sometimes  after  es  ist  lange  her:  Es  ist  lange  her,  daß  wir  nicht 
Regen  gehabt  haben.  (5)  Sometimes  in  clauses  introduced  by  seit  or  seitdem:  Du  hast  dich 
recht  verändert,  liebes  Mädchen,  |  seit  ich  dich  nicht  gesehen  (Hauptmann's  Versunkene  Glocke, 
11.  1069-1070).  (6)  Sometimes  in  connection  with  an  adjective  with  the  negative  prefix  un-: 
Der  Kundige  wird  in  der  Detailuntersuchung  manche  selbständige  Ansicht  des  Verfassers  nicht 
unschwer  erkennen  (Heinemann 's  Heinrich  von  Braunschweig,  Vorrede).  Compare  246.  1.  9.  d. 
b.  The  negative  nicht  is  often,  especially  earlier  in  the  period,  used  in  exclamations  with  the 
force  of  a  strong  affirmative:  Was  du  nicht  alles  weißt!    I  declare  if  you  don't  know  everything! 


223.  XI.  P.  c. SP:NTENCE   ADXERBS 353 

=  You  surely  know  everything.  The  negative  in  such  exclamations  has  arisen  from  a  minghng 
of  two  constructions.     From  Wie  viel  tut  die  Einbildung?  and  Tut  die  Einbildung  nicht  viel? 

(see  D.  b  below)  has  come  Wie  viel  die  Einbildung  nicht  tut!  The  positive  form  of  statement 
is  now  more  common  here. 

c.  For  the  force  of  nicht  in  questions  see  D.  b  below. 

d.  The  ace.  of  certain  words,  such  as  Henker,  Teufel,  is  often  in  rather  coarse  language 
used  as  a  strong  negative:  Er  weiß  den  Henker  davon.  Da  schert  man  sich  den  Teufel  um 
die  Ideen  der  Zeit  (Sudermann's  Heimat,  1,  5).  Sometimes  the  negative  nicht  is  used  in 
connection  with  Teufel  with  the  same  force  as  simple  Teufel:  Er  tüftelte  über  diese  Dinge 
.  .  .  ,  von  was  allem  er  nicht  den  Teufel  verstand  (Gottfried  Keller's  Die  drei  gerechten  Kamm- 
macher) . 

C.  .\n  imperative  may  be  strengthened  by  the  adverbs  ein'mal  (often  contracted  to  mal), 
nur  (colloquially  in  X.G.  man),  and  doch.  Einmal  emphasizes  a  request  or  command,  but 
often  has  a  force  so  slight  that  it  cannot  be  translated.  It  can  sometimes  be  rendered  by  just, 
sometimes  it  merely  serves  to  give  to  the  style  a  more  lively  conversational  tone:  Denke  dir 
einmal!  Just  think!  Komm  einmal  her!  Come  here  a  minute!  Hör'  mal!  Die  Nachtigall  singt. 
Nur  and  doch  are  used  to  urge  an  action  or  course  of  action,  the  former  rather  persuasively, 
and  the  latter  rather  more  firmly,  or  beseechingly  ev^en,  in  spite  of  evident  opposition  or  reluc- 
tance, as  there  is  always  here,  as  elsewhere,  adversative  force  in  doch:  Fange  nur  an!  Es  ist  ja 
nicht  schwer  Do  make  a  beginning;  it  is  indeed  not  difficult.  Schonen  Sie  nur  den  Vater!  Seien 
Sie  recht  aufmerksam  auf  seine  kleinen  Liebhabereien!  Gut!  Nur  zu!  Good!  Keep  right  on! 
Nur  nicht  hitzig,  mein  Herr!  I  hope  you  will  not  lose  your  temper.  Treten  Sie  man  (instead 
of  nur)  ein!  Ei!  laß  ihn  doch!  Let  him  alone,  I  say.  Starren  Sie  mir  doch  nicht  so  polizeilich 
ins  Gesicht,  wie  wenn  ich  gestohlen  hätte!     Setz  dich  doch!  O  do  be  seated! 

Tho  doch  and  nur  are  both  used  in  commands  and  entreaties  there  is  a  marked  difference  in 
their  several  meanings.  Doch  implies  reluctance  on  the  part  of  the  person  addressed,  while 
nur  implies  that  the  speaker  desires  this  course  and  urges  the  other  to  adopt  it.  Thus  as  this 
desire  (nur)  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  and  the  reluctance  (doch)  on  the  part  of  the  person  ad- 
dressed may  both  enter  as  factors  into  the  case,  both  words  may  appear  in  the  same  sentence: 
Ach,  so  komm  doch  nur,  bebte  es  noch  einmal  von  Käthes  Lippen.  Sometimes  doch  and  ein- 
mal are  combined  in  one  sentence:  Erklären  Sie  doch  einmal!  Come,  do  explain!  Klettere 
doch  mal  auf  den  Baum!  Don't  you  dare  to  climb  that  tree!  Sometimes  in  lively  conversational 
tone  all  three  adverbs  may  be  combined  in  one  sentence:  Hören  Sie  doch  nur  einmal!  I  beg 
of  you,  do  listen  a  moment! 

A  strongly  stressed  ja  is  often  used  in  emphatic  language  to  imply  a  threat:  Tu  mir  das  ja 
nicht  wieder!     It  is  also  employed  in  an  urgent  request:  Kommen  Sie  doch  ja! 

a.  Admonitions  or  commands  are  also  often  strengthened  by  wohl,  especially  such  as  have 
the  form  of  a  question,  the  speaker  in  all  cases  assuming  compliance  upon  the  part  of  the  person 
addressed:    Überlege  wohl,  was  du  sagst.     Willst  du  wohl  machen,  daß  du  fortkommst? 

b.  In  mild  commands,  direct  and  indirect,  also  in  granting  permission,  immer  is  used  to 
indicate  that  the  speaker  has  no  objection  to  the  matter  in  question  and  sometimes  to  give 
encouragement:  Die  Leute  mögen  es  immer  wissen,  daß  ich  nichts  mehr  habe  (Lessing's  Minna, 
3,  7)  Let  the  people  know  for  all  I  care  that,  &c.  Laß  sie  nur  immer  toben!  Du  darfst  den 
Apfel  immer  nehmen.     Sage  ihm,  er  möge  immer  reisen  Teil  him  he  should  go  by  all  means. 

D.  A  question. 

a.  Denn  used  to  put  a  question  in  an  interested,  eager  manner,  inquiring  after  the  cause 
or  reason  of  some  fact  that  is  already  known,  or  often  only  to  ask  a  question  in  a  tone  of  Hvely 
interest  or  of  impatience:  Warum  hast  du's  denn  verkauft?  Was  ist  denn  passiert?  Wie 
heißt  sie  denn?     Siehst  du  es  denn  nicht?  Why,  don't  you  see  it? 

b.  Nicht  expecting  an  affirmative  answer:   Kommt  er  nicht?  He  is  coming,  is  he  not? 

c.  Etwa  nicht  suggests  a  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  questioner  as  to  something  which  he  once 
had  thought  settled  in  the  affirmative  and  concerning  which  he  now  asks  definite  information, 
and  in  inverted  order,  nicht  etwa,  is  often  used  politely  to  hint  that  the  person  addressed  is  in 
the  wrong:  Kommt  er  etwa  nicht?  Is  there  doubt  about  his  coming?  Haben  Sie  mir  etwa 
diese  Blumen  nicht  geschickt?  (Sudermann's  Heimat,  1,  2)  Can  it  be  that  you  have  not  sent 
me  these  flowers?     Irren  Sie  sich  nicht  etwa?  Don't  you  think  you  are  mistaken? 

d.  Etwa  or  vielleicht  in  questions  direct  or  indirect  markin,^  the  matter  in  question  as  one 
of  possible  occurrence:  Gibt's  etwa  heute  Regen?  Can  it  be  that  it  will  rain  to-day?  Komme 
ich  etwa  ungelegen?  Can  it  be  that  I  come  at  an  inopportune  time?  Zweifelt  etwa  (or  vielleicht) 
jemand  daran?  Can  it  be  that  any  one  doubts  it?  Haben  Sie  etwa  Geld  bei  sich?  Do  you  happen 
to  have  any  money  with  you? 

e.  Wohl  is  used  in  questions  in  the  following  constructions:  (1)  In  rhetorical  questions 
(i.e.  in  such  questions  as  need  no  express  response,  as  the  answer  is  self-evident)  to  which  the 
speaker  would  give  a  negative  answer,  it  is  used  in  order  to  indicate  that  the  speaker  confidently 
expects  a  confirmation  from  the  hearer  of  his  own  negative  position:  1st  wohl  der  ein  würdiger 
Mann,  der  im  Glück  und  im  Unglück  sich  nur  allein  bedenkt?  Is  he  indeed  a  worthy  man  who  in 
fortune  and  misfortune  only  thinks  of  himself?  Nun  glaubt  Ihr  wohl,  Gott  werde  es  zugeben, 
daß  ein  einziger  Mann  in  seiner  Welt  wie  ein  Wütrich  hause  und  das  Oberste  zu  imterst  kehre? 
(Schiller).  This  use  is  similar  to  h,  described  below.  (2)  It  is  also  very  frequently  used  to  ask 
after  the  opinion  of  the  person  addressed  as  to  some  doubtful  point,  and  also  often  without 
reference  to  any  person  addressed,  giving  to  the  question  the  character  of  a  mere  inquiring 
conjecture:    Wer  ist  wohl  der  schlanke  Bursche?    Who  do  you  think  that  slender  fellow  is? 


354 SENTENCE   ADVERBS 223.  XI.  P.  g. 

Kommt  er  wohl  heute  noch?  Do  you  think  he  will  come  yet  to-day?  Very  frequent  in  indirect 
questions:    Ob  wohl  die  Vergoldungen  echt  sind?  I  wonder  if  the  gildings  are  genuine. 

/.  Nut  in  questions  or  e.xclamations  with  the  force  of  questions,  /  should  like  to  know,  much 
used  in  questions,  prompted  by  the  desire  to  know  and  understand,  and  very  often  mingled 
with  surprise:  Was  ich  nur  anfange?  I  should  like  to  know  what  I  ought  to  do  in  this  case.  Aber 
was  haben  Sie  nur  vor?  What  in  the  world  are  you  planning  to  do?  "Was  suchst  du  nur?  What 
are  you  looking  for?     Wer  es  nur  gesagt  hat?  I  wonder  who  told  it! 

g.  Doch  with  its  usual  adversative  force  expressing  something  to  the  surprise  of  or  contrary 
to  the  wishes,  expectation,  &c.  of  the  speaker:  Wo  hab'  ich's  doch?  Where  is  it,  any  way?  (I 
can't  find  it,  Isut  it  must  be  on  my  person).  Sah  euch  doch  niemand?  Kein  Mensch  But  did 
not  somebody  see  you?  Not  a  soul.  It  is  often  used  in  questions  put  to  one's  self  for  the  pur- 
pose of  trying  to  recall  something  forgotten:  Was  wollte  ich  doch  eigentlich?  What  was  I  just 
about  to  do,  any  way? 

h.  In  questions  having  the  form  of  declarative  sentences  doch  and  wohl  are  used  to  state 
the  opinion  or  idea  of  the  speaker,  and  ask  for  a  confirmation  of  it;  nicht  wahr  or  often  simply 
nicht  and  in  the  South  gelt  expect  an  affirmative  reply  to  a  simple  question:  Du  hast's  ihm 
doch  gesagt?  1  suppose  you  told  him?  Sie  haben  doch  Bekaimte  hier?  I  suppose  you  have 
acquaintances  here?  Sie  haben  jetzt  wohl  viel  zu  tun?  You  have  now,  I  suppose,  much  to  do? 
Sie  werden  mitkommen,  nicht  wahr?  You  will  come  along,  won't  you?  Sie  waren  im  Theater, 
nicht?  You  were  at  the  theater,  were  you  not?  Aber  gelt,  er  steckte  dir  gewü5  Geld  in  dei- 
nen Beutel?  He  surely  put  money  into  your  pocket,  did  he  not? 

In  the  above  sentences  doch  and  wohl  have  the  same  general  meaning,  but  doch  with  its  usual 
adversative  force  implies  (often  politely)  that  something  to  the  contrary  may  possibly  be  urged 
against  it,  while  wohl  assumes  that  this  will  probably  not  be  the  case.  Both  particles  can  be 
combined  with  the  combined  force  of  them  both:  Sie  müssen  doch  wohl  antworten?  You  will 
probably  have  to  answer,  will  you  not? 

Nicht  added  to  doch  or  wohl  in  such  sentences  expects  confidently  a  negative  answer:  Du 
wirst  doch  nicht  Fräulein  Helene  mit  ihrer  Schwester  vergleichen  wollen?  You  certainly  will 
not  desire  to  compare  Miss  Helen  with  her  sister? 

Nicht  etwa  added  to  doch  in  such  sentences  express  the  hope  that  a  fear  or  suspicion  may 
not  be  realized,  or  may  be  without  foundation:  Aber  (er  sieht  sich  um,  leiser)  sie  wird's  doch 
nicht  etwa  hören?  But  (he  looks  around  him,  and  speaks  more  softly)  I  hope  she  will  not  hear  it; 
you  certainly  don't  think  she  will?  Ihr  verhaut  den  Hund  doch  nicht  etwa?  Nein,  er  haut  uns. 
A:   Ich  gab  das  Geld  Ihrem  Kommis.     B:    Doch  nicht  etwa  Schmidt?  Not  to  Schmidt,  I  hope. 

E>  An  exclamation  may  express  different  shades  according  to  the  adverb  used.  Here  doch 
expresses  a  surprise  on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  often  strong  praise  mingled  with  the  feeling  of 
surprise  or  the  idea  that  it  is  contrary  to  expectation;  nur  (colloquially  in  N.G.  man)  an  urgent 
wish  that  the  person  addressed  may  comply  with  some  desire  of  the  speaker,  or  look  at  some- 
thing from  his  standpoint,  sometimes  more  sharply  in  the  sense  of  a  rebuke,  admonition,  or 
threat;  denn  impatience;  nicht  (as  In  D.  b  and  B.  b)  expressing  that  the  person  addressed  will 
agree  to  the  sentiment  uttered:  Ich  hatte  doch  Streichhölzer  bei  mir!  I  thought  I  had  matches 
about  me.  Das  nenne  ich  doch  noch  Humor!  I  must  say  that's  really  humorous.  Das  ist 
doch  was!  That  is  something  like  it,  something  fine.  Es  ist  doch  schön  hier!  I  must  say  it's 
really  beautiful  here.  Sie  sollten  ihn  nur  hören  und  sehen!  You  ought  (I  do  hope  you  will)  to 
hear  him  and  see  him.  Sehen  Sie  nur,  was  Sie  gemacht  haben!  Just  see  what  you  have  done! 
Laß  mich  nur  machen!  Let  me  alone!  Let  me  do  it  myself!  Warte  nur,  ich  werde  dich  lehren! 
Just  wait,  I'll  teach  you.  Sitzt  denn  still!  Sit  still  then!  Wie  glücklich  waren  wir  nicht!  How 
happy  we  were!  Was  ist  er  nicht  für  ein  frecher  Bursche!  What  a  bold  fellow  he  is!  Compare 
B.  b. 

F.  A  wish  may  express  difTerent  shades  by  using  different  adverbs,  such  as  doch  or  nur  (col- 
loquially man)  only,  weim  doch  or  wenn  nur  if  only;  much  less  frequently  erst  only,  alone  or 
with  nur;  man  nur  used  very  often  colloquially  in  N.G.  for  nur.  Doch  is  adversative,  and 
shows  that  the  wishes  of  the  speaker  do  not  harmonize  with  the  facts,  and  cannot  probably  be 
made  to  do  so.  Nur,  as  in  the  preceding  articles,  expresses  a  wish  that  can  be  or  could  have 
been  realized,  but  it  often  implies  the  fear  that  it  may  possibly  not  find  realization.  Wenn  er 
doch  käme!  If  he  only  would  come  (I  fear  he  will  not)!  Wenn  ich  nur  nicht  zu  spät  komme! 
Oh  that  1  may  not  arrive  too  late!  Weim  es  niu-  so  gewesen  wäre!  Wäre  ich  erst  ein  alter 
Mann!  Wenn  ich  nur  erst  hundert  Taler  hätte!  Here,  as  often  elsewhere,  erst  calls  attention 
to  what  would  follow  (223.  IV.  1.  b.  (2)). 

Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

224.  Few  genuine  adverbs,  from  their  very  meaning,  admit  of  comparison, 
but  the  many  adverbs  made  from  adjectives,  like  the  latter,  can  be  compared. 
The  comparison  of  such  adverbs  does  not  differ  at  all  in  the  positive  and  com- 
parative from  adjectives  except  that  the  adverbial  forms  are  not  inflected,  and 
hence  their  comparison  along  with  that  of  genuine  adverbs  is  treated  under 
adjectives.  See  114-118.  In  N.H.G.  the  adverb  has  developed  new  forms 
in  the  superlative  which  are  given  in  114. 


225.  2.  h. NATURE   OF   PREPOSITIONS 355 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Nature. 

225.  Very  closely  allied  in  nature  to  adverbs  are  prepositions,  which,  like 
adverbs,  limit  the  force  of  the  verb  as  to  some  circumstance  of  place,  time, 
manner,  cause  or  reason,  purpose  or  end,  means,  material,  modal  expression — in 
short  the  same  circumstances  as  are  expressed  by  the  adverb  minus  degree; 
hence  the  preposition,  unlike  the  adverb,  cannot  admit  of  comparison.  Thus 
a  preposition  in  connection  with  its  dependent  substantive  is  exactly  equal  in 
force  to  an  adverb,  but  a  preposition  and  an  adverb  differ  in  this  that  the  latter 
limits  the  force  of  the  verb  in  and  of  itself,  while  the  former  requires  the  assistance 
of  a  dependent  noun  or  some  other  word:  Mary  was  in  (adverb),  but  Mary 
was  in  (prep.)  the  house.  A  preposition  does  not  only  serve  to  link  thus  its 
object  to  a  verb,  but  also  to  an  adjective,  a  noun  or  a  sentence.  As  this  con- 
nective particle  usually  stands  before  the  dependent  word,  it  is  called  a  prepo- 
sition (Latin  prae  before  and  positio  position). 

1.  a.  Sometimes  a  few  prepositions  and  adverbs  touch  each  other  so  closely  that  the  prep, 
can  only  be  distinguished  by  its  dependent  substantive,  and  if  that  be  dropped  the  same  word, 
which  was  only  a  moment  before  a  prep.,  becomes  an  adverb:  Das  Haus  liegt  abwärts  (prep.) 
des  Flusses  The  house  lies  back  from  the  river.  Das  Haus  liegt  abwärts  The  house  lies  to  one 
side. 

b.  As  described  in  226  a  number  of  adverbs  have  become  common  prepositions.  The  adverb, 
however,  in  entering  into  close  relations  to  a  noun  and  thus  becoming  a  preposition  did  not  always 
sever  its  relations  to  the  verb,  so  that  in  compounds  a  prefix  often  has  both  the  force  of  a  prepo- 
sition and  an  adverb,  while  the  same  form  outside  of  a  compound  has  only  the  force  of  a  prepo- 
sition. Examples  are  given  229.  2  under  nach,  /,  also  under  entgegen.  While  nach  is  both 
an  adverb  and  a  preposition  in  Er  lief  dem  Diebe  nach,  it  is  only  an  adverb  in  Ich  will  dir  das 
Geheimnis  mitteilen,  du  darfst  es  aber  nicht  nachreden.  In  general,  the  prefixes  of  many  verbs, 
tho  used  adverbially,  have  more  or  less  prepositional  force.  See  223.  1.  9.  B,  258.  1.  B.  a  and 
262.  I.  b. 

c.  Sometimes  when  there  is  a  dependent  noun,  there  is  actual  fluctuation  of  conception, 
usually  the  particle  being  construed  as  an  adverb,  but  sometimes  as  a  prep.  This  is  true  of 
an  or  gegen  about,  über  more  tlian,  unter  less  than:  Es  ist  an  (adv.)  or  gegen  (adv.)  ein  Taler 
or  an  (prep.)  or  gegen  (prep.)  einen  Taler  Verlust  dabei  There  is  a  loss  of  about  a  thaler  in  the 
transaction.  Es  ist  über  (adv.)  ein  Taler  or  über  (prep.)  einen  Taler  Verlust  dabei.  Es  ist 
unter  (adv.)  ein  Taler  or  unter  (prep.)  einem  Taler  Verlust  dabei.  In  this  idiom,  notice  that 
the  prep,  über  according  to  its  idea  of  going  beyond  and  an  from  the  idea  of  approaching  take 
the  ace,  but  the  prep,  unter  the  dat.,  while  all  three  used  as  adverbs  remain  without  influence 
over  the  case.     Compare  251.  I.  1.  A.  b. 

2.  Prepositions  approach  in  some  cases  the  nature  of  conjunctions,  and  lose  their  influence 
over  the  case  of  the  following  word.  This  is  true  of  anstatt  or  statt,  außer,  and  earlier  in  the 
period,  and  even  occasionally  later,  also  ohne  except,  which  is  now  replaced  here  by  außer  and 
ausgenommen:  Er  hat  es  mir  anstatt  meinem  Bruder  gegeben.  Eine  Maschine,  die  das  Feuer 
treibt,  anstatt  der  Fuhrmann  (Rosegger).  Ich  will  mit  Stahl  und  Stein  das  Reisig  zünden  j  und 
diesmal  dir,  statt  Herr,  ein  Diener  sein  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  3).  Ja,  niemand 
kann  mir  helfen  —  außer  ich  selbst  (Fulda's  Die  Sl^lavin,  2,  8).  Ich  bin  euch  allen  böse  außer 
ihm.  Sie  fanden  alles  außer  den  Dolch,  or  außer  (prep.)  dem  Dolch.  Sie  war  es  längst  nicht 
mehr  gewöhnt,  was  sie  dachte  und  fühlte,  gegen  irgend  einen  Menschen,  außer  gegen  Justus, 
frei  zu  äußern  (Spielhagen's  Sonntagskind,  I.  4).  Daß  ich  nicht  nachdenken  kann  ohne  mit 
der  Feder  in  der  Hand  (Lessing).  Nimmer  mehr  von  Alfheim  zu  kehren  aus  dem  Streit,  |  ohne 
mit  Alf  sonnen   (Geibel's  Juniuslieder,  339). 

a.  The  preceding  prepositions  connect  as  conjunctions  only  words,  but  seit,  bis,  während 
also  connect  sentences,  as  may  also  others  when  followed  by  some  other  conjunction,  as  außer 
daß,  außer  wenn,  anstatt  daß,  &c.:  Persönliche  Tapferkeit  entscheidet  weniger,  seit  sich  die 
Heere  der  SchiefJgewehre  bedienen.  Wir  gehen  täglich,  außer  wenn  es  regnet.  Instead  of 
außer  daß  we  also  find  the  simple  connective:  Das  hübsche  Berghaus  hat  sicher  ein  Gastzim- 
mer, und  darin  will  ich  mich  —  außer  Sie  jagen  mich  gewaltsam  hinaus  —  volle  drei  Tage 
festsetzen  (Suttner's  Im  Berghause,  p.  26).  Formerly  ungeachtet  daß  was  common,  but  the 
simple  connective  is  now  preferred.  Instead  of  the  connective  seit  the  form  seitdem  is  also 
used.  The  preps,  anstatt  instead  of,  ohne  li'ithout,  and  um  in  order,  lit.  for,  for  the  purpose  of, 
are  very  commonly  found  as  conjunctions  in  connection  with  the  infin.  with  zu  in  contracted 
clauses:  Anstatt  weg  zu  laufen,  kam  der  Bär  heran.  Ohne  sich  umzusehen,  lief  der  Dieb 
davon.     Wir  leben  nicht,  um  zu  essen,  sondern  wir  essen,  um  zu  leben. 

b.  In  the  case  of  anstatt,  statt,  and  außer  when  they  connect  grammatical  elements  of  like 
rank  in  the  nom.  or  ace,  the  words  can  usually  be  used  as  preps,  or  conjunctions  without  dif- 


356 GOVERNMENT   OF   PREPOSITIONS 225.  2.  h. 

ference  of  meaning:  Der  Bauer  brachte  das  Kalb  anstatt  der  Kuh,  or  statt  die  Kuh.  Niemand 
kommt  mir  entgegen  außer  ein  Unverschämter  (Lessing's  Emilia,  4,  3),  or  außer  einem  Unver- 
schämten. But  in  case  of  statt,  anstatt  when  there  is  only  an  indirect  object  after  the  verb, 
either  in  the  simple  dat.  or  a  case  after  a  prep.,  there  is  a  sharp  distinction  between  the  prepo- 
sitional and  conjunctional  construction.  In  the  former  construction,  the  noun  following  anstatt, 
statt  is  felt  as  the  subject  or  author  of  an  action,  while  a  noun  after  these  particles  in  the  con- 
junctional construction  is  felt  as  the  indirect  object:  Sie  dankte  mir  anstatt  deiner  (instead  of 
your  doing  so),  but  Sie  dankte  mir  statt  dir  She  thanked  me  instead  of  thanking  you.  Er  hat 
statt  deiner  (instead  of  your  doing  it)  an  mich  geschrieben,  but  Er  hat  an  mich  statt  an  dich 
geschrieben  He  wrote  to  me  instead  of  writing  to  you. 

3.  A  prep,  often  seems  to  show  a  relation  of  meaning  between  two  nouns  where  in  fact  the 
relation  is  between  a  noun  and  a  verb.  Thus  Geld  zur  Reise  nioney  for  the  journey  is  an  elliptical 
expression  =  Das  Geld,  das  zur  Reise  bestimmt  ist.  Thus  also  Herr  über  Tod  und  Leben  = 
Der  Herr,  der  über  Tod  und  Leben  gesetzt  ist.  In  other  cases  the  preposition  may  link  to- 
gether two  nouns,  the  prcji.  phrase  Ijeing  a  real  adjunct  to  a  noun  representing  an  okler  simple 
case  form:  ein  Mäntelchen  von  Scharlach  =  M.H.G.  ein  scharlaches  mentelin.  To-day,  how- 
ever, all  these  prepositional  phrases  are  alike  felt  as  attributive  adjuncts. 

4.  Sometimes  the  same  relations  are  expressed  by  a  prep,  and  case  as  by  a  case  alone,  and 
sometimes  by  changing  the  prep,  the  idea  may  receive  a  new  shade:  Man  freut  sich  einer  Sache, 
or  an  einer  Sache  One  takes  pleasure  in  a  thing  (which  one  has),  but  Man  freut  sich  auf  eine 
Sache  One  takes  pleasure  in  something  that  one  is  expecting  for  the  future.  Perhaps  the  prepo- 
sitional construction  is  never  entirely  equal  to  the  case  construction,  as  the  prep,  often  brings 
out  more  prominently  some  circumstance  as  cause,  reason,  &c.:  Ich  bin  müde  vom  {from,  on 
account  of)  Arbeiten,  but  Ich  bin  des  Arbeitens  müde  I  am  tired  of  work,  do  not  care  to  work 
longer. 

5.  Sometimes  the  prep,  is  followed  by  an  adverb  or  a  prep,  phrase  instead  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun: von  früh  bis  spät  from  early  till  late;  von  heute  auf  morgen  verschieben  to  put  off  from 
to-day  till  to-morrow.     Er  dachte  an  zu  Haus  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XXV). 

Government  of  Prepositions. 

226.  Originally  the  nouns  which  followed  prepositions  were  not  governed 
at  all  by  the  latter,  but  received  their  case  directly  from  their  relations  to  the 
verb,  the  preposition  likewise  limiting  the  verb  by  adding  some  especial  ex- 
planatory circumstance  of  place,  time,  &c.  Thus  most  of  the  oldest  and  most 
common  prepositions  were  in  fact  adverbs,  and  the  same  prep,  could  be  fol- 
lowed by  two  or  even  three  different  cases  according  to  the  relation  of  the  noun 
to  the  verb,  and  hence  possessed  no  governing  power  over  the  noun.  But  in 
course  of  time  a  closer  relation  developed  between  the  prep,  and  the  noun, 
and  the  former  gained  governing  power  over  the  latter,  certain  prepositions 
habitually  requiring  certain  cases  after  them.  As  the  prepositions  before  the 
dative,  locative,  ablative,  and  instrumental  were  more  concrete  expressions  for 
the  ideas  already  expressed  by  the  endings  of  these  cases  the  case  endings  them- 
selves became  more  and  more  slighted  and  finally  lost  their  distinctive  form, 
all  merging  into  one — the  dative — the  preceding  preposition  indicating  the 
relation  between  the  verb  and  the  noun.  See  258.  1  (near  end).  The  language 
thus  lost  three  cases,  but  it  gained  in  simplicity  without  losing  any  of  its  power 
of  accurate  expression.  In  this  new  period  of  development  the  prepositions 
not  only  assumed  the  functions  of  the  case  forms  but  they  often  retained  and 
still  retain  the  functions  of  the  old  adverbs  out  of  which  they  had  developed, 
as  illustrated  in  229.  2  under  nach,  /  and  entgegen.  See  also  225,  223.  I.  9.  B, 
258.  1.  B.  a,  and  262.  \.  b.  A  group  of  prepositions,  discussed  below,  still  allow 
two  different  cases  to  stand  after  them  according  to  the  relation  of  the  noun 
to  the  verb,  which  fact  shows  that  these  prepositions  are  in  fact  still  adverbs, 
for  the  verb  has  not  lost  its  influence  over  the  nouns  following  these  prepo- 
sitions. 

As  explained  in  245.  V  a  large  number  of  prepositions  have  come  from  other 
sources  than  from  adverbs  and  still  retain  in  good  measure  the  power  of  govern- 
ing the  same  case  with  which  they  were  associated  in  their  former  capacity 
ere  they  became  prepositions,  but  also  from  the  crossing  of  different  conceptions 
may  take  another  case  without  any  difference  of  meaning,  as  is  discussed  in 
detail  below. 

For  the  construction  employed  when  several  prepositions  governing  different 
cases  stand  before  one  noun  see  141.  5.  B.  b.  Note. 


228.  I.  a. 


LIST   OF   GERMAN    PREPOSITIONS 


557 


Prepositions  with  their  Dependent  Cases. 

227.  The  following  lists  contain  the  German  prepositions.  Those  marked 
with  a  t  usually  govern  some  other  case,  but  those  with  a  *  less  commonly 
take  another  case.  Those  marked  with  **  govern  different  cases  according  as 
they  precede  or  follow  the  dependent  noun.  Several  of  the  prepositions  have 
several  forms,  the  more  uncommon  being  inclosed  in  parentheses. 

In  articles  261  and  262.  IV,  V,  VI  in  connection  with  the  government  of 
verbs,  adjectives,  and  participles  these  prepositions  are  treated  at  considerable 
length  from  another  point  of  view,  which  throws  additional  light  upon  their  use. 

Prepositions  with  the  Genitive. 


abgerechnet 

diesseits* 

Inhalts 

östUch 

unterwärts 

abschläglich 

eingangs 

inklusive* 

ostwärts 

unweit* 

abseits 

einschließlich 

.  inmitten 

punkto 

•  vermittels 

(abseiten) 

entlangt 

inner  (t)t 

rechts 

vermittelst 

(abseitig) 

(entlängst) 

innerhalb* 

rings,  ringsum 

vermöge 

abwärts 

exklusive* 

inwärts 

rittlings 

von  Seiten 

abzüglich 

gegenwarts 

jenseits* 

rücksichtlich 

von  wegen 

anbetreffs 

gelegentUch 

.  kraft 

rückwärts 

vorbehaltlich 

anfangs 

gemäß  t 

längs* 

seitab 

vorwärts 

angesichts 

halb 

(längst) 

seitens 

während* 

anläßlich 

halben 

längsseit(s) 

seitlich 

wegen* 

anstatt 

halber 

laut 

seitwärts 

westlich 

antwortlich 

halbwegs 

links 

statt 

westwärts 

aufwärts 

herseits 

macht 

südlich 

zeit 

ausgangs 

herwärts 

mangels 

südwärts 

zufolge** 

ausschließUch 

hinseits 

'  mittels 

trotz* 

zugunsten** 

außerhalb* 

>  hinsichtlich 

mittelst 

Überhin 

zunächst  t 

ausweislich 

hinsichts 

namens 

um  —  willen 

zusätzlich 

behufs 

hinterhalb* 

niederwärts 

unangesehen 

zuschläglich 

beiderseits 

hinterrücks 

nördlich 

unbeschadet 

zu  Seiten 

besage 

hinterwärts 

nordwärts 

unerachtet 

zuungunsten 

betreffs 

hinwärts 

obt 

unfern* 

zuzüglich 

bezüglich 

hüben  und  drüben  oberhalb* 

ungeachtet 

zwecks 

binnen 

•  infolge 

oberwärts 

ungerechnet 

dankt 

inhaltlich 

Osten* 

With  the  Dative. 

unterhalb* 

ab 

entgegen 

mitsamt 

samt 

zufolge** 

aus 

fernab 

nach 

seit 

zunächst* 

bei 

gegenüber 

nächst 

trotzt 

zusamt 

benebst 

gemäß* 

nebst 

von 

zusamt  mit 

binnen 

längs  (längst) 

nid 

vorgängig 

zuwider 

dank* 

mit 

ob* 

With  the  Ace. 

zu 

auf  und  ab 

entlang* 

gen 

per,  pro,  via,  a 

wider 

bis 

für 

hindurch 

sonder 

durch 

gegen 

ohne 

um 

With  Dat.  a?id  Acc. 

an 

hinter 

neben 

Über 

vor 

auf 

in 

ober  (S.G.) 

unter 

zwischen 

außer 

inner  (t) 

Note.     For  contractions  of  these  prepositions  with  the  article  see  57 

.  B. 

Origin,  Meaning,  and  Use  of  Prepositions  with  the  Genitive. 

228.  1.  The  use  of  the  genitive  after  most  prepositions  in  modern  times  is  easily  explained 
by  the  substantive  nature  of  a  large  part  of  them,  for  when  one  noun  depends  upon  another 
the  dependent  noun  is  in  the  gen.     The  prepositions  governing  the  gen.  are  in  fact: 

a.  Nouns  in  the  adverbial  gen.,  or  expressions  formed  after  the  model  of  such,  often  pre- 
senting in  this  form  an  abbreviated  construction  for  an  adverbial  phrase.  Thus  instead  of 
Von  Berlin  aus  liegt  Magdeburg  auf  jener  Seite  der  Elbe  we  say  more  briefly  jenseits  der  Elbe. 
This  adverbial  gen.  in  such  prepositions  usually  ends  in  s,  also  in  fern,  words  after  the  analogy 
of  masculines:  diesseits,  seitens,  &c.  Many  such  prepositional  forms  are  still  written  with 
a  capital,  as  the  original  relation  to  the  parent  substantive  is  still  vividly  felt:   Ausgangs  dieser 


358        ORIGIN,  MEANING  &  USE  OF  PREPS.  WITH  GEN.        228.  1.  a. 

oder  Anfangs  der  nächsten  Woche,  Eingangs  der  sächsischen  Schweiz,  or  perhaps  more  commonly 
ausgangs,  anfangs,  eingangs.     There  is  here  much  caprice  as  to  the  use  of  capitals. 

b.  Nouns  in  an  oblique  case  after  a  preposition  expressed  or  understood:  in  Kraft  allein  des 
Rings  (Lessing's  Nathan,  3,  7),  more  commonly  without  the  in,  as  in  kraft  meines  Amtes  by 
virtue  of  my  office;  statt  or  anstatt  meines  Bruders  for  an  meines  Bruders  Statt;  um  des  Freundes 
willen  (acc.  after  um)  for  the  sake  of  my  friend;  von  (now  usually  omitted)  wegen  (dat.  pi.)  des 
vergossenen  Blutes;  in  Betracht  seiner  Jugend.  Anfang  in  the  beginning  of,  Mitte  in  the  middle 
of,  Ende  the  last  of,  toimrd  the  close  of,  Ecke  on  the  corner  of,  are  now  frequently  used  as  prepo- 
sitions droppin;^:  the  preceding  preposition  and  article,  or  both  preposition  and  article  may  be 
retained:  Die  trippelli,  Anfang  (or  im  Anfang)  der  Dreißig,  stark,  männlich  und  von  ausge- 
sprochen humoristischem  Typus,  hatte  den  Sofaehrenplatz  innegehabt.  Ich  werde  Mitte  (or 
in  der  Mitte)  nächster  Woche  verreisen.  Er  war  ein  athletisch  gebauter  Maim  Ende  (or  am 
Ende)  der  Zwanziger.  Ecke  (or  an  der  Ecke)  der  Schadowstraße,  aufgrund  (or  more  commonly 
auf  Grund)  seiner  Untersuchungen,  anstelle  (or  an  Stelle)  des  verstorbenen  Vorsitzenden. 
These  prepositions  are  in  different  stages  of  evolution,  and  hence  do  not  all  stand  in  the  same 
relation  to  the  nouns  from  which  they  come.  Some  have  thrown  off  the  preposition  before  them, 
some  retain  it  occasionally,  some  always,  some  drop  it,  but  can  be  replaced  by  nouns  with  both 
preposition  and  article.  In  general,  however,  these  prepositions  differ  from  pure  nouns  in 
dropping  the  article,  and  in  the  more  or  less  set  form  and  position  they  assume  in  the  sentence, 
usually  admitting  of  no  adj.  modifiers,  and  standing  always  before  the  dependent  genitive,  thus 
having  no  freedom  of  position.  For  an  interesting  example  where  the  word-order  clearly  dis- 
tinguishes these  prepositions  from  pure  nouns  see  151.  3.  A  (toward  end). 

c.  Adverbs  and  participles,  the  former  in  some  cases  also,  like  the  adverbial  nouns  in  a, 
ending  in  s:  links  des  Zuschauers  to  the  left  of  the  spectator;  nordwärts  to  the  north  of,  ein- 
schließlich inclusive  of,  &c.;  während  (pres.  part.;  see  während  in  4  below)  during,  ungeachtet 
(past  part.;  see  ungeachtet  in  4  below)  notwithstanding,  abgerechnet  aside  from,  not  counting, 
ungerechnet  not  counting. 

2.  The  double  construction,  gen.  or  dat.,  after  some  of  these  prepositions  is  explained  by  the 
crossing  of  two  or  more  conceptions.  On  the  one  hand,  when  one  noun  depends  upon  the  other, 
the  dependent  one  must  be  in  the  gen.  Thus,  as  can  be  seen  from  1.  a  and  b  above,  a  number 
of  these  prepositions,  being  in  fact  nouns,  require  the  dependent  noun  to  stand  in  the  gen.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  idea  that  is  contained  in  some  nouns  suggests  the  use  of  the  dative  after 
the  analogy  of  other  similar  constructions.  Thus  we  say  Jenseits  des  Flusses  steht  eine  alte 
Kapelle,  but  we  also  find  sometimes  jenseits  dem  Flusse,  as  the  idea  of  rest  is  so  often  associated 
with  the  dative.  On  the  other  hand  a  few  prepositions  governing  the  dative  are  also  found  with 
a  genitive,  as  their  originally  substantive  nature  is  felt,  or  they  are  influenced  by  prepositions 
which  were  once  substantives.  Thus  we  say  trotz  den  Befehlen  des  Königs  in  analogy  with 
man  bietet  den  Befehlen  des  Königs  Trotz,  but  we  also,  and  now  more  commonly,  say  trotz  der 
Befehle  des  Königs.  Similarly  we  usually  say  dank  dir  after  the  analogy  of  Dir  sei  Dank, 
but  in  recent  literature  we  often  find  the  gen.  here  after  the  analogy  of  the  gen.  with  other  prepo- 
sitions derived  from  nouns.  See  dank  in  4  below.  The  form  gemäß  is  in  fact  an  adjective 
governing  the  dat.  and  can  still  be  inflected  and  compared,  but  it  has  become  associated  in 
meaning  with  the  prepositional  formations  in  Gemäßheit  and  zufolge,  so  that  it  likewise  some- 
times governs  the  gen.:   dem  Befehl  gemäß,  or  gemäß  dem  Befehl  or  des  Befehls. 

a.  We  sometimes  find  non-inflection  or  the  dat.  after  prepositions  governing  the  gen.  on 
purely  formal  grounds:  (1)  We  not  infrequently  find  an  unmodified  substantive  in  the  singular 
uninflected  after  these  prepositions:  Gambetta  folgte  ihnen  ebenfalls  dorthin,  indem  er  Paris 
mittelst  Luftballon  (instead  of  the  more  correct  and  in  choice  language  now  more  common  gen.) 
verließ  {Deutsche  Rundschau.).  Thus  also  in  a  number  of  expressions,  especially  in  popular 
language,  such  as  wegen  Todesfall  on  account  of  death,  wegen  Abbruch  on  account  of  the  tearing 
down  of  the  building,  &c.,  instead  of  the  more  correct  and  In  choice  language  more  common 
wegen  Todesfalls,  Abbruchs,  &c.  After  aufwärts,  diesseits,  jenseits,  oberhalb,  unterhalb, 
außerhalb,  innerhalb,  vmweit,  unfern,  nördlich,  südlich,  östlich,  westlich  we  usually  find  non- 
inflection  before  names  of  places,  altho  these  words  elsewhere  more  coinmonly  govern  some  case: 
nördlich  Iwangorod  {Großes  Hauptquartier,  Oct.  27,  1914),  but  nördlich  der  laelgischen  Maas 
(river)  (ib.  Sept.  6,  1914).  The  uninflected  form  is  in  fact  a  dative  after  a  suppressed  von, 
which  as  it  is  unstressed  easily  drops  out.  The  von,  however,  is  often  expressed:  nördlich  von 
Metz.  The  genitive  with  articleless  names,  tho  still  not  so  common  as  elsewhere,  is  neverthe- 
less slowly  gaining  ground:    innerhalb  Breslaus  {Breslauer  Morgen-Zeit.,  Jan.  19,  1915). 

(2)  The  use  of  the  dat.  instead  of  the  gen.  is  especially  frequent  where  the  latter  is  not  clearly 
marked  in  form:  während  fünf  Tagen  (instead  of  Tage)  which  is  not  clearly  marked  as  a  gen.). 
Also  the  correct  gen.,  however,  is  often  used  in  case  of  such  nouns,  prompted  by  the  feeling  that 
the  proper  case  of  the  noun  should  be  used  here  as  so  frequently  elsewhere  where  the  form  is 
not  distinctive.  The  dat.  is  quite  common  in  case  of  the  masc.  and  neut.  sing,  of  the  relative 
and  interrogative  pronoun  welcher,  which  has  a  gen.  sing,  exactly  like  the  nom.  and  acc.  neut. 
See  während  under  4  below.  The  dat.  is  likewise  common  in  case  of  other  pronouns  which 
cannot  distinguish  a  gen.  from  the  nom.  and  acc:  wegen  manchem  (R.  Schweichel's  Verloren). 
See  also  anstatt,  während,  wegen,  below. 

3.  These  prepositions  are  constantly  increasing  in  number,  much  more  so  than  all  other 
classes.  It  can  be  seen  from  the  above  that  it  is  impossible  to  include  in  the  list  all  such  prepo- 
sitional particles  which  govern  the  gen.,  for  many  nouns,  as  in  1.  a  and  b  above,  and  others  are 
occasionally  pressed  into  service  as  preps.,  tho  they  still  retain  their  initial  capital.     In    most 


228.  4. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE   GENITIVE 359 

cases  only  such  are  given  in  the  list  as  are  usually  written  with  a  small  letter  and  pass  generally 
for  prepositions. 

4.  The  treatment  of  prepositions  governing  the  genitive  as  to  their  meaning  and  use  follows, 
the  prepositions  being  arranged  alphabetically.  In  some  cases  the  mere  definition  will  suffice, 
as  these  prepositions  do  not  enter  into  so  many  idiomatic  combinations  as  prepositions  govern- 
ing other  cases. 

ABGERECHNET  aside  from,  not  counting:  abgerechnet  einiger  Städte  {Ausld.,  38,  821  a). 
The  absolute  construction  in  connection  with  an  absolute  ace.  is  more  common  here:  Narcissa, 
ihren  Stolz  abgerechnet,  war  ein  liebenswürdiges  Wesen. 

ABSCHLÄGLICH  in  part  payment  of:  abschläglich  meines  Honorars  =  auf  Abschlag 
meines  Honorars. 

AB'SEITEN,  see  seitens. 

ABSEITS,  less  commonly  ABWÄRTS,  and  the  now  rarer  forms  ABSEIT,  ABSEITEN, 
ABSEITIG  off  to  one  side,  aside  from:  Abseits  des  Weges  liegt  das  Haus.  Abwärts  des  Ein- 
gangs. Vergebens  hatte  der  letztere  gegen  den  jungen  Senator  hervorgehoben,  daß  ,, kraft 
seines  tragenden  Amtes,  abseifen  des  Ansehens  der  Familie,"  die  Augen  der  ganzen  Stadt 
auf  ihn  gerichtet  seien  (Storm's  Söhne  des  Senators,  p.  301.)  They  sometimes  occur  with  the 
dat.:  Etwas  abseits  dem  Flecken  und  darüber  erhöht  lag  ein  einzelnes  Schlößchen  (Hans 
Hoffmann's  Die  Tote?ihochzeit).  Abwärts  is  also  used  in  the  meaning  of  below,  downward,  down, 
down  stream  from,  usually  with  the  gen.,  but  often  with  non-inflection  before  names  of  places: 
abwärts  der  Brust,  abwärts  Hamburg  below  Hamburg  (on  the  Elbe). 

ABZÜGLICH  deducting:   abzüglich  der  Transportkosten. 

ANBETREFFS,  BETREFFS,  IN  BE 'TREFF,  IN  ANBETREFF  concerning,  as  regards: 
Mein  Plan  betreffs  einer  Reise.  These  prepositions  are  very  closely  related  in  meaning  to 
hinsichtlich,  hinsichts,  bezüglich:  Seine  Erzählung  bedarf  in  Betreff,  or  in  Anbetreff,  or 
betreffs,  or  hinsichts,  or  hinsichtlich,  or  bezüglich  mancher  Punkte  der  Berichtigung. 

ANFANGS  at  or  in  the  beginning  of,  often  with  non-inflection  in  case  of  articlelcss  nouns: 
anfangs   (or  Anfang)  der  fünfziger  Jahre,  anfangs  September   (Carl  Spitteler's  Imago,  p.   1). 

ANGESICHTS  in  the  face  of,  in  view  of,  considering:  angesichts  der  Feinde,  des  Todes, 
der  Gefahr. 

ANLÄSZLICH,  auf  or  aus  Anlaß  spurred  on,  impelled  by  the  occasion  of,  upon  the 
occasion  of:    anläßlich  des  90.  Geburtstages  des  berühmten  Gelehrten  erschien  eine  Festschrift. 

AN'STATT  or  STATT  instead  of:  Anstatt  (or  statt)  des  Vaters  erschien  die  Mutter.  Some- 
times, especially  in  popular  language,  with  the  dat.:  Anstatt  dem  Vater  erschien  die  Mutter. 
Also  sometimes  in  the  literary  form  of  speech:  Statt  Fluchen,  Gähnen  und  dem  schlürfenden 
Schritte  der  Trägheit  hörte  man  auf  diesem  Hofe  wieder  den  raschen,  freudigen  Tritt  des 
Fleißes  (H.  Seidel's  Der  Schatz,  \l).  Especially  when  the  gen.  form  has  not  an  ending  which 
clearly  marks  it  as  a  gen.:  Daß  statt  Bösem  (the  gen.  Bösen  would  not  be  a  clear  gen.)  Gutes 
daraus  gewonnen  wird  (Rudolf  Hildebrand's  Vom  deutschen  Sprachunterricht,  p.'  117).  Doch 
wie  staunten  sie,  |  als  sie  statt  jenem,  den  sie  hier  gesucht,  |  nun  einen  Ritter  sahen  im  schlichten 
Kleide   (M.  Greifs  Heinrich  der  Löwe.  2.  1). 

For  the  conjunction  anstatt  or  statt  see  225.  2  and  a  and  b  thereunder. 

ANTWORTLICH,  in  Beantwortung,  in  Erwiderung  in  reply  to:  Antwortlich  Ihres  geehrten 
Letzten  (Briefes)  teile  ich  Ihnen  mit,  &c. 

AUFWÄRTS  up,  above  (on  a  river,  Src),  with  gen.,  and  often  non-inflection  in  case  of  names 
of  places:  aufwärts  des  Stromes.  Aufwärts  Itschang  (place)  findet  man  Stellen,  wo  das  Hoch- 
wasser Häuser  .  .  .  hinweggeschwemmt  hat  {Beilage  zur   Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  Oct.  2,  1902). 

AUSGANGS  at  the  close  of,  often  with  non-inflection  in  case  of  articleless  nouns:  ausgangs 
dieser  oder  anfangs  der  nächsten  Woche. 

AUSSCHLIESZLICH  exclusive  of,  EINSCHLIESZLICH  inclusive  of,  usually  with  the  gen., 
in  case  of  unmodified  nouns  or  nouns  with  uninflected  modifiers  usually  with  non-inflection  in 
the  sing.,  but  the  gen.,  less  commonly  the  dat.,  in  the  pi.;  instead  of  ausschließlich,  einschließ- 
lich often  the  foreign  forms  exklu'sive,  inklu'sive,  with  the  same  use  of  the  cases:  einschließ- 
lich der  Kosten,  einschließlich  Wartung  und  Risiko  (Die  Landivirtschaft,  Aug.  15,  190.5).  Der 
Bierverbrauch  stellte  sich  1903  im  deutschen  Zollgebiet  einschUeßJich  Luxemburg  auf  rund 
69  Millionen  Hektoliter  (Nordd.  Allg.  Zeit.,  1905).  Wir  waren  alle  da  einschließlich  vier 
Fremde  (n). 

AUSZERHALB  outside,  HINTERHALB  back  of,  behind,  INNERHALB  inside,  OBERHALB 
above,  UNTERHALB  below,  also  sometimes  with  the  dat.,  often  with  non-inflection  in  case 
of  articleless  nouns,  especially  names  of  places:  außerhalb  der  Stadt,  unterhalb  des  Dorfs, 
innerhalb  eines  Jahrtausends,  innerhalb  vierzig  Tage  (Martin's  Wolframs  yon  Eschenhach  Parzi- 
fal,  II.  p.  xxiv),  innerhalb  zehn  Tagen,  innerhalb  einem  Tage  (Lessing;  more  commonly  eines 
Tages),  außerhalb  Bayerns  {Hamburger  Correspondent,  Feb.  27,  1903),  innerhalb  Breslaus  {Bres- 
lauer Morgen-Zeit.,  Sept.  19,  1914),  außerhalb  Ricks  (name)  Welt  und  Verständnis  (Marie 
Diers's  Zum  Bilde  Gottes  schuf  er  -ihn,  chap.  Ill),  an  der  Weichsel  ober-  und  unterhalb  Iwangorod 
{Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Jan.  19,  1915).  Instead  of  the  preceding  constructions  we  sometimes  find 
the  preposition  followed  by  von  w.  dat.,  especially  when  there  is  no  word  which  can  clearly 
mark  the  case:  innerhalb  von  vier  Wänden  (Raabe's  Pfitzers  Mühle,  XIX).  Often  with  names 
of  places:  unterhalb  von  Luck  {Großes  Hauptquartier,  Sept.  28,  1915).  The  prep,  construc- 
tion is  the  rule  with  pronouns:  War'  der  Durchbruch  'ne  halbe  Meile  unterhalb  von  uns 
passiert,  dann  könnten  wir  noch  heut'  auf  unserm  Hof  sitzen  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  15).  See 
also  2.  o.  (1)  above. 


360 PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE   GENITIVE 228.  4. 

AUSWEISLICH,  nach  Aus\/«'eis,  besage  (rare)  as  shown  by  the  documentary  evidence  of: 
Dazu  sind  Sie  ausweislich  (or  besage)  des  Vertrags  verpflichtet, 

(a)  Synonymous  with  these  words  in  so  far  as  the  reference  is  to  oocumentary  or  written 
evidence  are:  gemäß  in  accordance  with,  Inhalts  or  inhaltlich  (in  official  style),  laut,  zufolge 
(with  the  dat.  when  it  follows  the  noun),  and  the  very  frequent  form  nach  (with  the  dat.)  ac- 
cording to;    see  also  each  of  these  words. 

BE'HUFS,  ZUM  BE'HUF,  ZWECKS  for  the  furtherance  of,  with  a  view  to,  for  the  purpose 
of,  much  used  instead  of  the  more  simple  but  not  so  explicit  zu  (w.  dat.):  behufs  Wahrung  des 
Prestiges  der  italienischen  Flagge  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  prestige  of  the  Italian 
flag.  Am  2.  ds.  (dieses  Monats)  brach  die  Kolbenstange  zum  zweiten  Male,  und  das  Schiff 
mußte  infolgedessen  behufs  der  Ausbesserung  41  Stunden  still  liegen.  Er  ist  der  Polizeibe- 
hörde zur,  or  behufs,  or  zwecks  Einsperrung  überwiesen  worden. 

BEIDERSEITS  on  both  sides  of,  with  the  same  construction  as  diesseits. 

BE'SAGE  (from  older  nach  Besage)  see  ausweislich, 

BETREFFS,  see  anbetreffs. 

BE'ZÜGLICH  or  in  Bezug  auf  (w.  ace.)  with  reference  to;  see  anbetreffs.  Sometimes  instead 
of  the  gen.  after  bezüglich  we  find  the  prep,  auf  (w.  ace):  seine  Bemerkungen  bezüglich  auf 
Farben  organischer  Körper  (Goethe). 

BINNEN  within,  inside  of,  of  space  and  time,  more  commonly  the  latter,  often  with  dat. 
like  in  and  also  often,  perhaps  more  frequently,  with  the  gen.  like  innerhalb:  binnen  Landes 
gemacht  (Moser),  binnen  ihren  notwendigen  Grenzen  (Immermann);  binnen  hier  und  einem 
Jahr  (Lessing),  binnen  den  nächsten  drei  Stunden  (Raabe),  binnen  kurzem  (Marriot)  ivithin 
a  short  time;  binnen  eines  halben  Jahres  {Hamburger  Correspondent,  April  20,  1905),  binnen 
knapper  zwei  Wochen  (Mann's  ßiuidenbrooJcs,  vol.  Ill,  p.  91),  binnen  eines  Monats  (Artikel  73 
der  Verfassung  des  Deiüsclien  Reichs),  biimen  zwei  weiteren  Wochen  (ib.,  Artikel  74). 

DANK  thanks  to,  often  with  gen.,  more  commonly  with  dat.:  dank  des  für  die  Jahreszeit 
besonders  schönen  Wetters  (Schubin),  dank  seiner  fünfunddreißig  Jahre  (Fedor  Sommer's 
Ernst  Reiland,  p.  185),  and  many  other  examples  from  recent  literature. 

DIESSEIT  or  now  more  commonly  DIESSEITS  on  this  side  of,  JENSEIT  or  now  more  com- 
monly JENSEITS  on  that  side  of,  HÜBEN  UND  DRÜBEN  on  both  sides  of,  lit.  on  this  side 
and  that:  diesseits  des  Flusses,  jenseits  des  Grabes,  hüben  und  drüben  der  Grenze.  Sometimes 
von  is  used  in  connection  with  the  regular  form:  Jenseit  von  des  Oxus  Wogen  (Rückert's  Morg., 
1,  251).  Earlier  in  the  period  the  dative  sometimes  occurs  instead  of  the  gen.:  Diesseit  den 
Alpen  (Lessing).  In  case  of  names  of  places  non-inflection  of  the  noun  is  not  infrequent:  jenseits 
Bar.     See  also  2.  a.  (1)  above. 

EINGANGS  at  the  beginning  of,  at  the  entrance  to:  Die  eingangs  dieser  Zeilen  wiederge- 
gebene Zeitungsnotiz,  in  mittlerer  und  eingangs  neuerer  Zeit  (T.  Frings  in  Paul  und  Braunes 
Beiträge,  1917,  p.  248).  Er  stand  eingangs  der  Untersekimda,  Eingangs  der  sächsischen 
Schweiz. 

EINSCHLIESZLICH,  see  ausschließhch. 

ENT'LANG,  see  längs. 

EXKLU'SIVE,  see  ausschUeßlich. 

GEGENWARTS  in  the  presence  of,  or  more  commonly  in  Gegenwart:  gegenwarts  der 
Herren. 

GE'LEGENTLICH  or  BEI  GELEGENHEIT  as  to  the  topic  of,  apropos  of,  embracing  the 
favorable  opportunity  of,  upon  the  occasion  of:  gelegentlich  dieser  Gedichte  will  ich  bemerken 
usw.  Gelegentlich  seiner  Anwesenheit  in  der  Stadt  machte  er  einige  Besuche.  Gelegentlich 
(upon  the  occasion  of)  meines  letzten  Besuches  auf  Krasnawoda  (the  name  of  a  village)  lenkte 
sich  das  Gespräch  auf  einige  neuerschienene  Bücher. 

GE'MÄSZ  (see  ausweislich)  in  accordance  with,  sometimes  w.  gen.  or  more  commonly  w. 
dat.  when  standing  before  the  noun,  always  w.  dat.  when  following  the  noun:  gemäß  Ihres 
Befehls  or  more  commonly  Ihrem  Befehle  gemäß.  An  die  Sprache  schließt  sich  aufs  engste 
der  Gesang  an,  dem  fast  alle  Stämme  gemäß  ihres  lebhaften  und  heiteren  Wesens  leidenschaft- 
lich ergeben  sind  (Prof.  Dr.  Keller's  Die  ostafrikanischen  hiseln.  p.  59).  F~or  explanation  of 
the  gen.  see  2  above,  toward  end.  Gemäß  was  originally  an  adjective  governing  the  dative 
which  regularly  preceded  it.  In  most  cases  it  is  still  an  adjective  whether  used  as  an  inde- 
pendent word  or  as  the  basal  element  in  a  compound.  It  is  only  distinctly  felt  as  a  preposition 
when  it  precedes  the  substantive.  The  s  found  in  compounds  such  as  standesgemäß  in  accordance 
with  one's  station  in  life,  wahrheitsgemäß  in  accordance  with  the  facts,  &c.,  is  not  the  gen.  ending, 
but  the  connecting  s  so  often  found  in  compounds  after  the  analogy  of  gen.  compounds,  as  in 
standeswidrig,  wahrheitsgetreu,   &c.     Compare  gemäß  in  229.  2. 

HALB,  HALBEN,   HALBER,   WEGEN   express: 

1.  a.  A  motive,  cause,  reason,  with  the  general  translation  on  account  of,  sometimes  with 
the  dat.  in  case  of  wegen:  Ich  bleibe  des  schlechten  Wetters  wegen  (or  halber,  halben)  zu 
Hause.  Der  Strauß  kann  wegen  seiner  zu  kurzen  Flügel  nicht  fliegen.  Of  these  words  wegen 
is  the  most  common  in  this  meaning.  The  older  form  von  wegen  (dat.  pi.  of  Weg)  is  still  quite 
common  in  popular  speech,  and  not  infrequent  in  colloquial  language:  Lieber  packe  ich  dir 
noch  ein  paar  wollene  Strümpfe,  'ne  warme  Unterhose  und  eine  Reservenachtmütze  zu,  von 
wegen  möglicher  Erkältung  bei  dieser  Erhitzung  fürs  allgemeine  deutsche  Vaterland  (Raabe's 
Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  i).     For  the  dat.  see  wegen,  below  in  the  alphabetical  arrangement. 

b.  A  concern  for  a  thing  or  that  in  regard  to  which  some  action  is  to  be  taken,  or  a  regard 
for  the  interests  of  someone,  translated  hy  for  the  sake  of,  on  account  of,  with  regard  to,  concerning. 


228.  4. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE   GENITH^E 361 

as  far  as  it  concerns  (me,  you,  him,  ike):  Wegen  (with  regard  to)  vergessener  Sachen  wende 
man  sich  an  das  „Büro  für  gefundene  Sachen."  Zwischen  dem  Vollbauer  (possessor  of  a  hide 
of  land)  Friedrich  Schmidt  von  hier  und  dessen  Kindern  ist  folgender  Kontrakt  wegen  (in 
regard  to)  Überlassung  des  hier  belegenen  Bauerngutes  abgeschlossen  worden.  Des  Scheines 
halber  for  the  sake  of  appearances,  der  Ehre  halber,  des  Beispiels  halber.  This  meaning  is 
also  quite  common  in  compounds  (see  140.  d  and  Note  1)  which  these  preps,  form  with  the 
possessives:  Seien  Sie  meinetwegen  (on  my  account)  unbesorgt.  Meinetwegen  (as  far  as  I 
am  concerned,  for  aught  I  care)  kann  er  gehen.  Er  hat  es  meinethalben  or  meinethalb  (out  of 
regard  for  me)  getan.  Meinethalben  (as  far  as  I  am  concerned,  for  aught  I  care)  kannst  du  es 
tun.  The  form  halben  is  more  common  in  these  compounds  than  halb.  Feminine  nouns  often 
take  the  gen.  ending  s  after  the  analogy  of  the  masculines,  and  are  then  written  as  compounds: 
höflichkeitswegen  or  -halber,  gesundheitswegen  or  -halber. 

This  meaning  in  case  of  wegen  is  especially  frequent  in  the  language  of  the  common  people, 
where  the  original  form  von — wegen  (see  a  above)  is  still  much  used:  Es  ist  man  (=  nur) 
von  wegen  das  Vieh  (acc.  instead  of  gen.  in  popular  speech),  daß  ich  fragen  wollte  (Wildenbruch's 
Die  Quitzoivs,  1,  2).  Earlier  in  the  period  this  form  was  also  used  in  the  literary  language: 
Gebt  Rechenschaft  .  .  .  von  wegen  des  vergoßnen  Blutes  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  1,  11). 

c.  The  source  or  direction  from  which  something  comes,  or  the  instance  or  occasion  which 
calls  forth  some  act,  by,  on  the  part  of,  in  pursuance  of,  on  the  authority  of,  by  the  order  of.  In  the 
literary  language  this  meaning,  once  so  common,  only  survives  in  the  form  von  —  wegen  in  a 
limited  number  of  expressions:  von  Rechts  wegen  by  rights,  von  Amts  wegen  officially,  von 
Staats  wegen  by  the  State,  von  Obrigkeits  wegen,  von  Regierungs  wegen,  von  Berufs  wegen 
professionally,  von  Polizei  wegen  by  order  of  the  police  authorities.  Ohne  mir  einen  Vorwurf 
zu  erlauben  —  ich  meine,  Durchlaucht  sollten  die  Fundamente  des  Staates,  zu  dessen  Hüter 
Sie  von  Geburt  und  Partei  wegen  berufen  sind,  ein  wenig  höher  einschätzen  (Sudermann's 
£5  lebe  das  Lehen,  p.  21).  In  irgend  einer  Weise  werden  wir  von  Fraktions  wegen  {as  a  party) 
wohl  Stellung  dazu  nehmen  müssen  (ib.,  p.  52).  Ich  hatte  zwei  oder  drei  entfernte  Verwandte 
von  Vaters  wegen  {upon  my  father's  side)  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  III,  2).  Notice  in  the 
preceding  examples  that  the  fem.  gen.  sometimes  takes  the  ending  s  after  the  analogy  of  the 
masculines. 

Colloquially,  and  especially  in  popular  speech,  this  usage  is  not  confined  to  the  group  of  ex- 
pressions given  above:  Sag'  ihm  von  meinetwegen,  daß,  &c.  (Goethe)  Tell  him  "for  me"  (as 
coming  from  me)  that,  &c.  Es  ist  ja  man  ( =  nur)  bloß  von  Fritze  Belkow  (acc.  in  popular 
speech  instead  of  the  gen.)  wegen,  daß  ich  gefragt  gehabt  habe  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows, 
1,  2)  It  is  only  at  the  instance  of  Fritz  Bclkow  that  I  asked. 

2.  Halb,  halben,  halber  always  follow  the  noun  or  pronoun,  while  wegen  may  precede  or 
follow:   wegen  seines  Fleißes  or  seines  Fleißes  wegen,  unserer  Freundschaft  halben  or  halber. 

Halb  is  now  only  found  in  composition  with  des  and  wes,  and  the  possessives  (see  140.  d. 
Note  1):   deshalb  on  account  of  that,  weshalb  why,  meinethalb  for  my  sake,  &c. 

halben  (but  never  halber)  like  halb  enters  into  compounds  with  the  possessives,  and  both 
halben  and  halber  (now  evidently  the  favorite,  altho  halben  is  common  earlier  in  the  period) 
follow  substantives,  the  latter  often  entering  into  a  compound  with  them:  meinethalben,  eines 
kleinen  Zwistes  mit  Schneider  Busch  halben  (Raabe's  Pfisters  Mühle,  IX),  des  heben  Friedens 
halber,  ordnungshalber  (even  fem.  nouns  taking  s  after  the  analogy  of  masc.  in  set  expressions) 
for  the  sake  of  order,  krankheitshalber.  Der  Unruhen  und  der  Unsicherheit  halber  wanderten 
viele  Einwohner  aus. 

HALBWEGS,  sometimes  HALBWEG  or  HALBWEGE,  halfway  to,  up,  thru,  between,  with 
gen.  except  before  names  of  places,  where  non-inflection  is  the  rule:  Man  muß  das  Trinkwasser 
halbwegs  des  Berges  holen  (Auerbach's  Joseph,  chap.  1)  One  must  go  halfway  to  the  mountain 
for  water.  Die  Flüchtlinge  erfuhren  jetzo  erst  vom  Waldrande  aus,  daß  sie  wohl  halbwegs 
(halfway  up)  der  Höhe  der  Vorhügel  des  Voglers  sich  befanden  (Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap.  xv). 
Halbwegs  des  Gedankens  fällt  ihm  ein,  &c.  (Hebel,  3,  101)  When  he  is  halfway  thru  the  thought 
it  occurs  to  him,  &c.  Der  Verwalter  von  meinem  Vorwerk  halbwegs  Padua  (Fulda's  Zwillings- 
schwester, 2,  8)  halfway  to  Padua.  Der  Vater  und  der  Herr  Behrend  sind  schon  halbwege 
Blumeck  (Eckstein's  Familie  Hartwig).  Halbwegs  Braunschweig  und  Hamburg  halfway 
between  B.  and  H.  Halbwegs  Ailly-Apremont  wurde  unsererseits  angegriffen  {Großes  Haupt- 
quartier, July  7,  1915). 

HERSEITS  on  his  (her,  their)  side  of,  indicating  the  side  towards  the  person  in  question, 
hinseits  on  the  other  side  of:  Mit  umständlicher  Freundlichkeit  leitete  sie  das  Mädchen,  herseits 
(on  her  side  of)  des  Ladentisches  schreitend,  tiefer  in  den  von  Mehlduft  erfüllten  Raum  hinein 
(Ernst  Zahn's    Verena  Stadler,  I). 

HERWÄRTS  =  diesseits,  hinwärts  =  jenseits,  with  gen.,  dat.,  or  non-inflection  as  in  case 
of  diesseits. 

HINSEITS,  see  herseits. 

HINSICHTLICH,  HINSICHTS,  IN  HINSICHT  with  regard  or  reference  to,  in  consideration 
of  (see  anbetreffs  and  rücksichtlich) :  Hinsichtlich  seines  Fleißes  kann  ich  nicht  über  ihn  klagen. 
Synonymous  with  these  preps,  are  rücksichtlich  and  bezüglich.  Sometimes  hinsichtlich  takes 
after  it  auf  (w.  acc.)  instead  of  the  gen.  as  in  case  of  bezüglich, 

HINTERHALB,  see  außerhalb. 

HINTERRÜCKS  behind  the  back  of:   hinterrücks  der  Mutter. 

HINTERWÄRTS  back  of:   hinterwärts  dieses  Bauwerks. 

HINWÄRTS,  see  herwärts. 


362 PREPOSITIONS  WITH  THE  GENITIVE 228.  4. 

HÜBEN  UND  DRÜBEN,  see  diesseits. 

IN'FOLGE  and  less  frequently  ZU'FOLGE  in  consequence  of:  infolge  or  zufolge  besonderer 
Umstände.  Infolge  (or  zufolge)  einer  abermaligen  schlechten  Ernte  und  arger  Unterlassungs- 
sünden der  Ortsbehörden  herrscht  in  Schardrinsk  (in  Rußland)  Hungersnot.  Compare  this 
use  of  zufolge  with  that  in  229.  2. 

INHALTLICH  or  INHALTS,  see  ausweislich  and  laut. 

INKLU'SIVE,  see  ausschließlich. 

IN'MITTEN  in  the  midst  of,  between,  sometimes  also  w.  dat.  and  w.  von  and  dat.:  Iimiitten 
des  Waldes  stand  ein  altes  Forsthaus.  O  Vaterland  (Austria)!  Inmitten  !  dem  Kind  Italien 
und  dem  Manne  Deutschland  I  hegst  du,  der  wangenrote  Jüngling,  da  (Grillparzer's  König 
Ottokars  Glück  und  Ende,  3).     Inmitten  von  Kummer  und  Elend. 

INNERiT),  see  inner(t)  under  231.  II. 

INNERHALB,  see  außerhalb. 

INWÄRTS  =  innerhalb  or  in. 

JENSEITS,  see  diesseits. 

KRAFT  by  ^-i^tue  of,  by  dint  of:  kraft  meines  Amtes.     For  synonyms  see  vermöge,  Note. 

LÄNGS  (only  rarely  längst)  along,  with  the  gen.,  less  frequently  the  dat.,  preferring  the 
position  before  the  noun,  rarely  with  the  ace;  ent'lang  (rarely  ent'längst),  a  Low  German  form 
with  the  force  of  H.G.  längs  and  of  the  same  origin  as  English  along,  now  also  common  in  literary 
German,  often  with  the  gen.,  usually  with  the  ace.  but  also  frequently  with  the  dat.,  either 
preceding  or  following  the  noun  but  with  a  decided  preference  for  the  position  after  the  noun 
when  the  ace.  is  used:  längs  des  Ufers  or  dem  Ufer;  das  Tal  entlang,  or  dem  Tal  entlang,  or 
entlang  des  Tales  or  dem  Tal.  Originally  entlang  was  an  adverb.  This  accounts  for  its  common 
position  after  the  ace,  which  in  fact  is  a  cognate  ace,  the  object  of  the  verb:  Er  kam  den  Weg 
entlang.  It  is  still  often  used  as  an  adverb  without  an  object:  Felix,  die  Hände  in  den  Taschen 
seines  kurzen  Hausrockes,  kam  entlang  (Junghans).     Er  kam  am  Bach  entlang. 

LÄNGSSEITS  or  LÄNGSSEIT  alongside  of:  Das  Boot  glitt  mit  niedergeworfenen  Segeln 
längsseits  des  Landungsstegs.  Also  with  dat.:  Unser  Boot  legte  sich  langseit  dem  englischen 
Dampfer  (Gerstäcker). 

LAUT  (in  early  N.H.G.  nach  Laut,  thus  in  fact  a  dative  of  the  noun  Laut  in  a  former  meaning 
which  is  preserv^ed  in  Wortlaut)  according  to  (the  contents,  tenor  of  a  letter,  command,  law, 
agreement,  &c.),  usually  w.  gen.,  often  also  the  dat.,  especially  when  the  noun  is  without  an  article 
or  other  modifying  word :  Laut  unserer  Verabredung,  laut  seines  Briefes.  Laut  alter  Verträge 
war  früher  Ungarn  mit  Österreich  unter  einem  Herrscher  vereinigt.  Laut  ärztlichem  Gutachten 
(Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Oct.  9,  1904),  laut  einem  Privattelegramm  (ib.  Aug.  7,  1905),  laut 
Berichten  des  Reuterschen  Bureaus  {Kölnische  Zeit.,  Nov.  5,  1914),  laut  einem  Beschluß  des 
Kuratoriums  {Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Sept.  12,  1916). 

ia)  Synonyms  of  laut  are  Inhalts  or  inhaltlich  (in  official  style),  zufolge  (usually  following 
the  noun),  nach  (see  nach,  e.  (2).  Note  in  229.  2;  usually  before,  but  also  after  the  noun):  Das 
bestätigt  sich  laut,  or  Inhalts,  or  inhaltlich  neuerer  Nachrichten,  or  nach  neueren  Nachrichten 
or  neueren  Nachrichten  nach  or  zufolge. 

LINKS  to  the  left  of,  RECHTS  to  the  right  of,  both  with  gen.,  also  with  von  +  dat.,  and 
always  so  in  case  of  a  pronominal  ol^jcct:  Unks,  rechts  der  Tür,  or  von  der  Tür.  Links  von  ihm 
sah  man  mehrere  holsteinische  Geschichtswerke  aufgeschlagen  übereinander  (Frenssen). 

MACHT   (rare)  =  kraft. 

MANGELS  out  of  lack  of,  for  want  of,  in  default  of:  Er  wurde  mangels  der  Beweise  freige- 
sprochen.  ■  Mangels  Zahlung  in  default  of  pavment. 

MITTELS,  VERMITTELS,  or  the  corrupted  forms  with  excrescent  t  VERMITTELST, 
MITTELST  by,  by  means  of:  Viele  Dampfschiffe  werden  mittels  einer  Schraube  bewegt. 
Mittels  Nachtmarsches  war  morgens  früh  vier  Uhr  die  18.  Division  vom  linken  auf  dem  rechten 
Moselufer  eingetroffen  (Aloltke).  We  not  infrequently  find  non-intlection  of  the  noun  here 
in  the  singular.  See  2.  a  above.  The  dative  plural  is  also  sometimes  found,  especially  in  case 
of  articleless  nouns:  Verfolgimg  des  Wildes  zur  Winterszeit  mittels  Skiern  (Erik  Voigt  in 
Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Oct.  17,  190.5). 

(a)  Synonyms  of  mittels,  vermittels  are  von,  durch,  mit.  The  direct  source  of  an  act  is  ex- 
pressed by  von,  hence  limited  chiefly  to  a  living,  thinking  agent.  The  indirect  means  by  which 
the  aim  is  attained  is  expressed  by  durch.  The  instrument  which  produced  the  immediate  result 
is  expressed  by  mit:  Er  wurde  von  (by  —  the  agent  and  author  of  it  all)  dem  Richter  verurteilt, 
durch  (as  the  indirect  means)  den  Henker  mit  (the  instrument  which  produced  the  immediate 
result)  dem  Beil  hingerichtet  zu  werden.  Of  these  durch  approaches  the  nearest  to  mittels, 
but  the  latter  has  a  much  more  narrow  range  of  usefulness.  Mittels  is  only  used  of  some  force 
as  a  means  or  a  dead  instrument  that  is  purposely  utilized,  directed,  employed  to  lead  to  a  certain 
definite  end,  while  dvu-ch  is  used  of  a  force  that  in  itself  has  in  some  degree  self-acting,  transform- 
ing power,  which,  however,  need  not  necessarih'  act  toward  some  definite  end:  Mühlen  werden 
mittels  des  Windes,  des  Wassers,  der  Dampfkraft  bewegt.  Das  Schiff  wird  durch  die  Strö- 
mung abgetrieben.  In  (ver)mittels  there  also  lies  something  of  the  technical,  which  does  not 
admit  of  its  use  in  elevated  language  so  much.  See  also  vermöge.  Note.  Mit  is  also  used  to 
express  means  and  difl^ers  from  durch  in  that  it  does  not  necessarily  point  to  a  result:  Er  will 
uns  damit  anlocken,  but  Er  hat  uns  dadurch  verlockt.  In  some  cases  either  mit  or  durch  can 
be  used,  the  former  calling  attention  to  the  effort  and  the  means  employed,  the  latter  emphasizing 
the  effective  means  and  the  result:  einen  mit  Worten  or  durch  Worte  antreiben.  Durch  also 
approaches  sometimes  von  in  meaning,  and  hence  English  by  is  used  to  translate  both  words. 


228.  4. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE   GENITIVE  363 

For  examples  see  durch  (b),  (c)  in  230.  In  most  of  these  examples  the  usual  difference  in  meaning 
between  von  and  durch  is  observed.  In  connection  with  a  verbal  noun,  however,  durch  is  usually 
employed  to  denote  the  agent  where  we  should  expect  von,  as  the  use  of  the  latter,  so  common 
in  the  attributive  relation  to  express  other  ideas,  might  be  misunderstood:  die  Meldung  von 
der  Übernahme  der  Regentschaft  durch  den  Grafen  Leopold  zur  Lippe-Biesterfeld  {Deutsche 
Rundschau,   Nov.   1904,  p.  .30S). 

NAMENS  or  IM  NAMEN  in  the  name  of:    Das  fordere  ich  namens  des  Königs. 

NIEDERWÄRTS  below. 

NÖRDLICH  to  the  north  of,  most  commonly  with  gen.,  also  with  von  +  dat.,  sometimes 
with  the  simple  dat.,  usually  with  non-inflection  in  case  of  articleless  names:  nördlich  des  Rheins 
or  vom  Rhein;  nördlich  dem  Oldenhom  (Hermann  Suchier  in  Gräbers  Grundriß,  I,  p.  722); 
das  kleine  Gefecht  bei  Lundby  nördlich  Hobro.  In  case  of  pronouns  the  adverbial  construc- 
tion with  von  is  usually  employed:  am  Barrenkopf  (mountain  peak)  und  nördlich  davon  {Großes 
Hauptquartier,  Aug.  24,  191.5). 

NORDWÄRTS  =  nördlich,  now  most  commonly  with  gen.,  also  with  von  +  dat.,  and  some- 
times with  the  simple  dat.:  an  einzelnen  Orten  nordwärts  der  Alpen  {Zürcher  Zeitimg,  11.  Jan. 
190.3),  nordwärts  vom  Rhein,  occasionally  nordwärts  dem  Rhein. 

OB,  see  ob  under  229.  2. 

OBERHALB  above,  see  außerhalb. 

OBERWÄRTS  =  oberhalb. 

OSTEN  =  ostwärts  with  the  same  construction,  rare:  Wo  einst  osten  dem  Dorfe  ein  Hafen 
der  gefürchteten  Vitalienbrüder  gewesen  sein  sollte,  sah  man  jetzt,  &c.   (T.  Storm's  Renate, 

P-  ])■ 

ÖSTLICH  to  the  east  of,  with  the  same  construction  as  nördlich. 

OSTWÄRTS  =  östlich,  with  the  same  construction  as  nordwärts. 

PUNKTO  or  in  puncto  (ablative  of  Latin  punctum)  =  wegen  on  account  of,  with  reference 
to,  especially  a  legal  term:  „Du  meinst,  der  General  ist  allen  geistlichen  Leuten  aufsässig?" 
„Allen  ohne  Ausnahme,  seit  er  punkto  gottloser  Reden  prozessiert  und  um  eine  schwere  Summe 
gebüßt  wurde"  (K.  F.  Meyer).  So  mögen  Sie  sich,  liebster  Freund,  den  Weihnachtstrubel 
vorstellen,  dem  ich  und  meine  Frau  Do  zwar  freudig,  aber  doch  mit  einer  gewissen  Sorge  in 
puncto  unserer  alten  Köpfe  und  sonstigen  mit  feinen  Nerven  gesegneten  Glieder  entgegen- 
sehen (T.  Storni  an  G.  Keller,  23.  Dezember  ISSO). 

RECHTS,  see  links. 

RINGS  round  about  (rare):  rings  ilires  kleinen  Grabhügels  (Ense's  Denk.,  6,  558).  Da 
ruhen  die  Gäste  rings  der  Waldeswüste  (Lenau).  We  usually  find  rings  um  (with  acc.)  here, 
but  now  sometimes  also  rings'iun  with  the  gen.:  ringsum  des  Marktes  (W'ustmann's  Allerhand 
Spraclidunnnheiten,  p.  197,  7th  ed.). 

RITTLINGS  astraddle  of,  across:  Die  Infanterie  entwickelte  sich  rittlings  der  Straße  (Moltke). 

RÜCKSICHTLICH  with  respect  to,  in  consideration  of  (see  hinsichtlich):  Die  Arbeit  ver- 
dient Lob  hinsichts  des  Inhalts,  aber  hinsichtlich,  or  rücksichtlich,  or  bezüglich  des  Ausdrucks 
ist  manches  zu  tadeln. 

A^ole  1.  The  difference  between  hinsichtlich  and  rücksichtlich  sometimes  becomes  more  prominent  when  a  motive 
enters  as  a  factor  into  the  case.  Then  tlie  rück  hack  in  rücksichtlich  requires  this  word  to  be  used  in  case  of  circum- 
stances that  are  already  at  hand,  passed  or  finished,  while  the  hin  in  hinsichtlich  points  to  a  future  act  or  state  of 
things:  Ich  tat  es  in  Rücksicht  or  rücksichtlich  des  Vorteils,  der  mir  daraus  erwüchse  I  did  it  out  of  consideration  of 
the  advantage,  gain  that  might  come  to  me.  Ich  tue  es  hinsichtlich  or  in  Hinsicht  der  guten  Folgen,  die  daraus  ent- 
springen werden. 

iY (.)/<•  2.  Sometimes  rücksichtlich  takes  after  it  the  prep,  auf  (with  acc.)  instead  of  the  gen.,  as  in  case  of  hinsicht- 
lich and  bezüglich. 

RÜCKWÄRTS  back  of:    seine  Stellung  rückwärts  des  rechten  Flügels  (of  the  army). 

SEIT' AB  to  one  side  of:  Eine  Dame  hielt  allein  in  der  Einsamkeit,  auch  auf  einem  Maultier, 
seitab  des  Weges  auf  einem  Felsenvorsprung   (Raabe's  Frau  Salome,  chap.  iii). 

SEITENS,  VON  SEITEN,  AB'SEITEN  on  the  part  of:  Es  steht  seitens,  or  von  Seiten,  or 
less  commonly  abseifen  des  Magistrats  nichts  entgegen.  The  first  of  these  forms,  altho  a  new 
formation,  is  now  very  common. 

SEITLICH  alongside  of:  Nachdenklich  gehe  ich  den  langen  Korridor  hinunter,  in  dessen 
glänzend  gehöhnten  Streifen,  seitlich  des  grünen  Läufers,  sich  die  gelben  Messinggriffe  der 
Türen  widerspiegeln  wie  goldene,  schwimmende  Blumen  (Anselm  Heine's  Bis  in  das  dritte 
und  vierte _Glicd). 

SEITWÄRTS  to  the  side  of,  most  commonly  with  gen.,  also  with  von  +  dat.,  and  usually 
so  in  case  of  a  pronominal  object,  sometimes  with  simple  dat. :  seitwärts  des  heiligen  Bezirks 
{Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  Dec.  5,  1901),  seitwärts  von  unserm  Hofe  (Storm),  seitwärts 
von  ihm  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  chap,  iv),  seitwärts  diesem  Platz  (Stifter's  Stud.,  1,  290). 
Usually  with  non-inflection  in  case  of  articleless  names:  einen  Flußübergang  seitwärts  Liaoyang 
(Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Aug.  30,  1904). 

STATT,  see  anstatt. 

SÜDLICH  to  the  south  of,  with  the  same  construction  as  nördlich. 

SÜDWÄRTS  =  südlich,  with  the  same  construction  as  nordwärts. 

TROTZ  in  spite  of,  originally  with  dat.,  now  also  with  gen.,  and  perhaps  more  commonly 
so,  but  in  the  sense  of  as  well  as,  almost  excelling,  beating  usually  with  dat.,  as  also  in  the  expres- 
sions trotzdem  in  spite  of  that  and  trotz  dem  und  alledem:  trotz  alles  Widerstrebens  (Raabe's 
Zum  wilden  Mann,  chap!  ii),  trotz  seiner  schneeweißen  Haare  und  seiner  wohlgezählten  sechzig 
Jahre  (ib.);  trotz  ihrem  Alter  und  ihrer  Müdigkeit  (Raabe's  Höxter  u.  Corvey,c\\dLp.\).     Gesund 


364 PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE   GENITIVE 228.  4. 

bin  ich  jetzt,  trotz  einem  I  am  now  as  well  as  anybody.  Er  lügt  trotz  (almost  excelling,  beating) 
einem  Zeitungsblatt,  or  trotz  einem  Münchhausen  (the  famous  liar  of  fable).  Er  muß  einen 
Wahrsagergeist  haben  trotz  (equal  to)  der  Magd  in  der  Apostelgeschichte.     See  unangesehen. 

Zum  Trotz  also  governs  the  gen.,  but  it  may  stand  after  the  dependent  noun,  and  go\'erns 
then  usually  the  dat.:  Ich  will  doch  einen  großen  Musikus  aus  dir  machen  zum  Trotz  eines 
jeden,  der  mich  daran  hindern  will,  l)ut  allem  Menschenverstand  zum  Trotz  (contrary  to). 
Sometimes,  however,  the  gen.  is  found  when  the  dependent  noun  precedes:  alien  Abredens 
seiner  guten  Freunde  zum  Trotz  (Raabe's  Deutscher  Adel,  chap.  vii). 

ÜBER'HIN  on  the  other  side  of,  rare:  Überhin  der  March  (river)  beginnt's  zu  grauen  (Grill- 
parzer's  Ottokar,  5). 

UM  — WILLEN  for  the  sake  of,  on  account  of:  um  Gottes  willen,  um  des  lieben  Friedens 
willen;  nie  um  der  Laterne,  sondern  um  des  Lichtes  willen  (Konrad  Falke),  or  sometimes 
nie  um  der  Laterne  willen,  sondern  um  des  Lichtes  (Georg  Edward).  The  younger  form  willen, 
as  in  ihrer  selbst  willen  (Roseggerj,  is  not  yet  so  common  as  the  older  um  —  willen,  while  on  the 
other  hand  the  younger  form  wegen  has  supplanted  in  most  cases  the  older  von  — wegen;  see 
halb,  above. 

UN'ANGESEHEN  setting  aside,  notwithstanding,  heedless  of,  now  rare,  and  usually  replaced 
by  UNGE'ACHTET  or  UNER'ACHTET,  or  the  rarer  forms  of  ohngeachtet,  ohnerachtet,  either 
preceding  or  less  commonly  following  the  noun,  but  often  found  after  pronouns,  usually  with 
gen.,  but  sometimes  with  dat.,  when  the  prep,  stands  after  the  pronoun  or  substantive:  un- 
geachtet des  Wetters,  des  Wetters  ungeachtet,  dessenungeachtet,  or  sometimes  demungeachtet 
(Marriot's  Seine  Gottheit,  chap,  ii)  not'u'ithstaiiding  that,  aller  persönlichen  Erlebnisse  und  Küm- 
mernisse unerachtet  (Wildenbruch's  Vize-Mama),  allen  Unfällen  ungeachtet  (Lessing),  allem 
Abmahnen  Truds  unerachtet  (Fontane's  Grete  Alinde,  chap.  iii).  Originally  unangesehen  was 
a  perfect  active  participle  used  as  a  predicate  appositive,  just  as  ungeachtet  in  the  example 
under  ungeachtet  below,  but  it  of  course  governed  the  accusative  instead  of  the  genitive.  Later 
as  a  preposition  it  took  the  gen.  after  the  analogy  of  ungeachtet  with  which  it  was  closely  related 
in  meaning  and  development. 

Trotz  is  a  synonym  of  ungeachtet,  but  is  a  much  stronger  word  implying  a  more  forcible  re- 
sistance to  obstacles:  Er  geht  ungeachtet  or  trotz  des  schlechten  Wetters  spazieren,  but  only 
Er  läuft  trotz  seines  Stelzfußes  (wooden  leg). 

UNBE'SCHADET  without  waiving,  without  detracting  from,  without  detriment  to,  in  spite 
of,  with  gen.  usually,  but  sometimes  with  the  dat.,  usually  found  before  the  noun,  but  some- 
times after  it:  unbeschadet  meines  Anspruchs,  meiner  Rechte ;  unbeschadet  Berlichingen  (dat.) 
und  unserer  Verbindung  (Goethe's  Götz,  2,  7).  Diesen  unbedeutenden  Einwänden  unbe- 
schadet bleibt  Thumbs  Buch  ein  des  hochverdienten  Forschers  würdiges  Werk  (P.  Wahrmann 
in  Anzeiger  für  indogermanische  Sprach-  und  Altertuniskunde,  1913,  p.  16). 

UNER'ACHTET,  see  unangesehen. 

UNFERN  or  UNWEIT  not  far  from,  usually  with  gen.,  not  infrequently  with  dat.,  sometimes 
with  von  and  dat.,  or  in  case  of  names  of  places  with  non-inflection  of  the  noun:  unfern  des 
Feuers  (Goethe),  unweit  des  Dorfes  (id.),  unfern  dem  Haff  und  dem  Ostseegestade  (H.  Hoff- 
mann), unfern  von  Douay  (Ranke),  unweit  von  meines  Vaters  Stube  (T.  Storni),  unweit  Pillau 
(Moltke). 

UNGE'ACHTET,  originally  a  perfect  active  participle  used  as  a  predicate  appositive  as  in 
183.  2.  C.  c:  Des  schlechten  Wetters  ungeachtet  [habend]  ging  er  hinaus.  For  present  meaning 
see  unangesehen. 

UNGE'RECHNET  not  counting:  ungerechnet  des  Qualmes.  Sanders  gives  a  number  of 
references  in  his  Ergänzungswörterluich,  p.  409.  .The  absolute  construction  with  an  absolute 
ace.  is  more  common  here:    Das  Buch  kostet,  den  Einband  ungerechnet,  fünf  Mark. 

UNTERHALB,  see  außerhalb. 

UNTERWÄRTS  down;    unterwärts  des  Stroms,  unterwärts  (at  the  foot  of)  des  Berges. 

UNWEIT,  see  unfern. 

VER'MITTELS  and  VER'MITTELST,  see  mittels. 

VER'MOGE,  earlier  in  the  period  nach  Vermöge  (old  noun,  now  obs.),  in  virtue  of,  thru, 
by  means  of,  in  consequence  of,  by  reason  of,  only  rarely  with  dat.:  vermöge  (thru)  seiner 
Redlichkeit.  Alle  Körper  streben  vermöge  (in  consequence  of)  ihrer  Schwere  nach  dem  Mit- 
telpunkte der  Erde.  Die  Lande  Österreich  und  Steier  fallen,  vermög'  dem  Majestätsbrief 
Kaiser  Friedrichs,  wohl  an  des  letzten  Lehnbesitzers  Töchter  (Grillparzer's  König  Ottokar,  2). 

Nole.  Synonymous  with  vermöge  are  kraft  and  mittels.  Vermöge  and  kraft  have  much  the  same  range  of  mean- 
ings, and  are  often  almost  identical.  The  latter,  however,  often  emphasizes  the  actual  exercise  or  employment  of 
power,  be  it  a  natural  force  or  power  invested  in  one  from  without,  while  vermöge  denotes  an  inherent  natural  force 
or  power  which  is  inseparably  connected  with  tlie  nature  of  a  person  or  thin«,  and  is  conceived  of  as  self-acting,  as 
all  natural  forces:  Er  selbst,  der  nur  mittelmäßig  Begabte,  hatte  auf  seinem  Felde  Rühmliches  geleistet,  aber  kraft 
(by  dint  of)  seiner  sittüchen  Eigenschaften,  nicht  durch  eine  geniale  Anlage  (Meyer).  Kraft  (by  virtue  of)  der 
Gewalt,  die  mir  geliehen  ist,  kraft  (by  virtue  of)  meines  Amtes,  unseres  Vertrages.  "  Ein  Stein  fällt  vermöge  seiner 
Schwere  zu  Boden.  Vermöge  des  Verstandes  bildet  man  Begriffe.  Die  Maschine  wird  vermöge  (or  more  commonly 
vermittels)  des  Dampfes  bewegt.  Here  vermöge  touches  vermittels,  but  differs  from  it  in  that  it  represents  the 
power  as  a  natural  force,  while  vermittels  represents  it  as  controlled  and  operated  by  someone.       See  a  under  mittels. 

VON  SEITEN,  see  seitens. 

VON  WEGEN  doesn't  usually  have  the  full  causal  force  of  wegen,  but  only  the  original  mean- 
ings, by  the  way  of,  on  the  part  of,  concerning,  at  the  instance  of.  Wegen  without  von  has  developed 
causal  force,  and  in  this  meaning  is  widely  used,  while  von  wegen  is  now  only  found  in  a  few  set 
expressions  (see  halb,  1.  c)  in  the  literary  language,  usually  with  its  original  force,  but  it  is  still 


229.  2. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE    DATIVE 365 

often  employed  by  the  common  people  in  both  the  old  and  the  new  meaning  (see  also  halb  1. 
a,  b  and  c). 

VORBEHALTLICH,  VORBEHALTLICH,  UNTER  VORBEHALT  with  reservation  of,  upon 
the  condition  of:  Sie  (die  Verträge)  wurden  von  der  preußischen  Regierung  vorbehaltlich  der 
Zustimmung  ihrer  Zollverbiindeten  am  2.  August  1862  unterzeichnet. 

VORWÄRTS  in  front  of,  usually  with  the  gen.,  usually  with  non-inflection  with  articleless 
names. 

WAHREND  (originally  a  participle  in  the  adverbial  gen.  construction:  währendes  Krieges 
becoming  während  des  Krieges;  see  223.  II.  2)  during,  usually  with  the  gen.,  but  also  occasionally 
the  dat.,  especially  when  the  gen.  docs  not  differ  in  form  from  the  nom.  and  ace:  Während  des 
Krieges  schweigen  die  Gesetze.  Während  fünf  Tagen  (or  better  Tage),  währenddessen,  or 
quite  frequently  währenddem.  Während  usually  takes  the  dat.  in  case  of  the  masc.  and  neut. 
sing,  of  the  relative  and  interrogative  pronoun  welcher:  Erinnerst  du  dich  noch  jenes  Gewitters, 
während  welchem  (or  still  better  dessen)  ich  dich  dort  traf  ganz  unter  den  Vorsprung  gedrückt? 
(Raabe's  Frühling,  chap.  v).  In  S.G.  colloquial  speech  the  dative  is  in  general  quite  common 
here  and  hence  it  appears  sometimes  in  the  literary  language  instead  of  the  genitive. 

WEGEN  (in  S.E.  dialect  often  in  the  form  z'weg'n),  or  in  colloquial  language  also  still  in  the 
older  form  von  wegen,  on  account  of,  with  reference  to,  concerning  (for  other  meanings  see 
halb,  1.  c  above),  usually  with  gen.,  but  colloquially  not  infrequently  with  dat.:  Ich  schäme 
mich  von  wegen  dem  ewigen  Lug  und  Trug  (Fontane's  £//■/,  chap.  xxiv).  The  dat.  is  most 
common  in  the  literary  language  where  the  gen.  form  has  not  an  ending  which  clearly  marks 
it  as  a  gen.:  Sie  will  mich  wegen  Sommerkostümen  (the  gen.  would  not  be  different  in  form 
from  nom.  or  ace.)  um  Rat  fragen  (Fulda's  Die  wilde  Jagd,  3,  2).  Wegen  etwas  anderem  (also 
the  wk.  gen.  anderen,  but  not  anderes,  as  it  would  not  be  felt  as  a  gen.)  on  account  of  something 
else.  Sometimes  before  unmodified  nouns:  Die  Bücher  liegen  hier  bloß  wegen  Friedeberg, 
den  ich  der  beigegebenen  Zeichnungen  halber  fragen  will  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap.  6). 
So  ist  dir  vielleicht  lieber,  du  läßt  dich  abends  wegen  Ausbleiben  von  deinem  Vater  und  deiner 
Mutter  durchprügeln  (Raabe).  „Hast  du  Kummer?"  Sie  nickte.  ,, Kummer  wegen  Vater?" 
(Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  LXII).  Sometimes  with  non-inflection:  Wegen  dies  und  das! 
(Frensscn's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  III,  1).     See  also  halb  above. 

WESTLICH  west  of,  with  the  same  construction  as  nördlich. 

WESTWÄRTS  =  westlich. 

WILLEN,  see  imi  —  willen. 

ZEIT  for  the  period  of:  zeit  meines  Lebens,  zeit'lebens  for  life,  as  long  as  I  live  (as  he  lives, 
&c.). 

ZU 'FOLGE,  see  infolge  above. 

ZU'GUNSTEN,  ZU  GUNSTEN  in  favor  of,  for  the  sake  of,  ZU'UNGUNSTEN,  ZU  UNGUN- 
STEN against,  with  gen.,  but  with  dat..  when  the  preposition  follows  the  word:  Der  Richter 
hat  zugunsten  des  Verklagten  und  zuungunsten  des  Klägers  entschieden.  Der  Ruhm  einer 
Universität  sollte  nicht  sowohl  in  der  großen  Zahl  bunt  durcheinander  gewürfelter  Hörer  und 
inskribierter  Studenten,  als  in  der  nachweisbaren  Gediegenheit  ihrer  Lehrerfolge  und  diesen 
zugunsten  in  der  vornehmen  Ablehnung  zweifelhafter  Besucher  ihres  Auditoriums  gesucht 
werden   (H.  Keferstein,  in  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  Oct.  28.  1901). 

ZU'NÄCHST,  see  nächst  under  the  dative  in  229.  2. 

ZUSCHLÄGLICH  or  ZUSÄTZLICH  together  with,  with  the  addition  of:  Das  ergäbe  zu- 
schläglich jener  7  bis  71/2  Milliarden  Mark  Kapitalanlage  20  Milliarden  Mark,  von  denen 
Deutschland  die  Zinsen  vom  Auslande  bezieht  (Sombart's  Die  deutsche  Volkswirtschaft  im 
neunzehnten  Jahrhundert,  p.  446). 

ZU  SEITEN  along  the  sides  of:    die  Bäume  zu  selten  des  Weges. 

ZUZÜGLICH  -with  the  addition  of,  opposite  of  abzüglich:  zuzüglich  der  Fracht,  In  case  of 
articleless  nouns  non-inflection  in  the  singular  is  the  rule:    zuzüglich  Porto. 

ZWECKS,  see  behufs. 

Meaning  and  Use  of  Prepositions  with  the  Dative. 

229.  1.  The  prepositions  that  properly  govern  the  dat.  govern  also  other  cases  only  in  a 
few  words,  as  they  are  in  large  part  old,  and  usage  has  at  last  definitely  fixed  their  construction. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  goodly  number  of  the  preps,  governing  the  gen.  govern  also,  as  can  be  seen 
by  a  study  of  the  preceding  article,  the  dative.  The  reason  of  this  partly  lies  in  various  analogies 
in  meaning,  as  laut  according  to  in  analogy  with  nach  according  to,  unweit  not  far  from,  jenseits 
on  that  side,&ic.,  expressing,  in  general,  rest  as  in  case  of  bei  by,  neben  near,  &c.,  may  take  the 
dat.  instead  of  the  more  correct  gen. 

.  2.  The  following  are  the  prepositions  with  the  dat.  with  their  leading  meanings,  the  preps, 
standing  in  alphabetical  order. 

AB  from,  of  time  or  place  =  von,  now  replaced  by  the  latter  except  in  S.W.  dialect,  where 
it  is  still  frequently  used,  also  in  the  literary  language  in  the  set  expression  ab'handen  w7«/)/acp(f. 
It  is  used  quite  frequently  and  widely  in  business  style  before  local  adverbs,  names  of  places, 
and  before  nouns  or  adverbs  of  time,  where,  however,  it  is  the  Latin  preposition  ab  from,  at,  or 
from  —  on  or  forward:  Fracht  ab  hier  kostet  10  Mark.  Unfrankiert  ab  hier  charges  of  trans- 
portation from  this  point  not  paid  (by  the  sender);  Heu  ab  Wiese  verkauft  hay  sold  at  the 
meadow  or  at  the  farm,  further  expenses  of  transportation  to  be  borne  by  the  purchaser,  simi- 


366 PREPOSITIONS   WITH    THE    DATIVE 229.  2. 

larly:  Kohlen  werden  ab  (at)  Bahnhof  geliefert,  ich  liefere  den  Weizen  frei  ab  Berlin;  ab 
Berlin,  7  the  train  leaves  Berlin  at  7  o'clock;  zu  vermieten  ab  Ostern  for  rent  after  Easter;  ab 
morgen /row  to-morrow  on;  ab  1.  (read  ersten)  Mai  (adverbial  ace);  ab  nächsten  Montag.  This 
usage  is  fast  becoming  established  in  the  literary  language:  Der  Handel  auf  dem  Strome  ge- 
winnt doch  erst  ab  Regensburg  einige  Bedeutimg  (Berthold  Riehl  in  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen 
Zeit.,  Oct.  IS,  lOOtJi. 

AUS  (a )  movement  from  the  inside  of,  out  of,  from:  Er  geht  aus  dem  Hause,  aus  dem  Lande. 

(/;)  Origin,  source, /row  (see  Note  under  von,  d):  Er  stammt  aus  guter  Familie.  Er  ist  aus 
der  Schweiz  He  comes  from  Switzerland.  Ein  Weib  aus  dem  Volk  (common  people),  aus  Ver- 
sehen hv  mistake.  Origin  of  knowledge,  feeling:  Ich  weiß  es  aus  Erfahrung.  Aus  dem  Auge 
schließt  man  aufs  Herz  From  one's  eye,  we  judge  of  the  heart.     Er  bewies  es  aus  der  Bibel. 

ic)  Material,  out  of:  aus  weichem  Ton  gebildet.  Granit  besteht  aus  Feldspat,  Quarz  und 
Glimmer. 

Note.  With  materials,  von  is  used  before  nouns  without  an  article,  replacing  the  gen.  case,  and  thus  forms  with 
its  noun  an  adj.  element,  standing  attributively,  or  as  a  predicate  adj.,  while  aus  with  nouns  of  material  forms  an 
adverbial  element,  representing  the  object  as  being  fashioned  out  o/the  mentioned  material:  ein  Ring  von  Gold  a  gold 
ring.     Der  Ring  ist  von  Gold,  but  Der  Goldschmied  verfertigt  Ringe  aus  Gold.     Compare  von,  /. 

{d)  Motive,  from:  Aus  welchem  Grunde  tat  er  das?  Er  handelt  aus  Liebe,  Haß,  Trotz. 
Er  tat  es  aus  freien  Stücken  (from  his  own  free  will). 

(e)  Figurati\'ely  in  man>'  wa>s  corresponding  to  the  above  lit.  meanings:  Er  hat  mich  aus 
(out  of)  mancher  Verlegenheit  gerissen.  Er  lachte  aus  vollem  Halse  He  laughed  heartily. 
Was  wird  aus  ihm  werden?  What  will  become  of  him?  Ein  Märchen  aus  alten  Zeiten,  das 
kommt  mir  nicht  aus  dem  Sinn  (from  a  poem  by  Heine). 

(/)  Synonymous  with  aus  is  von,  and  sometimes  vor.  In  aus  lies  the  idea  of  movement 
out  of  or  from  lüithin  something,  while  von  mierely  states  that  the  movement  begins 
near  or  from  something:  Die  QueUen  kommen  oft  aus  den  Bergen,  but  Die  Flüsse  kom- 
men von  den  Bergen.  Er  steigt  aus  dem  Wasser,  but  Er  bricht  den  Apfel  vom  Baume.  Der 
Reiter  steigt  aus  dem  Sattel,  but  vom  Pferde,  When  we  desire  to  express  movement  from 
something  that  threatens  personal  safety,  then  vor  is  the  word:  Er  errettete  seinen  Freund  aus 
dem  Gefängnis  und  damit  vor  (from)  dem  Henkerbeil, 

BEI.  1.  Xow  usually  with  dat.  expressing  nearness  to  some  object  in  a  general  and  indefinite 
way,  but  neighborhood  or  conjunction  without  contact,  thus  differing  in  part  from  neben,  which 
denotes  close  approach  to  the  side  of  an  object  but  without  contact,  and  differing  from  an  in 
that  the  latter  denotes  a  closer  approach  and  ven.-  often  contact  with  the  side  of  the  object  in 
question:  Er  stand  bei  or  neben  dem  Baume,  but  Der  Apfel  hängt  am  Baiune.  Only  rest  can  be 
expressed  by  bei,  and  for  motion  we  use  an,  neben,  zu,  of  which  an  expresses  motion  close  up  to 
an  object,  often  till  it  touches  it,  neben  direction  toward  the  side  of  an  object  without  contact, 
zu  movement  toward,  much  as  an,  but  differing  therefrom  in  that  it  expresses  a  close  and  inti- 
mate relation  between  the  persons  and  things  thus  brought  together:  Er  setzte  sich  an  (at) 
den  Tisch,  or  neben  (near)  den  Tisch,  but  zu  (by)  mir  (in  order  to  chat).     See  Note  under  zu. 

(a)  Especially  frequent  is  bei  in  the  sense  of  bordering  upon,  in  the  vicinity  of:  Sachsenhausen 
bei  Frankfurt,  Linden  bei  Hannover.     Die  Schlacht  bei  Leipzig  the  battle  of  Leipsic. 

{b)  Nearness  applied  to  things  in  its  metaphorical  use  (1)  expressing  usually  a  condition 
of  things:  Er  ist  noch  bei  Leben  He  is  still  alive.  Er  ist  schon  bei  Jahren  He  is  already  quite  old. 
Er  ist  nicht  mehr  bei  Kräften  He  is  no  longer  strong.  Er  ist  nicht  bei  Sinnen,  or  nicht  bei  Ver- 
Stande, or  nicht  bei  sich  He  has  lost  his  senses,  is  beside  himself.  Er  ist  nicht  bei  Gelde  He  is  out 
of  money.  Es  bleibt  beim  alten  The  old  order  of  things  still  remains.  Er  ist  bei  gutem  Mut, 
guter  Gesundheit.  Bei  Gericht  at  court.  (2)  In,  in  connection  with,  in  case  of:  Bei  diesem 
Geschäft  kommt  nichts  heraus  In  this  business  there  is  no  money  made.  Dieses  Präparat  ist 
bereits  von  vielen  Ärzten  als  ein  spezifisches  Heilmittel  bei  (in  case  of)  gichtischen  Leiden' 
erkannt  worden,  (3j  A  succession,  after,  now  little  used:  Pfeiler  bei  Pfeiler  stürzte  nieder. 
(4)  Occupation,  at,  busied  with,  over,  all  wrapped  up  in:  Er  ist  bei  (at)  der  Arbeit.  Er  ist  beim 
Anziehen  He  is  dressing.  Er  sitzt  immer  bei  den  Büchern  He  is  always  poring  over  his  books. 
Sie  saßen  plaudernd  beim  Bier,  Sie  war  mit  ganzer  Seele  bei  der  Sache  She  was  all  wrapped 
up  (deeply  interested)  in  the  affair.  Er  bleibt  bei  der  Sache  He  sticks  to  the  point.  (5)  On: 
Er  verweilte  bei  (dwelt  on)  dieser  Episode  allzulange. 

(c)  Nearness  to  persons,  at  the  house  of,  place  of  business  of,  upon  the  person  of:  bei  (at  the 
house  of)  dem  Herrn  Schmidt,  bei  mir  at  my  house,  bei  (at  the  store  of)  dem  Buchhändler, 
bei  einem  Professor  hören  to  attend  the  lecture  of  a  certain  professor.  Bei  Gottfried  Her- 
mann hörte  (heard  lectures  on)  er  Äschylus.  Das  bekommen  Sie  bei  Schmidt  Vou  can  buy 
that  at  Schmidt's  (store).  Er  hat  ein  Konto  bei  (at)  der  Bank,  Ich  sprach  bei  ihm  vor  I  called 
on  him.     Ich  habe  keinen  Pfennig,  kein  Schnupftuch  bei  mir  (upon  my  person). 

(d)  Nearness  applied  to  persons  in  its  metaphorical  use,  with,  in  the  case  of,  in,  to,  in  the 
works  of,  under:  Ich  halte  es  bei  ihm  nicht  aus  I  can't  get  along  with  him.  Er  gilt  viel  bei  ihm 
He  passes  for  a  good  deal  with  him.  Echt  weibliche  Naturen  sind  jedoch  in  der  Regel  ent- 
schlossenen Geistes;  so  war  es  auch  bei  (in  the  case  of)  dem  sanften,  bescheidenen  Fräulein. 
Bei  dir  (in  your  case)  wird  die  Hälfte  genügen.  Bei  euch  Jungen  muß  man  streng  sein  In  case 
ofovwithyoii  boys  one  must  be  strict.  Bei  uns  zu  Lande  in  our  country,  beiden  Alten  in  antiquity, 
with  the  people  of  antiquity.  Er  beklagte  sich  bei  mir  He  complained  to  me.  Er  kann  nichts 
bei  (to)  sich  behalten  (keep).  Das  Wort  kommt  bei  (in  the  works  of)  Goethe  nicht  vor.  Man 
lernte  bei  (under)  ihm  etwas. 


229.  2. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE    DATIVE 367 

(e)  Bei  often  marks  a  conjunction  or  near  association  of  two  things  or  persons,  of  which  the 
one  denoted  by  the  object  of  bei: 

(1)  Marks  the  time  of  the  other,  at,  on,  upon  the  occasion  of,  at  the  time  of,  ivhen,  -while,  in,  by: 
Bei  einer  Hochzeit  lernte  ich  ihn  kennen.  Bei  dieser  Gelegenheit  on  this  occasion,  bei  nächster 
Gelegenheit  at  the  next  opportunity.  Nach  näherer  Feststellung  sind  bei  den  letzten  Über- 
schwemmungen 500  Tote  aufgefunden  worden.  Er  half  beim  Aussteigen  He  helped  us  when 
we  were  getting  off  the  train.  Er  ertrank  beim  Baden  He  was  drowned  while  bathing.  Bei 
ziemlich  jungen  Jahren  wurde  er  zum  Kardinal  befördert  When  quite  young  he  was  promoted 
to  be  a  cardinal.  Bei  (in)  der  Unterhaltung  ist  er  ein  guter  Gesellschafter.  Noch  bei  Men- 
schengedenken within  the  memor\"  of  man,  bei  Tag,  bei  Nacht  by  day,  by  night. 

(2)  Marks  the  cause  of  the  other:  Bei  der  Teuerung  kann  ich  nichts  kaufen  I  can  buy 
nothing  when  or  since  ever>'thing  is  so  dear.  Bei  solchem  Fleiß  muß  es  ihm  gelingen  With  such 
industry  he  must  succeed.  Bei  günstigem  Winde  segelt  man  schnell.  Er  zittert  bei  einem 
Gewitter.     Bei  zwei  gegen  eins  ist  die  Partie  ungleich  Two  against  one  is  not  fair. 

(3)  Marks  a  concession  in  spite  of  which,  however,  the  other  statement  is  true,  zvith,  in 
spite  of,  usually  followed  by  all-:  Bei  aller  stillen  Sanftmut  ihres  Wesens  war  sie  doch  äußerst 
scharfblickend  In  spite  of  all  the  gentleness  of  her  nature  she  was  nevertheless  keen  of  observa- 
tion.    Bei  allem  Fleiß  ist  es  üun  doch  nicht  gelungen. 

(4)  Marks  the  means  of  accomplishing  the  other:   Er  liest  bei  Licht. 

(5)  Marks  an  accompanying  circumstance  of  the  other,  along  n-ith,  together  with,  in:  Eine 
Buchbinderei,  welche  ebensowohl  die  leichteren  einfachen,  als  die  schwierigen  eleganten 
Einbände,  in  gediegener  und  geschmackvoller  Ausstattung  bei  unübertroffener  Haltbarkeit  zu 
liefern  im  Stande  ist.  Und  bei  solchen  Kameralverhältnissen  reisen  Sie  in  Europa  herum? 
And  when  you  are  in  such  a  state  of  finance  you  travel  about  in  Europe? 

(6)  Marks  the  condition  on  which  the  other  can  occur:  Meine  Preise  für  das  Präparat  sind 
85  Pfg.  (Pfennig)  per  Gramm,  bei  (on  condition  that  the  purchaser  buys  as  much  as)  10  Gramm 
75  Pfg.,  bei  100  Gramm  70  Pfg.  Bei  20  M.  franko  delivered  free,  if  purchased  to  the  amount  of 
20  marks.  Sie  sagen,  bei  ungelöster  Schnur  kommen  die  Erdmännchen  und  spinnen  am 
Rocken  (Freytag's  Rittmeister,  5)  They  say  that  if  the  band  is  not  taken  off  the  wheel,  &c. 

(7)  Marks  the  manner:  Sie  kommen  bei  (or  zu  or  in)  Paaren,  or  Paar  und  Paar.  Man 
verkauft  etwas  bei  or  nach  Hunderten, 

(/)  In  oaths  and  kindred  strong  statements,  where  bei  originally  meant  in  the  presence  of, 
usually  translated  by  by,  upon:  Ich  schwöre  bei  Gott.  Er  versicherte  es  mir  bei  (upon)  seiner 
Ehre.     Beim  Himmel,  dieses  Kind  ist  schön! 

(g)  Fixes  the  penalty:  Es  ist  bei  Leib  und  Leben  verboten  It  is  forbidden  under  penalty  of 
death.     In  threats:   Bei  Leibe  nicht!  Not  if  you  value  your  life! 

(/;)  With  numerals  to  express  approximately  distance,  quantity,  «Sec:  bei  mehreren  Schrit- 
ten Entfernung  at  a  distance  of  several  paces. 

(■/)     The  measure  of  difference:  Er  ist  bei  weitem  (by  far)  der  fähigste. 

(j)  Bei  expresses  sometimes  a  closer  approach  and  even  contact,  especially  in  case  of  a  part 
of  the  body  with  verbs  of  seizing,  and  a  few  set  expressions:  Er  faßte  ihn  beim  (by)  Kopf,  bei 
der  Hand,  bei  den  Haaren,  beim  Rockzipfel.  Ich  nehme  ihn  beim  Worte.  Ich  rufe,  nenne 
ihn  beim  Namen,  bei  seinem  Namen.  Wir  fangen  beim  ersten  Kapitel  des  Buches  an.  Er 
hat  alles  bei  Heller  und  Pfennig  bezahlt  He  has  paid  evcrsthing  up  to  the  last  penny. 

2.  Bei  now  rarely  takes  the  ace.  except  in  a  few  set  expressions:  beiseite  gehen  to  go  to  one 
side,  einen  beiseite  nehmen  to  take  somebody  to  one  side,  etwas  beiseite  bringen  to  take  some- 
thing secretly  away.  In  the  colloquial  language  and  dialect  of  the  North  and  Midland,  how- 
ever, the  ace.  after  bei  is  still  often  heard  not  only  here  but  also  after  other  verbs  of  motion, 
after  the  analog\'  of  usage  with  an,  auf,  <S:c.:  Herr,  wen  der  heute  abend  zu  seiner  Suppe  ein- 
lädt, dem  wird  er  auch  einen  schlimmen  Löffel  bei  den  Napf  legen  (Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap.  iv). 
Ick  muß  bei  een  Herrn  uff'n  Bahnhof  jehn  (Ficlitz,  in  Hauptmann's  Der  rote  Hahn). 

Earlier  this  analogical  ace.  was  common  in  the  Midland,  especially  with  Luther:  Da  aber 
Saulus  gen  Jerusalem  kam  |  versuchte  er  sich  bey  die  Jünger  zu  machen  (Acts  ix.  26). 

BE'NEBST,  see  nebst. 

BINNEN  within,  sometimes  with  dat.,  sometimes  with  gen.;   see  binnen  in  228.  4. 

DANK  thanks  to,  usually  with  dat.,  often,  however,  with  gen.:  Ich  bin,  dank  Ihren  Be- 
mühungen, gerettet.     See  also  dank  in  228.  4. 

ENT'GEGEN  against,  contrary  to,  either  following  or,  perhaps,  more  commonly  preceding 
the  dependent  word:  entgegen  unserem  Abkommen  or  unserem  Abkommen  entgegen.  Ihre 
Haare  waren  ein  wenig  zottig,  was  ich  aber,  entgegen  m,einer  sonstigen  Geschmacksrichtung, 
sehr  liebreizend  fand  (R.  Huch's  Erinnerungen  von  Liidolf  Ursleu,  chap.  iii).  Sometimes  it 
must  stand  before  the  noun,  so  that  it  can  be  distinguished  from  the  separable  prefix  entgegen, 
which  follows  the  noun  and  has  sometimes  quite  a  different  meaning,  for,  as  explained  in  226, 
it  is  not  only  a  preposition  but  also  an  adverb:  Er  kam,  entgegen  meinen  Wünschen  He  came 
contrary  to  my  wishes,  but  Er  kam  meinen  Wünschen  entgegen  He  met  my  wishes  (complied 
with  them). 

For  full  description  of  its  use  as  a  prep,  and  adv.  see  a  under  its  svnonym  zuwider  below. 

ENT'LANG,  see  under  längs  in  228.  4. 

GEGEN'UBER  over  against,  opposite,  standing  before  the  dependent  noun,  or  following  it, 
the  latter  usually  in  case  of  personal  pronouns:  Gegenüber  dem  Sofa,  or  Dem  Sofa  gegenüber 
hing  ein  großes  Bild.  Gegenüber  der  Festung  Ehrenbreitstein  liegt  die  Stadt  Koblenz.  Er 
nahm  ihm  grad  gegenüber  Platz,  but  sometimes  with  the  preposition  before  the  personal  pro- 


368 PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE    DATIVE  229.  2. 

noun  when  the  meaning  is  figurative:    Gegenüber  (in  contrast  to)  mir  glaubt  Erdmann  usw. 
(L.  Tobler  in  Zeitschrift  für  deutsche  Philologie,   1.S75,   p.  244). 

(a)  gegenüber  (see  its  synonym  gegen,  d)  in  its  figurative  use  is  translated  by  with  respect 
to,  towards,  in  the  face  of,  in-  contrast  to:  Diesem  stillen  Wühlen,  Planschmieden  und  Vorbereiten 
seiner  Zunftbrüder  gegenüber  (with  respect  to)  verhielt  sich  Gerhard  Richwin  kalt  und  zwei- 
deutig. Er  sah  voraus,  daß  seine  Stellung  (attitude)  dem  Justizrat  gegenüber  (toward)  recht 
ärgerlich  war.  Gegenüber  (in  the  face  of)  diesen  Tatsachen  kann  nichts  mehr  beschönigt 
werden.  Gegenüber  (in  contrast  to)  dem  seit  Einführung  des  Christentums  sinkenden  Latein 
trieben  auf  anderer  Schicht  und  Unterlage  die  Romansprachen  (Komance  languages)  empor 
(Grimm). 

(b)  Earlier  gegenüber  was  separated  into  its  two  component  elements:  Ich  sah  mich  gegen 
dem  hohen  Wall  über  (Goethe).  Sometimes  still  in  dialect:  Gegen  mir  über  ist  die  Tür  (Wil- 
helm Vi^chvr's  .Sou)!enopfer,  II).  Also  the  poetical  form  genüber  is  used:  Wie  oft  war  sie  an 
Festen  mir  genüber  (Griilparzer). 

(r)  Sometimes  under  the  influence  of  vis-a-vis  de  we  find  gegenüber  von  instead  of  gegen- 
über, usually  however  only  in  case  of  names  of  persons  and  places  in  defining  accurately  the 
situation  of  a  house  or  a  city:  Es  gibt  so  hübsche  Häuser  am  Bollwerk,  eins  zwischen  Konsul 
Martens  und  Konsul  Grützmacher  und  eins  am  Markt,  gerade  gegenüber  von  Gieshübler 
(namr)  ( l-'ontane's  Effi,  chap,  x),  instead  of  dem  Gieshübler  gegenüber.  Gegenüber  von 
Mannheim,  or  more  commonly  Mannheim  gegenüber. 

GE'MÄSZ  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of,  •/;/.  accordance  with  the  command,  instructions,  &c. 
of.  cither  preceding  or  following  the  noun;  sometimes  also  with  the  gen.  when  standing  before 
the  noun,  after  the  analogy  of  in  Gemäßheit  and  zufolge  (see  gemäß,  228.  4):  Erlebte  seiner 
Gesinnung  und  seinem  Stande  gemäß  sehr  einsam.  Gemäß  deinem  Wunsche  or  deinem 
Wunsche  gemäß.  Jeder  Staatsbürger  soll  den  Gesetzen  des  Landes  gemäß  sich  verhalten. 
Gemäß  or  in  Gemäßheit,  or  more  commonly  zufolge  des  erhaltenen  Auftrags,  or  j'^'rv  commonly 
Dem  erhaltenen  Auftrag  gemäß  or  zufolge  übersende  ich  Ihnen  die  verlangten  Werke. 

LANGS  and  LÄNGST,  see  under  längs  in  228.  4. 

MIT  corresponds  to  Eng.  with  very  closely  in  its  varied  meanings,  and  hence  is  not  treated  here 
in  detail:  Der  Vater  geht  mit  den  Kindern  aus.  Sie  sprechen  miteinander.  Sie  arbeiten 
mit  Fleiß. 

(a)  When  events  or  ideas  stand  in  close  relation  tc/V/f  a  person  or  thing,  mit  may  mean  with 
reference  to:  Was  gibt's  mit  dem  Schmettwitz?  What  is  that  matter  with  reference  to  (Mr.) 
Schmettwitz?  Nun  sag',  wie  hast  du's  mit  der  Religion?  How  do  you  stand  with  reference  to 
religion?  Das  mit  dem  Brief  müssen  wir  uns  noch  überlegen  We  must  reflect  over  that  plan 
we  have  concerning  the  letter. 

(b)  In  many  idiomatic  expressions  mit  is  used  where  in  English  other  words  are  found,  or 
it  is  not  used  where  the  English  requires  with:  Er  ist  mit  meinem  Bruder  gleichen  Alters  He  is 
of  the  same  age  as  my  brother.  Ich  wohnte  mit  ihr  in  demselben  Hause  I  lived  in  the  same  house 
that  she  did.  Meine  Schwester  wohnt  zwar  in  demselben  Hause,  sogar  auf  ein  und  demselben 
Flur  mit  ihm  (Ertl's  Der  Handschuh).  Ich  bin  Geschwisterkind  mit  ihm  (ihr)  We  are  cousins. 
Der  Gärtner  reißt  die  Pflanze  mit  (by)  der  Wurzel  aus.  Die  Dame  mit  (in)  dem  seidenen 
Kleide,  ein  Mami  mit  Namen  Schmidt  a  man  by  the  name  of  Schmidt,  Kaffe  mit  (and)  Milch. 
Versuchen  Sie  es  mit  kaltem  Wasser  Try  cold  water.  Mit  einmal  (all  at  once)  sprangen  die 
Flügel  auf.  Er  traf  mit  (on)  dem  letzten  Zug  ein.  Das  ist  sein  Fall  That  is  the  case  with  him. 
Er  neckte  mich  mit  (about)  ihr.  Ich  war  immer  ein  unheimlicher,  garstiger,  brummiger  Kerl, 
mit  dem  man  die  kleinen  Kinder  fürchten  machen  konnte.  Mit  einem  Schlage  at  one  blow, 
mit  Sturm  by  assault,  mit  Gewalt  by  force,  mit  Erlaubnis  by  permission,  mit  einer  Mehrheit 
by  a  majority,  mit  einem  Worte  in  a  word,  mit  der  ersten  Gelegenheit  by  (at)  the  first  oppor- 
tunity, mit  der  Post  by  mail,  mit  der  Eisenbahn  by  rail,  verwandt  mit  related  to,  mit  Vorsatz 
or  Absicht  on  purpose,  in  solcher  Nähe  mit  ihm  in  such  proximity  to  him,  so  close  to  him.  6  mit 
(byj  3  multipliziert  gibt  18.  Er  spricht  mit  {to  or  with)  ihr  darüber.  Mit  dem  (in  his)  fünften 
Ja.hre  lernte  er  lesen.  Was  meinen  Sie  mit  (by)  diesen  Worten?  Jobst  Hermann  war  ver- 
mählt mit  (to)  Elisabeth  Julianne,  Gräfin  Sayn-Witgenstein,  mit  (by;  more  commonly  von) 
welcher  er  20  Kinder  hatte  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Oct.  13,  1904).  Er  handelt  mit  Holz, 
Tuch  usw.  He  deals  in,  &c.  Die  (französische)  Kammer  hat  die  Ratifikation  des  Friedens- 
vertrages von  Versailles  mit  372  gegen  53  Stimmen  angenommen  ( Neue  Freie  Presse,  Oct.  3, 
1919)  by  a  vote  of  372  to  53.  Spart  mit  Licht  und  Kraft!  (placard  in  Munich  in  Oct.  1919)  Be 
economical  in  the  use  of  light  and  electric  power!  Privatstunden,  die  mit  50  Pfennig  bezahlt 
wurden. 

(c)  For  the  relation  of  mit  to  its  synonyms  mittels,  von,  durch,  vermöge,  see  mittels,  (o)  in 
228.  4. 

{d)  With  verbs,  in  the  function  of  an  adverb,  mit  has  a  different  meaning  according  as  it  is 
accented  or  unaccented.  Under  stress,  mit  implies  a  close  union  and  cooperation  in  the  activity 
expressed  by  the  verb,  while  una-ccented  it  relinquishes  the  accent  to  the  verb,  and  hence  expresses 
mere  contemporaneity  or  indicates  that  the  main  stress  lies  in  the  activity:  Wir  wollen  mitarbei- 
ten We  desire  to  work  along  with  you.  Wir  wollen  mit  arbeiten  We  desire  to  work  too  (at  the 
same  time  as  you  work).  Wer  nicht  mit  arbeitet,  soll  auch  nicht  mit  essen  Who  does  not  join 
with  us  in  ivorking  shall  also  not  join  with  us  in  eating.  An  accented  mit  is  often  used  where 
we  use  the  pronominal  adj.  one:  Er  war  mit  dabei  He  was  one  of  the  party.  Er  war  mit  der 
beste  Schüler  in  der  Klasse  He  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  in  the  class. 

MIT'SAMT,  see  samt. 


229.  2. PREPOSITIONS   WITH    THE    DATH^E 369 

NACH  (a)  direction  towards,  without  implying  whether  the  goal  is  reached  or  not,  in  the 
direction  of.  In  this  use  nach  has  the  same  general  force  as  gegen  (less  common  except  in  set 
expressions):  Die  Mutter  blickte  nach  den  Kindern.  Er  lenkt  seine  Schritte  nach  or  gegen 
Westen.  Das  Haus  liegt  nach  or  gegen  Norden.  Das  Fenster  geht  nach  dem  Hofe  The  window 
looks  out  upon  the  courtyard. 

Sometimes  with  the  adv.  zu  or  hin:  Er  reitet  nach  dem  Walde  zu.  Der  Fluß  wird  nach  seiner 
Mündung  hin  schiffbar. 

Figuratively:  Die  Mutter  sieht  nach  den  Kindern  Mother  looks  after  the  children.  Mir  ist 
nicht  nach  Lachen  zu  Sinn  I  don't  feel  in  a  laughing  mood. 

{b)  A  definite  goal  (for  modification  of  this  rule  see  Note  under  zu),  to,  only  used  of  things: 
Er  geht  nach  der  Stadt,  nach  Berlin.  Wie  konune  ich  nach  der  Friedrichstraße?  How  can  I  get 
to  Friedrich  Street  from  here? 

Note  1.  When  the  definite  goal  is  a  person  in  the  literal  sense,  zu  must  be  used,  for  nach  (see  c)  has  quite  a  dif- 
ferent meaning:    Er  geht  zu  ihm  He  goes  to  him.  to  his  house  to  see  him,  but  Er  geht  nach  ihm  He  goes  to  fetch  him. 

Note  2.  Notice  tlie  idiomatic  distinction:  Er  geht  nach  Hause  and  Er  ist  zu  Hause.  A  little  earlier  in  the  period, 
zu  could  also  be  used  for  motion  toward:  als  wir  zu  Hause  gingen  (Hebbel's  A^yies  Bernauer,  i,  5).  Older  usage 
survives  in  dialect:   Ich  geh  nicht  zu  Hause  (Hauptmann's  Hanneles  Himmelfahrt,  p.  30). 

(c)  Motion  towards  a  person  or  thing  with  the  intention  of  obtaining  it,  bringing  it  back, 
using,  enjoying,  hitting,  or  injuring  it,  after,  for,  at:  Er  reicht  nach  (after)  dem  Apfel.  Er  läuft 
nach  (for)  dem  Arzt.  Er  geht  nach  (after)  Wasser.  Der  Hund  schnappte  nach  (at)  mir. 
Er  sehnt  sich  (longs  to  be)  nach  (in)  Berlin,  nach  (with)  der  Braut  hin.  Er  fragt  nach  (after) 
ihm,  nach  der  Ursache.  Nach  mir  fragt  niemand  Nobody  cares  for  me.  Ein  Herr  ist  da  nach 
dem  Eckzimmer  A  gentleman  is  here  inquiring  after  (with  a  view  to  renting)  the  corner  room. 

{d)  A  following  or  succession  in  space  or  time,  of  persons  or  things,  after:  Er  ging  nach  mir 
He  went  after  I  did.  Er  zog  es  nach  sich  He  dragged  it  after  him.  Nach  Jahren  years  after- 
ward, nach  Tisch  after  mealtime.  Nach  getaner  Arbeit  ist  gut  ruhen.  Einer  nach  dem  anderen 
sagte  sein  Sprüchlein.     Expressing  rank:   Er  war  nach  dem  Kaiser  der  erste  Mann. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  nach  in  this  use  is  hinter,  only,  however,  when  the  idea  of  place  is  quite  prominent:  Die 
Minister  kamen  nach  or  hinter  (.following  from  behind)  dem  Könige. 

(e)  Nach  standing  before  and  sometimes  after  the  noun  denotes  a  correspondence,  accordance 
between  things,  signifying: — 

(1)  Likeness,  of:   Es  schmeckt  nach  Wein  It  tastes  of  wine.     Es  riecht  nach  Veilchen. 

(2)  The  model  or  pattern  after  which  something  is  fashioned  or  done,  the  standard  of  judg- 
ment or  authority  cited,  or  that  which  has  guided  the  action,  also  the  common  standard  of 
weight  or  measurement  employed:  ein  Lustspiel  nach  dem  Französischen  a  comedy  following 
freely  the  pattern  of  the  French  original.  Er  malt  ihn  nach  der  Natur  He  is  painting  him  from 
nature.  Er  nannte  sich  nicht  nach  (after)  seinem  Vater.  Ich  kenne  ihn  nur  dem  Namen 
nach  (by).  Sie  singt  nach  (by)  Noten.  Sie  tanzen  nach  dem  Takte  They  dance  keeping  good 
time.  Sein  Standpunkt,  nach  mir  (judged  by  m>-  standard),  ist  nicht  sehr  hoch.  Seinem  Alter 
nach  (judging  by)  könnte  er  klüger  handeln.  Nach  (according  to  the  authority  of)  Engelien 
tönt  das  auslautende  ng  wie  nk.  Die  Menschen  beurteilt  man  am  sichersten  nach  (by)  üiren 
Taten.  Richtet  euch  nach  meinen  Worten  und  nicht  nach  meinen  Taten  Be  guided  by  my 
words  and  not  by  my  actions.  Man  empfängt  den  Mann  nach  (according  to)  seinem  Kleide, 
aber  entläßt  ihn  nach  seiner  Rede.  Man  rechnet  nach  (by)  Fußen,  Ellen,  usw.  Wir  werden 
nach  der  Stunde  bezahlt.     Nach  dem  Alphabet  in  alphabetical  order. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  nach  are  gemäß,  zufolge,  laut.  Nach  differs  from  them  all  in  that  the  action,  judgment, 
idea,  expressed,  is  usually  conceived  of  as  a  free  one,  the  aim  being  to  struggle  to  reach  the  model,  pattern,  standard, 
authority  that  has  been  set  up.  while  the  other  prepositions  imply  that  the  resulting  action  is  actually  in  accord  with 
or  in  pursuance  of  these  things,  acknowledging  their  force  and  authority:  Er  kleidet  sich  seinem  Stande  gemäß  He 
dresses  as  is  becoming  his  station,  as  is  required  by  one  in  his  station.  Die  Schotten  kleiden  sich  zum  Teil  nach 
alter  Landessitte  The  Scotch  still  dress  according  to  the  old  customs  of  their  country  (following  these  older  patterns 
voluntarily).  Er  richtet  sich  nach  den  Gesetzen  He  conforms  voluntarily  to  the  laws.  Ihrem  Wimsche  zufolge 
schicke  ich  Ihnen  das  Buch  In  accordance  with  your  request  I  send  you  the  book.  Es  ging  nach  Wunsch  It  went  off 
just  as  I  desired  it  (but  not  necessarily  because  I  desired  it  thus).  Laut  früherer  Verträge  machte  Friedrich  der 
Große  seine  Ansprüche  auf  Schlesien  geltend  Frederick  the  Great  laid  claim  to  Silesia  upon  the  grounds  of  former 
treaties.  Even  where  the  idea  of  necessity  enters  into  the  case,  nach  implies  more  Vne  following  of  a  model,  standard. 
or  wise  course  than  olieying  the  instructions  (as  zufolge)  of  an  order:  Der  Lehrer  muß  sich  nach  dem  Fassungsver- 
mögen seiner  Schüler  richten  The  teacher  must  regulate  himself  according  to  the  comprehension  of  his  pupils. 

These  words  scMnetimes  approach  one  another  very  closely  in  the  sense  ol  from  the  purport  of:  Laut  (according  to) 
seines  Briefes  wird  er  heut  kommen.  Einem  Brief  ziifolge  (according  to)  kommt  imser  Freund.  Nach  (according  to) 
diesem  Briefe  muß  unser  Freund  bald  kommen. 

(/)  Nach  has  as  a  separable  prefix  in  general  the  same  meanings  as  the  prep.,  but  sometimes 
shades  of  difference  arise  as  a  prep,  shows  the  relation  between  a  verb  and  a  noun  (or  pronoun) 
which  is  supposed  to  represent  an  object  at  rest,  while  the  prefix  nach  as  an  adverb  must  modify 
immediately  the  verb,  and  hence  must  have  reference  to  verbal  action,  and  can  refer  to  objects 
in  motion:  Er  lief  nach  (after)  dem  Arzt,  but  Er  lief  dem  Diebe  nach  He  ran  after  the  (fleeing) 
thief.  In  the  second  example  nach,  as  explained  in  226,  is  both  a  preposition  and  an  adverb, 
while  "in  the  first  example  it  is  only  a  preposition. 

NÄCHST  and  ZU'NACHST  next  to,  the  former  used  literally  and  figuratively,  the  latter  only 
of  the  place  where,  are  formed  from  the  superlative  of  nahe  ;/f(;r,  and  still  preserve  their  original 
meaning  nearest  to:  ein  Haus  nächst  der  Brücke.  Ihr  Bruder  saß  nächst  mir.  Er  ist  nächst 
dir  der  älteste.  Nächst  Gott  kann  ein  Mensch  dem  andern  am  meisten  nutzen.  Zunächst 
may  precede  or  follow  the  noun,  and  sometimes  governs  the  gen.  when  it  precedes  the  noun: 
zunächst  dem  Bahnhof,  or  dem  Bahnhof  zunächst;  zunächst  des  Meeres  (C.oethe).  With  ad- 
verb:  Er  wohnt  hier  zunächst  He  lives  next  door.     Zunächst  is  also  used  as  an  adverb,  of  time 


370 PREPOSITIONS   WITH    THE    DATIVE 229.  2. 

and  place:  Was  wirst  du  zunächst  (next)  tun?  Er  übersieht  das  zunächst  (in  front  of,  before, 
close  by)  Liegende.     Ich  denke  zunächst  {above  all)  an  dich. 

NEBST  and  the  strcns;tlicned  form  BE'NEBST  (in  the  language  of  the  common  people)  = 
zugleich  mit  together  wit  h :  Die  Stadt  sah  den  Hunger  nebst  seinem  ganzen  Gefolge  mit  schreck- 
lichen Schritten  sich  nähern  (Goethe). 

(a)  Synonymous  with  nebst  are  mit  and  samt  with  its  strengthened  forms  mit'samt,  zu'samt, 
zu'samt  mit.  Of  these  mit  has  the  broadest  meaning,  as  can  be  seen  by  consulting  this  word 
above.  It  differs  from  the  others  in  that  it  expresses  a  closer  and  more  intimate  relation  between 
the  objects  or  persons  in  question,  but  may  also  usually  replace  the  other  two  even  in  their  especial 
fields.  Nebst  and  samt  denote  a  connection  (see  h),  a  being  together,  an  acting  or  being  acted 
upon  at  the  same  time,  with  the  distinction  not  always  clearly  marked  that  the  former  expresses 
a  looser  connection  which  can  easily  be  severed,  while  the  latter  denotes  that  the  connection  is 
a  usual  and  natural  association,  not  however,  a  live  mutual  cooperation  as  with  mit:  Zur  Aus- 
steuer erhält  die  verehelichte  Karoline  Schmidt  1  Kuh  nebst  8  Schafen.  Die  Wirtschaft  ist 
zu  verkaufen  nebst  den  anstoßenden  Grundstücken.  Das  Schiff  samt  der  ganzen  Mann- 
schaft und  Ladung  ward  ein  Raub  der  Wellen.  Die  Mutter  nebst  or  samt  ihren  Kindern,  but  Er 
hat  den  Baum  samt  der  Wurzel  ausgerottet. 

(/;j  Nebst,  samt,  and  mit  often  have  the  force  of  the  conjunction  und,  connecting  only  nouns 
or  pronouns,  thus  not  showing  the  relation  directly  between  a  verb  and  a  noun,  and  hence  when 
so  used  they  are  treated  as  conjunctions  taking  the  verb  in  the  pi.,  especially  earlier  in  the  period: 
Vnd  Saul  sampt  alien  mennern  Israel  freweten  sich  (1  Sam.  xi.  15).  Der  Pfarrer  mit  dem  Vater 
gingen  bedenkUch  dem  Gemeindehause  zu  (Goethe).  Ein  Bedienter  nebst  einem  Postillion 
folgten  mir  (id.).  Present  usage  prefers  the  sing,  in  such  cases  in  accordance  with  strict  gram- 
matical concordance:  Mechtilde  mit  ihren  zwei  Söhnen  erscheint  auf  der  Zinne  (M.  Greifs 
Heinrich  der  Löwe,  5,  1).     See  also  253.  I.  1.  d. 

NID  =  unter  (halb)  in  Swiss  dialect,  but  now  found  even  there  rarely,  except  in  names  of 
places:  Auch  der  Alzeller  soll  uns  nid  dem  Wald  {below  the  Forest,  a  section  of  the  canton  Unter- 
waklen)  ,  Genossen  werben  (Schiller's  Tell,  1,  4). 

OB  above,  o\-er,  during,  on  account  of,  usually  with  the  dative,  often  also  with  gen.  in  the  last 
meaning  after  the  analogy  of  wegen,  in  all  the  meanings  now  little  used  in  colloquial  language,  as 
in  the  first  three  meanings  it  has  been  gradually  supplanted  by  über,  but  not  infrequent  in  early 
N.H.G.,  and  still  in  poetry  and  choice  prose:  Ob  (above)  dem  Altar  hing  eine  Mutter  Gottes 
(Schiller).  Denn  reiche  Zukunft  schwebt  ob  deinem  Haupt  (Uhland's  Ernst,  Herzog  von  Schwa- 
ben, I,  p.  1).  Ich  will  dich  mir  so  lachend,  strahlend  wissen,  i  so  himmelhoch  ob  jedem  schwarzen 
Müssen  (Sudcrmann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  3,  10).  Österreich  ob  der  Enns.  Vnd  namen  jre 
Waffen  ]  vnd  fielen  ein  zu  Simon  ob  (during)  dem  Mahl  (1  ?^lacc.  xvi.  1(3).  Zürnen  Sie  mir 
nicht  ob  meinem  kühnen  Geständnis  (Benedix's  Doktor  Wespe,  5,  7).  Dabei  erhoben  sie  sich 
und  standen  verwirrt,  schwankend  ob  all  dem  Abenteuerlichen,  das  der  Abend  enthüllt  und 
gebracht  hatte  (Raabe's  Zum  wilden  Mann,  chap.  ix). 

With  gen.:  Versteinert  ob  solches  nie  dagewesenen  regellosen  Einbruchs  (H.  Hoffmann's 
Wider  den  Kurf ürste>i,  cha.p.  xx).     Felix  lachte  ob  meiner  Sorgen  (Meinhardt's  Heinz  Kirchner). 

SAMT,  see  (o)  under  nebst. 

SEIT  since,  for,  representing  the  duration  of  some  act  or  condition  of  things  beginning  at 
some  point  in  the  past  and  extending  to  some  point  later  on:  Wir  leben  schon  seit  7  Jahren  in 
Berlin  W'e  have  been  living  in  Berlin  now  for  seven  years.  Seit  (since)  seiner  letzten  Krankheit 
hört  er  schwer. 

(a)  Synonymous  with  seit  are  vor  and  nach.  The  two  latter  differ  from  seit  in  that  they 
do  not  express  duration  of  time,  but  refer  to  a  definite  occurrence.  Vor  refers  to  a  definite  oc- 
currence counting  back  from  the  present,  while  nach  refers  to  something  that  took  place  after 
some  other  event  or  some  fixed  time:  Er  ist  vor  einem  Jahr  gestorben  He  died  a  year  since. 
Er  ist  am  Tage  nach  Ostern  gestorben  He  died  on  the  day  after  Easter.  Er  ist  seit  einem  Jahre 
tot  (not  gestorben)  He  has  been  dead  for  a  year. 

VON  (for  synonyms  aus  and  vor,  see  /  under  aus)  denotes  in  various  ways  the  starting  point, 
used  of: — 

{a)  Place  (the  opposite  of  nach  and  zu),  from:  Er  ist  von  Paris  nach  Berlin  gereist.  Der 
Apfel  ist  vom  Baume  gefallen.  Er  geht  von  Haus  zu  Haus.  Figuratively:  Er  wälzt  die  Schuld 
von  sich.  Ich  muß  mir  erst  meine  Gegner  vom  Halse  schaffen  I  must  first  get  rid  of  my  oppo- 
nents. 

{b)  The  starting  point  of  some  action  or  state  of  things,  and  hence  often  denoting  the  direct 
cause,  means, /row?,  with,  on  account  of,  on,  by,  and  after  passive  verbs  the  agent,  by:  Von  Worten 
kam's  zu  Schlägen.  Das  kommt  vom  Sitzen  her  That  comes  from  sitting  too  much.  Er  ist 
müde  vom  (from)  vielen  Laufen.  Naß  vom  (with)  Tau.  Er  ist  von  (with)  Rheumatismus 
gelähmt.  Die  Hand  ist  von  (with)  Frost  erstarrt.  Die  Wasser  sind  von  (on  account  of)  dem 
Regen  ausgetreten.  Von  (on)  der  Luft  kann  man  nicht  leben.  Diese  Menschen  leben  von 
(on)  Kartoffeln,  vom  (by)  Betteln.  Der  Leichnam  war  von  (by)  Wunden  entstellt.  Der 
Schüler  wird  vom  (by)  Lehrer  gelobt.  Der  Baum  wurde  vom  (by)  Winde  umgerissen.  In 
older  English  the  agent  with  the  passiv'e  was  indicated  by  of,  which  is  related  to  von  and  has 
a  similar  meaning:  They  were  baptized  of  him  in  Jordan  (Alatth.  iii.  6).  After  verbal  nouns 
the  agent  is  indicated  in  German  by  durch.     See  durch  {b)  in  230. 

(c)  The  starting  point  of  thought  or  perceptions,  denoting  the  point  or  especial  topic  that 
busies  the  attention,  of,  about,  concernivg:  Er  denkt  schlecht  von  (of)  mir.  Dies  Buch  handelt 
von  (of)  dem  siebenjährigen  Kriege.     Berichte  mir  von  dir.     Wir  sprachen,  redeten  von  (about) 


229.  2. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE    DATIVE 371 

Ihnen.  Er  weiß  von  (concerning)  der  Sache  nichts.  Er  erzählt  oft  von  seinen  Reisen.  Über 
with  the  ace.  is  also  used  with  these  verbs,  presenting  the  same  thought  from  a  different  point 
of  view.  See  231.  II.  über  2.  B.  b.  This  same  meaning  is  found  after  nouns:  die  Lehre  von  der 
Dreieinigkeit,  das  Märchen  von  Rotkäppchen,  eine  falsche  Vorstellung  von  etwas. 

{d)  Source  and  origin  of  things,  descent,  place  of  nativity  or  residence,  from,  of,  in,  for,  by: 
Ich  habe  es  von  ihm.  Ich  habe  es  von  Hörensagen.  Ich  weiß  es  von  guter  Hand.  Von  ihm 
hat  er  allerlei  Schlechtes  gelernt.  Er  stammt  von  rechtlichen  Eltern  ab.  Das  Wasser  von 
(from)  dem  Himmel,  but  das  Wasser  aus  (from)  der  Erde  and  eine  Stelle  aus  (from)  Homer. 
Was  wünschen  Sie  von  (of)  mir?  Es  war  sehr  unhöflich  von  (of,  in)  ihm.  Sagen  Sie  ihm 
Lebewohl  von  (for)  mir.  Drei  Kinder  von  (by)  seiner  ersten  Frau.  Ein  Kaufmann  von  Berlin. 
Thus  also  von,  which  serves  now  simply  as  the  badge  of  nobility,  originally  denoted  the  place 
from  which :  Alexander  von  Humboldt.     See  92.  5. 

Note.  Von  differs  from  aus  in  that  it  expresses  a  directer,  more  intimate  relation:  Ich  höre  von  ihm,  daß  Karl 
krank  ist.  Ich  hörte  aus  seiner  Art  zu  reden  sehr  wohl,  daß  er  ein  edelmütiges  Herz  hatte.  Er  kommt  aus  Preußen, 
but  von  Berlin.     For  a  difference  from  another  point  of  view  see  aus,  /. 

{e)  Time,  from:  von  Ostern  bis  Pfingsten,  von  Tag  zu  Tag,  von  Jugend  auf,  von  diesem 
Tage  an. 

(/)  Material  or  that  of  which  something  consists,  instead  of  the  gen.,  which  is  now  rare  in 
prose,  of  (see  Note  under  aus,  c):  Der  Tisch  ist  von  Holz,  ein  Strahl  von  Glück,  ein  unver- 
ständliches Gemisch  von  Spanisch  und  Italienisch.  Altho  von  is  used  chiefly  in  a  phrase  which 
serves  as  an  adjunct  to  a  noun,  it  is  also  sometimes  employed  in  adverbial  phrases  instead  of  the 
more  common  aus:    Man  macht  Papier  aus  or  von  Lumpen. 

Similar  is  the  use  of  von  in  phrases  indicating  the  quantity  or  measure:  eine  Stadt  von  20,000 
Einwohnern,  ein  Betrag  von  100  Mark,  ein  Weg  von  drei  Meilen. 

(g)  Quality  or  rank,  instead  of  a  gen.  of  characteristic,  which  is  in  certain  expressions  now 
rare,  ö/:  Ein  Mann  von  Ehre,  von  Stande,  von  Geschmack;  ein  Mann  von  Fach  an  expert;  eine 
Sache  von  Wichtigkeit;  ein  Greis  von  achtzig  Jahren.  In  the  predicate:  Das  ist  von  großem 
Nutzen. 

(/;)  A  particular  point  or  respect  in  which  something  is  true,  sometimes  after  adjectives  and 
before  a  following  noun,  thus  forming  a  phrase  which  is  translated  by  a  phrase,  an  adj.,  or  in 
various  other  ways:  Er  ist  klein  von  Person  (of  stature).  Er  war  untersetzt  von  (of)  Gestalt 
und  dunkel  von  (of)  Haar  und  Augen.  Ich  kenne  ihn  von  Ansehen  or  Person  (by  sight),  von 
Hörensagen  (by  reputation).  Er  ist  von  (by)  Geburt  ein  Engländer.  Sie  ist  bleich  von  Gesicht 
(pale-faced). 

{i)  In  a  phrase  which  stands  as  an  appositive  to  a  preceding  noun,  just  as  of  in  Eng. :  Schurke 
von  einem  Wirt  rascal  of  a  landlord.  Das  ist  eine  Pracht  von  einem  Becher  That  is  a  jewel 
of  a  cup. 

(7)  A  separation,  desired  or  forced,  which  comes  from  the  original  idea  of  movement  from 
a  point:  Er  hat  mich  von  Kummer  befreit.  Die  Blätter  fallen  vom  Baume  ab.  Geben  Sie 
mir  etwas  vom  Fleisch. 

Hence  also  the  whole,  from  which  a  part  is  taken,  has  often  von  before  it,  instead  of  being  in 
the  partitive  gen.,  especially  after  numerals,  pronouns  (see  141.  2.  Note),  and  superlatives:  Zwei 
von  meinen  Freunden,  keiner  von  uns,  der  Gelehrteste  von  allen.  Euphony  sometimes  alone 
decides  between  the  use  of  the  gen.  or  the  dat.  with  von:  Sie  hörte  es  von  einer  ihrer  Freundinnen 
is  to  be  preferred  to  Sie  hörte  es  von  einer  von  ihren  Freundinnen  because  it  avoids  the  use  of 
von  twice.  Sometimes  the  prep,  unter  is  also  used  here:  Der  stärkste  unter  allen  Tapfern. 
See  also  255.  II.  1.  H.  a  and  c. 

Also  the  objective  gen.  is  often  replaced  by  von.     See  255.  II.  1.  D.  c. 

(k)  Besides  the  cases  mentioned  in  /,  g,  and  j,  above,  which  now  usually  prefer  von  with 
the  dat.  to  the  simple  gen.,  the  following  cases  also  very  frequently  prefer  von  to  a  gen.: — 

(1)  The  names  of  places,  always  in  common  prose  when  they  end  in  a  sibilant:  Der  König 
Preußens  or  von  Preußen,  but  only  die  Bevölkerung  von  Paris.  The  gen.,  however,  occurs 
here  in  poetry.     See  86.  2.  e. 

(2)  Nouns  without  an  article  or  modifying  word  to  show  the  case:  Er  ist  der  Verfasser  von 
Gedichten,  ein  Geräusch  von  Wasser,  Blätter  von  Blumen. 

(3)  To  denote  authorship  rather  than  ownership:  Ein  Bildnis  von  Raphael  a  portrait  by 
Raphael,  but  ein  Bildnis  Raphaels  a  portrait  that  belongs  to  Raphael  or  one  that  represents 
him.  Ein  Buch  von  (composed  by)  meinem  Freund,  but  ein  Buch  meines  (belonging  to  my) 
Freundes. 

(4)  With  numerals  which  have  no  declension,  as  also  with  those  which  may  be  inflected: 
die  Gefangennahme  von  83,000  Mann,  die  Aussage  zweier  or  von  zwei  Zeugen,  in  neun  von 
zehn  Fällen  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten.  Likewise  with  other  words  that  lack  inflection:  die  Zeitung 
von  gestern  yesterday's  paper. 

(5)  To  avoid  the  recurrence  of  too  many  genitives:  Der  Genuß  der  Frucht  vom  Batmie  der 
Erkenntnis  des  Guten  und  Bösen. 

(6)  The  gen.  must  sometimes  be  replaced  by  von  with  the  dat.  when  the  dependent  word 
is  to  be  separated  from  its  governing  noun,  which  is  especially  the  case  when  it  is  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  sentence  in  order  that  its  governing  noun,  the  subject,  may  take  a  more  emphatic 
position  further  on  in  the  sentence:  Von  seinen  Freunden  hielten  ihn  einige  für  schuldig,  ändere 
für  unschuldig. 

(7)  With  the  idea  of  mastery  and  in  a  number  of  other  set  phrases  denoting  possession,  a 
belonging:    Die  Frau  vom  Haus.     Ein  Freund  vom  Hause,  der  leibliche  Bruder  von  ihm,  ein 


372  PREPOSITIONS   WITH    THE    DATIVE 229.  2. 

Freund  von  mir,  or  einer  meiner  Freunde.  Das  war  ein  Fehler  von  ihm  That  was  a  fault  of 
his.  Das  ist  eine  Ausnahme  von  (to)  der  Regel.  Das  ist  das  Ende  vom  Lied  That  is  the 
upshot  of  it  all,  &c. 

(8)  If  it  is  desired  to  call  attention  to  the  word  itself,  not  to  the  thing  represented  by  it  the 
genitive  of  possession  is  replaced  by  von  or  zu  followed  by  the  case  form  to  which  the  attention 
is  directed,  not  by  the  case  form  required  by  the  preposition:  Ungewöhnlich  ist  der  Plural  von 
or  zu  Haß  (the  nom.,  the  form  usually  given  in  the  dictionary  to  represent  the  word,  not  vom 
Hasse).     Stuhl  ist  der  Singular  zu  or  von  Stühle   (not  Stühlenj. 

(9)  The  use  of  von  instead  of  the  gen.  is  characteristic  of  the  common  people  and  familiar 
conversation.  Hence  there  is  often  a  shade  of  difference  between  the  simple  gen.  and  the  dat. 
with  von,  the  former  being  more  choice,  the  latter  more  peculiar  to  the  language  of  loose  con- 
\-ersation  or  the  dialect  of  the  common  people:  Der  Vater  von  diesem  Kinde  instead  of  dieses 
Kindes,  «S;c. 

VORGÄNGIG  prior  to:  Vorgängig  dem  Kongresse  deutscher  Gas-  und  Wasserfachmänner 
hielt  heute  nachmittag  der  schweizerische  Verein  von  Gas-  und  Wasserfachmännem  in  der 
Aula  des  Hirschengrabenschulhauses  seine  30.  Jahresversammlung  ab  ( Nene  Zürcher  Zeitung, 
June  23,  1903)._ 

ZU.  I.  It  is  used  of  motion,  direction,  rest,  and  time,  but  these  varied  meanings  lie  rather 
in  the  verb  or  dependent  noun  than  in  the  prep.,  which  in  all  these  meanings  expresses  a  close 
approach  and  intimate  relation  which  is  often  difhcult  to  render  fully  into  English,  but  which  is 
usually  translated  by  to,  at,  in,  on,  by,  for,  with,  &c. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  zu  are  an  and  nach.  Nach  expresses  a  general  direction  toward  or  a  destination  in 
a  broad  general  s?ns?,  as  a  city,  state,  or  other  place,  while  an  and  zu  express  a  more  specific  or  definite  goal,  as  a  person 
or  object,  but  in  the  case  of  zu  also  a  broader  goal  where  a  specific  purpose  is  evident:  Er  geht  nach  der  Stadt  zu 
seinem  Bruder.  Ich  poche  an  die  Tür.  Ich  schreibe  an  (to)  meinen  Freund.  Man  fährt  Steine  zur  (for  building 
purposes,  to  Ihe)  Stadt,  but  nach  Berlin,  zu  not  being  used  at  all  before  names  of  cities  with  verbs  of  motion.  Both 
an  and  zu  denote  a  near  approach,  but  the  latter  expresses  a  much  closer  and  more  intimate  relation  between  the  ob- 
jects and  persons  brought  together.  Ich  schrieb  an  (to)  ihn,  but  Ich  sprach  zu  ihm.  Er  trat  an  das  Bett  He  went 
up  to  the  bed,  but  Er  ging  zu  Bett  He  went  to  bed  (to  sleep).  It  is  difficult  to  draw  a  line  between  the  uses  of  an 
and  zu,  and  in  cases  they  blend  together,  but  in  general  the  difference  is  marked  between  them  as  above  indicated. 
With  zu  the  idea  of  a  definite  place  or  goal  is  often  entirely  lost  sight  of  and  in  its  stead  arise  the  associations  that 
cluster  around  the  place,  the  efforts  that  were  necessary  to  reach  it,  the  ends  and  aims  there  to  be  realized,  and  often 
the  prep,  and  noun  lose  their  several  individual  functions  and  become  together  the  complement  of  the  verb  after  the 
manner  of  a  separable  prefix,  thus  taking  on  general  or  abstract  meaning  instead  of  a  concrete  local  one  (see  Note 
under  245.  IV.  .3.  B):  Die  Kinder  gehn  zur  Schule,  zu  Tische,  zur  Kirche  (not  with  any  definite  reference  to  a  par- 
ticular school,  table,  church,  but  with  the  general  idea  of  to  learn,  to  eat,  to  devotional  services).  Er  ist  zu  Gelde,  zu 
Ehren  gekommen  He  has  attained  wealth,  honor.  Viel  Unglück  ist  ihm  zuteil  (here  equal  to  a  verbal  prefix)  geworden 
Much  misfortune  has  been  allotted  to  him.  Mit  vieler  Mühe  brachten  sie  endhch  ein  Feuer  zuwege  With  much 
trouble  they  finally  started  a  fire,  lit.  brought  it  on  the  road. 

II.     The  varied  meanings  of  zu  may  be  arranged  into  the  following  groups: — 
1.     The  local  meanings  fall  into  the  general  heads  of  mot-ion  or  direction  toward  a  goal  or  des- 
tination (with  the  idea  of  near  approach)  and  rest  in  a  place. 

A.  Direction  toward  (see  I.  Note  above)  in  its  literal  sense,  of  persons  and  things:  Ich  Will 
Sie  zu  ihm  führen.  Ich  gehe  zu  ihm,  zu  meinem  Bruder  I  am  going  to  see  him  (or  to  his  house), 
to  my  brother's  (house).  Man  gelangte  über  Felsen  zur  letzten  Höhe.  Viel  Getreide  wird 
zur  Stadt  geführt.  Er  hat  die  Feder  zu  den  übrigen  gelegt  He  has  put  away  the  jku  with  the 
others.  Er  steckte  es  zu  sich  (in  his  pocket).  Er  nimmt  niemals  irgendwelche  Speise  zwischen 
den  Mahlzeiten  zu  sich  (into  his  mouth).  Er  führte  seine  Braut  zum  Altare.  Die  Straße  zur 
Stadt,  die  Türe  zum  Keller. 

Note.  The  adverb  zu  has  much  the  same  force  as  the  prep.:  Das  Schiff  segelt  dem  Hafen  zu.  From  its  employ- 
ment in  such  adverbial  relations,  where  it  stands  after  the  dat.,  it  has  developed  into  a  preposition  governing  the  dat. 
and  following  the  noun  with  the  meanings  in  the  direction  of,  lool^ing  towarits,  facin:;:  Zwei  Türen  hat  der  Kursaal  zu 
Cannstatt,  einander  gegenüber  an  den  Langseiten  des  Gebäudes  gelegen,  die  eine  westlich  (on  tlie  west  side)  der 
Stadt  I  dat.  depending  upon  zu)  und  dem  Neckar,  die  andere  östUch  der  Säuerlingsquelle  und  dem  Sulzrain  zu  (Raabe's 
Fechlin,  II,  chap.  xi). 

B.  Direction  toward  in  a  number  of  applied  relations: 

a.  Toward  in  an  abstract  or  figurative  sense:  Er  bringt  seine  Gedanken  zu  Papier  He  writes 
down  his  thoughts.  Er  nahm  es  zu  Herzen.  Er  kommt  zu  Fall.  Es  kommt  mir  zu  Ohren. 
Er  geht  zu  Grunde  (ruin).  Ein  fallender  Apfel  führte  den  großen  Newton  zur  Entdeckung 
eines  der  wichtigsten  Naturgesetze.  Solche  Erfahrung  führt  zum  Menschenhaß.  Das  Volk 
griff  zu  den  Waffen  The  people  took  up  arms. 

Especially  in  the  sense  of  attaining  a  goal  or  end:  Er  korrmit  zu  Ansehen,  Vermögen.  Der 
Plan  gelangte  nicht  zur  Ausführung.  Er  gelangte  zu  Amt  und  Würden.  Er  kommt  zu  Kräften 
(gathers  new  strength).     Er  brachte  es  zu  Ende,  zustande. 

b.  Attitude  toward  or  close  relation  or  association :  Er  schwieg  zu  der  ganzen  Sache  He 
assumed  an  attitude  of  silence  with  regard  to  the  whole  affair.  Er  lachte  dazu.  Was  sagen 
Sie  dazu?  Er  hält  zu  unsrer  Partei  (sides  with  our  party).  Warum  machen  Sie  da  so  'ne  Bude 
auf,  wenn  Sie  so  unhöfHch  sind  zu  den  Gästen?  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  .\ct  3).  War 
er  doch  ein  weitläufiger  Vetter  zu  [colloq.  and  pop.;  in  the  literary  language  more  commonly 
von)  ihr  (Rosegger's  Die  Stadt  im  Walde).  Der  Stillständer  ist  ja  ein  Vetter  zu  mir  (Heer's  Der 
König  der  Bernina,  II).  Was  essen  Sie  zu  (with)  Ihrem  Ochsenfleisch?  Die  Insel  gehört  zu 
(not  possession,  but  with  the  idea  of  forming  an  integral  jjart  of)  England.  Zu  einem  großen 
Manne  gehört  beides:  Kleinigkeiten  als  Kleinigkeiten  und  wichtige  Dinge  als  wichtige  Dinge 
zu  behandeln.  Sein  Benehmen  paßt  nicht  zu  seinen  Verhältnissen.  Sie  sang  schöne  Weisen 
zu  (accompanied  by)  meiner  Flöte.  In  der  Nacht  zum  (or  auf  den)  23.  Januar  or  vom  22.  zum 
23.  Januar  in  the  night  before  Jan.  23,  während  der  Nacht  von  vorgestern  zu  (or  auf)  gestern. 


229.  2. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE    DATIVE        373 

c.  Proportion:  Der  Montblanc  verhält  sich  zu  dem  Brocken  (Mont  Blanc  has  the  same 
relation  to  the  Brocken)  wie  ein  Riese  zu  einem  Zwerge. 

d.  A  fixed  price,  amount  in  money  or  weight,  rate  of  interest,  or  in  general  any  fixed  measure- 
ment: ein  Brot  zu  60  Pfennigen  a  loaf  costing  60  pfennigs.  Das  Haus  samt  dem  dazu  gehörigen 
Stallgebäude  und  Garten  ist  zu  (at)  20,000  Mark  abgeschätzt.  Zum  Selbstkostenpreis  at  cost; 
80  Ballen  Twist  (cotton  twist),  zu  netto  (with  a  net  weight  of)  1000  Pfund  jeder;  die  jährlichen 
Zinsen  von  7500  M.  (Mark)  zu  (at)  ^y2%\  1  Kiepe  (measurement  used  in  the  dried  fish  trade)  = 
4  Stiegen,  die  Stiege  zu  20  Stück  1  kiepe  =  4  stieges,  each  stiege  containing  20  pieces.  Das 
Deutsche  Reich,  Skandinavien,  Rußland,  die  Schweiz  rechnen  jeden  Monat  zu  30  Tagen,  das 
Jahr  zu  360  Tagen. 

Nole.  This  German  preposition  is  often  in  commercial  language  replaced  by  the  French  prep,  ä:  Wie  viel  betragen 
die  Zinsen  von  M.  (Mark)  753,80  ä  6;o  in  155  Tagen? 

e.  The  direction  of  an  activity,  inclination,  growth,  thought,  or  feeling  toward  an  object 
or  end,  especially  frequent  before  an  infin.:  Er  spricht  zu  mir.  Der  Vater  hält  das  Kind  zur 
Schule,  zur  Arbeit,  zum  Fleiß,  zum  Gebet  an.  Themistokles  wollte  Athen  (Athens)  zu  einer 
unbezwinglichen  Seefeste  machen.  Man  ninmit  zu  (to  make)  diesem  Gebäck  auf  (to)  ein 
Pfund  des  feinsten  Weizenmehls  ein  halbes  Pfund  der  besten  Butter.  Er  hat  Lust,  Neigung, 
Liebe  zu  der  Sache.  Mir  ist  nicht  zum  Lachen  I  don't  feel  in  a  laughing  mood.  Wir  alle  haben 
einen  Hang  zur  Sünde.  Und  sie  ist  immer  so  gut  zu  mir  gewesen  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  23S). 
Freundlich  bin  ich  zu  ihr  gewesen  (P'ulda's  Die  Sklavin,  3,  3).  Der  Knabe  wird  zum  Jüngling. 
Es  wird  ihm  zur  Gewohnheit.  Ich  hoffe  zu  siegen.  Ich  bin  bereit  zu  sterben.  Ich  bin  begierig 
zu  wissen.  Here  belongs  the  common  meaning  an  essay  or  paper  upon  the  subject  of,  lit.  directed 
toward,  especially  in  titles  of  articles  in  periodicals:  Zur  neuesten  Wallenstein-Literatur  (Some- 
thing upon  the  subject  of)  The  Latest  Literature  on  Wallenstein.  Zur  Akzent-  und  Lautlehre 
der  germanischen  Sprachen. 

/.  The  direction  toward  in  the  sense  of  purpose  or  intention,  or  that  for  which  something  is 
most  suitable  or  serviceable,  or  to  which  it  is  best  adapted,  or  for  which  it  has  been  set  aside: 
Es  geschieht  zu  deinem  Besten.  Er  reist  zur  (for  the  purpose  of)  Erholung,  zum  Vergnügen, 
zur  Ausbildung.  Steinkohlen  dienen  zum  Brennen.  Wozu  nützt  so  etwas?  Es  nützt  zu 
nichts.  Sie  sind  der  Mann  zu  (for)  diesem  Werk.  Wasser  zum  Trinken,  ein  Gefäß  zu  (for 
holding)  Milch,  Tuch  zu  einem  Kleid,  zum  Andenken  an  (w.  acc.)  in  memory  of.  Ich  stehe 
Ihnen  zu  Diensten  1  am  at  your  service.  Ich  stehe  (Ihnen)  zu  Befehl  I  am  at  your  command. 
Zu  Befehl,  Herr  Hauptmann!  Right  (or  yes),  sir!  Often  with  the  infinitive  to  express  purpose 
(compare  281.  Note) :    Er  kommt,  mich  zu  warnen. 

g.  The  point  which  an  activity  or  quality  has  reached,  or  is  expected  to  reach,  hence  in 
general  expressing  the  extent,  or  force,  or  the  result,  or  effect  of  the  quality  or  action  contained 
or  implied  in  the  predicate:  Es  ist  zum  Rasendwerden  It  is  enough  to  drive  one  mad.  Sie  ist 
schön  zum  Entzücken  She  is  so  beautiful  that  one  is  charmed.  Brav  ist  er  und  gut  mit  den 
Kindern  nicht  zum  Glauben  He  is  good  and  kind  to  the  children  to  such  an  extent  that  one 
can  scarcely  believe  it.  Er  spielte  seine  Rolle  zu  allgemeiner  Zufriedenheit.  Es  gereicht  ihm 
zur  Ehre.  Ich  habe  ihn  zum  Freunde.  Er  hat  sie  jetzt  zur  Frau.  Sie  krönten  ihn  zum  Kaiser. 
Der  Onkel  hat  ihn  zum  Erben  eingesetzt.  Wir  wählten  ihn  zum  Vorsitzenden.  Es  kam  zu 
einer  Prügelei.  Der  Schnee  wurde  zu  Wasser.  Er  fiel  mir  zur  Last  He  became  a  burden  to 
me.  Der  Knabe  wuchs  zum  Jüngling  heran.  Der  Richter  verurteilte  ihn  zum  Schadenersatz, 
zu  Gefängnis,  zum  Tode.  Zur  Not  when  it  comes  to  a  case  of  necessity,  zur  höchsten  Not, 
zum  Teil  in  part,  zur  Hälfte  half  (as  in  Sie  kennen  mich  zur  Hälfte  nur),  zum  Glück  für  mich 
fortunately  for  me.  Often  with  the  infinitive  to  express  result  (compare  281.  Note):  Er  ist 
nicht  mehr  zu  jung,  dies  zu  begreifen. 

h.  Addition:  Tun  Sie  Zucker  zum  Kaffee  Add  sugar  to  your  cofifee.  Sie  gießt  Milch  zum 
Kaffee.  Seitdem  haben  sie  (die  Österreicher)  selbst  zu  (in  addition  to)  der  richtigen  Tapfer- 
keit auch  die  Fixigkeit  hinzugelernt  (Engel's  Ein  Tagebuch,  I,  p.  51).  Da'zu  or  zu'dem  besides, 
-moreover. 

C.  Rest  or  motion  in  or  at  a  place,  and  thus  synonymous  with  an,  bei,  in  (see  each  word), 
but  differing  from  them  in  general  in  that  it  denotes  a  closer  relation  between  the  object  and  the 
place:  Der  Dom  zu  (/«,  not  temporarily,  but  permanently)  Köln  (Cologne),  die  Universität  zu 
Berlin.  Er  sitzt  zu  (for  the  purpose  of  eating)  Tische.  Die  Tür  steht  zur  rechten,  linken  Hand. 
Before  names  of  places  there  is  often  no  difference  at  all  between  in  and  zu,  except  that  the  former 
is  more  used  colloquially,  and  the  latter  belongs  to  higher  diction.  If,  however,  a  modifying 
word  stands  between  the  preposition  and  the  name  of  the  place,  in  not  zu  must  be  used:  in  or 
zu  Rom,  but  in  dem  alten  Rom. 

Especially  frequent  of  a  place  thru  which  something  goes  in  or  out:  Da  kamen  zum  Fenster 
zwei  Täubchen  herein.  Dann  gehen  sie  zum  Tore  hinaus.  Er  wirft  sein  Geld  zum  Fenster 
hinaus  (squanders  his  money).     It  is  also  used  in  a  number  of  applied  relations: 

a.  Noteworthy  is  the  use  of  zu  on  the  signboards  of  hotels  and  drug  stores,  like  the  English 
"At  the  Red  Lion":  Gasthof  ziun  weißen  Roß.  Ap.  (Apotheke)  zum  Löwen,  zum  Pelikan 
(also  Löwen-Ap.,  Pelikan-Ap.). 

b.  Distributively  and  collectively:  Sie  kommen  zu  (also  bei  and  in)  Paaren.  Nun  .ging 
der  Zug  zu  fünfen  (in  groups  of  five)  zum  Dorf  hinaus.  Nun  saßen  sie  zu  dreien  (three  in  all) 
um  dasselbe  Tischchen.     Wir  sind  nur  zu  vier  (or  vieren)  There  are  only  four  of  us. 

c.  Manner  or  condition  in  a  few  set  expressions,  by,  on :  Er  reist  zu  Fuß\  zu  Pferde,  zu  Wagen, 
zu  Schiff,  zu  Lande,  zu  Wasser.     Begleitscheine  (giving  weight,  value,  &g.)  müssen  solchen 


374 PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE   ACCUSATIVE 229.  2. 

Warenballen  beigegeben  werden,  die  zur  Post  oder  pr.  (per)  Fracht  über  eine  Zollgrenze  gehen. 
Etwas  besteht  zu  Recht  (has  legal  force).     Mir  ist  wohl  zu  Mut  I  feel  well,  cheerful. 

2.  In  a  temporal  sense,  in,  at,  for:  zu  Anfang,  zu  Ende  des  Jahres,  zu  (at)  jeder  Stunde, 
zu  (in)  meiner  Zeit,  zur  (at)  rechten  Zeit.  Er  kommt  zu  Ostern,  Weihnachten.  Er  ißt  zu 
Mittag,  zu  Abend  bei  ims.  Von  Tag  zu  Tag,  von  Stunde  zu  Stunde,  zum  (for)  ersten,  letzten 
Male,  zuerst  first,  zuletzt  last.  Willst  du  wenigstens  meine  Aufgaben  zu  (for)  morgen  machen: 
den  Aufsatz  und  die  dummen  Exempel?  (Spielhagen's  Sonntagskind,  I,  2). 

ZU'FOLGE  in  accordance  with,  according  to,  in  consequence  of;  see  gemäß  and  also  nach, 
e.  (2),  Note,  above,  and  in  228.  4  the  words  gemäß,  infolge,  laut,  (a).  In  the  first  and  second 
meaning  it  usually  governs  the  gen.  when  it  stands  before  the  noun,  and  the  dat.  when  it  follows 
the  noun  (the  favorite  position):  zufolge  des  Gesetzes,  Ihres  Briefes,  sometimes  zufolge  dem 
Gesetze,  Ihrem  Briefe;  dem  Gesetze,  Ihrem  Briefe  zufolge.  In  the  meaning  in  consequence  of 
it  usually  precedes  the  noun  and  takes  the  genitive:  Zufolge  wiederholter  schlechter  Ernten  ist 
in  Indien  Hungersnot  eingetreten  (Georg  Edward).     See  also  under  infolge  in  228.  4. 

ZU'NÄCHST,  see  nächst. 

ZU'SAMT,  ZU'SAMT  MIT,  see  nebst,   (a). 

ZU'WIDER  contrary  to,  against,  averse  to,  always  following  the  dependent  word.  Like  ent- 
gegen, it  is  not  only  a  pure  prep.,  but  also  an  adverb,  serving  as  a  separable  prefix  of  a  verb, 
hence  it  has  the  position  of  a  separable  prefix  in  the  sentence,  except  where  it  is  a  pure  prep., 
in  which  case  it  always  follows  the  noun:  Der  Konstitution  zuwider  (prep.)  führte  er  fremde 
Truppen  in  ihr  Gebiet,  Am  Kap  der  guten  Hoffnung  ist  den  Schiffern  der  Wind  nicht  selten 
zuwider  (adverb).  Zuviel  Süßigkeiten  sind  mir  zuwider  (adverb).  Das  läuft  dem  Gesetz  zu- 
wider (adverb). 

(a)  The  synonym  of  zuwider  is  entgegen.  As  prepositions  they  both  have  the  same  force, 
that  of  contrary  to,  with  the  exception  that  zuwider  is  perhaps  the  stronger  word.  As  adverbs 
they  both  still  govern  the  dat.  with  the  same  force  they  have  as  prepositions,  but  zuwider  has 
not  so  broad  a  field  of  usefulness  here  as  entgegen.  The  former  can  only  be  used  figuratively 
with  the  opposite  force  of  nach,  gemäß,  and  zufolge  according  to,  hence  with  the  meanings  con- 
trary to  the  nature,  commands,  or  instructions  of,  also  in  general  with  the  idea  of  opposition,  or 
hostility,  opposed,  hostile  to:  Er  hat  dem  Befehle  entgegen-  or  zuwidergehandelt.  Die  Arznei 
ist  mir  zuwider  (contrary  to  my  nature,  hence  disagreeable  to).  Das  Glück  war  ims  entgegen 
or  zuwider.  Dem  steht  nichts  entgegen  or  zuwider  There  is  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  it.  Der 
Wind  war  ihnen  entgegen  or  zuwider.  Entgegen  has  also,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  preceding 
examples,  a  force  opposite  to  that  of  nach  or  zufolge,  hence  with  the  meanings  of  contrary  to  the 
instructions,  commands  of,  opposed  to,  hostile  to,  but  also,  in  addition  to  these  meanings  which  it 
has  in  common  with  zuwider,  it  is  used  literally  with  verbs  of  motion  in  the  sense  of  a  friendly 
or  hostile  movement  towards:  Er  kam  ims  entgegen  He  came  to  meet  us.  Österreich  scheint 
seinem  Zerfalle  entgegenzugehen  (to  be  approaching).  Die  Armee  geht  dem  Feinde  mutig 
entgegen  (against). 

Prepositions  with  the  Accusative. 

230.  The  following  are  the  prepositions  with  the  ace,  with  their  leading 
meanings,  the  preps,  standing  in  alphabetical  order. 

AUF  UND  AB  up  and  down,  always  after  the  noun:  Und  doch  war  die  Korridore  auf  und 
ab  niemand  zu  sehen  (Ernst  von  Hesse-Wartegg  in  Daheim,  July  8,  1905). 

BIS  denotes  in  general  a  limit  or  boundary,  used  of  time  and  place,  before  nouns  and  adverbs, 
and  often  prepositional  phrases,  till,  until,  as  far  as,  to,  up  to,  except.  Time:  Er  bleibt  bis  (until) 
Weihnachten,  bis  Montag,  bis  morgen,  bis  zehn  Uhr,  bis  mit  (or  bis  und  mit)  den  1.  (read  ersten) 
Oktober  up  to  October  the  first  inclusive,  bis  einschließlich  9.  d.  Mts.  (read  neunten  dieses  Mo- 
nats), bis  nächste  Woche.  Er  bleibt  zwei  bis  drei  Tage  He  will  remain  from  two  to  three  days. 
Bis  wann  or  bis  wie  lange  bleiben  Sie?  How  long  will  you  stay?  Bis  wohin  or  bis  wieweit  gehen 
Sie  mit  ihm?  How  far  are  you  going  with  him?  Bis  Montag!  Good-by  until  Monday.  Earlier 
in  the  period  and  still  in  the  dialects  and  in  colloquial  speech  it  is  widely  used  to  indicate  the 
latest  point  of  time  at  which  something  will  take  place,  by,  not  later  than:  Bis  Mittag  bin  ich 
wieder  da.  Similarly  in  questions  where  bis  wann  corresponds  to  simple  waim  in  the  literary 
language:  Bis  wann  geht's  derm  nach  Rußland?  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  8,  p.  42)  How  long 
will  it  be  before  it  will  be  shipped  to  Russia?  Place:  Sie  kamen  bis  (as  far  as)  Berlin.  Wir 
reisten  zusammen  bis  Italien,  and  likewise  before  the  name  of  any  place,  but  not  usually  before 
the  names  of  objects.  There  is  a  tendency,  however,  to  extend  this  construction,  and  hence  in 
short  fragmentary  utterances  bis  is  sometimes  found  before  names  of  objects:  (Conductor  of_a 
street-car)  Wie  weit?  (Passenger)  Bis  (instead  of  bis  zur)  Kirche.  Before  prep,  phrases:  ür 
hat  alles  bezahlt  bis  auf  (except)  einige  Kleinigkeiten.  Er  hat  alles  bis  auf  {up 
to,  here  inclusive  of)  den  letzten  Heller  bezahlt.  Es  währt  bis  gegen  (until  in  the 
neighborhood  of)  Abend.  Bis  vor  (until  just  before)  Ostern  währte  die  Kälte.  Sie 
wachten  bis  nach  Mittemacht. 

Bis  is  also  used  as  a  conjunction  without  influence  over  the  case  of  the  following  word,  to 
connect  individual  words  or  different  propositions:  ausgewählte  Texte  des  4.  (read  vierten) 
bis  15.  (also  gen.:  read  fünfzehnten)  Jahrhunderts.     Ich  blieb  im  Bett,  bis  er  aufgestanden  war. 

DURCH  and  its  strengthened  form  HIN'DURCH   (always  after  the  noun). 

{a)  Extension  or  penetration  from  one  point  of  time  or  space  to  another,  thru,  thruout:  Der 
Vogel  fliegt  diu-ch  die  Luft.     Er  geht  durchs  Zimmer.     Das  schnitt  mir  diu-chs  Herz.     Mir 


230. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE  ACCUSATIVE 375 

fuhr  ein  Gedanke  durch  den  Kopf.     Gott  hat  seine  Kirche  durch  alle  Jahrhunderte  erhalten. 
Viele  wohnen  den  ganzen  Sommer  hindurch  auf  dem  Lande. 

Note.  Noteworthy  is  the  common  use  of  durch  as  an  adverb  when  it  has  the  position  of  a  separable  or  inseparable 
prefLx.  It  has  the  same  general  force  as  the  prep,  durch,  but  as  it  modifies  directly  the  verb,  the  idea  of  thru  gives 
the  verb  sometimes  intensive  force,  which  cannot  lie  in  the  prep,  itself:  Er  geht  durch  den  Garten  He  goes  thru  the 
garden,  in  one  direction.  Er  durchsucht  den  Garten  He  searclies  the  garden  thoroly  in  all  directions.  For  further 
light  upon  the  use  of  durch  as  a  verbal  prefix,  study  carefully  the  different  articles  under  215.  II.  3. 

{h)  Means  or  agent  employed  to  reach  an  end,  either  of  things  or  persons:  Die  Niederländer 
schützen  sich  durch  Dämme  gegen  den  Ozean.  Ich  habe  mich  durch  eitele  List  verleiten 
lassen.  Dividiere  diese  Zahl  durch  (by)  jene.  Durch  ihn  habe  ich  meinen  Zweck  erreicht. 
Die  Ermordung  Rizzios  durch  Damley,  die  tatsächliche  Fortführung  der  Regierung  durch 
den  Grafen  Leopold.  The  idea  of  agent  with  verbal  nouns,  as  in  the  last  two  examples,  is  regu- 
larly expressed  by  durch,  while  with  passive  verbs  it  is  expressed  by  von. 

Note.     For  its  synonyms  see  in  228.  4  the  prep,  mittels  (a). 

(c)  Cause,  of  persons  or  things:  Durch  ihn  bin  ich  glücklich  geworden  He  is  the  author  of 
all  my  happiness.  Durch  angestrengte  Arbeit  ist  er  krank  geworden.  Lissabon  wurde  im 
18ten  Jahrhundert  durch  ein  Erdbeben  zerstört.  Er  ist  durch  (by)  seinen  Feind  verdrängt 
worden.     Sie  ist  elend  durch  (caused  by,  not  necessarily  intended  by)  mich. 

Note.  This  use  of  durch  approaches  very  close  to  von  (see  228.  4,  mittels  (a),  and  229.  2,  von  (6)),  but  they  differ 
in  this  that  the  latter  emphasizes  more  the  starting  place  or  the  thinking  agent,  working  to  a  definite  end,  wliile  the 
former  makes  mor?  prominent  the  manner  or  means. 

{d)  In  the  sense  all  mixed  up,  especially  in  the  compound  durchei'nander:  Er  spricht  deutsch 
und  englisch,  bunt  durcheinander.  Er  erzählte,  was  er  nur  wußte,  bunt  durcheinander  wie 
Kraut  und  Rüben. 

ENT'LANG,  see  längs  in  228.  4. 

FÜR  (in  early  N.H.G.,  expecially  with  Luther,  often  fur)  in  all  its  varied  meanings  corresponds 
almost  exactly  to  the  Eng.  for,  and  will  not  need  detailed  treatment. 

(a)  As  could  only  be  expected  the  German  deviates  from  the  Eng.  in  a  number  of  expres- 
sions: 

(1)  Für  is  used  with  the  verbs  achten  to  consider,  look  at,  erkennen  pronounce,  make  known, 
halten  regard,  erklären  pronounce,  finden  consider:  Er  achtet  das  für  (as)  nichts.  Sie  er- 
kannten (recognized)  die  von  dem  Finanzminister  abgelegte  Rechnung  als  (as)  falsch,  aber 
aus  Mangel  an  Mut  erkannten  (pronounced)  sie  dieselbe  trotzdem  für  richtig.  Ich  halte  ihn 
für  einen  ehrlichen  Menschen.     Er  erklärte  das  für  eine  Lüge.     Er  fand  es  für  notwendig. 

(2)  In  case  of  diseases  and  poisons  the  German  uses  für,  or  perhaps  more  appropriately 
gegen  or  wider,  where  we  use  for:  ein  Mittel  für,  or  gegen,  or  wider  Kopfschmerzen  (das  Fieber, 
&c.)  a  remedy  for  headache  (fever,  <S:c.).  Dieses  Gift  ist  gut  für  (for  the  destruction  of)  Mäuse. 
This  construction  is  a  survival  of  older  usage  where  für  had  the  force  of  gegen.  This  older  mean- 
ing still  occurs  occasionally  elsewhere:  Durchweg  waren  das  minder  kräftige  Leute,  dürftige, 
blasse  Burschen  mit  fahlen  Gesichtern,  die  er  für  den  Tod  (to  save  his  very  life)  nicht  ausstehen 
konnte   (Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan?,  II). 

(3)  In  naming  a  price,  the  German  uses  für,  where  in  Eng.  for  is  used,  but  he  goes  farther, 
and  uses  it  for  amount,  price  in  general:  Er  kaufte  es  für  10  Mark.  Für  25  Pf ennig" Schokolade 
25  pfennigs'  worth  of  chocolate,  für  6  Mark  Übergewicht  overweight  on  a  trunk  to  the  amount 
of  6  marks.  Lenz  (name)  rief  seine  Frau  herbei  und  erklärte,  er  werde  es  ihr  nie  vergeben, 
wenn  sie  für  einen  Heller  Werts  ungetreues  Gut  ins  Haus  aufnehme  (Auerbach 's  Dorfgeschichten, 
8,  p.  164).  Für  zehn  Mark  Geschirr  hat  se  [sie]  fallen  lassen  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen, 
1).  Die  blaue  Tüte  [Tabak]  enthielt  für  zehn  Pfennige  dieses  köstlichen  Krautes  (Heinrich 
Seidel's  Leberecht  Hühnchen).  Often  with  the  force  of  as  much  as:  Dann  sauf  ich  für  sieben 
Mann!   (G.  Keller  an  Adolf  Exner,  Aug.  27,   1S75). 

(4)  In  a  few  idiomatic  expressions  English /or  is  rendered  by  other  means:  Es  ist  jetzt  kein 
Schiff  nach  (for)  Boston  in  Bremen.  Ich  habe  einen  Brief  nach  (for)  Berlin  auf  die  Post  gegeben. 
Er  ist  auf  (for)  acht  Tage  verreist.  Viele  Deutsche  geben  ihre  Verachtung  der  (for  the)  Juden 
immer  zu  erkennen.  Sie  hätte  einen  unangenehmen  Eindruck  gemacht,  diese  Nase,  wenn 
die  Augen  nicht  gewesen  wären  if  it  had  not  been  for  her  eyes.  Sie  war  berühmt  gewesen 
wegen  ihres  Teints  (for  her  complexion;  Ossip  Schubin  has  here  für  ihren  Teint).  Zum  (for) 
Frühstück  erhält  jeder  von  euch  zwei  trockene  Wecken. 

(5)  In  a  few  expressions  für  is  rendered  differently  in  English:  Diese  Tür  ist  für  (to)  dich 
geschlossen.  Er  dient  für  (instead  of)  seinen  Bruder.  Es  ist  sehr  hart  für  (upon)  ehrliche 
Leute,  daß  usw.  Er  stand  ganz  allein  für  sich  He  stood  all  by  himself.  Für  sich  (stage  direc- 
tion) aside.  Er  ist  blind  für  (to)  seine  Fehler.  Sie  meinen  also,  für  gewöhnUch  (as  a  rule, 
as  a  usual  thing)  lüge  ich?  (Spielhagen's  Sonntagskind,  II,  5).  Er  ißt  wenig,  aber  er  trinkt 
dafür  (to  make  up  for  it)  viel. 

{b)  Originally  the  nearly  related  words  für  and  vor  were  more  closely  related.  Both  were 
used  of  time  or  space,  the  former  with  the  ace.  to  express  motion  toward,  and  the  latter  with 
the  dat.  to  denote  rest.  Early  in  the  present  period  these  relations  became  confused,  as  in  N.G. 
and  iVI.G.  the  two  forms  had  merged  into  one,  namely  vor.  This  state  of  things  can  still  be  seen 
in  the  dialect  of  these  sections.  In  the  literary  language  of  early  N.H.G.  vor  had  already  as- 
sumed in  large  measure  the  meaning  of  für  besides  its  own  original  meaning,  and  consequently 
governed  the  dat.  or  ace.  according  to  the  sense.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  result  of  this  con- 
fusion für  sometimes  assumed  the  meaning  of  vor,  and  hence  we  find  it  with  either  the  dat.  (as 
in  Bäume  .  .  .  ,  die  sich  für  der  Last  der  Früchte  zur  Erde  beugen — Goethe  an  Frau  von  Stein,  3, 


376 PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE   ACCUSATIVE 230. 

178 — instead  of  vor  der  Last.  Src.)  or  ace.  according  to  the  sense.  These  fluctuations  still  occur 
not  infrequently  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  even  to-day  in  a  few  words,  as  fiir'lieb  or  vor'lieb, 
vornehm,  or  more  rarely  fümehm.  Gradually,  however,  vor  replaced  für  also  in  the  literary 
language,  except  in  many  derivative  or  figurative  applications  where  für  is  still  used,  now  always 
with  the  ace.  Only  in  a  few  set  expressions  can  its  former  literal  meaning  be  seen :  Schritt 
für  Schritt  (also  Schritt  vor  Schritt)  step  by  step,  lit.  one  step  before  the  other,  Punkt  für  Punkt, 
&c.  Occasionally  in  the  classics  für  can  be  found  in  its  original  meaning,  where  present  usage 
requires  vor:    Ich  ging  im  Walde  |  so  für  mich  hin  (Goethe's  Gefunden). 

GEGEN  and  WIDER,  both  with  the  idea  of  direction  or  movement  towards,  the  former 
in  the  sense  of  friendliness,  hostility,  or  resistance,  the  latter  only  in  the  sense  of  hostility  or 
resistance,  used  of  time  or  space,  literally  or  figuratively,  tozoard,  to,  about. 

(a)  In  the  sense  of  a  general  direction  toward  or  a  position  facing  toward:  Wir  ritten  gegen 
den  Rhein.  Gegen  Ende  August  about  the  end  of  August.  Er  wird  gegen  (about)  drei  Uhr 
zurückkommen.  Das  Haus  liegt  gegen  Morgen  (to  the  east).  Es  ist  schwer  gegen  or  wider 
den  Strom  zu  schwimmen.  Die  beiden  Heere  kämpfen  gegen-  or  widereinander.  Man  hält 
mich  hier  gefangen  wider  alles  Völkerrecht. 

Note.  In  a  few  set  expressions,  especially  in  the  Bible  and  poetn.',  before  nouns  without  an  article  the  shortened 
form  gen  is  found  instead  of  gegen:   gen  Himmel,  gen  Osten,  gen  Westen,  gen  Rom. 

(b)  The  direction  of  thought  or  feeling  toward,  in  a  friendly  sense,  after  gegen  (here  often 
closely  related  to  its  synonyms  zu  and  für),  or  in  a  hostile  sense  or  one  of  opposition,  after  gegen 
or  wider:  Er  erweist  sich  gefällig  gegen  Freunde.  Seine  Liebe  gegen  seine  Geschwister,  die 
Pflichten  gegen  Gott,  seine  Zuneigung  gegen  (also  für)  ihn,  die  Liebe  gegen  Gott  (or  zu)  Gott, 
Ehrfurcht  gegen  das  Alter,  Ekel  gegen  das  Lesen,  but  usually  zu  or  für  with  things:  seine  über- 
mäßige Liebe  zum  Branntwein,  zum  Vaterland,  zum  Spiel,  zum  Gewinn,  Gefühl  für  das  Schöne, 
Sinn  für  Ehre.  Er  hat  einen  Haß  gegen  or  wider  mich  gefaßt.  Was  hast  du  gegen  or  wider 
mich?  Das  geschah  gegen  or  wider  alle  Erwartung.  Das  geht  ihm  wider  die  Natur.  Er  tut 
es  wider  Willen. 

(r)  Approach  toward  for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  jn  comparisou  ivith,  synonymous  with 
im  Vergleich  mit,  im  Verhältnis  zu:  Reichtum  ist  nichts  gegen  Gesundheit.  Alle  Bücher  sind 
nichts  gegen  die  Bibel.  Gegen  früher  in  comparison  with  a  previous  period.  Ich  wette  hundert 
gegen  (to)  eins. 

(d)  Attitude  towards,  s^Tionymous  with  gegenüber  (see  this,  a),  sometimes,  however,  indi- 
cating a  more  positive  attitude,  in  the  face  of,  to,  hi  the  presence  of:  Alles  ....  war  darüber  ein- 
verstanden, daß  das  Gemeinwesen  in  diesem  Falle  eine  Pflicht  zu  erfüllen  habe  und  daß  es 
derselben  gegen  jede,  wenn  auch  noch  so  respektable  Privatgegenmeinung  nachkommen  müsse 
(Raabe's  Villa  Schönow,  v).  Kaiser  und  Reich  regten  sich  nicht  gegen  diesen  unermeßlichen 
Verlust.  Die  Regierung  war  gegen  das  entfesselte  Element  ohnmächtig.  Er  ließ  sich  gegen 
ihn  nichts  merken  He  pretended  to  him  that  he  did  not  notice  it.  Gegen  (in  the  presence  of) 
andere  rühmt  er  sich  seiner  Taten. 

{e)  In  exchange  for,  for,  closely  related  to  für  and  um:  Kriegsgefangene  werden  gegeneinan- 
der ausgetauscht.  Man  tauscht  ein  Ding  gegen  (or  für,  sometimes  um)  ein  anderes.  Sie  kön- 
nen Ihr  Geld  gegen  Quittung  (on  receipt)  bekommen.  Man  pflegt  Geld  nur  gegen  einen 
Schuldschein  zu  leihen.     Er  gibt  diese  Ware  nur  gegen  bare  Bezahlung. 

(/)  In  estimates,  an  approximate  judgment  as  to  weight,  magnitude,  cost  and  the  like,  used 
as  a  prep,  or  as  an  adverb  (see  225.  1.  c),  about:   Die  Stadt  hat  gegen  dreißigtausend  Einwohner. 

(g)  Gegen  and  wider,  now  exclusively  with  the  ace,  governed  earlier  in  the  period  either 
the  dat.  or  ace.  without  any  difference  of  meaning  between  the  two  case  forms. 

(/?)     In  Austrian  and  Bavarian  dialects  the  gen.  is  found  after  gegen,  especially  with  pronouns: 
Stemm'  dich  an  gegen  meiner,  was  [du]  kannst  (Ganghofer's  Der  Dorfapostel,  II). 
General  Note.     Wider  is  only  used  in  (a)  and  (ö)  of  the  aboye  articles. 

GEN,  see  gegen,  a.  Note. 

HIN'DURCH,  see  durch,  above. 

OHNE  (a)  is  the  opposite  of  mit,  and  hence  denotes  lack,  without,  but  for:  So  lange  ich  meinen 
Freund  zärtlich  liebte,  ging  ich  nicht  ohne  ihn.  Er  ist  ohne  Freude.  Es  gibt  keine  Freund- 
schaft ohne  gege  'seitige  Achtung.  Ich  kann  die  Suppe  nicht  ohne  einen  Löffel  essen.  Ohne 
ihn  wären  wir  giscorben  But  for  him  we  should  have  died. 

(b)  In  an  earlier  period  in  the  sense  of  außer  except,  not  counting,  besides,  and  still  found  in 
certain  expressions:  Es  waren  zwanzig  Personen  da  ohne  die  Kinder.  Especially  in  the  ad- 
verbial expressions:    ohne'das,  ohne'dies,  ohne'hin  besides. 

(c)  In  early  N.H.G.  ohne  governed  also  the  dat.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  one  word  ohne'dem 
(=  ohnedas;  see  b  above),  which  is  still  sometimes  used:  Ohnedem  aber  war  für  ihn  nicht 
mehr  an  einen  Verkehr  in  Grafenwang  zu  denken  (Perfall's  Der  schöne  Wahn,  p.  86).  The 
dat.  still  lingers  in  the  classical  period:  Bald  mit,  bald  ohne  dem  Mitleid  (Lessing).  It  survives 
in  the  dialect  of  the  Southeast  alongside  of  the  genitive  (see  d). 

{d)  After  the  verbs  sein  and  werden  in  an  earlier  period,  ohne  governed  a  gen.  which  usually 
preceded  it,  in  the  sense  of  void  of,  free  from,  and  is  still  commonly  thus  used  in  the  word  zweifels- 
'ohne  doubtless.  In  Austrian  and  Bavarian  dialects  ohne  with  the  gen.  is  also  used  with  other 
verbs,  usually,  however,  preceding  the  dependent  noun,  or  more  commonly  pronoun,  like  a  prepQ- 
sition  with  the  meaning  ivithout:  Ich  kann  ohne  Ihrer  (perhaps  a  dat.,  which  is  also  used  here) 
Tochter  nicht  leben  (Raimund's  Alpenkönig,  3,  16).  Sie  würden  auch  ohne  seiner  das  Essen 
fertig  bringen  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap.  xx). 


230. PREPOSITIONS   WITH   THE   ACCUSATIVP: 377 

PER  is  a  Latin  prep,  much  used  in  commercial  language,  both  in  foreign  expressions,  as  per 
diem,  and  with  many  German  words,  especially  those  without  an  article  or  other  inflected  word, 
but  it  is  also  sometimes  employed  before  words  which  can  show  inflection.  It  is  found  in  certain 
set  expressions,  denoting: 

(a)  Means,  by,  per,  in:  Ich  schicke  es  per  (or  durch  die  or  mit  der)  Post,  per  Fracht.  Es 
geht  billiger  per  Schiff  als  per  Bahn  (or  Eisenbahn).  Heutzutage  geht  alles  per  Dampf  (=  Ge- 
schwindigkeit). Ich  meldete  es  ihm  per  Telegraph.  Per  Maria  per  steamship  Maria,  per 
ersten  Segler  hy  the  first  sailing  vessel.  Er  zahlt  per  Kassa  (in  cash).  Ein  Brief  p  e  r  (=  unter 
der)  Adresse   (in  care)  des  Herrn  Karl  Schmidt. 

(/;)  Distributi\-ely,  per,  a,  for:  Etwas  kostet  so  und  soviel  per  Zentner,  per  Pfund,  per  Elle, 
per  Dutzend,  per  Stück,  or  der  Zentner,  das  Pfund,  die  Elle  kostet  so  und  soviel. 

(r)  A  definite  time  when  something  is  to  be  done,  dtie  payable:  Hierbei  übersenden  wir  Ihnen 
M.  1000,00  pr.  1.  (read  ersten)  Januar  We  send  you  inclosed  a  draft  for  1000  marks,  due  1st  Jan. 

Note.  Three  other  foreign  preps,  are  much  used  in  commercial  language,  but  they  are  usually  found  before  nouns 
without  modifying  words  wliich  can  sliow  case,  occasionally,  however,  also  before  a  word  wliich  marks  the  ace. — via 
(  =  über)  with  the  same  force  as  in  English,  pro  for  (  =  per,  b  above),  ä  each  (costing,  containing,  weighing":  pr. 
(per,  see  (a)  above)  Henriette  via  Neu-Orleans;  Preis  pro  Paar  M.  0,60  (60  pfennigs);  Preis  pro  Band  geheftet 
(unbound)  1  Mark;  Insertionspreis  pro  fünfgespaltene  Nonpareille-Zeile  60  Pfennig;  große  eckige  Stücke  (Seife) 
von  125  Gramm  ä  (each  costing)  M.  0,25. 

SONDER  =  ohne,  now  little  used  except  in  poetical  style,  usually  before  nouns  without  an 
article,  only  very  rarely  with  an  indefinite  article,  sometimes  with  the  dat.:  Sonder  Zweifel, 
sonder  allen  Zweifel  (Jensen's  Auf  der  Baar,  III),  sonder'gleichen  without  an  equal.  Alle 
Hoheit  der  Erde  sonder  herzliche  Liebe  ist  Staub.  Sonder  einer  solchen  Flasche  blieb  bei 
den  Griechen  ein  zu  begrabender  Leichnahm  ebenso  wenig  als  sonder  Kranz  (Lessing). 

UM.  1.  It  has  in  general  the  force  of  around,  either  of  rest  or  motion,  but  has  developed 
out  of  this  meaning  a  rich  store  of  related  literal  and  figurative  ones  as  follows: 

A.  Around  in  a  literal  sense:  Alle  Planeten  bewegen  sich  um  die  Soruie.  Die  Gäste  saßen 
um  den  Tisch.     Es  fahren  viele  Schiffe  um  das  Kap  der  guten  Hoffnung. 

(a)  From  the  idea  of  movement  around  some  central  point  comes  the  figurative  idea  of  the 
central,  material  cause  which  excites  and  attracts  our  interest  and  feeling,  over,  on  account  of: 
Er  trauert  um  den  Tod  des  Bruders.     Ich  beneide  Sie  um  diese  Reise  I  envy  you  this  journey. 

(b)  It  often  points  to  the  person  or  thing  about  which  thought,  feeling,  or  action  is  busied, 
concerning,  about,  u'ith  respect  to,  of,  lüitJi,  for:  Weiß  die  Königin  um  diese  Neigung?  Es  handelt 
sich  um  die  Erbschaft.  Just  um  diesen  Brief  war  mir's  zu  tun  It  was  just  this  letter  that  con- 
cerned me.  Ich  bin  so  in  Unnihe  urn  den  Vater  I  am  so  worried  about  Father.  Ich  komme  um 
den  Oheim  I  come  (to  consult  with  you)  about  Uncle.  Wie  steht  es  um  ihn?  How  are  things 
with  (respect  to)  him?  Es  ist  eine  schöne  Sache  um  die  Freiheit  Freedom  is  a  beautiful  thing. 
Darum  (with  respect  to  that)  seien  Sie  unbesorgt.  Das  habe  ich  nicht  um  (of)  ihn  verdient. 
Bismarck  hat  sich  um  das  Vaterland  verdient  gemacht  Bismarck  has  deserved  well  of  his  country. 
Es  ist  um  ihn  geschehen  It  is  all  over  with  him.  Schade  war's  um  ihre  Haare  The  loss  of  her 
hair  would  be  a  pity.     Es  tut  mir  leid  um  ihn  I  am  sorry  for  him.     Compare  von,  c  in  229.  2. 

(c)  Movement  around  in  a  circle  leads  back  to  a  starting  point,  hence  the  idea  of  change, 
succession,  alternation:  Das  Fieber  kommt  einen  Tag  um  den  andern  The  fever  appears  every 
other  day.  Bote  tun  (after)  Bote  wurde  ausgesandt.  Sie  sangen  einer  um  den  andern  They 
sang  alternately. 

(ä)  Movement  in  a  circle  implies  a  desire  to  encompass,  close  in  on,  gain  something,  hence 
um  points  to  the  desired  object,  the  reward,  end  or  purpose  in  view,  for,  after,  in  order  (to): 
Er  schickt,  schreibt  um  (for)  etwas.  Er  tut  alles  um  Geld.  Er  arbeitet  um  die  Ehre.  Sie 
arbeiten  um  die  Wette  Thcy  are  tr\-ing  to  outdo  one  another  in  working.  Viele  bemühen  sich 
um  die  Gunst  der  Mächtigen.  Er  bewirbt  sich  um  die  Hand  des  schönen  Mädchens.  Er 
bittet  um  Verzeihung.  Especially  with  an  infinitive  to  denote  purpose:  Ich  konmie,  lun  (in 
order)  Sie  zu  sehen.  The  ideas  of  purpose  and  result  are  closely  related.  This  leads  to  the 
use  of  um  with  the  infinitive  to  express  end  or  result:  Du  bist  alt  genug,  um  dies  einzusehen. 
See  also  281.  Note.  It  also  denotes  price  and  exchange:  um  jeden  Preis  at  any  price;  um 
einen  billigen  Preis;  um  alles  in  der  Welt  nicht  not  for  all  the  world;  um  nichts  und  wieder 
nichts  for  absolutely  nothing;  etwas  um  (more  commonly  gegen  or  für)  etwas  tauschen;  Auge 
um  Auge,  Zahn  um  Zahn. 

{e)  In  moving  around  an  object  we  pass  it  by,  miss  it,  hence  the  general  idea  of  loss:  Es 
brachte  ihn  um  sein  Vermögen,  tun  seinen  Verstand  It  caused  him  to  lose  his  property,  reason. 
Ich  bin  um  meinen  Schlummer.  Er  ist  ums  Leben  gekommen.  In  moving  around  a  circle 
one  must  sooner  or  later  encompass  it,  come  to  the  end  of  it,  hence  the  general  idea  of  end,  es- 
pecially in  adverbial  use:  Das  Jahr  ist  tmi  (up).  This  idea  may  also  be  contained  in  some  of 
the  preceding  sentences. 

(/)  Out  of  the  figurative  application  of  distance  around  comes  the  idea  of  measure  of  difference, 
not  translated  at  all  or  rendered  by  the  (adv.),  by,  witliin:  Er  ist  um  einen  Kopf  größer  als  sein 
Bruder  He  is  a  head  taller  than  his  brother.  Er  kam  tun  zwei  Tage  zu  spät.  Je  fleißiger  er 
ist,  umso  (the)  mehr  lernt  er.  Dieser  Umstand  vermehrte  sein  Leiden  um  ein  Großes 
(by  a  good  deal).  Ums  Haar  hättst  du  mir  die  Terrine  da  timgeworfen  ^"ou  came  within  a  hair's 
breadth  of  upsetting  the  tureen  for  me.  It  also  denotes  amount,  extent.  Er  strafte  ihn  um 
zehn  Mark  He  fined  him  ten  marks.  Er  hat  sich  tun  eine  Mark  verrechnet  He  made  a  mistake 
of  a  mark. 

B.  In  the  neighborhood  of,  near,  used  of  space,  time  or  number,  in  a  more  or  less  indefinite 
sense: 


378 PREPS.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE 230. 

(a)  Of  persons  and  things  in  space,  around:  Er  hat  keinen  Freund  um  sich.  Ich  bin  den 
ganzen  Tag  um  ihn.     Um  Berlin  herum  gibt  es  viele  Sandgegenden. 

{b)  Of  time  and  number,  synonymous  with  gegen,  about:  Es  geschah  um  Mitternacht,  um 
Ostern.  Um  dreihundert  Hörer  an  audience  of  about  three  hundred.  But  with  the  hours  of 
the  day  um  expresses  time  more  accurately,  at:   Er  geht  pünktlich  um  zehn  Uhr  zu  Bette. 

C.  Less  frequently  the  logical  reason  (A.  a  above)  instead  of  its  synonyms  um  —  willen, 
wegen  on  account  of:  Ich  lobe  dich  um  deinen  Fleiß,  or  more  frequently  um  deines  Fleißes  willen 
or  wegen  deines  Fleißes.  But  very  commonly  the  words  wa'rum,  da'rum  instead  of  weswegen 
wherefore,  whv,  deswegen  therefore. 

We  sometimes  find  um  with  the  genitive  in  this  meaning  after  the  analogy  of  um  — willen: 
O  Gott!  Ich  danke  dir  mein  Leben  nur  |  um  dieser  Kunde  (Kleist's  Sehr  offen  stein,  2,  1).  Den 
der  Papa  um  seines  Geldes  erkor  (Heyse's  Im  Paradiese,  1,  178).  Nur  um  der  Wahrhaftigkeit 
frag'  ich  dich  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  p.  71). 

2.  Quite  rare  is  the  use  of  the  dative  after  vun,  when  it  denotes  rest,  after  the  analogy  of  other 
prepositions  which  denote  rest :  Das  Eis  tun  meinem  Herzen  (Börne),  in  und  um  unseren  Dörfern 
(Hans  MüUer-Brauel  in   Hamburger   Nachrichten,  March  23,  1906). 

WIDER,  see  gegen. 

Prepositions  with  either  Dative  or  Accusative 
I.    General  Remarks. 

231.  1.  These  prepositions  (see  list  227)  govern  the  dat.  when  the  place 
in  which  is  denoted,  whether  motion  or  rest  in  that  place  is  expressed,  but  the 
ace.  when  the  direction  toivards  or  into  an  object  is  expressed :  Das  Buch  liegt 
auf  dem  Tisch,  but  Hans  legte  das  Buch  auf  den  Tisch.  Hans  lief  in  dem 
Zimmer  herum  John  ran  around  in  the  room,  but  Er  lief  in  (into)  das  Zimmer. 
It  is  rather  uncommon  that  with  a  verb  of  motion  both  the  dative  and  the 
accusative  can  be  used,  the  former  to  indicate  rest,  the  latter  to  express  the 
idea  of  motion  toward:  Er  verschwand  im  Walde  (place),  but  in  den  Wald 
(motion  into).  The  dative  is  more  common  here,  as  the  prefix  ver-  of  the  verb 
is  perfective  (246.  II.  3.  b)  and  the  action  is  felt  as  completed,  so  that  we  con- 
ceive the  person  as  within  the  wood  rather  than  as  moving  into  it.  Likewise 
we  say  Er  kehrte  in  dem  Gasthofe  ein  rather  than  Er  kehrte  in  den  Gasthof 
ein  as  we  do  not  think  so  much  of  the  mere  entrance  into  the  hotel  as  the  staying, 
resting  in  the  place.  On  the  other  hand  we  do  not  say  Die  Statue  kam  auf  der 
Brücke  zu  stehen  as  often  as  Die  Statue  kam  auf  die  Brücke  zu  stehen,  altho 
the  dative  fits  the  meaning  better  inasmuch  as  the  statue  finds  a  permanent 
place  upon  the  bridge.  Recent  usage  inclines,  as  in  this  example,  toward  the 
accusative  with  simple  verbs  of  motion,  but  favors  the  dative  with  compounds 
with  a  perfective  prefix,  as  further  illustrated  by  the  following  examples:  Er 
kam  in  die  Stadt,  but  Er  kam  in  der  Stadt  an.  Er  legte  das  Glas  neben  die 
Flasche,  but  Der  Hund  legte  sich  dicht  neben  den  Körben  nieder.  Der  Fluß 
mündet  in  den  Rhein,  but  In  seiner  Jugend  ein  radikaler  Idealist,  mündete 
Hehn  (name)  in  einem  konservativen  Idealismus  aus.  With  simple  verbs, 
however,  denoting  motion  between  objects  on  both  sides  the  dative  mnst  be 
used,  as  illustrated  under  zwischen  in  II  below.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
important  for  the  English-speaking  student  to  note  that  in  countless  cases, 
often  even  in  case  of  perfective  verbs,  the  act  is  more  important  than  the  re- 
sultant goal  or  state  so  that  the  accusative  is  with  many  words  much  more 
common  than  the  dative,  altho  there  is  considerable  fluctuation  of  usage:  Er 
hat  mich  in  das  Zimmer  eingeschlossen,  but  with  the  perfect  participle  which 
of  itself  denotes  a  state:  Er  ist  im  Zimmer  eingeschlossen.  Sie  hat  sich  in 
grünen  Samt  gekleidet  and  also  Sie  ist  in  grünen  Samt  gekleidet,  for  we  do 
not  think  of  a  resultant  state  but  the  act  of  her  choosing  green.  Er  hat  sich 
in  die  Arbeit  vertieft  and  Er  ist  in  die  Arbeit  vertieft,  for  we  do  not  think  of 
him  as  passive  but  as  penetrating  deeper  into  his  work. 

o.  Often  the  two  ideas  are  only  figurative:  ein  Buch  über  Goethe's  „Faust"  a  book  on 
(spreading  itself  over  the  subject  of)  Goethe's  Faust:  über  allen  Zweifel  beyond  (lit.  raised  above) 
all  doubt.     Wilhelm  kam  auf  einen  guten  Einfall  William  hit  upon  a  happy  thought. 

2.  In  applying  this  rule  to  time  the  following  rule  will  be  of  service:  In 
answer  to  the  question  when  they  govern  the  dat.,  but  in  answer  to  the  question 


231.  II. PREPS.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE 379 

how  long  and  tmtil  when  the  ace. :  Wann  kamen  Sie  nach  Hause?     In  der  Nacht. 
Wie  lange,  bis  wann  bleiben  Sie  in  der  Stadt?     Bis  tief  in  die  Nacht. 

3.  In  abstract  or  figurative  expressions  where  the  idea  of  place  or  motion 
toward  does  not  appear,  these  rules  cannot  always  be  applied,  but  in  these  cases 
the  following  rule  will  be  found  useful:  When  manner,  cause,  or  means  are 
expressed,  an,  in,  unter,  vor  take  the  dat.,  but  auf  and  über  the  ace.  Manner: 
in  dieser  Weise,  but  auf  diese  Weise  in  this  manner.  Er  schreibt  am  schön- 
sten (see  114.  2),  but  Er  schreibt  aufs  schönste  (see  114.  3).  Der  König  zog 
unter  dem  Jubel  des  Volks  in  die  Stadt  The  king  marched  into  the  city  amid 
the  hurrahs  of  the  people,  but  Es  geht  über  alles  Erwarten  schön  Things  are 
going  along  well  even  beyond  all  expectation.  Cause:  Wir  freuen  uns  an  dem 
schönen  Wetter,  or  über  das  schöne  Wetter  We  rejoice  over  the  beautiful 
weather.  Lena  erwachte  an  (aroused  by)  einem  wilden,  markdurchwühlenden 
(piercing)  Schrei,  but  Mehrere  Leute  liefen  nun  auf  (alarmed  by)  den  Lärm 
gleichfalls  aus  dem  Felde  herbei.  Means:  Man  erkennt  den  Baum  an  (by) 
seinen  Früchten.     Means  is  rarely  expressed  by  auf  or  über. 

4.  Sometimes  fine  distinctions  may  be  made  by  using  the  dat.  when  it  is 
desired  to  represent  the  person  or  thing  as  already  at  the  place  where  some- 
thing is  to  occur  and  by  using  the  ace.  when  it  is  desired  to  emphasize  the  move- 
ment of  the  person  or  thing  towards  the  place  in  question:  Er  wurde  in  (he  is 
already  there)  der  Gesellschaft  freundhch  aufgenommen,  but  Er  wurde  in  die 
Gesellschaft  aufgenommen  (admitted  by  ballot).  Setzen  Sie  sich  auf  diese 
(rarely  .dieser  as  in  Schiller's  Tell)  Bank  von  Stein,  but:  Sie  lagerten  sich 
bequem  auf  dem  Rasen.  Dieses  Land  ist  die  schönste  Perle  in  der  Krone 
dieses  Fürsten  (it  has  long  been  in  his  possession),  but  Das  ist  ein  frisches 
Blatt  in  seinen  Lorbeerkranz  (it  has  lately  been  added  to  his  wreath  and  is 
here  vividly  imagined  as  just  entering  it)  and  Ach,  liebe  Frau  Justizrätin,  Sie 
dürfen  mir  glauben,  der  Junge  ist  ein  Nagel  in  meinen  Sarg  (Isolde  Kurz's 
Nachbar  Werner). 

II.    Treatment  in  Detail. 

These  prepositions  follow  in  alphabetical  order: 

AN  is  synonymous  with  bei,  nach,  neben,  zu,  but  often  with  sharp  distinctions,  as  are  de- 
scribed in  229.  2,  under  bei,  1,  and  in  the  Note  under  zu,  I. 

1.     With  the  dative. 

A.  Close  approach  to  or  contact  with  the  side  of  an  object,  also  with  various  figurative  ap- 
plications, at,  by,  on,  against,  to,  near  to,  -in,  about:  Er  sitzt  am  (at)  Fenster.  Er  sitzt  am  (by) 
Ofen.  Das  Bild  hängt  an  (on)  der  Wand.  Frankfurt  liegt  am  (on)  Main  (river).  Er  sitzt 
am  Hügel  (on  the  hillside).  Der  Stock  lehnt  an  (against)  der  Wand.  Sie  stehen  Kopf  an 
Kopf.  Arm  an  Arm  (in  English,  slwnlder  to  sJwutder).  Es  liegt  mir  am  (near  to)  Herzen.  Er 
ist  am  (near  unto)  Tode.  Wir  stehen  auf  (sometimes  an;  see  Note  below)  dem  Boden,  but  in 
a  figurative  sense  to  indicate  a  prostrate  position:  Der  Mensch  (Napoleon)  ist  am  Boden 
(Treitschke's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  1,  5.31).  Es  ist  nichts  an  (in)  Uim.  Es  ist  nichts  Wahres 
an  (in)  dem  Gerücht.  Er  hat  keine  Spur  von  Stolz  an  (about)  sich.  Die  Reihe  ist  an  mir 
It  is  my  turn.  Dinge,  die  an  (und  für)  sich  (in  themselves)  gräßlich  sind,  werden  in  dichterischer 
Nachahmung  ergötzlich. 

Note.  Do  not  confound  an  on  with  auf  on.  The  former  denotes  contact  only  with  the  side  of  an  object,  the  latter 
with  the  upper  surface:  an  (on  the  slope  of)  dem  Berg,  auf  dem  Gipfel  on  the  summit.  Originally  an  denoted  con- 
tact in  general  as  still  in  English,  and  hence  implied  contact  with  either  the  side  or  upper  surface  of  an  object.  This 
older  usage  is  still  found  in  early  N.H.G.:  an  (now  auf)  dem  Grase  sitzen,  &c.  It  still  survives  in  a  few  expressions: 
an  unrechtem  Ort,  am  rechten  Platz,  &c. 

(a)  Applied  to  time,  only,  however,  in  certain  set  expressions,  at,  on,  in:  am  Mittag  at  noon, 
am  Abend  in  the  evening.  Er  starb  am  (on)  Mittwoch.  Wir  arbeiteten  am  Tage  (in  day  time). 
Die  Leipziger  Schlacht  wurde  am  (on)  18.  Oktober  1813  geschlagen.  Es  ist  an  der  Zeit,  an 
der  Stunde  The  time,  hour  is  at  hand. 

Note  1.  We  say  am  Tage  in  day  time,  but  in  der  Nacht,  because  an  denotes  a  surface,  hence_  that  which  is  visible, 
while  in  expresses  here  the  idea  of  an  enveloping  darkness.  Thus  we  say  Es  liegt  am  Tage  It  is  as  plain  as  day,  but 
Es  ist  in  Dunkel  gehüllt  It  is  shrouded  in  darkness.  Thus  also  im  Sommer,  im  Winter  because  we  regard  ourselves 
within  a  period  of  time. 

Note  2.  An  refers  to  time  back  of  us,  and  auf  to  time  ahead  of  us:  Ich  bin  am  Sonnabende  (last  Saturday)  dort 
gewesen,  but  Er  wird  mich  axd  den  Sonntag  (next  Sunday:  besuchen.  This  distinction  is  not  made  in  early  X.H.G.: 
Auf  (now  ami  Montag  der  ersten  Woche  nach  Advent  zog  Heinrich  durch  das  Stift  (Lutlier).  Vnd  es  begab  sich 
auff  der  tage  einen  [  das,  &c.  (Luke  viü,  22). 

ib)  The  idea  of  near  approach  to  which  lies  in  an  leads  naturally  to  its  use  in  the  adverbial 
superlative  (112.  3.  B)  of  the  adjective  and  the  relative  superlative  (114.  2)  of  the  ad\-erb:  Der 
Sturm  war  am  heftigsten  (lit.  at  that  which  is  most  violent,  i.e.  in  the  most  violent  stage)  gegen 
Morgen.     Er  schreibt  am  schönsten  von  allen. 


380 PREPS.  WITH  DATI\'E  OR  ACCUSATIVE 231.  II. 

(c)  Close  approach  on  a  certain  side  gives  rise  to  the  meaning  in  respect  to,  in,  about,  as  to, 
of,  in  the  way  of:  Es  fehlt  ihm  an  Geld,  an  Fassung  He  lacks  (lit.  in  respect  to)  money,  self-com- 
mand. Das  Land  ist  reich  an  (in)  Mineralien.  In  Italien  gewinnt  der  Kampf  der  Parteien  an 
Schärfe.  Ich  zweifele  an  (have  doubts  about)  der  Aufrichtigkeit  dieses  Mannes.  An  (as  to) 
Fleiß  geht  Karl  allen  andern  Knaben  vor.  Mangel  an  Wasser,  an  guter  Luft  lack  of  water, 
good  air;  schwach  am  Leibe  (but  im  Kopfe).  So  hatte  sie  in  unbefangenstem  Plauderton 
ausgekramt,  was  sie  in  ihrem  Kopf  an  (in  the  way  of)  Gedanken  vorgefunden. 

(d)  Close  approach  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  rapid  succession,  after:  Pfeiler  an  Pfeiler  zer- 
brach. 

(e)  Close  approach  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  close  application,  busying  one's  self  ivith,  being  in 
the  act  of,  and  often  an  together  with  an  infinitive-substantive  is  equal  to  the  progressive  form 
of  the  verb  in  English:  Ich  will  dich  nicht  zurückhalten  —  du  bist  am  Ausgehen  I  will  not 
detain  you,  as  I  see  >'ou  are  going  out  (down  town).  Sie  hatte  es  gerade  mit  einem  Kinde  zu 
tun,  das  am  Kartoffelschälen  war  She  was  just  then  occupied  with  a  child  who  was  peeling 
potatoes.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb  in  Eng.  may  have  an  object, 
while  in  German  the  object  must  form  a  compound  with  the  infinitive-substantive  as  in  the 
second  example.  Note  also  that  an  is  here  always  contracted  with  the  article.  See  also  175. 
Note. 

B.  Out  of  the  idea  of  approach  to  and  contact  with  comes  the  conception  of  varied  relations 
which  the  persons  and  objects  thus  brought  together  sustain  to  each  other:  Er  ist  Lehrer  an 
(in)  dieser  Schule,  Prediger  an  der  Hofkirche.  Dieser  Gelehrte  arbeitet  an  (on)  einem  großen 
Werke.  Er  hat  sich  an  seinem  Gegner  tätlich  vergriffen  He  laid  violent  hands  on  his  opponent. 
Es  liegt  an  ihm  (it  is  his  fault),  daß  er  nicht  vorwärts  kommt.  Er  nirrunt  an  den  Freuden  der 
Kinder  teil.  Er  stieß  sich  an  der  Wand  blutig.  Er  wird  an  dir  zum  Verräter  He  will  betray 
you.  Er  hat  eine  Stütze  an  {in)  seinem  Sohn.  Er  wird  sich  an  seinen  Feinden  rächen.  Du 
hinderst  mich  am  Arbeiten  You  keep  me  from  working. 

(a)  This  relation  may  be  that  of  cause,  of,  from,  &c.:  Er  starb  an  (of)  der  Schwindsucht. 
Er  leidet  an  (from)  der  Brust.  Ich  labe  mich  an  (with)  den  Früchten.  Er  ärgert  sich  an  (at) 
allen  Dingen.     Das  Eis  schmilzt  an  (in)  der  Sonne. 

Nole.     In  earlier  periods  (and  occasionally  still)  the  simple  gen.  was  used  here.     See  223.  V.  a. 

(b)  This  relation  may  be  that  of  means,  by:  Ich  höre  am  Geläute,  daß  heute  Sonntag  ist. 
Man  erkeimt  den  Vogel  an  den  Federn.  Ich  weiß  es  an  mir  (by  my  own  experience).  Er  er- 
kannte mich  an  der  Stimme.     Er  geht  am  Stock  He  walks  with  the  aid  of  a  cane. 

2.     With  the  accusative. 

(a)  Direction  toward,  implying  close  approach  to  the  side  of  a  person  or  thing,  or  even  contact 
therewith,  literally  and  figuratively:  Hänge  das  BUd  an  die  Wand,  das  Kleid  an  den  Nagel. 
Er  setzte  sich  an  (at)  meine  Seite.  Er  schreibt  an  (on)  das  Fenster,  but  Er  schreibt  am  (at) 
Fenster.  Er  steckte  den  Ring  an  (on)  den  Finger.  Er  zog  den  Strumpf  ans  Bein.  Ich  habe 
viel  an  ihn  verloren  I  have  lost  a  good  deal  to  him  (in  cards,  <S;c.),  but  Ich  habe  viel  an  ihm 
verloren  /  have  lost  much  in  him.  Often  with  bis  to  mark  limit:  Das  Wasser  reichte  bis  an  die 
Knie.  Er  begleitete  mich  bis  an  das  Tor.  Figuratively:  Er  geht  an  (to)  die  Arbeit.  Ich 
denke  an  ihn.  Ich  schreibe  oft  an  (to)  ihn.  Hier  ist  ein  Brief  an  (directed)  Sie.  Die  Reihe 
(turn)  kommt  an  mich. 

(b)  Temporally,  used  only  with  bis  to  mark  a  limit  of  time:    Sie  tanzten  bis  an  den  Morgen. 

(c)  An  approximate  number,  used  as  an  adverb  or  prep,  (see  225.  1.  c),  about:  Wie  lange  habt 
ihr  prozessiert?    An  die  acht  Jahre.     Es  waren  an  hundert  Menschen  versammelt. 

AUF.     1.     With  the  dative. 

A.  Contact  with  the  upper  surface  of  (see  an,  1.  A.  Note),  on,  upon:  Auf  christlichen  Kirchen 
steht  gewöhnlich  ein  Kreuz.  Das  Buch  liegt  auf  dem  Tisch.  Also  without  contact,  but  as  a 
necessary  part  of:  Der  Punkt  auf  dem  i.  Figuratively:  Ich  habe  eine  Angst  auf  dem  Herzen. 
Die  Sache  beruht  auf  Ihnen.  Es  hat  nichts  auf  sich  It  is  of  no  consequence.  Was  hat  es  damit 
auf  sich?  What  of  that? 

(a)  In  a  number  of  cases  auf  is  used  because  the  present  or  original  conception  is  that  of 
a  place  at  some  height,  altho  the  place  may  be  an  enclosed  one.  It  is  translated  accordingly 
in  Eng.  by  in:  Er  wohnt  auf  einem  Schlosse,  auf  Nummer  zehn  (in  hotel).  Er  ist  auf  (of  an 
upper  room)  seinem  Zimmer,  auf  der  Burg,  auf  der  Kanzel,  auf  den  Galerien. 

{b)  Before  the  common  noun  Insel  island  auf  is  used  but  before  the  articleless  names  of 
islands  both  auf  and  in  are  employed,  the  latter  especially  with  large  bodies  of  land  which  are 
thus  conceived  of  as  countries:    auf  der  Insel  on  or  in  the  island,  but  auf  or  in  Kreta. 

B.  The  idea  of  an  upper  surface  gives  way  in  many  cases  to  that  of  a  surface  in  general, 
considered  as  a  base  of  operations:  Er  arbeitet  auf  (in)  dem  Felde.  Im  Sommer  lebt  man 
angenehm  auf  (in)  dem  Lande.  Friedrich  der  Große  war  ein  Meister  auf  der  Flöte.  Wir 
kegeln  auf  der  Kegelbahn.  Wilhelm  liegt  auf  dem  Rücken,  auf  der  Seite.  Er  ist  blind  auf 
(or  an  in)  beiden  Augen,  taub  auf  (in)  einem  Ohr.  Auf  diesem  Wege  wird  er  zu  nichts  gelangen 
In  this  way  he  will  not  accomplish  anything. 

Nole.  Sometimes  there  is  quite  a  difference  of  conception  in  German  and  English,  as  the  former  regards  certain 
things  as  extended  surfaces  or  open  public  places  while  the  latter  looks  at  them  as  bounded  spaces,  hence  in  the  former 
case  we  find  auf,  in  the  latter  in,  al:  Man  kauft  etwas  auf  dem  Markt,  but  at  the  market.  Man  fährt  auf  der  Straße, 
wohnt  aber  in  der  Straße,  while  in  Eng.  one  drives /n  the  street  but  lives  on  (in  U.S.,  but  in  England  in)  the  street. 
Thus  also  auf  (im  dem  Friedrichsplatz,  auf  (at)  dem  Bahnhof,  auf  (j'n)  dem  Chor,  auf  dem  Lager  in  stock,  auf  (in) 
der  Station,  auf  (in)  der  Wiese. 

(a)  Closely  connected  with  the  idea  of  a  literal  base  of  operations  is  its  figurative  application 
to  political,   educational,   business,  and  social  organizations  and   individual  activities  which 


231.  II. PREPS.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE 381 

proceed  on  a  definite  open  basis:  auf  (in)  dem  Reichstag,  auf  dem  Parteitag  at  the  party  con- 
vention, auf  (at)  der  demnächst  stattfindenden  Sitzung  des  Ausschusses,  auf  dem  Wiener 
(of  Vienna)  Kongreß,  auf  {at,  of  a  pupil,  but  an  of  a  teacher)  dem  Gymnasium,  auf  {at,  of  a  stu- 
dent, but  an  of  a  professor)  der  Universität  or  Schule  (but  in  der  Schule  of  elementary  schools), 
auf  dem  Kriegsschauplatz,  auf  dem  Rückmarsch,  auf  (at)  seinem  Bureau,  auf  der  Börse,  auf 
(at)  der  Post,  auf  (at)  der  Messe,  auf  (at)  der  Weltausstellung  in  Chicago,  auf  (at)  dem  Balle, 
aulf  (at)  der  Hochzeit,  auf  der  Jagd,  auf  (in)  der  Flucht,  auf  der  Reise,  auf  (at)  seinem  Posten. 
Man  ertappte  ihn  auf  (in)  der  Tat.  Er  steht  auf  meiner  Seite.  Er  ist  auf  seiner  Hut.  Auf 
diesem  Gebiet  in  this  line  (of  study,  art,  music,  cSzc).  Er  hält  mich  auf  dem  Laufenden  He 
keeps  me  posted.  Auf  (at)  einigen  Punkten  haben  die  sozialdemokratischen  Stimmen  seit 
der  letzten  Wahl  zugenommen. 

Nole.  In  the  above,  it  can  be  seen  how  often  the  German  and  EngHsh  conception  differs,  but  on  the  other  hand 
where  the  idea  of  a  close  body  or  corporation  or  position  or  action  -vilhin  a  body  distinctly  appears,  in  is  used  in  both 
languages:    in  dem  preußischen  Ministerium,  Kabinett.     Doch  blieb  Luxemburg  im  deutschen  Zollverein. 

2.     With  the  accusative,  with  the  general  idea  of  direction  toward. 

A.  Direction  or  movement  toward  the  upper  surface  of,  imph'ing  ultimate  contact,  on, 
upon:  Er  setzt  sich  auf  den  Stuhl.  Er  legt  das  Buch  auf  den  Tisch.  Er  klettert  auf  den  Baum. 
Also  with  movement  toward  without  actual  contact,  but  so  close  as  to  form  a  necessary  part  of 
(see  1.  A  above):  Er  setzt  den  Punkt  auf  das  i.  Coincidence:  Das  Fest  fiel  auf  einen  Sonntag. 
Er  kam  auf  den  Glockenschlag.  Er  bezahlt  mich  immer  auf  den  Tag.  Er  kam  pünktlich  auf 
die  Minute. 

(a)  Movement  toward  an  object  which  according  to  the  present  or  original  conception  is 
situated  at  some  height  (see  1.  A.  a  above),  to:  Er  geht  auf  das  Schloß,  auf  sein  Zimmer,  auf 
die  Burg. 

B.  As  in  1.  B  above,  the  idea  of  an  upper  surface  gives  way  to  that  of  a  surface  in  general, 
considered  as  a  basis  of  future  operations  when  reached,  to,  into,  on:  Die  Arbeiter  gehen  auf 
das  Feld.  Sie  fahren  aufs  Land.  Sie  gehen  aufs  Eis  (to  skate).  Er  macht  sich  auf  den  Weg. 
Er  legt  sich  auf  die  Seite,  auf  den  Rücken.  In  nautical  language,  for  (the  port  of):  Warum 
fuhr  er  nun  seit  zehn  Jahren  als  Schiffszimmermann  auf  einem  großen  Dampfer  auf  Kalkutta? 
{Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  May,  17  1903). 

Nole.  The  same  differences  of  idiom  between  English  and  German  as  described  in  Note  under  1.  B..  above,  appear 
also  when  direction  toward  is  indicated:  Man  geht  auf  (toi  den  Markt.  Der  Hausbesitzer  setzte  die  arme  Familie 
auf  (intoi  die  Straße.  Er  biegt  in  (into)  die  Friedrichstraße.  Die  Friedrichstraße,  Wilhelmstraße  und  Linden- 
straße münden  (terminate)  konvergierend  auf  (in)  den  kreisrunden,  mit  Gartenanlagen  geschmückten  BelleaUiance- 
Platz. 

(a)  Corresponding  to  1.  B.  a  above:  Man  geht  auf  die  Post,  auf  den  Ball,  auf  die  Jagd. 
Er  läßt  sich  auf  den  Kampf  ein  He  engages  in  the  battle.  Auf  diese  Bedingungen,  Vorschläge 
kann  ich  nicht  eingehen  I  cannot  assent  to,  &c.  Man  ging  atif  den  Scherz  ein.  Er  stellte  mich 
auf  (to)  die  Probe.  Often,  instead  of  naming  such  society  or  action,  mentioning  some  article 
or  object  which  is  suggestive  of  it:  Er  lud  mich  auf  (to)  eine  Mahlzeit,  auf  eine  Suppe,  auf  ein 
Butterbrot,  auf  ein  Glas  Wem,  auf  eine  Tasse  Tee.  Er  forderte  mich  auf  Pistolen  He  chal- 
lenged me  to  a  duel  with  pistols.     Er  hatte  zwei  schwere  Fordenmgen  auf  krunime  Säbel. 

C.  Direction  of  some  activity  of  the  mind  or  of  some  feeling  toward  an  object,  in  various 
relations,  representing  it: 

(a)  As  an  object  of  attack,  attention,  or  of  some  feeling  either  hostile  or  friendly:  Das  ist 
auf  mich  abgesehen  That  is  meant  for  (aimed  at)  me.  Er  schimpft  auf  mich.  Das  Mädchen 
heftete  seine  Augen  auf  den  Tänzer.  Er  ist  auf  mich  gut  (or  übel)  zu  sprechen  He  speaks  well 
(or  ill)  of  me.  Er  zürnt  auf  mich.  Er  ist  auf  seine  Frau  eifersüchtig,  stolz.  Mein  Handwerk 
halte  ich  hoch  vmd  lasse  nichts  darauf  kommen  I  think  a  great  deal  of  my  trade,  and  allow  no 
one  to  say  anything  against  it. 

{b)  As  the  object  or  point  toward  which  the  mental  activity  or  the  nature  of  a  person  or 
thing  is  directed,  usually  with  a  view  to  furthering,  acquiring,  enjoying  it:  Böse  Leute  merken 
nicht  aufs  Recht.  Er  hält  auf  Ordnung,  auf  Ehre  He  attaches  much  value  to,  &c.  Seid  Ihr  'ne 
Bäckersfrau,  die  ihren  Altknecht  freit  auf  ihr  Gewerb?  Are  you  a  baker  woman  who  marries 
her  head-servant  with  a  view  to  using  him  in  her  business?  Sie  ist  bis  vor  kurzem  in  Berlin 
gewesen  auf  (in  order  to  acquire)  feine  Erziehvmg.  Ein  Ringen  auf  Sein  und  Nichtsein  a  struggle 
for  life  or  death.  Ich  bereite  mich  auf  das  Fest  vor.  Wer  sich  von  einem  Studium  aufs  andere 
wirft,  wird  in  keinem  soviel  erreichen,  als  wer  sich  ausschließlich  auf  eins  legt.  Ich  verzichte 
auf  meinen  Anteil.  Er  versteht  sich  aufs  Raten  He  is  good  at  guessing.  Er  ist  auf  das  Mädchen 
erpicht.  Ich  besinne  mich  nicht  auf  ihn.  Bestellungen,  Vorbestellungen  auf  die  Theater- 
plätze orders,  orders  in  advance  for  the  seats  in  the  theater.  Die  Kirschen  sind  nicht  eigen 
auf  Boden,  gedeihen  in  leichtem  und  schwerem  Erdreich  Cherry  trees  are  not  particular  with 
regard  to  the  soil  in  which  they  grow,  &c. 

\c)  As  the  end,  purpose,  design:  Der  Gelehrte  prüft  das  Erz  auf  (to  see  whether  it  contains) 
Silber.  Er  geht  auf  (in  search  of)  Abenteuer  aus.  Ich  trinke  das  auf  (to)  Ihre  Gesundheit. 
Diese  Ware  ist  auf  den  Kauf  gemacht  This  article  is  made  to  sell.  Er  reist  auf  (also  in  with  dat.; 
see  in)  Schuhe  He  is  on  the  road  with  shoes,  i.e.  travels  for  a  shoe  house.  Er  reist  auf  Baukunst 
He  travels  to  get  ideas  on  architecture.  Das  Ganze  ist  auf  eine  Überraschung  angelegt.  Wir 
bestehen  auf  seine  Absetzung.  Mich  deucht,  du  hast  nicht  gerade  auf  den  Pastor  studiert 
(Jensen's  Heimkunft,  \'II)  It  seems  to  me  that  you  didn't  exactly  study  for  the  ministry. 

{d)  As  a  basis,  as  that  upon  which  the  action  or  feeling  rests,  and  from  which  the  actor 
draws  strength,  courage,  inspiration,  or  as  the  false  basis  upon  which  a  misdoer  stands  in  order 
to  conceal  the  true  one:  Er  baut  ein  Haus  auf  dem  Berg  (place),  but  Er  baut  ein  Haus  auf  den 


382 PREPS.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE  231.  II. 

Berg  (firm  basis)  and  Er  baut  auf  ihn  He  is  counting  on,  trustiua  in  him.  Auf  seinen  Beistand 
darf  ich  rechnen.  Auf  diese  und  andere  Anklagen  hin  wurde  er  in  den  Tower  gesperrt.  Auf 
deine  Gefahr  (at  your  risk)  wage  ich  es.  Sie  bildet  sich  was  auf  ihre  Schönheit  ein  She  prides 
herself  on,  tS;c.  Es  kommt  auf  dich  an  It  depends  upon  you.  Ich  frage  dich  auf  dein  Gewissen. 
Er  hat  es  auf  eigene  Faust  getan.  Er  wagte  es  auf  (trustint;  to)  gut  Glück.  Er  machte  ein 
Gedicht  auf  Bismarck.  Es  ist  gut  auf  (in)  den  Herrn  (Lord)  vertrauen  und  sich  nicht  ver- 
lassen auf  Menschen.  Ich  kann  auf  (to)  seine  Unschuld  schwören.  Das  Kind  ist  auf  meinen 
Namen  getauft  (named  for  me).  Einer  dieser  Pässe  lautet  auf  einen  Schweizer,  den  Furier 
Koch  One  of  these  passes  is  made  out  in  the  Swiss  quarter-master  Koch's  name.  Er  war  auf 
den  Namen  Wilhelm  Schmidt  eingeschrieben  (reg:istcred  under  the  name  of,  kxc).  So  wird 
dann  freilich  der  Fürst  für  tausend  Dinge  verantwortlich  gemacht,  von  denen  er  keine  Silbe 
weiß,  und  die  ganze  Umgebung  sündigt  auf  (on  the  strength  of,  under  the  cover  of)  seinen 
Namen. 

D.  Movement  toward  leads  to  the  idea  of  some  point  of  time  or  of  some  event  in  future  time, 
and  in  general  to  the  idea  of  futurity  and  expectation  in  varied  relations  (see  an  1.  A.  (a).  Note  2) : 
Es  geht  auf  neun  It  is  going  on  nine  (o'clock).  Es  ist  drei  Viertel  auf  fünf  It  is  a  quarter  to  five. 
In  der  Nacht  von  gestern  auf  heute,  in  der  Nacht  auf  den  (or  zum)  1.  Oktober  in  the  night 
before  Oct.  1.  Man  hofft  auf  bessere  Tage.  Er  bat  mich  auf  den  Abend  zum  Essen.  Es  wird 
Regen  geben  auf  die  Nacht.  Die  Verordnung  über  die  Einberufung  des  Reichstags  auf  (on) 
den  16.  (of  next)  November  ist  amtlich  bekannt  gemacht  worden.  Meine  Frau  Pathe  (god- 
mother) habe  ich  in  meinem  Leben  nicht  gesehen,  und  Sie  können  denken,  wie  ich  mich  auf 
sie  freute  (how  glad  I  was  at  the  prospect  of  seeing  her).  Ich  beschäftigte  mich  mit  den  neuen 
Sommerkleidern,  welche  mir  die  lieben  Eltern  auf  das  (in  consideration  of  the  approaching) 
Fest  hatten  machen  lassen.  Das  Geld  nahm  er  zu  sich  auf  den  Fall,  wo  er  es  gebrauchen 
würde.  Diese  Wohnung  ist  auf  Ostern  zu  vermieten  This  house  can  be  engaged  now  for  oc- 
cupancy at  Easter.  In  early  N.H.G.  auf  was  also  used  with  reference  to  some  point  of  time 
in  the  past.     See  an,  1.  A.  (a).  Note  2. 

E.  Movement  toward  a  moving  object  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  pursuit,  and  this  leads  to  that 
of  immediate  or  rapid  succession,  and  hence  a  sequence  or  response  in  general:  Er  folgt  auf  mich 
He  succeeds  me.  Auf  Regen  folgt  Sonnenschein.  Auf  (after)  das  Essen  darf  man  keine  heftige 
Bewegung  machen.  Tropfen  auf  Tropfen  schlug  an  das  Fenster.  Blitz  auf  Blitz,  Schlag  auf 
Schlag  folgte.  Auf  die  Dauer  (in  the  long  run)  wird  die  kleinste  Last  schwer.  Er  hört  (heeds) 
nicht  auf  meine  Worte.  Er  hört  (answers)  auf  (to)  beide  Namen.  Er  antwortete  auf  meinen 
Brief.  Er  kam  auf  den  ersten  Ruf.  Die  Hausfrau  . ,  .  stach  um  so  vorteilhafter  von  der  Schwä- 
gerin ab,  welche  auf  den  lieblichen  Ruf  iby  the  title  of)  Fräulein  ging  (Raabe's  Hungerpastor, 
XIII). 

(a)  From  this  idea  comes  that  of  following  the  will  or  desire  of  another,  closely  related  in 
meaning  to  nach  and  gemäß :  Ich  habe  es  auf  (in  accordance  with)  Ihren  Befehl,  auf  Ihren  Wunsch 
getan.     Auf  (upon)  seinen  Antrag  erfolgte  Freisprechung. 

{b)  As  that  which  follows  upon  something  is  often  that  which  is  caused  by  it,  auf  with  its 
dependent  noun  is  often  considered  as  a  cause:  Mehrere  Leute  liefen  nun  auf  (alarmed  by) 
den  Lärm  gleichfalls  aus  dem  Felde,  Der  Graf  hatte  mit  Bedauern  vernommen,  daß  sein 
Dienstmann  einen  Bürger  auf  (provoked  by)  so  geringfügigen  Anlaß  geschlagen  habe.  Der 
Baum  fällt  nicht  auf  einen  Hieb. 

F.  The  limit  up  to  which  something  may  extend,  sometimes  taken  inclusively,  sometimes 
exclusively:  Er  ist  auf  den  Tod  verwundet.  Ich  bin  elend,  auf  mein  ganzes  Leben  elend.  Er 
quälte  mich  (bis)  aufs  Blut  (almost  to  death).  Er  will  nur  auf  (for)  einen  Tag  fortgehen.  Er 
verließ  uns  auf  vierzehn  Tage.  Auf  Wiedersehen!  good-by  tili  we  see  one  another  again!  Bei 
dem  ungewissen  Schein  des  Neumonds  konnte  man  kaum  auf  fünf  Schritte  vor  sich  sehen. 
Er  weiß  es  aufs  Haar  or  auf  ein  Haar  (accurately).  Es  kostet  auf  (as  high  as)  100  Taler.  Man 
schätzt  die  Zahl  sämtlicher"  Rumänen  (Rumanians)  auf  (at)  10  Millionen.  Sometimes  after 
bis:  Er  trank  das  Glas  bis  auf  die  Neige  (excluded)  aus.  Alle  seine  Freunde  verließen  ihn 
bis  auf  (except)  einen. 

G.  A  trend  in  a  certain  direction  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  manner:  Auf  diese  Art,  auf  diese 
Weise  wird  er  sem  Ziel  erreichen.  Er  empfing  mich  aufs  freundlichste.  Sie  fechten  auf  den 
Hieb  (with  broad-swords).  Er  bezahlt  es  auf  Abschlag  (making  payments  from  time  to  time). 
Er  sagte  es  auf  (in)  Deutsch.  Wollen  wir  die  Droschke  auf  Zeit  (auf  die  Stunde)  oder  auf 
die  Fahrt  nehmen?  Shall  we  hire  the  cab  by  the  hour  or  for  the  trip.  Aufs  Geratewohl  at  random, 
auf  jeden  Fall  in  any  case,  auf  keinen  Fall. 

Hole,  \yith  superlatives  both  an  and  auf  denote  manner,  but  as  an  with  the  dat.  denotes  arrival  at  the  goal,  while 
auf  w.  ace.  indicates  only  a  movemenu  toward  the  goal  itself,  the  latter  is  more  general,  and  hence  its  use  with  the 
absolute  superlative  of  the  adverb,  while  the  former  is  used  with  the  relative  superlative.     See  114.  2  and  3. 

H._  Used  distributively  to  show  that  which  is  alotted  to,  falls  to  the  share  of:  Die  Steuern 
verteilen  sich  folgendermaßen  (are  distributed  as  follows  among)  auf  die  einzelnen  Provinzen. 
Erne  Steigung  von  1  Fuß  auf  jede  100.  Die  Pariser  essen  angeblich  zu  viel  Fleisch,  jährlich 
93  Kilogramm  auf  den  Kopf  {Ilanih.  Nachr.).  Er  verteilte  den  Vorrat  auf  viermal  He  divided 
the  rations  so  as  to  make  enough  for  four  different  times.  Er  aß  alles  auf  (at)  einmal.  Er  wurde 
auf  einmal  wieder  lustig. 

I.  rhe  idea  of  resting  something  on  something  else  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  an  underlying 
condttton:  Man  nimmt  einen  Koch,  Bedienten  auf  Probe  (on  condition  that  he  gives  satisfaction). 
Em  Kauf  auf  Besicht,  auf  Probe  (subject  to  examination). 

AUSZER.      1.    With  the  dative: 


231.  II. PREPS.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE 383 

(a)  Position  on  the  outside  of  an  object  or  place  which  has  fixed  limits,  once  frequent,  but 
now  usually  replaced  by  außerhalb  with  gen.,  and  in  case  of  greater  removal  from  the  oljject 
aus  with  dat.:  Die  öffentlichen  Predigten  sogar  außer  (for  außerhalb)  der  Stadt  zu  verhindern 
(Schiller).  Ich  bin  verschiedene  Tage  außer  (for  aus)  Leipzig  gewesen  (I^essing).  Sie  gehen 
in  dem  Räume  außer  dem  Zelte  (for  außerhalb  des  Zeltes)  quer  über  die  Bühne  (Grillparzer's 
Der  Traum,  ein  Leben,  3}. 

Note.  In  a  few  set  expressions  außer  is  still  used  where  the  position  is  entirely  indefinite  and  general,  oul  of  doors, 
out:   Sie  arbeiten  außer  dem  Hause  (out  of  doors).     Wir  speisen  heute  außer  dem  Hause  VVe  dine  out  to-day. 

{h)  The  figurative  application  of  the  meaning  out  of,  outside  of,  beyond,  now  very  common, 
as  außerhalb  by  reason  of  its  accurate  local  meaning  is  not  usually  applicable  here:  Sie  ist  darüber 
außer  {beside)  sich.  Ich  habe  mich  ganz  in  mich  zurückgezogen  und  habe  keine  Wünsche  außer 
mir  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  II,  3).  Der  Kranke  ist  außer  (beyond)  Gefahr.  Seid  außer 
(without)  Furcht,  ich  bin  zugegen.  Es  ist  außer  (beyond)  allem  Zweifel.  Er  ist  außer  stände, 
(not  able)  es  zu  tun.     Außer  Hörweite,  außer  Schußweite. 

Note.     Also  außerhalb  is  here  used  when  a  definite  limit  is  to  be  expressed:    Das  liegt  außerhalb  des  Planes. 

(c)  Exclusion,  except  (in  this  meaning  also  used  as  a  conj.;  see  225.  2.  and  a  thereunder): 
Alle  waren  zugegen  außer  dir. 

(d)  Excess,  besides:  Er  verlangt  außer  dem  Lohne  auch  gute  Behandlung.  Er  ist  dumm 
und  außerdem  faul. 

2.  With  the  ace.  with  verbs  of  motion.  The  grammarians  often  demand  the  dat.  here  in 
accordance  with  older  usage,  but  the  ace.  is  not  infrequently  found  after  the  analogy  of  other 
prepositions,  which  take  the  ace.  with  verbs  of  motion:  Da  ich  sie  mit  solcher  Wahrheit  reden 
hörte,  kam  ich  ganz  außer  mich  (Goethe).  Du  bist  nun  außer  unsere  Gemeinschaft  gestellt 
(G.  Keller).  The  older  dat.  is  also  still  used:  Was  mich  so  außer  mir  brachte,  war,  &c.  (Spiel- 
hagen's  Selbstgerecht,  p.  6G).  The  acc.  has  become  well  established  in  certain  expressions:  außer 
allen  Zweifel  or  Streit  setzen  or  stellen,  außer  den  Stand  setzen,  &c. 

3.  With  the  gen.  formerly,  and  still  found  with  the  gen.  of  Land  and  Haus  in  a  few  set  expres- 
sions: Er  ist,  geilt,  reist  außer  Landes  (in  a  foreign  country).  Wußten  Sie,  daß  ich  außer  Hauses 
war?  (Marriot's  Der  geistliche  Tod,  chap.  x).  Sometimes  elsewhere  under  the  influence  of  außer- 
halb: Da  aber,  außer  des  selig  weinenden  Kreises,  sprach  plötzlich  eine  Stimme,  vor  derem 
(151.  1.  c)  Schmerzensklange  ich  erbebte  (Anselm  Heine's  Eine  Gabe,  Brockendorf  im  Lehrer- 
Häuschen). 

HINTER.     1.    With  the  dative: 

(a)  Position,  behind,  back  of,  beyond,  from  behind:  Der  Hund  liegt  hinter  dem  Ofen.  Der 
Hof  liegt  hinter  dem  Hause.  Wir  ritten  hinter  ihm  her  We  rode  along  behind  him.  Die  Stadt 
liegt  hinter  (beyond)  dem  Gebirge.  Sie  drehte  den  Schlüssel  hinter  ihm  zu  She  turned  the  key 
on  him.  Er  zog  die  Tür  hinter  sich  zu  He  pulled  the  door  to  after  him.  Der  Sekretär  zog  die 
Feder  hinter  dem  Ohr  hervor.  Figuratively:  Er  hat  es  hinter  den  Ohren  He  is  sly.  Er  hält 
hinter  dem  Berge  He  conceals  his  views.  Hinter  der  Sache  ist  etwas  Something  is  at  the  bot- 
tom of  all  this.  Er  bleibt  hinter  seiner  Zeit  zurück.  Hinter  deinem  Rücken  wird  viel  Wahr- 
heit über  dich  gesprochen.  Er  hat  eine  schwere  Zeit  hinter  sich  He  has  passed  thru  hard  times. 
Ich  möchte  es  hinter  mir  haben  I  should  like  to  have  it  over  with.  Er  hat  mehr  hinter  sich, 
als  man  meint  There  is  more  in  (or  to)  him,  &c. 

(b)  Pursuit,  or  when  compounded  with  such  adverbs  as  drain  and  her,  also  time  after,  and  thus 
closely  related  to  nach:  Der  Hund  fuhr  wie  besessen  hinter  (after)  dem  Tiere  drein.  Ging 
ein  ehrsamer  Bürger  auffallend  raschen  Schrittes  durch  die  Straße,  flugs  sprang  Thasso  (name 
of  a  dog)  hinterdrein  (after  him).  Er  ist  hinter  dem  Gelde  her  He  is  after  money.  Er  hat  es 
mir  hinterdrein  (afterwards)  gesagt. 

(c)  Succession  (see  in  229.  2  the  prep,  nach,  d.  Note)  after:   Er  kam  hinter  mir. 

2.  With  the  acc.  after  verbs  denoting  a  direction  toward: 

(a)  Movement  toward  a  position  behind  or  back  of  something:  Der  Hund  legte  sich  hinter 
den  Ofen.  Sie  hetzten  (set)  Hunde  hinter  (on)  ihn.  Figuratively:  Der  Schüler  geht  hinter 
die  Schule  (plays  truant).  Er  schreibt  sich's  hinter  die  Öhren  He  marks  it  well.  Ich  komme 
hinter  das  Geheimnis  I  shall  find  out  the  secret.  Er  spannt  die  Pferde  hinter  den  Wagen  He 
puts  the  cart  before  the  horses.     Er  führt  mich  hinters  Licht  Fle  deceives  me. 

Note.  Once  more  common  than  now  was  the  combination  hinter  sich  in  the  sense  of  bacltwards:  Er  fiel  hinter 
sich.     Die  Heirat  ist  hinter  sich  gegangen  The  matcli  has  been  brolien  off. 

(b)  Repetition:    fünfmal  hintereinander  five  times  running. 

3.  In  Austrian  and  Bavarian  authors  hinter  is  found  also  with  the  genitive,  both  with  verbs 
of  rest  and  motion,  more  commonly,  however,  with  pronouns  than  nouns:  Setze  dich  hinter 
meiner  (M.  Jokay,  Andere  Zeiten,  2,  45).  Und  schimpfen  s'  net  her  hinter  deiner?  (Ganghofer's 
Der  Dorfapostel,  v),  but  Keiner  sieht  net,  was  hinterm  Mäuerl  is  (ib.). 

IN.  "l.  With  the  dat.  it  denotes  rest  or  motion  within  a  given  thing,  or  on  a  surface  within 
the  given  limits  which  form  its  boundary,  corresponding  thus  in  general  quite  closely  to  the  Eng. 
in  or  within,  also  in  their  figurative  applications,  hence  not  treated  here  in  detail:  Er  sitzt,  ar- 
beitet in  dem  Hause.  Er  steckt  tief  in  Schulden.  In  acht  Tagen  reise  ich  ab.  In  (within) 
einem  Monat  wird  alles  fertig  sein.  For  certain  idiomatic  differences  here  between  the  two 
languages  see  auf,  1.  B.Note. 

German  in  often  corresponds  to  both  English  in  (containing  the  idea  of  a  bounded  space)  or 
at  (representing  a  space  in  general  as  only  a  point  where  something  takes  place):  seine  Woh- 
nung in  Weimar  his  residence  in  W^eimar,  seine  Ankunft  in  Weimar  his  arrival  at  Weimar;  in 
einem  Augenblick  in  a  moment,  in  demselben  Augenblick  at  the  same  moment,  &c.     Of  course 


384 PREPS.  WITH  DATI\  E   OR   ACCUSATIVE  231.  II. 

there  are  many  other  idiomatic  differences:    im  Durchschnitt  on  an  average,  in  Geschäften  on 
business,  in  Eilmärschen  by  forced  marches,  in  den  letzten  Jahren  of  late  years.     Er  reist  in 
(also  auf  with  ace.)  Petroleum  und  tausend  anderen  Sachen  He  is  on  the  road  selling  &c. 
2.     With  the  accusative: 

(a)  Expressing  a  motion  toward  a  position  within  something,  corresponding  quite  closely 
to  English  into,  but  sometimes  translated  by  I'n,  to:  Ich  komme  in  das  Haus.  Er  fiel  ins 
Wasser.  Er  ging  in  den  Garten.  Translated  by  in:  ins  Fäustchen  lachen  to  laugh  in  one's 
sleeve.  Ich  steckte  es  in  die  Tasche.  English  in  is  often  used,  not  only  to  express  rest  or 
motion  in  a  bounded  space,  but  also  to  denote  the  direction  toward  an  object  or  thing:  The  pen 
is  in  the  ink  and  /  dip  the  pen  in  ink.  The  German  uniformly  employs  in  with  the  ace.  to  denote 
motion  toward  an  object.  Translated  by  to:  Ich  gehe  in  die  Stube  meiner  Schwester.  Ich 
gehe  in  die  Oper,  Schule,  Kirche,  ins  Theater,  in  die  Schweiz  (Switzerland).  In  numerous 
figurative  applications  variously  translated:  Ein  famoser  Junge  ist  glücklich  da.  Wiegt  stark 
ins  achte  Pfund  hinein,  der  kleine  Kerl.  Schicke  dich  in  andere  Leute  Adapt  yourself  to  other 
people.  Er  fiel  mir  in  die  Rede  He  interrupted  me.  Er  willigt  in  alles  He  consents  to  anything. 
Er  ist  in  diese  Dame  verliebt  He  is  in  love  with  this  lady.  Er  ist  mir  in  den  Tod  verhaßt  I  have 
a  mortal  antipathy  to  him.  Die  (i.e.  Komplimente)  kann  ich  in  den  Tod  nicht  leiden  (W.  He- 
geler's  Pastor  Klinghammer). 

Note.  Before  names  of  places  having  no  article  nach  is  used  to  express  direction  toward,  while  before  names  of 
places  that  have  an  article  and  can  thus  by  their  accusative  form  indicate  clearly  direction  toward  in  is  still  used: 
nach  Berlin  to  Berlin,  nach  Deutschland  to  Germany,  but  in  die  Türkei  to  Turkey,  in  das  geliebte  Deutschland.  In 
early  N.H.G.  in  could  also  be  used  before  articleless  names  of  countries. 

(b)  Direction  of  measurement  or  of  an  activity  in  general:  Die  Stube  hat  achtzehn  Fuß  in 
die  Länge  und  vierzehn  in  die  Breite.  Zehn  Fuß  in  die  Höhe,  ins  Gevierte  (square),  bis  in 
das  Einzelne  to  the  minutest  detail.  Er  klettert  in  die  Höhe  He  is  climbing  up.  In  some  ex- 
pressions the  dative  is  also  used  here  with  a  slight  shade  of  meaning,  namely,  expressing  the 
idea  of  extent  within  a  given  direction:    Das  Haus  hat  achtzig  Fuß  in  der  Höhe. 

(c)  Applied  to  time  usually  preceded  by  bis,  except  in  figurative  expressions:  Er  spielte 
bis  spät  in  die  Nacht,  Er  bleibt  mir  treu  bis  in  den  Tod.  Er  geht  ins  zehnte  Jahr  He  is  going 
on  ten. 

(d)  With  reference  to  materials,  in:    Er  arbeitet  in  Gold,  in  Silber. 

(e)  An  approximate  judgment  as  to  weight,  magnitude,  &c.,  with  a  more  general  and  In- 
definite meaning  than  an  or  gegen,  and  besides  much  less  common,  usually  like  an  with  the 
definite  article,  about:  Judas  schlug  die  Gottlosen  ]  vnd  bracht  jr  in  die  dreissig  tausent  vmb 
(II  Maccabees  xii.  23).  Sometimes  the  dative  is  also  used  here  with  a  slight  shade  of  difference, 
namely,  expressing  the  idea  of  an  indefinite  extent  within  certain  limits:  Es  ist  in  den  zwanzig 
Tausenden,  was  er  schuldig  ist. 

INPfER,  and  in  Switzerland  also  in  the  form  iimert,  within,  inside  of,  a  preposition  now  little 
used,  governing  sometimes  the  gen.,  sometimes  the  dat.  or  ace,  according  to  circumstances: 
inner  der  Grenzen  der  Wahrheit  (Grillparzer),  iimer  des  Hoftores  (T.  Storm's  Zur  Chronik  von 
Crieshiius,  p.  113),  innert  einer  Stunde  (Pestalozzi),  ruft  inner  dem  Schloßtore  (Grillparzer's 
Ottokar,  4),  inner  diesen  Wänden  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap,  x),  innert  vierzehn  Tagen 
{Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Aug.  20,  1904),  inner  die  Grenzen  aufnehmen  (J.  von  Müller). 

NEBEN  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  bei'neben  and  be'neben,  usually,  however,  only  in  the  dative 
relation)  with  dat.  or  ace.  standing  before  the  noun,  occasionally  in  the  form  zu'neben  with 
the  dat.,  also  following  the  noun:  Vor  dem  Sarge  geht  der  Kaplan  in  Barett  und  Mantel,  ihm 
zuneben  der  Sigrist  mit  dem  Weihwedel  und  dem  heiligen  Wasser  (Ernst  Zahn's  Wie  dem 
Kaplan  Longinus  die  Welt  aufging). 

1.  With  the  dative: 

(a)  Expressing  rest  or  motion  alongside  of  something:  Er  sitzt,  geht  neben  mir.  Er  wohnt 
neben  (next  door  to)  meinem  Bruder. 

{b)  In  its  figurative  application,  in  addition  to:  Mancher  Kaufmann  hat  neben  einem  Tabaks- 
geschäft auch  noch  ein  Weingeschäft. 

(c)  Passing  alongside  of  without  hitting,  hence  missing  the  mark:  Das  geht  neben  der 
Wahrheit  vorbei.     Er  ist  daneben  gekommen  He  didn't  get  anything. 

2.  With  the  ace.  to  express  motion  toward  the  side  of  something:  Er  setzte  sich  neben 
mich.     Er  hat  sein  Haus  neben  das  meinige  gebaut. 

_  3.  Formerly  also  with  gen.,  and  still  occasionally  found  with  this  case  in  Austrian  and  Bava- 
rian dialects,  especially  before  a  pronoun :  Z'neb'n  meiner  Tag  über  |  geht's  vorbei  z'  Roß  und 
z'  Fuß  (Anzengruber's  Die  Kreuzelschreiber,  1,  5). 

OBER,  a  S.G.  form  for  über,  originally  only  with  the  dat.,  but  now  sometimes  also  with  the 
ace.  like  über:  Da  schau'  ich  auf  und  ober  mir  fliegt  ein  Adler  (Byr).  Sein  Schnurrbart  war 
ober  die  Lippe  hinaufgestrichen  (Silberstein's  Dorfsclnmlben,  2,  87).  Ober  uns  gebreitet  |  dies 
blauende  Gewölbe    (Schnitzler's  Der  Schleier  der  Beatrice,  p.   141). 

ÜBER  (with  Luther  vber),  in  M.H.G.  only  with  the  ace,  but  in  the  present  period  also  with 
the  dat.,  as  it  in  this  function  has  gradually  supplanted  older  ob  and  ober. 

1.    With  the  dative: 

(a)  Position  above  something  without  contact,  over,  above:  Der  Vogel  schwebt  über  dem 
Dache.  Er  liegt  immer  über  den  Büchern.  Ich  bin  eben  über  (occupied  with)  der  Verpackung. 
Figuratively  of  social  position:  Sie  steht  über  ihm. 

Note.  The  idea  of  place  often  miiiRles  with  that  of  cause  (see  2.  E  below)  and  hence  the  dat,  or  ace.  is  used  ac- 
cordmg  as  the  idea  of  position  or  that  of  cause  is  more  prominent:  Und  noch  jetzt  scheint  sie  (i.e.  die  Natur)  mit 
derselben  Sorgfalt  über  ihm  (now  usually  ihn  as  the  idea  of  cause  is  now  in  general  felt  as  more  prominent  in  such 


231.  II. PREPS.  WITH  DATI\^E  OR  ACCUSATIVE 385 

cases)  zu  wachen,  mit  der  sein  Auge  sein  kleines  Gärtchen  übersieht  (Ludwig's  Zwischen  Himmel  und  Erde).     Sollte 
ein  Kommissar  über  die  Ausführung  .  .  .  wachen  (  Ranke's  Päpste,  2,  56). 

{b)  Position  that  can  be  reached  only  by  going  over  something  =  jenseits,  over,  on  the  other 
side  of:    Er  wohnt  über  der  Elbe. 

(r)  Contemporaneity,  closely  connected  with  während,  unter,  during,  at:  Er  sprach  über 
der  Mahlzeit,  über  Tische  davon.  Ich  konnte  über  dem  Geschrei  (while  the  noise  was  being 
made)  nichts  hören. 

Note.  In  the  last  sentence  the  idea  of  cause  seems  to  mingle  with  that  of  time.  The  usual  rule  in  this  case  is  that 
the  dat.  emphasi  es  the  idea  of  contemporaneity,  the  ace.  that  of  cause:  Ich  erwachte  über  (while  the  noise  was 
going  oni  dem  Lärm,  or  über  (on  account  of)  den  Lärm.  Except  in  the  case  of  aufstehen,  sich  erheben,  erwachen, 
nichts  hören,  vergessen,  vernachlässigen,  which,  perhaps,  more  commonly  prefer  the  dat.  both  in  the  temporal  and 
causal  meaning,  the  actual  practice  of  good  authors  seems  to  take  little  note  of  this  rule,  as  the  ace.  is  usually  found, 
the  idea  of  cause  beine  in  general  more  prominent.  In  Und  über  das  Versäumnis  haben  euch  die  Spanier  das 
Netz  über  die  Ohren  gezogen  (  Egmonl,  2)  Goethe  emphasizes  the  idea  of  cause,  and  uses  tlie  ace.  where  to-day  the 
idea  of  contemporaneity  seems  more  prominent  and  the  employment  of  the  dat.  more  common. 

2.     With  the  accusative: 

A.  Denoting  motion  toward  a  point  above  something:  Der  Adler  erhebt  sich  über  die 
Wolken. 

(a)  A  heaping  up  of  something  over  something  else,  hence  repetition,  upon,  after:  Er  häufte 
eine  Sünde  über  die  andere.     Ich  habe  ihn  einmal  über  das  andere  gewarnt. 

(b)  Superiority:  Der  Major  geht  über  den  Hauptmann  A  major  is  higher  than  a  captain. 
Zufriedenheit  geht  über  Reichtum. 

B.  Diffusion  or  extension  over  a  given  surface,  usually  with  contact:  Sie  breitet  den  Tep- 
pich über  den  Fußboden.  Das  Wasser  geht  über  die  Wiesen.  Der  Schweiß  floß  über  sein 
Gesicht.  Er  war  über  den  ganzen  Leib  wund,  naß.  Figuratively:  Unglück  kommt  über  mich. 
Er  fiel  über  mich  her  He  pitched  into  me  (abused  me). 

(a)  Power,  authority,  supervision  over  a  given  domain,  field:  Cäsar  herrschte  über  die 
Römer.  Bei  Leipzig  siegten  die  Verbündeten  über  die  Franzosen.  Der  König  über  das  Land, 
der  Aufseher  über  die  Arbeiter. 

(b)  Mental  activity  directed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cover  the  matter  in  question,  on,  about: 
Dr.  Hermann  Baumgart  hat  ein  Buch  über  Goethes  „Faust"  geschrieben.  Professor  Schmidt 
liest  (lectures)  über  Elektrizität.  Ich  spreche  über  (at  some  length,  while  von  may  imply  mere 
mention)  etwas.  Er  weiß  manches  darüber  He  knows  a  good  deal  about  it.  Compare  von, 
c  in  229.  2. 

C.  A  passing  over  and  beyond  a  certain  limit:  Der  Vogel  flog  über  das  Haus.  Figuratively: 
Das  geht  über  meinen  Verstand,  meine  Begriffe,  meinen  Horizont,  ^c.  Ich  kann  es  nicht 
übers  Herz  bringen.     Er  lebt  über  seine  Verhältnisse  (beyond  his  means). 

(a)  A  passing  by  or  thru,  and  then  beyond,  via:   Er  reist  über  Hambiu"g  nach  London. 

(b)  Excess  in  amount,  weight,  measure,  number,  &c.,  over,  above,  fnore  than,  upivards  of: 
Er  gab  über  sein  Vermögen  (more  than  his  wealth  justified  him  in  giving).  Sie  ist  über  alle 
Beschreibung  schön.  Es  waren  über  fünfzig  Personen  da.  Die.  Rede  dauerte  über  eine 
Stunde.  Das  ist  über  meine  Kraft.  Das  geht  über  meine  Kräfte.  Über'dies  (in  the  eighteenth 
century  sometimes  über'dem,  after  the  analogy  of  zu'dem)  moreover. 

D.  Of  time: 

(o)  Represents  a  future  event  as  to  take  place  after  the  close  of  a  given  period  of  time:  Heute 
über  acht  Tage  (a  week  from  to-day)  werde  ich  wieder  kommen.  Thus  heute  übers  Jahr,  or 
without  heute,  übers  Jahr,  heute  über  drei  Wochen,  übermorgen  day  after  to-morrow,  &'c. 
Formerly  also  with  reference  to  past  time,  after:  Darnach  vber  drey  jar  |  kam  ich  gen  Jerusalem 
(Gal.  i.  18). 

{b)     Excess  of  time:   über  (more  than)  eine  Woche,  über  ein  Jahr,  &c. 

(c)  In  a  few  expressions,  duration,  the  prep,  standing  in  case  of  Nacht  before,  with  other 
words  after  the  noun:   Er  blieb  über  Nacht.     Den  ganzen  Sommer  über  war  ich  auf  dem  Lande. 

E.  Cause:  Man  soll  sich  nie  über  das  Unglück  eines  Menschen  freuen.  Ich  erstaunte 
über  (at)  diese  plötzliche  Erscheinung.  Earlier  in  the  period  we  find  also  the  dative  here: 
Vnd  er  .  .  .  war  betrübet  vber  jrem  verstockten  Hertzen  (Mark  iii.  5). 

Note.  Also  an  w.  dat.  denotes  cause.  The  difference  between  an  and  über  in  this  respect  is  in  general  that  an 
denotes,  in  accordance  with  its  meaning  of  a  close  approach  or  contact,  a  closer  and  more  intimate  relation  than  über: 
Er  starb  an  einer  Nervenkrankheit.     Man  lacht  über  einen  guten  Witz. 

UNTER.     1.     With  the  dative: 

A.  A  position  below,  under  something:  Der  Hund  liegt  unter  dem  Ofen.  Der  Hund  fuhr 
bellend  unter  {from  under)  der  Bank  hervor.  Figuratively:  In  der  Kenntnis  des  Lateinischen 
stehe  ich  unter  ihm. 

(a)  Dependence,  subordination:    Der  Lehrling  steht  unter  der  Leitung  des  Meisters. 

(b)  Below  a  certain  degree,  number,  value,  <S;c.:  Unter  fünfzig  Mark  kann  ich  die  Ware 
nicht  geben.  An  manchen  Orten  blieb  die  Teilnahme  unter  der  Erwartung.  Ein  Kind  unter 
zehn  Jahren.     Das  ist  unter  (beneath)  aller  Kritik. 

(f)  Contemporaneity:  Manche  schlafen  unter  der  Predigt  ein.  Unter  Karls  V.  Regierung 
war  Antwerpen  die  lebendigste  und  herrlichste  Stadt  in  der  Welt. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  unter  is  während.  The  latter  usually  expresses  duration,  while  unter  may  denote  also 
only  a  point  of  time:   Der  Sakristan  schlief  während  der  Predigt,  but  Er  ging  unter  der  Predigt  hinaus. 

(d)  Very  commonly  used  to  add  some  attendant  circumstance:  Der  Kranke  verschied  unter 
(in)  heftigen  Schmerzen.  Ich  wollte  ihn  unter  vier  Augen  sprechen.  Ich  lieh  ihm  das  Geld 
unter  (on)  dieser  Bedingung.     Er  tat  es  unter  meinem  Namen. 


386 PREPS.   WITH    DATIVE   OR   ACCUSATIVE  231.  II. 

(e)  Cause,  under:  Sie  seufzten  unter  dem  Drucke  der  Herrschaft.  Seine  Gesundheit  hat 
unter  der  fortwährenden  Aufregung  gelitten. 

(/)  Classification,  under  the  head  of,  by:  Unter  „Arm"  lesen  wir  usw.  We  find  (in  the  diction- 
ary) under  the  head  of  "arm,"  &c.  Was  verstehen  Sie  imter  diesem  Ausdruck?  What  do  you 
mean  by  this  expression? 

B.  Position  in  the  midst  of,  among  (see  Note  2  under  zwischen):  Ich  saß  unter  den  Zuschau- 
em. Es  steht  viel  Unkraut  unter  dem  Weizen.  Unter  zwei  Übeln  muß  man  das  kleinere 
wählen. 

C.  Often  used  instead  of  a  partitive  gen.:  Unter  (of)  allen  Getränken  ist  Wasser  das  ge- 
sündeste.    See  also  141.  2.  Note. 

2.  With  the  accusative: 

A.  Movement  to  a  point  below  or  under  something:  Der  Hund  legte  sich  unter  die  Bank. 
Wir  setzten  uns  unter  den  Baum.  Er  wurde  in  der  Schule  unter  (in  rank)  seinen  Bruder  ge- 
setzt. 

(a)  Change  to  a  condition  of  dependence,  subordination:  Unter  dieses  Joch  wird  man  euch 
beugen.     Sie  stellten  den  Verbrecher  xmter  die  Aufsicht  der  Polizei. 

B.  ]\Io\-ement  toward  a  position  in  the  midst  of  something,  among:  Ich  setzte  mich  unter 
die  Zuschauer. 

(c)  A  belonging  to  a  group:  Der  ICrieg  gehört  unter  die  größten  Übel.  Ich  zähle  ihn  unter 
meine  Freunde. 

{b)     Distribution:    Der  Wohltätige  verteilt  Geld  unter  die  Armen. 

C.  An  interruption  of  an  act:  „Du,"  sagte  Georg  unters  Essen  hinein,  ,,muß  dir  was  sagen," 
&c.   (Anna  Schieber's  Alle  guten  Geister,  p.  53). 

3.  With  the  genitive  in  unter'dessen  in  the  meant-ime,  while,  and  sometimes  in  a  few  expres- 
sions of  time:  unter  Essens  (Adelung)  during  the  meal.  In  der  Wohnung  war  auch  viel  Be- 
such unter  Tags  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  iv). 

VOR.     1.    With  the  dative: 

(ö)  Position  in  front  of,  in  front  of,  before,  in  the  sight  of,  at  the  siege  of:  Der  Hund  liegt  vor 
der  Haustür.  Der  Verbrecher  erschien  vor  dem  Richter.  Vor  Gott  und  der  Welt  strafbar 
guilty  in  the  sight  of  God  and  the  world.  Er  fiel  vor  Richmond.  Activity  or  motion  in  front 
of:   Er  redete  vor  einer  großen  Versammlung.     Sie  haben  ihn  vor  unserm  Haus  vorbeigetragen. 

(b)  Surpassing  in  degree,  rank,  value,  hence  also  precedence:  Sie  war  vor  allen  die  Schönste. 
Er  hat  mich  vor  (more  than)  allen  anderen  beleidigt.  Vor  allen  Dichtem  gebührt  ihm  der  Preis. 
Er  hat  vieles  vor  seinem  Bruder  voraus  He  has  many  advantages  over  his  brother. 

(c)  Applied  to  time,  before,  ago,  since,  back,  prior,  ahead  of:  Er  kam  vor  seinem  Herrn  an. 
Er  kam  vor  mir,  vor  meiner  Ankunft.  Der  Braten  kam  vor  dem  Gemüse.  Ein  Viertel  vor 
6  Uhr,  vor  einiger  Zeit  some  time  ago,  vor  nun  zehn  Jahren  now  ten  years  since,  vor  einigen 
Jahren  a  few  years  back,  vor  (prior)  der  Einführung  der  Gaslaternen.  Moses  lebte  vor  Christus. 
Du  kommst  vor  (ahead  of)  der  Zeit. 

(d)  Reference  to  something  which  stands  before  one  in  such  a  manner  or  condition  as  to 
cause  fright,  horror,  aversion,  or  from  which  one  must  defend  or  protect  one's  self:  Das  Kind 
fürchtet  sich  (is  afraid  of)  vor  dem  Hunde.  Manche  haben  Ekel  vor  halbrohem  Fleisch.  Dem 
Feigen  ist  bange  vor  dem  Tode.  Er  flieht  vor  (from)  dem  Feinde.  Ich  habe  kein  Geheimnis 
vor  Ihnen.  Nimm  dich  vor  ihm  in  acht.  Warme  Kleider  schützen  vor  Kälte.  Ich  warnte 
ihn  vor  dem  Menschen.  See  also  aus,  /  in  229.  2.  Also  awe  or  respect:  Achtung  vor  einem 
or  etwas  haben. 

(e)  Cause  in  a  number  of  set  expressions,  for,  on  account  of,  tuith:  Man  kaim  vor  Schmerz 
und  vor  Freude  weinen.  Das  Herz  schlug  mir  vor  banger  Erwartung.  Er  konnte  vor  Schmerz 
nicht  schlafen.  Er  kommt  vor  Geschäften  nicht  zu  sich  selbst.  Er  sieht  den  Wald  vor  lauter 
Bäumen  nicht.     Er  ist  rot  vor  (with)  Zorn. 

2.  With  the  accusative  to  express  motion  toward  a  point  or  position  before  something,  literally 
and  figuratively:  Der  Hund  legt  sich  vor  die  Haustür.  Er  spannt  die  Pferde  vor  den  Wagen. 
Man  bringt  die  Sache  vor  den  Richter.  Komm  mir  nicht  wieder  vors  Gesicht,  vor  die  Augen. 
Er  wirft  seine  Perlen  vor  die  Säue.  Er  tritt  vor  den  Riß  (breach).  Er  sprach  vor  sich  hin  He 
talked  to  himself.     For  Schritt  vor  Schritt  see  für,  b  in  230. 

ZWISCHEN  with  the  dat.  or  ace.  according  as  rest  or  movement  toward  is  expressed,  cor- 
responding in  meaning  to  English  between:  Sie  saß  zwischen  mir  und  ihrem  Bruder.  Er  ist 
zwischen  20  bis  30  Jahren  alt.  Sie  setzte  sich  zwischen  mich  und  ihren  Bruder.  \Mien  it  is 
a  question  of  movement  or  motion  between  objects  on  both  sides,  zwischen  with  the  dat.  is 
used,  often  in  connection  with  some  adverb  as  hin,  durch,  &c. :  Zwischen  den  Kirchenstühlen 
hin  schritten  sie  wieder  auf  den  Ausgang  zu  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  IV,  chap.  xxv).  Und 
schnell  und  machtlos  fällt  der  König  des  Gebirges  (i.e.  der  Adler)  zwischen  dem  Weg  und  dem 
Wald  auf  die  grüne  Matte  (Heer's  Der  König  der  Bernina,  II). 

•  ^°i^  ^'  u  '\'®°  ^^^  *^^"  ^'^  "^^'^  °^  *^^°  instead  of  zwischen,  if  tlie  noun  is  found  in  the  plural  in  a  collective  sense 
including  both  parties,  but  never  if  two  nouns  are  taken  separately:  Es  entstand  ein  Streit  zwischen  dem  Manne 
und  der  Frau,  or  zwischen  beiden  Eheleuten,  or  unter  den  Eheleuten. 

■^"•f  j-o:  2^!S<^h«'i  '^"^'s.  not  mean  exclusively  between  two  objects,  but  mav  also  refer  to  more  than  two.  In  this 
case.  It  ditters  from  unter  in  that  the  latter  indicates  a  confused  mingling,  a  mass,  while  the  former  infers  that  the 
ditterent  objects  in  the  «roup  are  homogeneous,  and  hence  the  introduction  of  a  foreign  object  into  their  midst  gives 
rise  to  the  Idea  of  a  twotold  division:  Ein  Schwärm  Spatzen  stob  mit  erbostem,  endlosem  Gezwitscher  auseinander, 
wie  sie  zwischen  sie  fuhr  (Ilse  Frapan's  Mamsell  Biene).  Sein  BUck  streifte  den  jungen  Gelehrten,  der  so  vergnügt 
zwischen  der  ehrsamen  Schneiderfamilie  saß.  Also  as  in  English  to  express  the  idea  of  /KJmd«a/ relations  between 
more  than  two:   Verkehr  zwischen  Nationen. 


233.  A. CLASSIFICATION   OF   CONJUNCTIONS 387 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Definition  and  Classification. 

232.  1.  A  conjunction  is  a  particle  used  to  connect  sentences  or  the  ele- 
ments of  a  sentence.  Conjunctions  are  divided,  as  in  English,  into  co-ordinating 
and  subordinating. 

2.  Classification,  however,  as  to  their  influence  upon  word-order  in  the  sen- 
tence is  a  better  method  of  grouping  conjunctions  for  practical  reasons.  The 
particular  word-order  required  by  certain  classes  of  conjunctions  is  in  part 
explained  by  their  origin  and  development.  Originally  a  number  of  conjunc- 
tions were  demonstrative  pronouns  or  prepositional  phrases  containing  a 
demonstrative  pronoun,  as  explained  in  240.  a.  Many  other  conjunctions 
were  adverbs.  Certain  adverbs  not  only  performed  their  function  of  adverb 
within  their  own  sentence,  but  also  served  to  connect  in  thought  the  proposition 
in  which  they  stood  with  the  preceding  or  following.  Thus  many  conjunctions 
still  show  traces  of  their  adverbial  nature  in  that  like  adverbs  they  have  great 
freedom  of  position,  as  is  illustrated  in  234,  and  also  cause  inverted  word -order 
when  they  introduce  the  proposition  in  which  they  stand:  Wir  waren  eben 
vom  Tische  aufgestanden,  da  trat  er  in  das  Zimmer  We  had  just  arisen  from  the 
table  when  he  entered  the  room.  Some  adverbial  conjunctions  with  this  same 
freedom  of  position  may  or  may  not  influence  the  word-order  in  the  proposition 
in  which  they  stand,  as  illustrated  in  236.  While  the  adverbial  conjunctions 
thus  retain  the  freedom  of  position  which  they  possessed  as  adverbs,  the  subor- 
dinating conjunctions  have  developed  in  course  of  time  quite  differently,  and 
at  present  can  only  occupy  the  first  place  in  the  dependent  clause  and  require  the 
verb  to  stand  at  the  end  of  the  clause:  Ich  muß  gehen,  weil  ich  Eile  habe.  In 
contradistinction  to  adverbial  co-ordinating  conjunctions  with  their  different 
manner  of  influencing  word-order  are  the  pure  co-ordinating  connectives,  which 
influence  in  no  way  word-order,  such  as  und  and,  oder  or,  aber  but,  &c. 

Thus  the  position  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  a  subordinate  clause  introduced 
by  a  subordinating  conjunction  is  imperative,  while  on  the  other  hand  co- 
ordinating conjunctions  with  regard  to  their  influence  upon  the  word-order  are 
divided  into  three  classes:  pure  co-ordinating,  adverbial  co-ordinating,  and 
such  as  admit  of  a  double  construction,  either  influencing  like  adverbs  the 
word-order,  or  leaving  it  undisturbed  after  the  manner  of  pure  co-ordinating 
conjunctions. 

Pure  Co-ordinating  Conjunctions. 

233.  The  conjunctions  which  connect  sentences  or  parts  of  sentences  of  like 
rank  and  do  not  disturb  the  word -order  are: 

A.  The  pure  conjunctions  aber  but,  however,  a'Uein  but,  denn  for,  ja  yes  indeed,  nämlich 
as,  since,  oder  or,  sondern  but,  und  and;  the  following  groups  of  words,  all  of  which  differ  from 
the  preceding  pure  conjunctions  in  that  they  do  not  usually  connect  independent  sentences, 
each  containing  a  verb,  but  only  partsof  the  sentence  of  like  rank:  wie,  so'wie,  ebenso  wie,  ebenso, 
wie  auch  (all  in  a  general  way  =  und,  with  which  they  often  alternate  in  the  same  sentence)  and, 
and  also,  and  likewise,  as  well  as;  the  following  combinations  containing  als  or  wie,  now  very 
common,  tho  new  as  coordinating  conjunctions:  so'wohl  —  als  (auch),  or  so'wohl  — wie  (auch) 
both  —  and,  ebenso — wie  both  —  and,  wie  —  so  both — and,  nicht  sowohl  —  als  (or  als  viel- 
mehr) not  so  much  —  as;  beide — und,  or  beides — und  both  —  a^id,  the  former  combination 
very  common  in  early  N.H.G.,  the  latter  replacing  it  in  the  sixteenth  century  but  now  itself 
little  used;  beziehungsweise  (bezw.),  beziehentlich,  respek'tive  (resp.)  or  as  the  case  may  be, 
außer  (Ö25.  2)  except,  anstatt  (225.  2)  instead  of,  ausgenommen  except,  earlier  in  the  period  also 
ohne  (225.  2)  except.  Of  these  wie  and  sowie  are  in  fact  subordinating  conjunctions,  originally 
also  sowohl  — •  als.  See  e  below.  Außer  sometimes  connects  two  complete  propositions  with- 
out influencing  the  word-order.     See  225.  2.  a.     Examples: 

Das  Bild  der  Toten  wich  nicht  aus  meiner  Seele,  ja  es  steht  noch  heute  vor  mir.  Zwischen 
Bozen,  das  stets  eine  zweifelhaft  deutsche  Stadt  war,  und  Trient  liegt  das  Gebiet,  wo  deutsche 
und  italienische  Sprache  wie  Nationalität  sich  abgrenzen  und  mischen.  Auf  den  südlichen 
Halbinseln  sowie  in  Süd-Frankreich  blüht  die  Zucht  der  Esel  und  Maultiere.     Im  allgemeinen 


388 PURE    CO-ORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS 233.  A. 

ist  das  Klima  (Chinas)  ein  binnenländisches,  durch  die  östliche  Lage  des  Landes  stark  beein- 
flußt: heiße  Sommer  und  kalte  Winter,  ebenso  in  den  nördlichsten  wie  in  den  südlichsten  Ge- 
genden des  Reiches.  Sowohl  sein  Vater  als  auch  seine  Mutter  kamen.  Hier  war  es  ziemlich 
ruhig  sowohl  bei  Tage  wie  bei  Nacht  (Rodenberg).  Dadurch  (i.e.  its  position)  ist  München 
wie  der  Hauptsitz  für  die  Erzeugung  des  Nationalgetränks  so  der  große  Getreidemarke  Bayerns 
geworden.  Nicht  sowohl  die  schlechte  Finanzverwaltung  als  vielmehr  die  zahlreichen  Kriege 
haben  das  Land  mit  dieser  Schuldenlast  beschwert.  Die  Artillerie  und  Kavallerie  muß  mit 
ihren  Kanonen  bezw.  (beziehungsweise)  Pferden  gut  umzugehen  wissen  The  artillery  and 
cavalry  must  know  how  to  handle  well  their  cannons  or  horses  as  the  case  may  be.  Alle  rauchten, 
ausgenommen  du  (but  with  different  word-order:  dich  [absolute  ace]  ausgenommen).  Ich 
sage  es  keinem  Menschen,  ausgenommen  dir. 

a.  Usually  und  connects  two  words,  or,  if  there  are  a  number,  is  placed  before  the  last  one, 
just  as  in  English.  Sometimes  it  is  omitted  and  replaced  by-,  when  two  names  are  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  one  work  or  undertaking,  either  as  co-workers  or  to  represent  one  as  the  original 
worker  and  the  other  as  the  one  who  has  carried  it  on  after  the  author's  death:  kritische  Ausgabe 
von  Lachmann-Muncker,  der  Denkmalsentwurf  von  Schmitz-Geiger,  &c.  In  contrast  to  the 
suppression  of  und  here  is  the  liberal  use  often  made  of  it  for  purposes  of  style,  especially  to 
call  attention  to  different  activities  separately  in  order  to  describe  the  situation  in  detail,  as  in 
Und  es  wallet  und  siedet  und  brauset  und  zischt  (Schiller's  Taucher),  just  as  on  the  other  hand 
the  und  is  omitted  altogether  to  indicate  rapidity  of  action:  Alias  rennet,  rettet,  flüchtet  usw. 
(id.,  Die  Glocke). 

b.  The  three  adversatives  aber,  allein,  sondern  differ  from  each  other  in  meaning.  Sondern 
is  only  used  after  a  negative,  and  introduces  a  contradictory  statement,  while  aber,  which  is 
used  after  either  an  affirmative  or  negative  proposition,  concedes  the  statement  of  the  first 
proposition,  and  introduces  a  limitation  or  a  contrast:  Er  ist  nicht  reich,  sondern  arm  He  is  not 
rieh,  but  poor.  Er  war  zwar  nicht  krank,  aber  doch  nicht  dazu  aufgelegt  He  was  to  be  sure  not 
sick,  but  still  he  did  not  feel  like  it.  Er  ist  arm,  aber  ehrlich  He  is  poor,  but  honest.  Aber 
and  allein  have  the  same  general  meaning,  but  the  latter  is  much  less  used,  hence  more  forcible 
in  making  a  contrasting  statement :  Ich  war  bei  ihm,  allein  ich  traf  ihn  nicht  an  I  was  at  his  house, 
but  did  not  find  him  at  home.  Aber  has  also  a  broader  meaning  than  allein;  the  latter  always 
introduces  a  limitation  or  a  sharp  contrast  to  the  preceding  proposition,  while  the  former  may 
also  introduce  something  different  from  the  preceding  proposition  without  limiting  it:  Er  war 
ein  großer  Feldherr,  allein  er  besaß  nicht  die  Gabe  umfassender  Berechnung  He  was  a  great 
general,  but  yet  he  did  not  possess  the  gift  of  comprehensive  calculation.  Ich  vertraute  so 
fest  auf  ihn,  allein  ich  sah  mich  bitter  getäuscht.  Klein  aber  mein  It  is  small,  but  it  is  mine. 
Abel  war  ein  Hirt,  Kain  aber  ein  Ackermann  Abel  was  a  shepherd,  Cain  was  a  husbandman. 
Aber  is  also  often  (especially  in  the  Bible)  used  without  expressing  any  especial  emphasis  or 
contrast,  merely  to  take  up  in  a  new  sentence  the  thread  of  the  story:  Der  Teuffel  aber  sprach 
zu  jm  (ihm) — Luke  iv.  3. 

c.  Nämlich  does  not  always  introduce  the  proposition,  but  stands  even  more  frequently  after 
the  verb,  and  aber  has  a  still  greater  freedom  of  position,  as  it  may  be  introduced  at  almost 
any  point  without  influencing  the  word-order:  Ich  koimte  ihn  nicht  sprechen,  er  war  nämlich 
krank  I  could  not  see  him  as  he  was  sick.  Ich  hoffte  es;  ich  fand  mich  aber  getäuscht  I  had 
hope,  but  I  found  myself  disappointed. 

d.  Word-order  after  und.  The  proposition  following  und  usually  has  normal  order,  some- 
times, however,  we  find  the  question  order  as  a  survival  of  an  older  construction  which  allowed 
a  verb  to  introduce  a  proposition  if  it  was  to  be  emphasized,  lay  nearer  in  thought,  or  if  the 
statement  as  a  whole  was  to  be  put  in  a  more  lively  manner,  or  if  the  verb  came  to  the  front 
by  the  removal  of  the  subject  towards  the  end  of  the  proposition  for  the  sake  of  emphasis.  See 
251.  II.  B.  b. 

e.  The  conjunctions  wie,  sowie,  sowohl  als  (sub.  conjunc.  in  Psalms  xlix.  11),  now  used  so 
frequently  to  connect,  like  imd,  two  parts  of  a  sentence  of  like  rank,  are  in  fact  subordinating 
conjunctions,  as  appears  occasionally  when  they  stand  in  a  clause  containing  a  verb,  in  which 
case,  as  after  genuine  subordinating  conjunctions,  the  verb  stands  at  the  end  of  the  clause: 
Für  geheiligt  galt  die  Person  des  Königs,  wie  ( =  und)  ihm  auch  priesterliche  Rechte  beiwohnten. 
The  verb  may  be  understood,  in  which  case  the  contracted  phrase  is  still  treated  as  a  subordinate 
clause,  and  a  following  principal  proposition  has  inverted  order:  Sowie  die  Schweiz  [einmal 
zum  Deutschen  Reiche  gehörte]  gehörten  auch  die  Niederlande  zum  Deutschen  Reiche. 

/.  Often  several  conjunctions  are  used  together  with  the  combined  force  of  them  all  in  a  way 
that  is  diüficult  to  render  exactly  into  English.  Especially  is  this  true  of  oder  aber,  or  oder  aber 
vielmehr  or  on  the  other  hand,  making  more  emphatic  the  second  member  of  the  disjunctive 
phrase:  Der  Angeredete  wußte  eine  Stunde  lang  nicht,  ob  diese  wunderlichen,  wenn  auch 
sehr  höflich  vorgebrachten  Worte  wirklich  eine  Artigkeit  oder  aber  vielmehr  die  spöttische 
Einleitung  zu  einer  unzeitgemäßen  Herausforderung  sein  sollten   (Hopfen). 

g.  The  co-ordinating  conjunction  denn  for  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  sub- 
ordinating da  or  weil  as,  because:  Er  schreibt  nicht,  denn  er  kann  nicht  He  doesn't  write,  for  he 
doesn't  know  how  to  write.  Here  the  first  proposition  is  an  independent  statement  given  for 
its  own  sake.  The  second  proposition  is  an  additional  independent  statement  given  by  way 
of  explanation.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Er  schreibt  nicht,  da  er  mir  zürnt  He  doesn't  write  as 
he  is  angry  at  me,  the  first  proposition  is  represented  as  the  result  of  the  causal  clause  introduced 
by  da.  Nämlich  as,  for,  adding  an  explanation  for  the  preceding  act  or  fact,  indicates  a  looser 
connection  than  denn,  but  closely  resembles  it  in  meaning  tho  it  is  much  less  common:   Meine 


235.  A.  a.     ADVERBIAL  CO-ORDINATING  CONJUNCTIONS 389 

Zeit  wird  mit  allerhand  in  Anspruch  genommen,  ich  mache  mir  nämlich  fast  alle  meine  Kleider 
und  Sachen. 

Instead  of  denn  we  often  find  ja  and  doch  in  the  position  after  the  verb,  the  former  with  the 
force  of  English  you  know,  the  latter  to  add  adversative  force  indicating  that  the  reason  is  given 
to  meet  in  advance  some  possible  objection:  Er  konnte  uns  helfen,  er  hat  ja  die  Mittel.  Ich 
habe  alles  gestanden,  ich  konnte  doch  keinen  Meineid  schwören.  Also  so  before  an  adverb 
often  has  the  same  force  as  denn:  Alles  hat  geklatscht,  so  gut  hat  er  gesungen.  Instead  of 
denn  we  sometimes  find  a  principal  proposition  with  question  order.     See  287.  B.  (7). 

B.  A  number  of  other  conjunctions  apparently  like  pure  connectives  introduce  a  proposition 
or  connect  parts  of  a  sentence  without  disturbing  the  word-order: 

a.  When  adverbial  conjunctions  connect  different  subjects  of  one  and  the  same  verb  or 
different  parts  of  the  sentence  of  like  rank  they  do  not  disturb  the  word-order,  but  when  there 
is  more  than  one  verb,  and  they  thus  connect  different  propositions,  they  have  the  full  force 
of  adverbial  conjunctions:  Weder  er  noch  ich  war  da  Neither  he  nor  I  was  there,  but  Der  Nei- 
dische ist  weder  froh,  noch  gönnt  er  andern  eine  Freude. 

b.  Often  even  when  there  are  two  distinct  propositions  with  different  verbs,  the  adverbial 
conjunctions  may  introduce  a  proposition  or  follow  the  subject  without  causing  inversion,  if 
it  is  the  subjects  that  are  emphasized  or  contrasted,  for  here  as  elsewhere  the  emphatic  word 
takes  the  first  place  in  the  proposition:  Er  billigte  dein  Verfahren  nicht;  auch  dein  Vater  billigte 
es  nicht  He  did  not  approve  of  your  proceeding;  also  your  father  did  not  approve  of  it,  but  when  the 
emphasis  rests  upon  the  predicate,  inversion  takes  place:  Er  billigte  dein  Verfahren  nicht,  auch 
wollte  er  dich  warnen  lie  did  not  approve  of  your  proceeding,  also  he  desired  to  warn  you.  Selbst 
even  always  lays  the  emphasis  upon  the  subject  or  a  modifier  of  the  subject  when  it  precedes 
the  verb,  and  hence  in  spite  of  its  adverbial  nature  never  causes  inversion:  Selbst  die  Pflanze 
wendet  sich  zum  Lichte. 

C.  The  following  explanatory  or  intensifying  conjunctions  connecting  parts  of  a  sentence 
do  not  influence  the  word-order  of  the  proposition:  als,  or  more  commonly  wie  as,  such  as, 
namentlich  or  also  particularly,  nämlich  namely,  to  wit,  selbst  even,  und  zwar  explaining  a  pre- 
ceding utterance  more  definitely,  specifically,  zum  Beispiel  (z.  B.)  for  example,  das  heißt  (d.  h.) 
or  das  ist  (d.  i.)  that  is,  geschweige  (first  pers.  sing.  pres.  tense,  the  subject  ich  being  understood) 
denn  or  simply  geschweige  to  say  nothing  about.  Exs.:  Aus  der  Schweiz  werden  einzelne 
Produkte  in  bedeutender  Menge  ausgeführt,  wie  (or  als)  Vieh,  Käse  u(nd)  s(o)  w(eiter).  Der 
Kuckuck  legt  andern  Vögeln,  namentUch  kleineren,  selbst  dem  Zaunkönig,  sein  Ei  ins  Nest.  Eine 
großartig  entwickelte  Fabrikation  in  Lederwaren  (also  Schuhen,  Handschuhen  usw.)  liefert 
für  Frankreich  einen  Gewinnüberschuß,  der  den  Wert  der  Einfuhr  übersteigt.  Schicken  Sie 
mir  2  Paar  Handschuhe,  nämlich  1  Paar  lederne  und  1  Paar  seidene.  Sie  haben  nur  ein  Kind, 
und  zwar  einen  Sohn.  Die  Medizin  wirkte  kaum  lindernd,  geschweige  denn  befriedigend. 
Das  hält  ein  jüngerer  Mann  nicht  aus,  geschweige  ein  alter. 

a.  Sometimes  als  is  followed  by  the  particularizing  adv.  da  and  also  by  a  verb,  all  three  to- 
gether containing  the  meaning  such  as:  „Viktualien?"  fragte  Wally  (name)  verblüfft.  „Nun 
ja,  eßbare  Gegenstände,"  erklärte  Suse  (name)  lachend,  „als  da  sind:  Kaffee,  Mehl,  Reis, 
Grütze,  Schmalz." 

Adverbial  Co-ordinating  Conjunctions. 

234.  Adverbial  conjunctions  (except  those  enumerated  in  236),  like  true 
adverbs,  generally  cause  inversion  when  they  introduce  the  proposition,  and 
have  also  in  large  part  the  freedom  of  position  of  adverbs.  Hence  these  con- 
junctions can  occupy  almost  any  position  in  the  proposition  except  the  place 
between  the  subject  and  the  verb:  Er  ist  reich,  daher  braucht  er  (or  er  braucht 
daher)  solche  Ausgaben  nicht  zu  scheuen.  If  some  other  modifier  of  the  verb 
is  for  emphasis  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  proposition  in  which  the  con- 
junction stands,  the  conjunction  must  stand  in  some  position  after  the  verb 
and  subject:  Diesen  Menschen,  der  ich  in  Wirklichkeit  bin,  kennst  du  weder, 
noch  liebst  du  ihn  (R.  Huch's    Vita  somnium  hreve,  I,  p.  8). 

235.  Classification.  Many  adverbs  with  quite  different  meanings  serve  to  connect  sentences, 
thus  indicating  a  variety  of  relations.     They  can  be  roughly  divided  into  eight  classes: 

A.     Copulative: 

a.  Connecting  propositions  of  equal  value:  auch,  also,  'außerdem  or  außer'dem  moreover, 
besides,  apart  from  this,  independent  of  this,  davon  abgesehen  apart  from  this,  independent 
of  this,  gleichfalls,  ebenfalls,  des'gleichen  likewise,  zu'dem  moreover,  über'dies  furthermore, 
nicht  — noch,  or  more  commonly  weder  — noch  neither  —  nor,  or  in  older  German  weder  — 
oder,  also  earlier  in  the  period  weder  —  weder  and  even  noch  —  noch,  the  oldest  of  the  cor- 
relative forms:  Er  hat  eine  reiche  Frau;  außerdem  hat  er  selbst  ein  großes  Vermögen,  In 
O.H.G.  weder  appears  as  ne  weder  tiot  either  one  of  the  t-ivo,  so  that  the  old  negative  ne  has  dropped 
out  here  as  explained  in  145.  g.  Note  2.  For  another  case  of  the  survival  of  the  old  form  weder 
see  239.  7. 

Note.  The  conjunction  auch  does  not  only  correspond  to  English  also,  but  has  developed  quite  a  rich  store  of  ad- 
verbial and  conjunctional  meanings,  the  more  idiomatic  of  which  are  here  given: — (X)  It  often  has  the  force  of  too, 
and  together  with  a  negative  tlie  force  of  nor:   ich  auch  /  too,  ich  auch  nicht  nor  I.      (2)  Often  =  even:    Auch  ein  Kind 


390 ADVERBIAL  CO-ORDINATING  CONJUNCTIONS     235.  A.  a. 

muß  das  einsehen.  Er  hat  auch  nicht  for  nicht  ein'mal)  ein  Wort  davon  gesprochen.  Often  in  connection  with 
nur:  Er  hat  es  nicht  auch  nur  (or  nicht  ein'mal)  erwähnt.  (3)  Often  in  concessive  clauses:  Wenn  er  auch  nicht 
reich  ist,  or  ist  er  auch  nicht  reich,  or  mag  er  auch  nicht  reich  sein,  hat  er  doch  zu  leben.  (4)  It  adds  generalizing 
force  to  pronouns  and  cid\erbs:  Wer  er  auch  sei  whoever  he  may  be,  wo  es  auch  sei  wheresoever  it  may  be.  (5)  It 
introduces  or  stands  within  a  proposition  to  represent  something  as  naturally  following  out  of  the  given  or  implied 
circumstance:  Die  Nachricht  ist  seltsam,  auch  glaubt  niemand  daran  The  report  is  very  strange,  and  indeed  no  one 
believes  it.  Ich  will  dir  verzeihen,  nur  mußt  du  es  auch  nicht  wieder  tun  I  will  forgive  you  this  time,  but  mind  you 
do  not  do  it  again.  Du  bist  auch  ein  guter  Junge  Tliere's  a  good  boy,  or  If  you  do  that  you'll  be  a  real  good  boy. 
Ich  schenke  dir  auch  einen  Zehnpfenniger  If  you  do  that  I'll  give  you  ten  pfennigs.  Jetzt  weiß  ich  auch,  wo  du 
gestern  warst  Now  I  know  (since  I've  found  this  out)  where  you  were  yesterday.  (6)  It  is  often  used  to  confirm  a 
preceding  statement  or  to  indicate  the  realization  of  the  thought  or  intention  e.xpressed  therein:  (A)  Er  sieht  sehr 
gutmütig  aus.  (B)  Das  ist  er  auch.  (A)  He  looks  very  good-natured.  (B)  And  so  he  is.^(.A)  Er  ist  gar  nicht  dumm. 
(B)  Das  habe  ich  auch  nicht  gesagt,  nur  daß  er  höchst  nachlässig  ist  (.'\)  He  is  not  at  all  stupid.  (B)  I  did  not  at 
all  mean  to  say  that  he  is  only  that  he  is  very  careless.  Endlich  versuchte  ich  es,  und  es  gelang  mir  auch.  Often 
used  ironically  where  the  aim  has  not  been  realized  at  all:  Das  ist  mir  auch  ein  Lehrer!  He's  a  fine  teacher!  Jetzt 
ist  es  auch  gerade  Zeit  dazu!  This  is  a  pretty  time  for  such  things!  '7)  It  stands  after  the  verb  in  a  proposition  giving 
the  reason  for  a  preceding  proposition:  Dieser  Ring  ist  sehr  schön.  Er  kostet  auch  viel  This  ring  is  very  beautiful. 
It  ought  to  be,  it  rost  a  good  round  sum.  Hence  it  is  ofti-n  used  in  reproaches,  as  the  reproach  gives  the  reason  for  the 
discontent  felt:  Du  kannst  (aber/  auch  nie  den  Mund  halten  It's  too  provoking,  you  never  can  keep  your  mouth  shut. 
(8)  It  is  often  used  in  questions  to  indicate  doubt  as  to  whether  the_ actual  reality  is  in  harmony  or  will  harmonize  with 
somebody's  conception  of  it:  Hast  du  auch  wohl  bedacht,  was  du  mir  rätst?  Are  you  sure  you  have  considered  well  what 
you  advise  me?  Wirst  du  es  auch  tun?  Will  you  be  sure  to  do  it?  Haben  Sie  aber  auch  selbst  genug?  Are  you  sure 
you  have  enough  for  yourself?     I'm  afraid  I'm  robbing  you. 

b.  The  second  proposition  more  emphatic  or  intensive  than  the  first:  namentlich  particu- 
larly, besonders  especially. 

c.  Ordinal  conjunctions:  erst  first,  erstens  or  erstlich  in  the  first  place,  zweitens  secondly, 
&c.  so'dann  in  the  ne.xt  place,  dann  then,  so  (after  a  neii;ative)  then,  ferner  furthermore,  da'rauf 
thereupon,  zu'letzt  at  last,  endlich  finally,  bald  —  bald  now  —  now:  Erst  besinn's,  dann  be- 
ginn's.  Es  dauerte  nicht  lange,  so  kam  er.  Es  wird  kein  Vierteljahr  dauern,  so  ist  die  Marie 
seine  Frau.     Kaum  warst  du  weg,  so  kam  er  zurück. 

The  ordinal  conjunctions  formed  from  numerals,  as  erstens  or  erstlich,  zweitens,  &c.,  are 
sometimes  followed  by  a  pause,  and  in  print  are  then  cut  ofT  by  a  comma,  in  which  case  they 
do  not  cause  inversion:  Erstlich,  Jesus  löste  mit  scharfem  Schnitte  die  Verbindung  der  Ethik 
mit  dem  äußeren  Kultus  und  den  technisch-religiösen  Übungen  .  .  .  Zweitens,  er  geht  überall 
in  den  sittlichen  Fragen  auf  die  Wurzel,  d.  h.  auf  die  Gesümung  zurück  (Harnack's  Das  Wesen 
des  Christentums,  vierte  Vorlesung). 

d.  Partitive  conjunctions:  teils  —  teils  partly  ^ — partly,  einesteils  —  andemteils,  or  einer- 
seits —  ander  (er)  seits  on  the  one  hand  —  on  the  other  hand:  Reisen  ist  immer  nützlich;  einer- 
seits bereichert  man  dadurch  seine  Kenntnisse,  anderseits  stärkt  es  den  Körper  und  erheitert 
das  Gemüt. 

B.  Adversative:  (restricting;  or  limiting  the  contents  of  the  previous  proposition)  hin'gegen, 
'dagegen  or  da'gegen,  and  'dahingegen  or  dahin'gegen  on  the  contrary,  übrigens  moreover, 
gleich'wohl  or  dennoch  yet,  however,  notwithstanding,  nevertheless,  'trotzdem  or  trotz'dem 
in  spite  of  that,  dessenunge'achtet  notwithstanding,  nichtsdesto'weniger  nevertheless;  (the 
second  sentence  excluding  the  contents  of  the  first)  sonst,  andernfalls  otherwise,  viel'mehr  but 
rather.  Exs.:  Cäsar  wurde  gewarnt,  trotzdem  ging  er  in  die  Sitzung  des  Senats.  Afrika  ist 
nicht  überall  mit  Wüsten  bedeckt,  vielmehr  zeigt  es  in  vielen  Gegenden  eine  außerordentliche 
Fruchtbarkeit. 

C.  Illative,  introducing  an  inference,  conclusion,  consequence,  result:  da'rum  or  'darum  for 
that  reason,  deshalb  or  deswegen  (and  earlier  in  the  period  derhalb,  derhalben  [Romans  xvi. 
19],  derohalben,  derwegen,  derowegen)  on  that  account,  dann  then,  nun  now,  consequently, 
infolge'dessen  in  consequence,  consequently,  da'her  hence,  so  so,  and  the  conjunctions  intro- 
ducing an  inference  or  conclusion,  with  the  general  meaning  of  therefore,  consequently  such  as 
mit'hin,  so'mit,  folglich,  dem'näch  or  'demnach,  so'näch  or  'sönäch:  In  dem  Koffer  sind  Bücher, 
darum  ist  er  so  schwer.  Er  ist  reich,  daher  braucht  er  solche  Ausgaben  nicht  zu  scheuen. 
Er  will  uns  nicht  begleiten,  so  gehen  wir  ohne  um.  Du  bist  ein  Mensch,  folglich  bist  du  sterb- 
lich. Ich  war  krank,  folglich  konnte  ich  nicht  selbst  kommen.  Instead  of  darum  or  daher 
we  sometimes  find  a  principal  proposition  with  question  order.     See  287.  B.  (7). 

D.  Causal:  ja,  doch,  so  with  the  general  force  of  derm  for,  as  illustrated  in  233.  A.  g.  The 
idea  of  cause  or  reason  is  also  found  in  the  auch  described  in  A.  a.  Note  (7)  above. 

E.  Conjunctions  of  time  and  place:  da  just  then,  unter'dessen  in  the  meantime,  &c.;  da, 
dort,  hier,  &c.:    Der  Weg  macht  eine  Biegung,  da  übersieht  man  die  ganze  Gegend. 

F.  Manner:  so:  Die  Soime  siehst  du  nur  durch  Sonnenlicht,  so  schaust  du  Gott  durch 
Gott. 

G.  Degree:  so,  um  so  or  desto,  in'sofem,  &c.:  Der  Krieg  wurde  rasch  entschieden,  so 
rasch  hatte  man  es  gar  nicht  erwartet.  Das  Leben  ist  kurz,  um  so  sorgfältiger  muß  man  es 
nützen.  Es  kann  uns  mehr  oder  weniger  Kampf  kosten,  tugendhaft  zu  sein;  insofern  gibt  es 
Grade  der  Moralität. 

H.  Conchision  of  a  conditional  sentence:  dann,  so:  Er  kommt  vielleicht;  dann  gehe  ich 
mit  ihm.     Willst  du  mitgehen,  so  komme  rasch! 

CO-ORDINATING  CONJUNCTIONS  WITH  A  DoUBLE  CONSTRUCTION. 

236.  The  following  adverbial  conjunctions  introduce  a  proposition  like  the 
pure  co-ordinating  class  without  influencing  the  word-order,  or,  more  commonly, 
may  influence  the  word-order  like  adverbial  conjunctions,  and  also  like  adverbs 


237.  I.A.  5. SUBORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS 391 

either  introduce  the  proposition  or  follow  the  verb:  also  therefore,  so,  then, 
well  then;  nur  or  bloß  only;  im  Gegenteil  on  the  contrary;  doch,  jedoch, 
in'dessen  however,  yet;  ent'weder  (from  older  eindeweder  either  one  of  two; 
compare  235.  A.  a)  either;  so'gar  (now  usually  after  the  verb)  even;  nun  well; 
zwar  I  admit;  vollends  added  to  this,  to  crown  all  (introducing  a  climax):  Es 
regnet,  also  gehe  ich  nicht  aus,  or  ich  gehe  also  nicht  aus.  Also,  'darauf 
geht's  hinaus?  So,  that's  the  game,  is  it?  Also  Sie  kommen?  vSo  you'll  come? 
Es  ist  also  keine  Hoffnung?  There's  no  hope  then?  Es  bleibt  also  dabei!  That's 
settled  then!  Der  ist  groß  und  stark,  wie  nur  einer  sein  soll,  bloß  er  hat  was 
Feineres  und  ist  nicht  so'n  Untier,  wie  sein  Großvater  Grobschmied  (H.  Hoff- 
mann's Wider  den  Kurfürsien,  chap.  1);  or  more  commonly  Der  ist  groß  und 
stark,  wie  nur  einer  sein  soll,  bloß  (or  nur)  hat  er,  &c. ;  or  er  hat  bloß  (or  nur), 
&c.  Er  ist  reich,  doch  (or  jedoch,  or  indessen)  ich  möchte  nicht  mit  ihm 
tauschen;  or  more  commonly  doch  möchte  ich  nicht,  or  ich  möchte  doch  nicht 
mit  ihm  tauschen;  but  for  the  sake  of  having  the  emphatic  word  in  the  first 
place  the  inverted  order  is  avoided:  Doch  seinem  Vater,  nicht  ihm,  kommt 
die  Entscheidung  zu  rather  than  Doch  kommt  seinem  Vater  usw.  Entweder 
tust  du  es  jetzt,  oder  ich  rufe  deinen  Bruder;  or  Entweder  du  tust  es  jetzt, 
oder  ich  rufe  deinen  Bruder;  but  always  without  inversion  when  the  conjunction 
connects  different  subjects  of  one  and  the  same  verb,  or  when  the  subjects  are 
emphasized:  Entweder  er  oder  sein  Bruder  muß  zahlen  and  Entweder  er  geht, 
oder  ich  gehe.  Wir  sehen  uns  nicht  nur  gelitten,  sogar  wir  sehen  uns  hoch- 
geehrt (Goethe),  now  wir  sehen  uns  sogar  hochgeehrt.  Nun  (pause),  ich  will 
mirs  überlegen,  or  Nun  will  ich  mirs  überlegen.  Zwar,  ich  weiß  es  nicht  be- 
stimmt, or  Zwar  weiß  ich  es  nicht  bestimmt. 

a.  The  conjunction  nur  (or  bloß)  also  quite  commonly  takes  the  form  nur  daß  (or  bloß  daß), 
and  then  of  course  requires  the  verb  to  stand  at  the  end  of  the  clause:  Und  doch  weiß  man  von 
eben  diesem  furchtsamen  Knaben  etliche  Schelmenstreiche  zu  berichten,  die  Heldentaten 
überraschend  ähnlich  sahen:  nur  daß  eine  Heldentat  Sinn  haben  soll,  und  Ihre  Streiche  hatten 
keinen  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap.  x). 

b.  Aside  from  the  question  of  the  influence  upon  the  word-order  there  is  in  most  cases  little 
difference  in  the  use  of  the  adversative  co-ordinating  conjunctions  aber  and  doch.  Of  these  doch 
has  the  widest  use,  as  it  has  more  adverbial  nature,  and  in  its  capacity  of  adverb  can  be  em- 
ployed when  aber  is  not  used,  as  for  instance  to  put  a  principal  proposition  in  contrast  to  a  sub- 
ordinate clause:  Wiewohl  ich  ihn  oft  gewarnt  habe,  ist  er  doch  (or  dennoch  or  trotzdem,  but 
not  aber)  wieder  hingegangen. 

e.  Doch  follows,  or  more  commonly  precedes,  the  verb,  but  when  it  introduces  a  thought 
which  seemingly  stands  in  conflict  with  the  preceding,  it  must  follow  it:  (A)  Mein  Vater  ist 
schwer  krank.      (B)  Er  war  doch  gestern  noch  ganz  munter. 

Subordinating  Conjunctions. 

237.  The  list  of  the  subordinating  conjunctions  is  given  in  238.  Their  origin 
is  discussed  in  240.  a. 

1.  Order  of  Words.  The  subordinating  conjunctions,  including  the  relative 
and  interrogative  pronouns  and  relative  and  interrogative  adverbs,  now  require 
the  verb  or  in  a  compound  tense  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  to  stand  at  the 
end  of  the  subordinate  clause:  Er  kann  nicht  gut  sehen,  weil  er  alt  ist.  Es 
lebte  einmal  ein  König,  der  kein  Kind  hatte  (see  F  below  and  154.  Note). 

The  following  exceptions  occur: 

A.  There  are  a  number  of  common  cases  where  subordinate  clauses  are  not  introduced  by 
subordinating  conjunctions,  and  consequently  do  not  have  the  word-order  of  the  subordinate 
clause: 

a.  In  substantive  clauses  daß  may  be  dropped,  especially  in  colloquial  language,  in  which 
case  the  word-order  is  normal,  or,  if  some  other  word  than  the  subject  introduces  the  subordinate 
clause,  inverted:  Ich  glaube,  daß  Sie  die  Wahrheit  sprechen,  or  Ich  glaube,  Sie  sprechen  die 
Wahrheit. 

There  is  a  decided  tendency  to  drop  the  conjunctions  daß  and  wie  after  they  have  been  used 
once  and  to  return  to  the  normal  word-order:  Der  Apotheker  unterrichtete  Frau  Rat  Kirsten, 
daß  ein  alter  seltener  Wein  in  so  staubigen  und  schimmeligen  Flaschen  auf  den  Tisch  kom- 
men müsse;  das  sei  für  den  Kenner  das  Feinste  (H.  Böhlau's  Ratsmädelgeschichten,  p.  14). 

b.  In  a  conditional  or  a  concessive  clause  that  precedes  the  principal  proposition  wenn  if, 
tho,  may  be  dropped,  in  which  case  the  word-order  is  that  of  a  question;    Wenn  er  kommt,  so 


392 WORD-ORDER  IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSE     237.  \.A.b. 

sehe  ich  ihn,  or  Kommt  er,  so  sehe  ich  ihn.     Wenn  auch  die  alten  Bücher  nicht  zur  Hand  sind, 
or  Sind  auch  die  alten  Bücher  nicht  zur  Hand,  sie  sind  in  unsere  Herzen  eingeschrieben. 

Xote  1.  If  there  are  two  or  more  subordinate  clauses  connected  by  imd  or  oder,  the  first  of  which  is  introduced 
by  wenn,  or  if  wenn  is  dropped  and  the  question  order  takes  place,  the  clauses  after  the  first  one,  instead  of  taking 
the  regular  subordinate  or  question  order,  often  have  the  word-order  of  a  principal  proposition:  Wenn  er  dann  nach 
Hause  kam  or  Kam  er  dann  nach  Hause,  und  die  Frau  hatte  das  Mittagessen  nicht  fertig  (instead  of  die  Frau  das 
Mittagessen  nicht  fertig  hatte  or  hatte  die  Frau  das  Mittagessen  nicht  fertig),  so  schalt  er  sie. 

Xole  2.  Such  subordinate  clauses  with  the  question  order  now  have  the  same  intonation  as  other  subordinate 
clauses  in  the  same  position,  but  originally  they  were  often  independent  questions,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  following 
passage  from  Luther,  who  places  an  interroRation  point  where  the  revised  editions  have  a  comma:  1st  jemand  gutes 
muts?  der  singe  Psalmen.  Ist  jemand  Kranck?  der  ruffe  zu  sich  die  Eltesten  von  der  Gememe  (James  v.  13,  14). 
On  the  other  hand,  in  many  cases  a  conditional  clause  of  this  form  was  originally  an  independent  sentence  expressing 
a  wish:  Kämest  du  (originally  Kämest  du!  O  that  you  would  come!),  ich  würde  mich  freuen.  As  conditional  clauses 
have  often  developed  into  concessive  we  find  this  form  also  in  concessive  clauses:  Käme  er  mm  nach  so  langer  Ver- 
nachlässigung, es  würde  mich  nicht  freuen. 

c.  In  the  combinations  als  wenn  or  als  ob  as  if,  wenn  and  ob  may  be  dropped,  in  which  case, 
as  in  a  conditional  clause,  the  question  order  results:  Er  sieht  aus,  als  wenn  er  reich  wäre  or 
als  wäre  er  reich  He  looks  as  if  he  were  rich.     See  also  239.  1.  e.  Note. 

d.  In  concessive  clauses  if  the  volitive  subjunctive  (168.  I.  2.  A)  of  the  verb  can  be  used 
the  conjunction  can  be  dropped,  in  which  case  either  "the  normal  or  the  question-order  is  found: 
Obschon  es  tausend  Leben  kostet,  rette  ich  dich,  or  Es  koste  tausend  Leben,  ich  rette  dich,  or 
Koste  es  tausend  Leben,  ich  rette  dich.  Instead  of  the  volitive  subjunctive  we  often  find  the 
indicative  of  mögen  here  with  the  same  word-order  and  same  force:  Er  mag  (auch  or  gleich) 
zürnen,  or  more  commonly  Mag  er  (auch  or  gleich)  zürnen,  ich  frage  nichts  danach. 

e.  To  emphasize  the  point  of  time  of  an  action  the  conjunctions  wenn  or  als  when  may  be 
dropped,  and  the  adv^erbs  kaum  scarcely,  schon  already,  or  noch  still  substituted  in  their  stead, 
followed  bv  inverted  order:  Als  Sie  fort  waren,  or  Kaum  waren  Sie  fort,  so  trat  er  ins  Zimmer. 
Noch  harrte  im  heimlichen  Dämmerhcht  die  Welt  dem  Morgen  entgegen;  noch  erwachte  die 
Erde  vom  Schlummer  nicht:  da  begann  sich's  im  Tale  zu  regen.  An  dem  Seile  schon  zieht  man 
den  Freund  empor,  [  da  zertrennt  er  gewaltig  den  dichten  Chor  When  the>'  had  begun  to  draw 
up  the  friend  (Phintias)  to  crucify  him,  behold  there  he  (Damon)  came  pushing  his  way  with 
all  bis  might  thru  the  throng.     See  275.  a. 

f.  In  the  set  expressions  es  sei  (or  wäre)  denn  unless,  lit.  if  it  be  (were)  not,  or  kindred  expres- 
sions, as  er  (sie,  es)  müßte  denn  unless  he  {she,  it)  should,  each  of  which  is  seemingly  a  negative 
conditional  clause  in  force,  the  clause  is  not  introduced  by  a  conjunction  at  all,  and  the  normal 
word-order  is  used.     For  fuller  explanation  of  the  construction  see  168.  II.  E.  a.  Note. 

B.  Personal  Part  of  the  Verb  Still  Often  before  Participle  and  Infinitive.  The  personal  part 
of  the  verb  often,  in  accordance  with  the  older  freedom  of  withdrawing  the  verb  somewhat 
from  the  end  as  described  in  a.  Note,  stands  before  an  infinitive,  or  participle,  or  their  modifiers, 
instead  of  standing  at  the  end  of  the  subordinate  clause,  especially  in  the  following  cases: 

a.  In  clauses  where  the  perf.  part,  assumes  the  form  of  the  infin.:  Ich  weiß,  daß  er  es  hat 
tun  können.  This  order  is  quite  fixed  as  the  incongruity  of  a  finite  form  of  haben  standing 
here  after  an  infinitive  form  is  so  great  that  no  one  would  ever  think  of  placing  it  there.  Hence 
it  has  become  quite  common  to  make  use  of  the  older  freedom  of  withdrawing  the  auxiliary 
somewhat  from  the  end  as  described  in  the  Note  below.  This  older  freedom  has  been  best 
preserved  in  this  category,  but  as  it  is  gradually  becoming  less  and  less  used  elsewhere  it  is  slowly 
losing  its  influence  also  here.  When,  however,  one  feels  inclined  to  place  the  auxiliary  at  the 
end  it  becomes  necessary  for  the  participle  to  assume  participial  form:    Überdies  ist  jener  Beruf 

(i.e.  photography)  ein  Sammler  und  rettender  Einfänger  von  vielen  Geistern,  die  einstmals 
höher  fliegen  gewollt  hatten  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Haindlkinder,  p.  128).     Compare  178.  2.  B.  a. 

Note  1. 

Note.  In  M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.  the  auxiliary  containing  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  often  stood  before  the 
perfect  participle  or  the  infinitive  to  which  it  belonged.  This  removal  of  the  weakly  stressed  auxiliary  from  the  end 
resulted  from  the  desire  to  put  into  the  emphatic  end  position  a  more  important  word.  According  to  50.  .\.  .3.  b  and 
284.  I.  3.  o  a  simple  tense  in  a  subordinate  clause  stands  at  the  end  and  is  always  stressed,  i.e.  is  never  entirely  with- 
out stress.  This  stress  with  accented  verb  at  the  end  is  thus  characteristic  of  a  subordinate  clause  with  the  verb  in 
a  simple  tense:  When  in  M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.  an  auxiliary  was  used  in  connection  with  the  verb  it  was  usually 
placed  at  the  end  in  accordance  with  general  usage  which  required  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  to  stand  in  the  final 
position  in  the  subordinate  clause.  T?he  weak  stress  of  the  auxiliary,  however,  was  often  felt  as  incongruous  when 
emphasis  was  to  be  conveyed  as  emphasis  was  associated  with  the  close  of  the  subordinate  clause.  Hence  the  auxiliary 
was  often  given  an  earlier  position  in  the  sentence  to  make  way  for  the  more  heavily  stressed  participle  or  infinitive, 
or  the  stressed  participle  or  infinitive  preceded  by  a  still  more  heavily  stressed  predicate  word:  SJe  (sie)  brachten 
auch  junge  KindUn  zu  jm  (ihm),  das  (daß)  er  sie  solt  änrüren  (Luke  x\-iii.  15).  Ich  sage  euch  aber  |  das  (daß)  auch 
Salomon  |  in  aller  seiner  Herrlichkeit  nicht  ist  bekleidet  gewesen  |  als  der  eines  (Luke  xii.  27).  Similarly  the  weakly 
stressed  copula  sein  was  often  withdrawn  from  the  end  to  make  way  for  a  strongly  stressed  predicate:  Hütet  euch 
fur  (=  vor)  dem  Sawerteig  der  Phariseer  |  welchs  ist  die  Heuchelei  (Luke  xii.  1). 

Another  way  to  prevent  this  conflict  between  form  and  stress  was  to  omit  the  tense  auxiliary,  which  on  account 
of  its  weak  stress  and  lack  of  logical  importance  easily  dropped  out  without  attracting  much  attention.  The  sup- 
pression of  the  tense  auxiliary  was  greatly  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  in  the  abridged  participial  form  the  auxiliary 
was  regularly  omitted,  as  explained  in  183.  2.  C.  c,  and  d.     See  also  190.  1.  .\.  ft.  (1). 

Both  of  these  constructions  have  been  almost  destroyed  by  a  mere  formal  principle.  In  the  last  two  centuries  the 
general  tendency  to  place  the  personal  part  of  the  verb,  i.e.  here  the  auxiliary,  at  the  end  of  the  clause  has  become 
so  strong  that  it  now  usually  prevails  without  regard  to  the  laws  of  stress.  The  result  of  this  long  conflict  between 
form  and  stress  is  the  development  in  the  subordinate  clause  of  a  new  end-stress  (215.  II.  1.  A,  3rd  par.),  a  strong 
stress  followed  by  a  weaker  one:   Der  Mann,  der  das  tun  kann. 

b.  To  avoid  two  similar  forms  of  werden  from  coming  together:  Ich  bezweifle,  daß  diese 
Früchte  je  werden  bei  uns  reif  werden. 

c.  Often  when  two  or  more  uninflected  verbal  forms  (infin.  and  perf.  part.)  come  together 
at  the  end  of  the  clause,  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  may  precede  the  uninflected  verbal  forms 
in  order  to  prevent  the  heaping  up  of  unaccented  words  at  the  end  of  the  clause,  but  it  is  becom- 


238.  1.  c.  WORD-ORDER  IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSE 393 

ing  ever  more  common  to  disregard  the  stress  and  follow  the  formal  rule  for  word-order  which 
requires  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  to  stand  at  the  end:  Kein  Abgrund  des  Wehes,  dem  nicht 
ein  Laut  wäre  gewidmet  gewesen  (Goethe)  or  more  commonly  gewidmet  gewesen  wäre.  In 
this  category  the  old  freedom  of  withdrawing  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  somewhat  from 
the  end  is  most  common  before  two  infinitive  forms:  So  unzweifelhaft  es  immer  Kämpfe  wird 
geben  müssen,  so  sicher  ist  es  oft  die  Aufgabe  der  Politik,  sie  zu  mildem.  The  position  of 
the  personal  part  of  the  verb  at  the  end  is  not  so  common  here  as  elsewhere,  but  this  usage  will 
doubtless  become  established:  Daf5  er  (Anton  Schönbach),  ehe  er  an  die  Untersuchung  über 
die  Entstehung  und  den  Zusammenhang  der  älteren  Predigtsammlungen  geht,  sogar  erst  noch 
einen  dritten  Band  erscheinen  lassen  wird  (Fedor  Bech  in  Zeitschrift  für  deutsche  Philologie, 
1890,  vol.  XXII,  p.  115).  Einem  friedlichen  Zeitalter,  in  welchem  es  (Bulgarien)  das,  was 
es  mit  blutigen  Opfern  erworben  hat,  ausnützen  und  zur  Entwickelung  der  bulgarischen  Volks- 
wirtschaft verwenden  können  wird  {Neue  Freie  Presse,  Sept.  26,  1915). 

C.  In  case  the  predicate  or  a  word  in  the  predicate  is  modified  by  a  clause  or  an  infin.  with 
zu,  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  usually  stands  before  the  clause,  or  the  infin.  and  its  modifiers, 
or  predicate  complement:  Ich  bemerkte,  daß  sie  nicht  gleich  wußten,  was  sie  tun  sollten.  Als 
ich  am  nächsten  Abend  mich  anschickte,  zu  ihr  zu  gehen,  war  das  Wetter  trüb  und  stürmisch 
geworden.  Gute  Kinder,  die  sich  mit  Planen  (now  usually  Plänen)  und  Aussichten  beschäf- 
tigten, dich  habhaft  zu  werden  (Goethe).  In  short  clauses,  however,  it  is  often  better  to  place 
the  personal  part  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  clause  in  case  the  predicate  verb  is  modified  by 
a  short  infinitive  phrase,  especially  wherever  the  verb  and  the  dependent  infinitive  stand  in  a 
close  idiomatic  relation  to  each  other:  neulich  als  ich  im  Keller  zu  tun  gehabt  habe;  bevor 
sie  weiter  zu  sprechen  vermochte;  da  in  letzter  Zeit  eine  Häufung  dieser  Mißhandlungen  zu 
verzeichnen  war.  Likewise  if  there  is  in  the  dependent  infinitive  phrase  a  relative  that  must 
introduce  the  clause:  Als  jetzt  der  Name  genannt  worden  war,  den  zu  hören  er  lange  gefürchtet 
hatte. 

D.  Earlier  in  the  period  there  was  more  freedom  in  the  word-order,  so  that  we  often  find 
some  important  modifier  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  clause  instead  of  the  verb  itself,  as  illus- 
trated and  explained  in  B.  a.  Note.  Altho  the  position  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  clause  has 
in  general  become  stereotyped,  the  older  freedom  is  preserved  in  poetry,  and  asserts  itself  not 
infrequently  in  vigorous  prose  for  the  sake  of  especial  emphasis:  Als  er's  wog  in  freier  Hand,  | 
das  Schwert  er  viel  zu  schwer  erfand  (Uhland).  Ins  Gesicht  will  ich's  ihnen  sagen,  was  ich 
denke  von  dir  und  euch  und  eurer  ganzen  bürgerlichen  Gesittung  (Sudermann's  Heimat,  3,  14). 
In  colloquial  language  also  unimportant  modifiers  sometimes  follow  the  verb. 

This  irregular  feature  which  is  employed  for  the  sake  of  meter  or  emphasis  in  literary  or  col- 
loquial German  is  a  regular  feature  in  the  German  spoken  by  Jews  who  have  not  eradicated  all 
traces  of  Hebrew  influence  from  their  language:  Ob  ich  bin  der  Maim,  oder  ob  es  ist  ein  anderer; 
es  ist  doch  zu  machen,  daß  man  kauft  von  jedem  Menschen,  was  er  hat  (Vcitel  Itzig  in  Freytag's 
Soll  und  Haben,  chap.  i).  This  order  is  also  found  in  the  German  of  Poles,  Frenchmen,  English- 
men, and  other  foreigners:  Weil  ich  warnen  wiU  vor  dem  reißenden  Wolf  im  Schafspelz,  welcher 
umherzieht  und  unschuldige  Herzen  will  verführen  (the  Polish  chaplain  in  Halbe's  Jugend, 
p.  96).     Compare  also  the  German  of  Riccaut  in  Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  4,  2. 

E.  When  two  subordinate  clauses  have  an  auxiliary  in  common  it  usually  stands  in  the  second 
clause  and  is  understood  in  the  preceding  one:  Seine  Unruhe  vermehrte  sich,  da  seine  Gefühle 
nicht  mehr  von  den  sanften  Tönen  genährt  und  gelindert  wurden.  Sometimes  in  easy  col- 
loquial language  the  auxiliary  is  found  with  the  first  clause,  and  is  understood  with  the  following 
one:  Ich  glaube,  wenn  wir  uns  heute  mal  wieder  hinsetzen  würden  und  den  Faust  zusammen 
lesen,  wir  würden  wieder  wie  junge  Studenten  werden  (Hirschfeld's  Der  junge  Goldner,  p.  62). 

F.  The  relative  pronoun  der  has  arisen  from  the  demonstrative  der,  from  which  it  at  present 
differs  little  except  in  requiring  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  clause,  and  in  the  familiar  language 
of  every  day  life  the  demon,  is  still  used  with  normal  order  in  a  descriptive  (271.  II.  7)  clause, 
where  in  the  literary  language  we  should  expect  the  relative  with  the  word-order  of  the  de- 
pendent clause:  Es  lebte  einmal  ein  kleiner  Knabe,  der  hieß  Hänschen.  Es  war  einmal  ein 
Kaiser,  der  hatte  ein  großes  Land.     For  the  origin  of  the  relative  construction  see  154.  Note. 

2.  Position.  Subordinating  conjunctions  always  introduce  the  dependent 
clause  with  the  one  exception  that  a  prep,  may  stand  before  a  dependent  relative 
or  interrogative  pronoun :  Das  Mädchen  ging  an  einen  Spiegel,  in  dem  es  sich 
betrachtete. 

238.  Classification  of  Subordinating  Conjunctions.  Subordinating  con- 
junctions, which  join  subordinate  to  principal  propositions,  may  be  divided 
into  classes  as  follows: 

1.  Those  which  introduce  substantive  clauses.  They  are  made  up  of  the  following  groups 
of  words   (for  illustrative  sentences,  see  269.  270,  272): 

a.  The  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns:  wer,  was;  der  (130.  2.  b;  151.  3.  C,  D),  die, 
das;   welcher,  -e,  -es  (151.  .3.  C,  D). 

b.  A  prep,  with  its  dependent  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun:  mit  wem,  mit  welchem,  &c. 

c.  The  relative  and  interrogative  adverbs:  da  (early  N.H.G.;  Matthew  viii.  20)  where,  wo 
where,  wann  when,  wie  how,  wa'rum  why,  wo'mit  wherewith,  wo'durch  whereby,  wo'zu  to 
which  end,  &c. 


394 SUBORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS 238.  1.  d. 

d.  The  conjunctions  daß  that,  since,  wenn  if,  when,  .wie  (=  daß),  seit  or  seit'dem  sifice, 
als  or  als  ob  (instead  of  older  daß;  168.  II.  G.  a.  (1),  269.  2.  b,  272.  A.  a,  C.  d,  D.  b),  well  (=  daß; 
272.  C),  and  ob  whether.   Ich  sehe,  daß  er  da  ist.     Ich  weiß  nicht,  ob  er  heute  mitgeht. 

Note.     For  origin  of  conjunction  daß  see  240.  a. 

2.  Those  which  introduce  adjective  clauses.  They  are  made  up  of  the  following  groups  of 
words  (for  illustrative  sentences  see  271): 

a.  Relative  or  interrogative  pronouns:  wer  (156.  b),  was  (153.  1.  (1),  (3));  der,  die,  das;  wel- 
cher,-e,  -es;  so   (153.  .5);    der'gleichen,  des'gleichen   (161.  2). 

b.  A  prep,  with  a  dependent  relative:    mit  dem,  mit  welchem,  &c. 

c.  Relative  or  interrogative  adverbs:  wo  (see  153.  3.  A,  C.  c)  where,  in  which,  when;  wo'selbst 
or  occasionally  da'selbst  in  which  place;  .da  (153.  3.  A,  C.  d)  where,  when;  weshalb,  or  wes- 
wegen (151.  1.  b),  or  less  commonly  wo'her  or  da'her  (153.  3.  A),  da'rum  (151.  1.  b),  and  da  denn 
(Note  2  below);   wenn  (see  153.  3.  C.  b)  or  wann  (in  indirect  questions)  when;   wie  (153.  3.  B, 

C.  /)  as,  how,  in  which,  als  (153.  3.  B,  C.  a);    the  compounds  wo'rin  in  which,  wo'bei,  wo'ran, 
&c.,  or  occasionally  in  their  stead  the  demon,  compounds  da'rin,  da'bei,  <S:c. 

Nole  1.     In  familiar  speech  tlie  compound  relative  adverbs  are  often  separated.     See   153.  2   and    B    thereunder. 

.Voi'f  2.  (ioctlic  is  fond  of  using  da  denn  in  the  meanings  in  consequence  of  which,  tinder  which  circumstances:  Auch 
sang  der  Alte  nicht  übel,  und  meine  Mutter  mußte  sich  bequemen,  ihn  und  sich  selbst  mit  dem  Klaviere  täglich  zu 
akkompagnieren;  da  ich  denn  das  Solitario  bosco  ombroso  bald  kennen  lernte  (Goetlie's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit, 
I.  I  I.  Er  saß  fast  niemals,  als  wenn  er  seine  Harfe  nahm  und  darauf  spielte;  da  er  sie  denn  meistens  mit  Gesang 
begleitete. 

d.  Daß  (168.  II.  G.  b,  153.  3.  C.  e),  als  ob  or  als  wenn  (instead  of  daß;  168.  II.  G.  b,  2nd  par., 
169.  2.  G.  /;,  2nd  par.;  see  also  Note  below),  weil  (instead  of  daß;  271.  I),  ob  (168.  II.  F.  a, 
2nd  par.,  and  169.  2.  F.  a,  3rd  par.),  wie  (168.  II.  F.  a,  2nd  par.,  169.  2.  F.  a,  3rd  par.,  153.  3. 

D.  (1)),  sometimes  als   (153.  3.  D.   (D):    Wallenstein  schmeichelte  sich  noch  immer  mit  der 
Hoffnung,  daß  viele  zu  ihm  noch  umkehren  würden. 

Note,  Tlie  adjective  nature  of  the  clause  introduced  by  als  ob  here  is  perfectly  clear,  but  the  governing  noun 
in  all  such  cases  is  a  verbal  substantive  and  suggests  the  use  of  als  ob,  which  is  so  common  after  verbs  in  clauses  of 
manner  (168.  II.  B  and  169.  2.  B)  and  more  or  less  frequent  in  substantive  clauses  (269.  2.  b,  272.  C.  d,  D.  b).  This 
modern  use  of  als  ob  instead  of  daß  emphasizes  the  subjective  view  or  the  unreality  of  the  statement. 

3.  Those  which  introduce  adverbial  clauses.  They  are  made  up  of  the  following  groups  of 
adverbial  conjunctions,  indicating: 

A.  Place:  wo  where,  wo'her  whence,  wo'hin  whither;  in  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  elevated 
diction  von  wannen  (=  woher)  and  da  (=  wo,  for  example  see  John  vii.  34).  Compare  with 
274. 

B.  Time:  als  when,  as,  used  of  an  actual  occurrence  or  a  definite  state  of  things  in  past  or 
present  (see  c  below)  time,  more  commonly,  however,  the  former;  kaum  —  als  (275.  a)  hardly 
or  scarcely — when;  nicht  sobald  (both  taken  together  =  kaum) — als  (275.  a)  hardly  or 
scarcely — when;  wenn  (see  b  and  c  below)  or  now  rarely  wann  -ivhen,  whenever,  used  with  a 
present  or  past  tense  to  indicate  that  something  is  or  was  accustomed  to  happen,  and  with  a 
future  tense  to  indicate  a  point  of  time  in  the  future;  wo  (see  c  below)  =  als;  da  (see  c  below) 
corresponding  to  M.H.G.  do  =  als,  but  now  more  frequent  in  elevated  discourse  than  in  plain 
prose,  tho  very  common  in  early  N.H.G.  and  the  classical  period;  da  (M.H.G.  da),  earlier  in 
the  period  used  with  the  force  of  temporal  indem  while  and  adversative  während  while,  while 
on  the  other  hand,  and  in  the  latter  meaning  still  found  in  the  form  of  da  doch;  wie  =  als,  com- 
mon in  colloquial  language,  especially  with  a  present  tense  (see  c  below),  sometimes  also  = 
sobald,  wenn,  indem;  in'dem  (earlier  in  the  period  also  indem  daß)  as,  see  c;  kaum  daß  or 
kaum  (see  d)  when  —  scarcely;  so'oft  [als]  as  often  as;  so'bald  [als],  wie  or  now  more  commonly 
so'wie  as  soon  as;  in'zwischen,  in'zwischen  daß,  and  less  commonly  mittler'weile  while  {in  the 
meantime);  während,  während  daß  (not  now  so  much  used),  in'dem  (earlier  in  the  period  indem 
daß),  in'des  (M.H.G.  innen  des)  or  more  commonly  in'dessen  (240;  earlier  in  the  period  indes 
daß,  indessen  daß),  unter'des  or  unter'dessen  (240;  now  little  used  here;  earlier  in  the  period 
unterdes  daß,  unterdessen  daß),  and  the  following  forms  common  in  early  N.H.G.:  weil,  der- 
'weil,  die'weil,  all  fifteen  forms  with  the  meaning  while,  of  which  the  first,  i.e.  während,  is  now 
the  favorite;  seit  daß  (or  in  early  N.H.Cx.  sint  daß),  seit'dem  daß,  now  more  commonly  seit 
(in  early  N.H.G.  also  sint)  and  seit'dem  since;  so'lange  as  long  as,  or  the  separated  forms  so 
lange  (in  the  principal  proposition)  — so'lange  or  als  (in  the  subordinate  clause);  bis  daß,  so 
lange  bis  (in  early  N.H.G.  bis  so  lange  daß;  Isaiah  xxxii.  15),  now  more  commonly  bis  until, 
in  early  N.H.G.  also  while,  as  long  as  (Matth.  xxvi.  36),  in  colloquial  language  bis  by  the  time 
that  (sec  e  below),  also  especially  in  Austria  =  wenn  when  (see  e)  referring  to  future  time  and 
=  als  when  (see  e)  referring  to  time  now  past  but  future  with  reference  to  the  person  involved 
in  the  action;  kaum  so  lange  —  als  bis  scarcely  until,  nicht  eher  —  bis,  or  bevor,  or  more  com- 
monly als  bis  not  until;  ehe  (earlier  in  the  period  also  ehe  denn,  ehe  als,  and  ehe  daß)  or  be'vor 
before,  or  sometimes  with  emphatic  form  ehe  und  bevor;    nach'dem  after.     Compare  with  275. 

a.  Adversatives.  From  the  meaning  of  contemporaneity  in'zwischen  while  in  the  meantime, 
während  (now  the  most  common  form),  in'dessen,  wohin'gegen  (descriptive  relative  adverb; 
see  271.  II.  7),  earlier  in  the  period  also  unter'dessen,  da,  and  wenn,  wliile,  ivhile  on'the  other 
hand,  ivhereas  assume  adversative  or  contrasting  force:  Manche  Menschen  bleiben  in  gewisser 
Beziehung  ewig  Kinder,  während  andere  vor  der  Zeit  Greise  werden.  In  the  classics  we  often 
find  anstatt  daß  here  instead  of  während.  For  other  adversatives  from  another  point  of  view 
see  G. 

b.  The  form  wann  when  is  rare  only  as  a  conjunction.  As  an  interrogative  adverb  it  is  the 
common  form  both  in  direct  and  indirect  questions:    Wann  kommt  er?     Ich  weiß  nicht,  wann 


238.  3.  D. SUBORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS 395 

er  kommt.  The  form  wemi,  like  the  English  when  of  to-day,  once  had  a  wider  meaning,  being 
used  as  an  interrogative  adverb  =  waiin,  and  also  as  a  conjunction  with  the  force  of  als  in  ad- 
dition to  its  present  force,  and  sometimes  in  dialect  or  colloquial  language  this  usage  can  still 
be  heard:  HErr  |  Wemi  (=  wann)  haben  wir  dich  hungerig  gesehen  |  vnd  haben  dich  gespeiset 
(Matth.  XXV.  37).  Sicher,  du  überlegtest  nicht  wohl,  o  Mädchen  des  Auslands,  |  wenn  (=  als) 
du,  bei  Fremden  zu  dienen,  dich  allzu  eilig  entschlössest,  |  was  es  heiße,  das  Haus  des  gebietenden 
Herrn  zu  betreten  (Goethe's  Hermann,  IX,  113-115).  Wenn  (for  wann)  geht  der  beste  Zug? 
(Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  Act  iü). 

c.  There  is  considerable  fluctuation  in  the  use  of  conjunctions  which  indicate  a  point  of 
time.  With  reference  to  an  actual  state,  or  actual  event  or  occurrence  in  past  time  in  connec- 
tion with  a  past  (or  historical  present)  or  past  perfect  tense,  the  conjunction  which  is  most  widely 
used  in  the  literary  language  is  als,  in  poetry  and  choice  prose  not  infrequently  also  da.  After 
the  conjunction  als  than,  as,  da  is  preferred  to  als  luhen,  to  avoid  the  unpleasant  repetition  of 
als:  Wie  eine  elegante,  junge  Dame  stand  Lenes  Tochter  da;  schlank,  noch  ein  wenig  mager, 
doch  voller,  als  da  sie  kam  (Wilbrandt).  Lange  hatte  Feldwebel  Rinke  sich  nicht  so  gefreut, 
als  da  die  Infanterie  ausrückte,  die  öffentlichen  Plätze  zu  besetzen  (C.  Viebig's  Die  Wacht  am 
Rhein,  p.  264).  In  colloquial  and  popular  language  wie  is  also  in  general  quite  frequently  used 
instead  of  either  als  or  da.  Also  wo  is  employed  here,  especially  after  a  preceding  adverb,  as  in 
damals,  wo.  Also  indem  as  refers  to  the  past,  but  it  usually  implies  only  a  short  span  of  time 
and  indicates  that  an  act  takes  place  within  the  period  of  the  duration  of  another  act:  Indem 
er  so  sprach,  traf  ihn  die  Kugel.  Indem  er  dies  sagte,  trat  sein  Freund  herein.  With  reference 
to  present  time  usage  is  quite  unsettled.  Als  is  sometimes  employed  here,  and  still  more  fre- 
quently da,  especially  in  poetry  and  choice  prose:  Es  ist  spät  in  der  Nacht,  als  ich  dies  schreibe 
(Raabe's  Speiiingsgasse,  p.  238).  Du  kommst  nur  eben,  da  ich  reisen  muß  ((ioethe's  Tasso, 
1,  4).  Und  willst  du  jetzt,  da  deinen  Wahn  besiegt  |  Wahrheit  und  Treue,  schwesterlich  ver- 
woben, I  da  Falsch  und  Echt  entschleiert  vor  dir  liegt,  |  nicht  eiimial  noch  zu  deines  Volkes 
Glück  I  die  Wunderkraft  des  Talismans  erproben?  (Fulda's  Talisman,  4.  S).  The  most  common 
conjunction  here  in  the  literary  language  is  indem  as  if  the  conjunction  is  not  preceded  by  an 
adverb  of  time:  Das  Vergnügen,  das  ich  empfinde,  indem  ich  dies  schreibe.  Wie  is  often 
used  here:  Ich  will  nicht  dabei  sein,  wie  Mutters  Brautkleid  verkauft  wird  (Halbe's  Das  tausend- 
jährige Reich,  p.  52).  Ja,  wie  ich  das  jetzt  schreibe,  erfahre  ich  es  erst,  wie  gut  sie  bei  seiner 
Mutter  Bescheid  wußte  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  95).  Wo  is  also  often  used  here, 
especially  when  preceded  by  an  adverb  of  time:  Und  jetzt,  wo  wir  glücklich  dastehen  (Halbe's 
Mutter  Erde,  1).  Ich  glaube  dir  nicht,  was  du  Augustchen  geschrieben  hast:  Daß  du  solltest 
dein  deutsches  Gefühl  in  Frankreich  verloren  haben.  Es  wird  doch  schon  nicht  so  sein,  wo 
unser  Deutsches  Reich  in  hohen  Ehren  dasteht  (Schulze-Smidt's  Denk'  ich  an  Deutschland  in  der 
Nacht,  II).  With  reference  to  a  point  in  the  future,  wenn  is  the  most  common  conjunction: 
Und  wenn  du  dann  geheizt  hast,  gehst  du  in  die  Kantine  (Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  2,  1).  Wo 
is  also  used  in  colloquial  language:  Ja,  wo  du  wieder  da  bist,  hab'  ich  mir  gedacht,  soUen  auch 
die  Lichter  wieder  brennen  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  1). 

d.  The  adverb  kaum,  usually  in  the  form  kaum  daß,  also  sometimes  simply  kaum,  has  de- 
veloped into  a  conjunction  with  the  meaning  when  —  scarcely  or  barely:  Kaum  daß  ich  Bacchus 
den  lustigen  habe,  kommt  auch  schon  Amor  (Schiller).  Kaum  diese  Worte  gesprochen  waren, 
wandte  sich  die  junge,  schöne  Frauengestalt  um  und  verschwand  hinter  der  Tür  (Rosegger's 
Martin  der  Mann,  p.  14).     See  269.  1.  b  (last  par.). 

e.  Note  the  use  of  bis  in  the  meaning  by  the  time  that:  Bis  du  nach  Rom  zurückkommst,  ist 
die  längst  Großmutter  (Sudermann's  Johannes,  1,  1).  In  Austria  bis  is  similarly  used  to  denote 
a  point  in  future  time  =  wenn  when  referring  to  future  time  and  =  als  ivhen  referring  to  tirne 
now  past  but  future  with  reference  to  the  person  involved  in  the  action:  Wir  erkennen  sie  (die 
wichtigen  Stunden  unseres  Lebens)  erst,  bis  ( =  wenn)  sie  vorüber  sind  (Hermann  Bahr's 
Der  Klub  der  Erlöser  in  Die  neue  Rundschau,  April  1906,  p.  481).  Sie  sollte  die  Scheidende 
erst  vermissen,  bis  (=  als)  sie  allein  war  (Alfred  Meißner's  Schwarzgelb,  5,  40). 

C.  Manner  or  Quality: 

a.  Expressing  a  comparison  and  manner  proper  (see  239):  wie,  so'wie,  or  gleich'wie  as,  wie 
auch  as  also,  wie  denn  (Ephesians  i.  4)  even  as,  just  as,  according  as,  als  wenn,  als  (237.  1.  A.  c), 
or  als  ob  as  if,  ob  (earlier  in  the  period  =  als  ob),  wie  wetm  as  when,  daß  (276.  A)  that,  als  ob 
(=  daß).     Compare  with  276.  A  and  239. 

b.  Expressing  an  attendant  circumstance:  in'dem  as,  ohne  daß  without,  außer'dern  daß  or 
abgesehen  davon  daß  besides,  apart  from,  independently  of.  Ex.:  Die  Lerche  singt  ihr  Lied, 
indem  sie  sich  in  die  Lüfte  schwingt.     Compare  with  276.  B. 

c.  Expressing  an  alternative  agreement:  da'näch  (still  in  proverbs),  näch'dem  (a  little  earlier 
in  the  period),  je  näch'dem  (common  form)  according  as:  Ex.:  Ich  werde  verfahren,  je  nach- 
dem er  sich  mir  gegenüber  benimmt.     Compare  276.  C. 

d.  Expressing  a  result:  so  —  daß  so — that;  solch  (or  derartig  or  simple  der,  ein,  or  kein 
before  a  substantive;  see  271.  I)  — daß  such  — that;  da'nach  (in  the  principal  proposition)  — 
daß  of  the  kind  that,  in  the  manner  that;  with  negative  force:  an'statt  daß  or  statt  daß  instead 
of,  ohne  daß  without,  daß  nicht  that  —  not,  without,  common  earlier  in  the  period,  where  ohne 
daß  is  now  used,  geschweige  (1st  pers.  sing.  pres.  tense,  ich  being  understood)  (denn)  daß  to  say 
nothing  about,  much  less,  weit  ent'fernt  daß  far  from,  kaum  daß  scarcely.  A  question  may  replace 
the  wo'rds  in  the  principal  proposition:  Was  ist  der  Tod,  daß  er  mich  schrecken  sollte?  (=  der 
Tod  ist  nichts  derartiges,  daß,   &c.).     Compare  with  276.   D. 

D.  Degree  or  Intensity. 


396 SUBORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS  238.  3.  D.  1. 

1.  Expressing  a  comparison: 

A.  Signifying  a  degree  equal  to  tiiat  of  the  principal  proposition: 

a.  Expressing  a  comparison:  so,  also  (rare),  or  ebenso  (in  the  principal  proposition)  —als 
or  wie  (see  239.  -S)  as  — as,  so  (with  corresponding  so  in  the  principal  proposition:  so  hoch  er 
stand,  so  tief  und  schmählich  war  sein  Fall)  so.     Compare  with  277.  1.  A.  a. 

b.  Expressing  a  proportionate  agreement:  je  (in  the  sub.  clause)  ^  desto,  or  urn  so,  or  urn 
desto,  or  now  more  rarely  je  the  —  the  (as  in  Je  höher  er  stieg,  desto  bescheidener  wurde 
er),  formerly  also  so  —  so  =  je  — je,  da'näch  (still  in  proverbs),  näch'dem  (especially  in  early 
N.H.G.),  je  näch'dem  (common  form)  according  as,  in  proportion  as,  in  dem  Maße  (or  in  dem 
Verhältnisse)  wie  in  degree  or  proportion  as.     Compare  with  277.  1.  A.  b. 

c.  Expressing  the  extent  or  a  restriction:  in'sofern,  in'soweit,  so  weit  (in  the  principal  propo- 
sition) —  als  (or  inwie'fem  or  inwie'weit)  in  so  far  as,  so  sehr  —  als  as  hard  as,  so  viel  —  als 
as  much  as,  (in)so'fem,  (in)so'weit,  or  (in)wie'fem  (now  rare)  so  far  as,  so'gut  as  well  as,  so'fest 
as  firmly  as,  so'sehr  as  hard  as,  so'viel  (formerly  als  viel)  as  much  as,  so  weit  —  daß  to  the 
extent  that,  daß  (277.  1.  A.  r),  was  (277.  1.  A.  c).     Compare  with  277.  1.  A.c. 

B.  Following  a  comparative  expressing  a  different  degree  from  that  of  the  principal  clause: 
weder  (early  N.H.G.;  Job  xxxiii.  12;  now  obsolete,  see  239.  7)  than,  denn  (early  N.H.G.;  now 
less  common,  see  239.  1.  a.  Note  2  and  6)  than,  als  (common  form)  than,  wie  (239.  1.  a.  Note  1) 
than,  als  (more  rarely  denn)  daß  or  sometimes  als  weil  than  that,  als  wenn  than  when.  Com- 
pare with  277.  1.  B. 

2.  Expressing  a  result:  so,  der  (see  271.  I),  ein  (see  271.  I),  or  solch  —  daß  so  —  that,  such 
—  that;  nicht  so  —  daß  nicht  not  so  —  but  that,  or  that  not;  'derart  (or  'derartig)  daß  so  — 
that,  'derart — bis  so — that;  kaum  daß  so  that  scarcely;  (in  the  principal  proposition  nicht 
genügend  modifying  a  following  adjective,  participle,  or  verb)  — als  daß  not  sufficiently  —  to; 
(in  the  principal  proposition  zu  +  positive,  or  less  commonly  a  comparative  instead  of  zu  + 
positive)  —  als  daß  or  less  commonly  um  daß  too  —  to  (as  in  Die  Fixsterne  sind  zu  weit  von 
uns  entfernt,  als  daß  wir  von  ihrer  Natur  etwas  Genaueres  wissen  könnten).  The  clause  of 
result  may  follow  a  genug,  hinreichend,  hinlänglich  in  the  principal  proposition:  Ich  hatte 
mir  das  Bild  ihrer  Liebenswürdigkeit  tief  genug  eingedrückt,  daß  (less  commonly  um  daß)  es 
so  leicht  auszulöschen  nicht  war  (Goethe).     Compare  with  277.  2. 

E.  Cause: 

Cause  or  reason:  da'rum  (early  N.H.G.;  1.  Thess.  iii.  5),  da'rum  daß  (early  N.H.G.;  Luke 
viii.  6)  or  um  daß  (early  N.H.G.)  because;  weil  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  'alldieweil,  die'weil; 
Gen.  iii.  17)  because  (material  cause  and  motive),  since,  as;  weil  nun  doch,  or  weil  nun  ein'mal 
seeing  (or  considering)  that;  nicht  daß  (269.  1.  b,  near  end),  nicht  weil,  nicht  als  ob,  or  nicht 
als  wenn  not  that,  not  because;  nicht  als  ob  —  sondern  weil  not  that  — but  because;  in'dem 
in  that,  as  (the  idea  of  cause  mingled  with  that  of  attendant  circumstances);  näch'dem  often 
used  where  the  ideas  of  time  and  cause  blend,  as  in  Gen.  xlvi,  30,  formerly  also  and  sometimes 
still,  especially  in  Austria,  with  the  pure  causal  force  of  da  or  weil  because,  as  the  causal  idea 
has  overshadowed  the  original  temporal  force;  da  (and  in  popular  language  also  wo)  as,  since 
(logical  reason);  da  doch,  da  ja,  or  da  nun  ein'mal  as  (introducing  an  obvious  reason),  seeing 
(or  considering)  that;  anerwogen  (in  official  or  archaic  language)  in  consideration  of  the  fact 
that,  considering  that,  now  more  commonly  replaced  by  in  Anbetracht  daß;  in'maßen  or  maßen 
(dat.  pi.  of  Maße,  both  forms  now  little  used)  seeing  that,  since;  seitor  sint  (both  in  early  N.H.G.; 
the  corresponding  English  form  since  still  in  wide  use;  now  seit  has  only  temporal  meaning  and 
sint  has  disappeared),  sintemal  (early  N.H.G.;  Acts  xvii.  24)  seeing  that,  since;  daß  (see  c 
below)  that;  zu'mal  or  more  commonly  zu'mal  da  especially  as;  nun  now  since,  now  that;  desto, 
or  um  desto,  or  um  so  (before  a  comparative  in  the  principal  proposition)  — als  (or  da  or  some- 
times weil)  all  the  more  —  as;  da'von  or  da'ran,  or  da'her.  Sec.  (in  the  principal  proposition)  — 
daß  from  this  (cause  or  source),  by  (because  of)  this  — that.  The  adverb  of  manner  wieor 
wie  denn  sometimes  assumes  causal  force:  Ich  habe,  wie  (as)  die  Sachen  jetzt  stehen,  an  mich 
selbst  zu  denken  (Goethe).  Wir  gingen  auseinander,  ohne  einander  verstanden  zu  haben, 
wie  denn  (as  indeed)  auf  dieser  Welt  keiner  leicht  den  andern  versteht  (id.).     Compare  with  278. 

a.  The  most  popular  of  these  conjunctions  is  weil,  and  it  often  has  a  wider  use  than  the  one 
above  indicated,  encroaching  upon  the  territory  of  da.     Compare  c  below. 

b.  In  the  classical  period  weil  is  also  still  used  in  a  temporal  sense  =  so  lange  als  or  während: 
Das  Eisen  muß  |  geschmiedet  werden,  weil  es  glüht  (Schiller's  Piccoloniini,  3,  1). 

c.  In  causal  clauses  daß  often  seems  to  contain  the  idea  of  cause,  but  in  older  German  this 
conception  lay  in  a  preceding  genitive  or  prepositional  adverb,  which  later  usually  disappeared: 
Ich  freue  mich  [dessen  or  darüber],  daß  du  so  gut  davon  gekommen  bist.  Schäme  dich  [dessen], 
daß  du  in  der  Prüfung  nicht  bestanden  hast!  Ich  bin  [dessen]  froh,  daß  ich  ihn  los  bin.  As 
the  genitive  and  the  prepositional  phrase  have  for  the  most  part  disappeared  and  daß  does  not 
by  its  form  clearly  express  the  idea  of  cause  it  is  becoming  ever  more  common  to  replace  daß 
by  weil  except  as  in  the  preceding  examples  after  verbs  and  adjectives  denoting  emotion:  Der 
Herr  lobte  den  ungerechten  Haushalter,  daß  (now  more  commonly  weil)  er  klüglich  getan 
hätte  (Luther).  Older  daß  is  now  regularly  replaced  by  weil  after  the  genitive  expressions 
deshalb,  deswegen,  which  are  still  often  retained:  Ich  habe  es  ihm  nur  deshalb  in  Erinnerung 
gebracht,  weil  er  vergeßlich  ist.     See  272.  A,  D. 

F.  A  condition  or  exception:  ob  (early  N.H.G.)  or  so  (early  N.H.G.)  if,  the  former  now 
obsolete,  the  latter  now  rare  in  prose  but  still  in  use  in  poetic  language;  wo  (common  in  early 
N.H.G.,  now  usually  replaced  by  wenn,  im  Falle  daß,  or  falls,  but  still  common  in  wo  möglich, 
wo  nicht)  if  (lit.  where,  in  case  that),  wo  anders  (earlier  in  the  period)  if,  wenn  (common  form) 


239.  \.b. SUBORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS 397 

if,  wenn  .  .  .  überhaupt  if  at  all;  anders  (preceded  by  question  order),  wenn  anders,  or  voraus- 
gesetzt daß  provided  that;  da  or  dafem  earlier  in  the  period,  now  replaced  by  wo'fem  in  case 
that,  if,  provided  that;  wenn  (or  in  a  few  set  expressions  wo)  nicht  if  not,  unless;  wo'fem  nicht 
if  not,  unless;  im  Falle  daß,  falls  (168.  II.  G.  b.  Note),  or  sometimes  im  Fall  in  case  that,  provided 
that,  für  den  Fall  daß  or  falls  for  use  (or  to  be  ready,  to  be  at  hand)  in  case  that;  doch  daß  but 
only  on  condition  that;  in  early  N.H.G.  ohne  daß,  now  replaced  by  außer  daß  or  ausgenommen 
daß  except  that,  unless;  abgesehen  davon  daß  except  that;  außer  wenn  if  not,  unless; 
nur  daß  if  it  were  not  that,  except  that,  only  that,  but  that,  nur  daß  (with  volitive  subjunc- 
tive; see  168.  I.  2.  C.  b)  but  let  it  be,  on  condition  that;  (kein  anderer,  wer  anders,  nichts 
and  other  negative  forms,  or  instead  of  these  forms  a  question)  —  als  (usually  in  elliptical 
constructions;  see  279.  e  and  239.  1.  b)  but,  than,  else  than,  unless,  except,  save;  (nichts 
anderes)  als  daß  (nothing  else)  but  that;  nicht  —  als  wenn  unless;  wie  (239.  1.  b.  Note)  but; 
denn  (239.  6.  a)  but;  ohne  daß  (after  a  negative  proposition)  but  that,  unless;  denn  (after 
a  negative  proposition  and  preceded  by  the  present  or  past  subjunctive  with  normal  word- 
order;  see  168.  II.  E.  a)  or  es  sei  denn  daß  (with  transposed  word-order;  see  168.  II.  E.  a  and 
c)  if  not,  unless,  müßte  deim  (with  infinitive;  see  168.  II.  E.  a)  unless;  höchstens  daß  unless, 
at  most,  at  best;  wer  (159)  for  anybody  who.     Compare  with  279. 

Note.  The  explanation  of  the  negative  meaning  of  denn  or  es  sei  denn  daß  unless  in  spite  of  its  seeming  positive 
form  is  given  in  168.  II.  E.  a  and  No!e. 

The  conjunctions  außer  and  nur  also  introduce  independent  propositions  without  changing  the  meaning.  See 
225.  2.  a,  233.  A,  and  236.  a. 

G.  A  concession:  so  doch  (early  \.H.G.;  Jeremiah  iv.  10)  altho,  whereas,  ob  (Luke  xvi.  31), 
or  und  ob  altho,  ob  —  ob  (or  oder  or  oder  ob)  whether  —  or,  ob  auch,  or  wie'wohl  altho,  and  the 
more  common  words  having  the  same  general  meaning  of  altho:  ob'gleich,  ob 'wohl,  ob'schon, 
ob'zwar,  wenn'gleich  (sometimes  separated,  but  not  so  frequently  as  formerly,  now  usually 
only  when  a  personal  pronoun  can  stand  between  the  parts:  ob — gleich,  ob — wohl,  &c.), 
and  the  separable  forms  wenn  schon,  wenn  auch;  auch  wenn,  selbst  wenn,  or  und  wenn  even  tho, 
even  if;  so  (followed  by  an  adverb  or  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  with  its  preceding  modifying  ad- 
jectives) —  auch  however  (e.g.,  So  groß  er  auch  ist);  wie  —  auch  =  so  —  auch;  wie  =  so  — 
auch;  so  =  so — auch;  welch  (followed  by  a  noun)  —  auch  however,  whatever,  wer  auch 
whoever,  was  auch  whatever,  wo  —  auch  in  whatever  place,  wo 'hin  —  auch  to  whatever  place; 
unge'achtet  or  tmer'achtet  (or  more  rarely  'ohngeachtet),  or  now  less  commonly  unge'achtet 
daß  notwithstanding  that,  trotz'dem  or  trotz'dem  daß  in  spite  of  the  fact  that,  unbe'schadet 
dessen  daß  without  impairing  the  validity  of  the  fact  that.  Also  certain  temporal  conjunctions 
assume  adversative,  concessive  force:  da  (earlier  in  the  period),  da  doch,  indem  doch,  während, 
während  doch,  wo  doch  (colloquial),  formerly  also  wenn  while,  altho.     Compare  with  280. 

a.  Of  the  many  concessive  conjunctions  containing  ob  or  wenn  the  forms  und  wenn,  selbst 
wenn,  auch  wenn  even  tho  are  only  used  when  the  case  is  merely  an  assumed  one,  while  wenn- 
schon and  wenngleich  eve7t  tho,  altho  may  be  used  whether  the  statement  is  a  mere  assumption 
or  is  an  actual  fact.  The  other  forms  usually  correspond  to  English  altho  and  are  used  in  case 
of  actual  facts.     Examples  are  given  in  280. 

H.  Purpose  or  end:  tun  daß  (now  little  used),  daß  (the  oldest  form  but  still  much  used  in 
colloquial  speech),  da'rum  daß,  auf  daß  (old  forms  once  more  common  than  at  present,  the  latter 
a  favorite  with  Luther),  da 'mit  (not  often  employed  by  Luther,  but  now  the  most  common  form; 
see  also  240.  a,  2nd  par.)  in  order  that.     Compare  281. 

I.  Means:  da'durch  (or  da'mit,  &c.)  daß,  or  separated  da'durch  —  daß  by,  da'ran  daß  by, 
in'dem  by.     Compare  with  282. 

239.  The  Subordinating  Conjunctions  als,  wie,  denn,  weder,  was,  wann.  The  following 
subordinating  conjunctions,  much  used  in  making  comparisons,  and  in  introducing  an  exception 
or  a  qualification,  are  by  reason  of  their  importance  treated  at  some  length  below:  als  than, 
from,  but,  except,  as;  wie  as,  like,  than,  but;  denn  than,  but;  weder  than;  als  wie  as,  than, 
but,  was  timn,  but;  wenn  than,  but.  The  following  may  serve  as  a  fair  outline  of  their  proper 
usage: 

1.     Als  is  used: 

a.  After  a  comparative:  Hans  ist  größer  als  Wilhelm.  Röter  als  Blut.  Täte  er  nicht  besser 
daran,  zu  bleiben,  als  daß  er  so  spät  geht,  or  als  so  spät  zu  gehen?  Compare:  I  rather  like  him 
as  (=  als)  otherwise  (Scott's  St.  Ronans  Well).  In  German  this  construction  is  recommended 
by  grammarians  quite  generally,  but  it  has  never  been  thoroly  established  in  actual  usage  to 
the  exclusion  of  other  forms.     In  English  it  has  disappeared  from  the  literary  language. 

Note  1.  Als  and  the  still  older  denn  are  now  very  often  replaced  here  by  wie,  not  only  in  colloquial  language,  but 
also  in  a  serious  literary  style:  Einem  schöneren  Jüngling  wie  diesem  Gottfried  von  Tessow  bin  ich  in  meinem 
ganzen  Leben  nicht  begegnet  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder! .  II).  Das  Aufgebot  an  Menschen  und  Geschützen  dürfte 
schwerlich  noch  größer  werden  wie  im  September  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Jan.  7,  1916). 

Note  2.  In  early  N.H.G.  denn  was  usually  and  weder  (see  7  below)  sometimes  used  after  the  comparative:  Vnd 
die  Schlange  war  listiger  denn  alle  Thier  auff  dem  felde  (Gen.  iii.  1).  In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  als 
begins  to  appear  instead  of  denn.  The  old  usage  rot  als  Blut,  röter  denn  Blut  has  become  rot  wie  Blut,  röter  als  Blut. 
See  also  Note  1. 

b.  .\fter  the  pronominal  ander-,  negatives,  questions  with  negative  force,  and  sometimes 
after  all-  and  jed-:  Mein  Urteil  ist  ein  ganz  anderes  als  das  Ihrige.  Ich  urteile  darüber  ganz 
anders  als  Sie.  Niemand  als  Sie  würde  das  gewagt  haben  Nobody  but  you  would  have  dared 
to  do  that.  Ich  fühle  mich  nirgends  glücklich  als  hier  I  am  happy  nowhere  except  here.  Ich 
wünsche  mir  nichts  als  Ruhe.  Was  kann  er  mir  [anders  or  sonst]  vorwerfen,  als  einen  gewissen 
Stolz?,  where,  as  in  all  such  questions,  it  is  now  in  contrast  to  the  eighteenth  century  more  com- 
mon to  insert  one  of  the  words  given  in  brackets.     Gefühllos  jedem  Schmerz,  als  imgeliebt  zu 


398 SUBORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS 239.  1.  b. 

sein  (Wieland).  An  allem  Mangel  leidend,  als  an  Schmerz  (Grillparzer's  Medea,  1)  suffering  a 
lack  of  everything  but  pain. 

While  als  is  still  freely  used  after  niemand,  nichts,  it  cannot  now  as  in  the  eighteenth  century 
be  freely  used  after  other  ne.^ativ-es  but  is  usually  replaced  there  by  außer:  Ich  kann  nicht  ein- 
mal ein  Stückchen  Papier  finden  als  (now  außer)  dieses  blaue  (Goethe's  Briefe,  1,  263,  16). 

After  zu  +  adjective  or  adverb  we  still  usually  find  als  when  a  full  clause  follows,  in  the 
eighteenth  century  also  when  an  abridged  infinitive  clause  follows,  but  in  the  latter  case  als  is 
now  supplanted  by  um:  Sie  gehen  zu  langsam,  als  daß  Sie  Ihren  Freund  einholen  könnten, 
or  um  Ihren  Freund  einzuholen.  Weil  er  sein  Mädchen  zu  feurig  liebt,  als  (now  tmi)  sie  ver- 
lassen zu  können  (Schiller). 

Note.  Wie  is  often  used  here  instead  of  als,  especially  in  colloquial  language:  Sie  sind  mir  wert  und  lieb,  aber 
ganz  anders  wie  du  (Auerbach's  Dorfyeschicklen,  8,  p.  104).  Sie  werten  anders,  wie  Ihre  Eltern  werten  fHauptmann's 
Einsame  Menschen.  4).  Du  hast's  ja  selber  zu  tragen!  Kein  anderer  wie  du!  (Halbe's  Das  lausendiährige  Reich, 
p.  4.5).  -A^lso  even  in  the  higher  forms  of  Uterature:  An  sich  ist  also  der  Sinn  des  Genitivs  hier  kein  anderer  wie  in 
positiven  Sätzen  (Hrugmann's  Vergleichende  Grammatik,  II,  2,  p.  612).  Und  da  ich  nun  einmal  nichts  wie  zu  lieben 
weiß  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  3,  10). 

c.  After  so'bald,  so'oft  (formerly  also  als  oft),  so'lange,  so'fem,  so'viel  (formerly  also  als 
viel),  (Sic,  in  which  cases  it  is  now  usually  suppressed:  Komm,  sobald  [als]  du  kannst,  und  bleib, 
solange  [als]  du  darfst.  If  als  is  used,  sobald,  solange,  &c.  are  adverbs  and  belong  to  the  prin- 
cipal proposition,  but  when  it  is  suppressed,  as  is  now  usual,  sobald,  solange  become  subordinat- 
ing conjunctions  and  belong  of  course  to  the  subordinate  clause. 

d.  In  the  combination  so'wohl  — als  as  ivell  —  as,  both  —  and:  Sowohl  dem  gegenwärtigen 
als  auch  dem  vergangenen  Jahrhundert  verdanken  wir  große  Fortschritte  in  Kunst  und  Wissen- 
schaft. Here  we  also  now  find  sowohl  .  .  .  wie,  and  indeed  wie  is  more  common  than  als  if  the 
identifying  als  described  in  4  below  follows:  sowohl  in  seiner  Eigenschaft  als  Berliner  wie  als 
Mensch  überhaupt  (Raabe's  Die  Villa  Schönoiu,  V). 

e.  In  the  combinations  als  wenn  (or  also  wie  wenn),  als  ob  as  if,  as  the,  in  comparisons  that 
are  represented  as  resting  not  upon  absolutely  assured  facts,  but  upon  personal  impressions, 
appearances,  or  even  represented  as  unreal,  contrary  to  fact:  Es  scheint,  als  wenn,  or  als  ob 
sie  reich  wären. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  als  could  be  used  alone  without  wenn  or  ob  and  still  be  followed  by  the  dependent  word- 
order.     See  1  Sam.  xx.  20.     If  als  be  used  alone,  present  usage  requires  the  question  order.     See  237.  1.  A.  c. 

2.  Wie  is  used: 

a.  After  the  positive  of  adjectives:  weiß  wie  Schnee  white  as  snow.  Karl  ist  ebenso  fleißig 
wie  du.     Karl  ist  so  alt  wie  Wilhelm. 

When  the  adjective  which  would  stand  in  the  second  member  has  already  been  mentioned, 
it  may  be  suppressed  in  colloquial  speech:  Richard:  Amtlich?  (Is  the  dispatch)  official?  Holtz- 
mann:    So  gut  wie  (Sudermann's  Es  lebe  das  Leben,  pp.  43-44). 

Note.  Formerly  als  (in  M.H.G.  with  its  full  form  also,  or  instead  of  it  simple  so,  of  the  same  origin  as  English  as) 
stood  after  the  positive,  as  is  still  occasionally  found  in  early  N.H.G.  See  Matth.  xxviii.  .3.  A  survival  of  this  older 
usage  is  still  preserved  in  certain  constructions,  especially  after  so  and  solch,  where  als  can  occasionally  be  found: 
so  geschwind  als  (or  wie)  möglich.     This  accounts  for  its  use  in  1.  c  and  d  above. 

b.  Also  in  connection  with  verbs  to  indicate  likeness,  similarity:  Das  Schiff  flog  dahin  wie 
ein  Pfeil.  Karl  spricht,  wie  er  denkt,  but  Er  sprach  anders,  als  (1.  b)  er  denkt.  Er  handelt 
immer  so  (often  used  in  German,  but  not  in  English),  wie  es  sein  Vorteil  erheischt. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  als  fin  M.H.G.  also  or  simple  so)  was  here  still  frequently  used,  and  even  later  in  the  classi- 
cal period.  See  Matth.  xxii.  39.  A  survival  of  this  former  usage  is  still  preserved  in  the  construction  mentioned  in 
1.  e  above. 

c.  Often  in  the  combination  wie  wenn  as  when  (or  also  als  wenn  after  so  or  a  negative)  in 
comparisons  which  are  represented  as  real:   Es  zischt,  wie  wenn  Wasser  sich  mit  Feuer  mischt. 

d.  After  the  comparative.     See  6  below  under  denn,  also  1.  a.  Note  1  above. 

e.  After  negatives.     See  1.  b.  Note  above. 

/.  After  umgekehrt  the  opposite  or  reverse:  Die  Sache  ist  umgekehrt,  wie  man  sie  darstellt 
(Saran's  Deutsche  Verslehre,  p.  4S).  Das  logische  Verhältnis  zweier  Sätze  kann  auch  geradezu 
das  umgekehrte  werden  wie  das  grammatische  (Paul's  Deutsche  Grammatik,  IV,  p.  325). 

3.  _  In  one  case  usage  fluctuates  between  als  and  wie,  with,  perhaps,  the  preponderance  on 
the  side  of  wie,  namely,  in  comparing  different  objects  or  actions  as  to  the  degree  or  intensity 
of  certain  qualities  or  forces.  The  grammarians  demand  als  when  degree,  intensity,  is  to  be 
expressed,  and  wie  to  express  manner,  likeness,  quality.  Degree:  Er  schreibt  so  schlecht  als 
du.  Manner:  Er  schreibt  schlecht  wie  du.  This  distinction  is  a  nice  one  theoretically,  but  it 
is  not  supported  by  practice,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  best  modern  authors:  Es  gibt  keinen  anderen 
Menschen  mehr  auf  Erden,  der  so  allein  ist  wie  ich  (Raabe's  Zum  wilden  Mann,  chap.  5).  The 
form  als  is  regularly  replaced  by  wie  when  another  als  immediately  follows:  Als  Schriftsteller 
dagegen  steht  er  (i.e.  Cicero)  vollkommen  ebenso  tief  wie  als  Staatsmann  (Mommsen's  Römische 
Geschichte,  V,  chap.  12). 

4.  In  the  predicate,  however,  a  sharp  distinction  is  now  made  in  choice  language  between 
wie  and  als.  Here  als  is  used  in  all  appositional  constructions  and  hence  denotes  identity,  oneiiess 
with,  while  wie  expresses  mere  similarity:  Ich  ehre  ihn  als  meinen  Vater  I  honor  him  as  my 
father  (which  he  is).  Ich  ehre  ihn  wie  meinen  Vater  I  honor  him  just  as  I  would  my  father,  or 
like  my  father.  Sie  sprachen  miteinander  als  Freunde  They  were  speaking  together  as  friends 
(which  they  were).  Sie  sprachen  miteinander  wie  Freunde  (like  friends,  but  thev  were  not). 
Leonidas  focht  bei  Thermopilä  wie  ein  Löwe  und  fiel  als  ein  Held.  Friedrich  Wilhelm  der 
Vierte  haßte  die  Revolution  nicht  bloß  wie,  sondern  als  die  Sünde.     For  that  class  of  appositional 


240. CONJUNCTS.  USED  AS  CO-ORD.  OR  SUBORD. 399 

constructions  which  merely  add  an  explanatory  word  or  words  to  a  previous  noun  see  233.  C. 
a.     The  distinction  between  als  and  wie  described  above  is   quite   commonly  neglected  in 
colloquial  language,  as  wie  here  as  elsewhere  replaces  als:   Ich  wie  dein  Alter,  Kerlchen,  ich  hätt' 
all  meinen  Rotspon  selber  getrunken  vor  meinem  End'!  !  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  3,  p.  157). 

5.  Als  wie  was  frequently  used  in  the  classical  period  instead  of  wie  after  a  positive  and 
instead  of  als  after  a  comparative,  and  is  still  so  used  in  colloquial  N.G.:  Wir  finden  wohl  heute 
abend  keine  Stätte  in  Amelungsborn,  wo  er  besser  riüite  als  wie  hier  (Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap, 
xxiv).  Sometimes  even  in  the  higher  forms  of  literature:  Selbst  die  Abendröte  |  schaut  anders 
aus  als  wie  zuvor  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Re-i herfedern,  5,  2). 

6.  Denn,  like  English  than  (older  form  of  then),  was  originally  a  co-ordinating  conjunction: 
Mein  Bruder  ist  älter,  dann  (older  form  of  denn)  [komme]  ich.  Altho  denn  than  was  very 
common  as  a  subordinating  conjunction  after  comparatives  in  early  N.H.G.,  it  is  now  in  general 
much  less  used  there,  but  it  is  not  so  rare  as  grammarians  often  represent:  mehr  denn  ein  Men- 
schenalter durch  (Raabe's  Höxter  und  Corvey,  chap.  13),  blühender  denn  je  (H.  Hoffmann). 
Es  ist  ein  großer  Bau,  der  mehr  in  die  Breite  denn  in  die  Höhe  geht  (Ernst  Zahn's  Menschen, 
II).     See  also  Note  2  under  1.  a  above. 

It  is,  moreover,  quite  frequently  employed  after  the  comparative  instead  of  als,  when  there 
is  already  an  als  (the  identifying  als  described  in  4  above,  or  the  als  in  the  conjunction  als  ob) 
in  the  sentence:  Das  betrachten  wir  eher  als  eine  Tugend  denn  als  einen  Fehler  (G.  Keller). 
Letzterer  sah  mir  mehr  danach  aus,  als  ob  er  eines  Arztes  bedürfe,  deim  als  ob  er  selber  stu- 
dieren wolle  (Adelbert  Meinhardt).  Wie  is  perhaps  still  more  common  here,  especially  in 
colloquial  language:  Als  sie  wahrnahm,  daß  ihr  Besuch  mehr  als  Störung  wie  als  Freude  empfun- 
den wurde  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap.  9).  Viel  höher  wie  als  Epiker  steht  Hebbel  als  Lyriker  (Adolf 
Bartels). 

a.  Denn  was  common  in  early  N.H.G.  after  a  negative  or  a  question,  or  after  ander-,  and 
survives  in  poetic  language  and  choice  prose:  Bei  dir  gilt  nichts  denn  Gnad  allein  (Luther). 
Der  Wind  hatte  seine  Stimme  wiederum  erhoben;  doch  nicht  so  laut  derm  zuvor  (Raabe's  Else 
von  der  Tanne).  Der  Hausherr  neckte  bei  aller  Zartheit  seine  Frau  so  lustig  und  unbefangen, 
als  wäre  niemand  zugegen  denn  ein  alter  Freund!  (O.  Ernst's  Semper  der  Jüngling,  p.  120). 
Wem  wohl,  denn  ihr  (i.e.  der  Frau),  verdankt  er  des  Liedes  Keim?  'Otto  Brahm  in  Die  neue 
deutsche  Rundschau,  Dec.  1906,  p.  1420).  Noch  jetzt  erscheint  der  Sohn  mir  im  Traume  anders 
nie  denn  frisch  und  blühend  (Uhland). 

7.  After  comparatives  we  sometimes  in  early  N.H.G.  find  the  form  weder  (235.  A.  a)  than, 
lit.  not  the  one  of  the  two:  Denn  ein  Nachbar  ist  besser  in  der  nehe  |  weder  ein  Bruder  in  der 
ferne  (Prov.  xxvii.  10)  A  neighbor  at  hand  is  better  than  a  brother  far  off,  lit.  Of  the  two  a  neighbor 
at  hand  is  better,  not  a  brother  far  off.  It  has  entirely  disappeared  except  in  S.G.  dialect:  Sie  ist 
gewiß  viel  braver  weder  er  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  7,  p.  198).  Compare  dialectic  English: 
He  is  taller  nor  I. 

8.  In  Austrian  and  Bavarian  dialects  was  is  found  after  a  comparative  or  a  negative  instead 
of  als:  Er  ist  gresser  was  i  =  Er  ist  größer  als  ich.  Nix  was  lauter  Guats  =  nichts  als  lauter 
Gutes. 

9.  In  certain  Swiss  dialects  wann  (=  M.H.G.  niuwan  except)  is  found  after  a  comparative 
or  a  negative  instead  of  als:  größer  wann  i,  niemand  wann  i.  In  older  German  this  usage  was 
not  uncommon  in  the  literary  language. 

Conjunctions  Used  as  Co-ordinating  or  Subordinating. 

240.  The  following  conjunctions  may  introduce  either  co-ordinate  or  subordinate  propo- 
sitions: da'rum,  earlier  in  the  period  used  as  a  co-ordinating  conjunction  with  the  meaning 
therefore  and  as  a  subordinating  conjunction  with  the  meaning  since,  as,  as  in  I  Thess.  iii.  5,  now 
only  employed  in  the  former  function  and  meaning;  denn,  earlier  in  the  period  much  used  as  a 
co-ordinating  conjunction  with  the  meaning  for  and  also  quite  common  as  a  subordinating 
conjunction  with  the  meaning  since,  as,  now  only  employed  in  the  former  function  and  meaning; 
da  then,  when;  insoweit,  insofern  thus  far,  so  far  as;  in'dessen,  unter'dessen  a  httle  earlier  in 
the  period  used  as  co-ordinating  conjunctions  with  the  meanings  in  the  meantime,  hoivever,  yet 
and  as  subordinating  conjunctions  in  the  meaning  while,  while  on  the  other  hand,  now  in  the 
latter  function  indessen  is  less  common  than  formerly  and  unterdessen  little  used,  while  in 
the  former  function  they  are  so  differentiated  that  indessen  is  used  in  the  meaning  however,  yet 
as  illustrated  in  236  and  unterdessen  in  the  meaning  in  the  meantime;  in'zwischen  in  the  fnean- 
time,  while  in  the  meantime;  trotz'dem  nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that;  seit'dem  since;  nun 
now,  now  that;  so  so  (which  tho  usually  a  co-ordinating  adverbial  conjunction  is  also  a  subordi- 
nating conjunction  in  concessive  clauses  (see  238.  3.  G);  widrigenfalls  otherwise,  employed  in 
this  meaning  both  as  a  co-ordinating  and  a  subordinating  conjunction,  more  commonly  the 
former  with  inverted  word-order;  sonst  or  ansonst  (now  little  used),  earlier  in  the  period  also 
anders  (Matth.  ix.  17)  else,  otherwise,  usually  with  inverted  word-order:  Er  war  krank;  trotzdem 
ging  er  aus.  Trotzdem  er  krank  war,  ging  er  aus.  Du  hast  dir  Mühe  gegeben,  in'sofern  kann 
ich  dich  loben.  Inso'fern  du  dir  Mühe  gegeben  hast,  kann  ich  dich  loben.  Du  hast  mir  das 
versprochen;  nun  mußt  du  Wort  halten.  Nun  du  das  versprochen  hast,  mußt  du  Wort  halten. 
Bezahl'  mich  jetzt;  widrigenfalls  muß  ich  dich  verklagen.  Van  der  Straaten,  der  es  hörte, 
verbat  sich  alle  derartig  intrikaten  Wortspielereien,  widrigenfalls  er  an  die  Braut  telegraphieren 
werde  (Fontane's  U Adultera,  chap.  viii).  Nach  einem  Beschluß  des  Obersten  Rates  soll 
Deutschland   zur   Räumung   Litauens   aufgefordert   werden,   widrigenfalls   mit   Repressalien 


400 ORIGIN   OF  SUBORD.    CONJUNCTIONS 240. 

gedroht  wird  {Die  Woche,  Oct.  4,  1919).  Gib  dem  Kinde  das  Spielzeug,  sonst  fängt  es  an  zu 
weinen.  Die  kleinen  Leiden  mit  der  aufdringlichen  Krapüle  und  was  damit  zusammenhängt, 
gehen  auch  bei  mir  immer  fort,  allein  es  lohnt  am  Ende  nicht  der  Mühe,  lange  davon  zu  sprechen, 
ansonst  man  ja  doppelte  Beschwernis  hat  (G.  Keller  an  T.  Storm,  5.  Juni  1882). 

a.  Origin  of  Subordinating  Conjunctions.  In  the  oldest  period  of  language  development  a 
formal  expression  to  indicate  the  subordination  of  one  proposition  to  another — hypotaxis — was 
unknown.  The  mere  placing  of  one  proposition  alongside  another — parataxis — was  and  is  even 
still  often  sufficient  with  the  aid  of  the  context  to  indicate  the  grammatic  relations:  Beeile  dich, 
es  wird  spät  Hurry  up,  it  is  getting  late,  in  hypotactical  form.  Beeile  dich,  da  es  spät  wird  Hurry 
up,  as  it  is  getting  late.  Hypotaxis  has  had  within  historic  times  a  rich  development  becoming 
an  ever  more  accurate  expression  of  thought  by  means  of  its  finely  differentiated  subordinating 
conjunctions.  Most  subordinating  conjunctions  were  originally  modifiers  of  the  principal 
proposition.  Thus  Ich  sehe,  daß  (the  same  word  as  the  demonstrative  das  nom.  and  ace,  from 
which  it  is  first  distinguished  in  orthography  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century)  er  zufrieden  ist 
originated  in  Ich  sehe  das:  er  ist  zufrieden.  Thus  also  Ich  tue  es  nicht,  ohne  daß  ich  Ihre  Er- 
laubnis habe  originated  in  Ich  tue  es  nicht  ohne  das:  ich  habe  Ihre  Erlaubnis.  In  both  examples 
das  is  ace.  neut.,  but  later  when  it  passed  over  into  the  subordinate  clause  the  distinct  feeling 
of  its  case  passed  away,  and  it,  in  a  number  of  conjunctions,  passed  as  a  connective  without 
inflection,  the  form  das,  later  daß,  standing  even  after  a  prep,  governing  some  other  case  than 
the  ace,  as  in  außer  daß  except,  während  daß  ivhile,  anstatt  daß  instead,  or  after  a  verb  which 
governs  the  gen.:  Ich  erinnere  mich  nicht,  daß  ich  dies  gesagt  habe.  In  other  conjunctions 
the  proper  case  of  the  original  demonstrative  still  stands,  as  in  nachdem  ajter,  seitdem  since, 
indem  while.  In  the  same  manner  the  demonstratives  der,  die,  das  were  removed  from  the 
principal  to  the  subordinate  proposition  and  thus  became  relative  pronouns.  Compare  154. 
Note.  Similarly  ehe  and  bevor,  originally  adverbs  with  the  meaning  before  (i.e.  previously) 
standing  in  the  principal  proposition,  were  removed  to  the  subordinate  clause  and  became  sub- 
ordinating conjunctions  with  the  meaning  before,  so  that  Ich  war  zufrieden  ehe  or  bevor:  er  kam 
became  Ich  war  zufrieden,  ehe  or  bevor  er  kam.  Notice  that  in  all  these  examples  the  subordi- 
nating conjunction  is  a  word  that  stood  originally  in  the  principal  proposition  pointing  to  the 
following  proposition  into  which  it  finally  merged.  On  the  other  hand,  the  co-ordinating  con- 
junctions in  the  above  list  stood  originally  where  they  still  stand,  i.e.  in  the  second  proposition 
pointing  backward  to  the  preceding  proposition:  Er  war  krank;  trotzdem  ging  er  aus.  In  this 
position  das  is  still  found  in  its  original  function  and  form:  Er  ist  zufrieden,  das  sehe  ich,  but 
Ich  sehe,  daß  er  zufrieden  ist.  The  two  propositions  connected  by  a  co-ordinating  conjunction 
or  a  demonstrative  pointing  backward  to  the  first  proposition  are  both  independent,  but  they 
are  somewhat  dififerentiated  from  simple  parataxis  by  the  use  in  the  second  proposition  of  a 
connecting  word  which  shows  a  relation  between  the  two  propositions  and  thus  indicates  an 
intermediate  stage  of  development  between  parataxis  and  hypotaxis — co-ordination.  Compare 
267.  4.  The  subordinating  conjunction  denn  than,  used  after  comparatives,  was  once  co-ordi- 
nating.    See  239.  6. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  few  subordinating  conjunctions  stood  originally  in  the  subordinate  clause 
as  they  were  once  relative  adverbs  standing  in  descriptive  relative  clauses  (271.  II.  7):  Fliehet 
aus  Babel,  damit  ein  jglicher  seine  Seele  errette  (Jer.  li.  6)  =  womit  ein  jeder  seine  Seele  er- 
retten möge.  The  idea  of  purpose  here  was  at  first  indicated  by  the  subjunctive  of  the  verb 
in  the  relative  clause,  but  later  this  idea  became  associated  with  damit,  which  in  the  relative 
function  had  elsewhere  been  replaced  by  womit  and  hence  had  ceased  to  be  felt  as  a  relative  and 
began  to  be  construed  as  a  subordinating  conjunction  of  purpose.  Also  the  subordinating  con- 
junctions da  when,  als  when,  so  zvhen,  if,  have  developed  out  of  relative  adverbs,  which  are  them- 
•selves  developments  out  of  older  demonstratives  which  once  stood  in  the  principal  proposition. 


INTERJECTIONS. 

241.  An  interjection  is  a  single  particle,  or  some  other  part  of  speech  used  as  such,  or  a  com- 
bination of  particles,  or  a  fragment  of  a  sentence  used  to  give  vent  to  some  sudden  outburst  of 
feeling  or  passion,  or  to  give  expression  to  some  intimation  of  will,  or  on  the  other  hand  to  imitate 
some  sound  in  nature.  The  simplest  interjections,  such  as  o!,  au!,  belong  to  the  oldest  forms 
of  spoken  language  and  represent  the  most  primitive  type  of  the  sentence.  Compare  250.  a. 
In  order  to  facilitate  an  understanding  of  the  more  idiomatic  interjections  illustrative  sentences 
are  given  under  the  several  words.  A  few  of  the  most  common  or  most  difficult  here  follow  in 
alphabetical  order,  others  must  be  looked  for  in  the  dictionary: 

aber  nem!  expressing  surprise.  bauz!   imitating  a  falling  body:  Bauz,  da  liegt 

ach!    expressing  pain,  anger,  regret,    displeas-  er! 

ure.  bei'leibe  nicht  =  um  Gottes  willen  nicht! 

ach  was!    pooh!  or  bah!,  expressing  disdain.  kein  Bein!  (coUoq.)  not  at  all! 

ah!    expressing  joy,  admiration,  surprise.  be'wahre!    by  no  means! 

also  doch!   Well,  I  never  should  have  expected  nein,  ich  bitte  Sie!   expressing  surprise. 

that!  bravo!  or  gut!    hear!  hear!,  sign  of   approval, 

ätsch  or  eetsch!    teasing  expression  of  joy  at  often   in  contrast   to  hört!   hört!,  which  in- 

the  loss  or  discomfiture  of  another.  dicates  disapproval,  or  is  employed    by  one 

au!  or  autsch!   expression  of  physical  pain.  party  in  an  assembly  to  call    attention  to 


241. 


INTERJECTIONS 


401 


something  just  said  which   they  believe  to 

be  unfavorable  to  their  opponents. 
brrr!    whoa!  (to  stop  a  horse). 
bums,     imitating  a   falling   body:     Bums,   da 

liegt  er! 
dalli  (colloq.)  =  flink!  quick! 
Gehen  Sie  mir  doch  mit  solchem  Zeug!   rot! 
gütiger  Himmel!   good  heavens! 
i  du  meine  Güte!   good  gracious! 
holterdipolter,  a  heavy,  dull  noise:    Das  ging 

holterdipolter   (in  great  haste  and  noisily). 
hoppla,  or  hoppsa,  or  hoppsassa!    excl.  when 

some  one  stumbles  or  lets  something  fall, 
hu'rra!   (or  'hurra)  hurrah!    hurra  hoch!  hip, 

hip,  hip,  hurrah! 
husch!     expression   of   rapidity:    Husch!   fort 

war  der  Vogel! 
keine  Idee,  or  kein  Gedanke!    not  at  all! 
i  wo!    by  no  means! 
juch'he!  or  juch'hei!    hurrah! 
kladdera'datsch,  imitating  a  falling  body, 
knacks,  imitating  the  breaking  of  some  brittle 

substance:    Knacks,   sagte  es,  da  war  der 

Henkel  an  der  Tasse  abgebrochen, 
ja  Kuchen!   (colloq.)   It's  all  imagination! 
man  ja  nicht!   in  no  case! 
na!     unusually   frequent,   expressing   surprise, 

displeasure,    an    urgent    admonition    to    do 

something  desired   by   the  speaker,   or  en- 

Note.  As  bitte!  short  for  ich  bitte  /  heg,  is  usually  used  with  some  expression  understood,  the  suppressed  words 
being  easy  to  supply  from  the  connection  and  in  the  spoken  language  from  the  tone  of  voice  or  gesture,  it  often  has 
varied  meanings:  bitte!  please!  Bitte  um  Verzeihung!  Beg  your  pardon!  Bitte,  bitte!  Please,  do  it!  Bitte!  Please 
let  me  pass.  Bitte!  Please  enter  this  room!  Bitte,  das  bleibt  mein  Geheimnis  Please  don't  inquire,  that's  my  secret. 
Bitte!  What  did  you  say?  Nein,  ich  bitte  Sie!  Well,  I  declare!  (expression  of  surprise).  Bitte!  Don't  mention  it 
(answer  to  one  returning  thanks  for  a  favor).  Bitte  sehr  /  beg  your  pardon,  used  to  introduce  politely  something 
contradicting  that  which  has  just  been  stated  by  the  person  addressed. 


couraging  words  to  someone  to  proceed: 
Wer  kommt  mit?  Na  (surprise)?  Keiner? 
(What,  no  one?)  Na,  das  fehlte  noch!  Well! 
That  caps  the  climax!  Na,  vorwärts! 
Often  used  when  the  speaker  thinks  that 
something  confirms,  or  soon  will  confirm 
his  ideas,  words:  Na,  das  sagte  ich  Ihnen 
ja  gleich!  Used  when  one  forms  unwillingly 
a  resolution  which  he  cannot  well  avoid: 
Na,  ich  will  denn  nur  weiter  gehen.  To 
express  doubt  as  to  the  outcome:  Na,  na, 
wenn  es  nur  gut  ausläuft!  A  warning: 
Na,  na,  na,  nicht  so  hitzig!  Sharp  rebuke: 
na,  na!  Appeasingly:  Na,  na,  es  war  nicht 
bös  gemeint! 

na'nu,  strengthened  na,  expressing  surprise, 
pity,  indignation,  disappointment,  impa- 
tience:   Nanu,  was  bedeutet  denn  das? 

na  ob  or  und  ob!  in  responses  =  well,  I  should 
think  so!  rather! 

ne,   very  frequent  =  nein. 

o!  oh!    Ö!  oh! 

pfui!    for  shame!  shame  on  you! 

pst!  or  seht!    sh!  hush! 

Quatsch!   bosh! 

schön!  or  gut!    all  right!,  indicating  assent. 

schwups,  expressing  suddenness:  Schwups! 
hatte  er  eine  Ohrfeige. 


PART  III 


WORD-FORMATION. 


242.     Words  are  divided  with  reference  to  their  formation  into  three  classes: 
Primitives,  Derivatives,  and  Compounds. 


PRIMITIVES. 

243.  Words  were  in  most  cases  once  longer  than  now.  Altho  we  know 
almost  nothing  about  the  subject  we  often  speak  of  the  first  syllable  of  these 
older  words  as  the  root,  of  the  part  next  to  the  root  as  the  root  suffix,  of  both 
root  and  root  suffix  as  the  stem,  of  the  final  element  as  the  inflectional  ending, 
and  of  them  all  together  as  a  word.  As  our  ancestors  in  time  lost  all  feeling  for 
the  real  meaning  of  the  different  elements  of  each  word  they  slighted  them,  so 
that  these  words  have  come  down  to  us  much  reduced  in  form,  often  worn  away 
to  a  single  syllable  or  even  a  single  vowel.  We  to-day  have  only  feeling  for  the 
word  as  a  whole.  From  these  old  words  new  words  may  be  formed  by  the 
addition  of  prefixes  or  suffixes.  These  new  words  thus  formed  may  in  turn 
become  the  stems  from  which  by  the  addition  of  other  suffixes  still  other  words 
may  be  formed.  Words  which  have  sprung  up  directly  from  the  root  syllable 
and  now  have  no  other  suffixes  than  the  usual  inflectional. endings,  and  which 
are  themselves  the  stems  from  which  other  words  by  the  aid  of  suffixes  spring, 
are  called  primitives.^  The  strong  verbs  of  the  present  and  past  periods  of  the 
language  form  the  primitive  stems  fron,  which  a  large  number  of  German  words 
have  sprung.  In  these  primitives  it  is  the  consonants  that  give  consistency 
to  the  roots,  for  the  root  vowels  themselves  differ  in  the  different  tenses:  singen, 
sang,  gesungen.  This  difference  of  vowel,  called  gradation,  is  due  to  a  difference 
of  accent  in  an  earlier  period.  See  26.  D  and  197.  A.  It  is  no  longer  possible 
to  tell  what  the  original  root-vowel  was.  Thus  the  original  root  has  thrown 
up  different  stems  which  have  become  remarkably  fruitful.  The  different 
classes  of  the  gradating  verbs  are  treated  in  articles  198-205.  The  numerous 
nouns  and  adjectives  which  have  been  formed  from  the  same  roots  as  these  strong 
verbs  are,  like  the  verbal  stems  themselves,  in  direct  association  with  the  root 
and  are  also  true  primitives.  Usually,  however,  such  nouns  and  adjectives 
are  associated  directly  with  strong  verbs,  as  the  original  roots  cannot  be 
ascertained,  and  the  strong  verbs  are  the  oldest  related  forms  which  can  shed 
light  on  their  real  meaning.  For  fuller  explanation  of  this  point  see  197.  A.  a. 
Note.  As  certain  primitive  nouns  and  adjectives  have  the  same  gradation  as 
the  related  strong  verbs,  they  have  been  treated  in  detail  under  the  different 
gradation  classes  (beginning  at  art.  198)  rather  than  here.  A  number  of  primi- 
tive nouns  and  adjectives  have  no  relation  to  any  existing  strong  verb,  but 
can  be  traced  back  to  verbs  found  in  earlier  periods  of  German  or  some  older 
related  language.  Some  primitives,  however,  cannot  thus  be  traced  back  to 
verbal  forms.     Also  a  number  of  weak  verbs  must  be  regarded  as  primitives. 

_  a.  Next  in  nature  to  these  primitives  are  those  derivatives  with  endings  that  have  no  appre- 
cial)ie  meaning.  Such  are  the  substantives  formed  by  adding  e,  de,  te,  d,  dt,  ft,  st,  t,  or  tt  to  a. 
primitive  stem,  and  adjectives  in  el,  er,  en,  t:  Grube  ditch,  Stand  condition,  Stadt  city,  Gruff 
t9mb,  eitel  vain,  bitter  bitter,  eben  level,  dicht  close. 

Note.  Such  words  have  a  change  of  b  to  f  and  g  or  h  to  ch  before  the  suffix  t:  treiben  to  drive— Trift  pasture, 
schlagen  to  strike— Schlacht  battle,  geschehen  to  happen— Geschichte  historv.  See  also  40.  1.  b.  Note  1.  .A.ftcr  -1 
and  -n  we  otten  Imd  st,  and  after  -m  the  enrliiiR  ft  instead  of  simple  t:  Geschwulst  swelling,  from  schwellen  to  swell; 
Gunst  from  gönnen,  Kunst  from  können,  Gespinst  (spinnen);  Ankunft  from  ankommen,  Vernunft  from  vernehmen. 

402 


245.  I.  1.  B.  SUBSTANTIVAL   SUFFIXES  403 


DERIVATIVES. 

244.  Derivatives  are  formed  by  adding  or  prefixing  to  a  simple  word  a 
syllable  that  has  an  appreciable  force  and  thus  influences  the  meaning  of  the 
word:  Mann  man,  männlich  manly.  To  such  a  derivative  still  other  suffixes 
can  be  added:    Männlichkeit  manliness. 

Prefixes  and  suffixes  were  originally  independent  words  altho  now  often  not 
recognizable  as  such  by  means  of  their  present  form.  They  originally  served 
as  a  component  of  a  compound.  Later  after  the  compound  had  undergone  a 
change  of  meaning  and  the  syntactical  relations  had  become  obscured  they 
suffered  a  reduction  of  stress  and  a  consequent  change  of  form  and  finally  lost 
their  identity.  A  concrete  illustration  of  this  development  is  given  in  245. 
I.  13.  Note.  While  the  history  of  some  prefixes  can  thus  be  clearly  traced  the 
origin  of  most  of  them  is  entirely  unknown. 

Formation  of  Words  by  Means  of  Suffixes. 
I.     Derivative  Substantives. 

245.  1.  A.  e  (from  O.H.G.  i,  hence  producing  mutation),  heit  (cognate 
with  hood,  as  \n  falsehood),  keit  (corrupted  form  of  O.H.G.  ic[k]heit,  hence  an- 
other form  of  heit),  which  form  abstract  feminine  substantives.  Those  in  -e 
may  be  formed  from  adjectives,  and  those  in  heit  from  adjectives,  perfect  par- 
ticiples, present  infinitives,  and  nouns:  Güte  kindness,  Härte  cruelty,  Liebe 
love,  Freiheit  freedom,  Dummheit  stupidity,  Ergebenheit  devotion,  Allwissen- 
heit omniscience,  Kindheit  childhood.  Grammarians  who  claim  that  Bedeu- 
tendheit (or  also  Bedeutenheit)  is  the  only  case  where  heit  is  added  to  a  present 
participle  are  not  in  accord  with  the  facts  of  the  language:  Treffendheit  des 
Ausdrucks  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  II,  chap.  2).  Sie  sind  einer  gewissen 
Unausreichendheit  begegnet  (ib.,  Stechlin,  chap.  4,  p.  48).  The  -heit  may  be 
added  to  adjectives,  and  hence  also  to  adjective  participles. 

Those  in  -keit  are  chiefly  formed  from  derivative  adjectives  in  -bar,  -el,  -er, 
-ig,  -lieh,  -sam:  Heiligkeit,  &c.  Nouns  formed  from  adjectives  in  -los  and 
-haft,  and  from  certain  monosyllabic  adjectives,  add  the  lengthened  form 
-igkeit:    Ehrlosigkeit,  Ehrenhaftigkeit,  Seichtigkeit,  &c.     See  II.  7.  2. 

a.  The  forms  in  -e  and  (ig)keit  often  take  on  concrete  meaning:  Höhe  hill,  height,  Tiefe  the 
deep,  Süßigkeit  something  sweet. 

b.  Sometimes  -e  and  -heit,  or  -keit  and  -heit,  stand  in  contrast  with  each  other,  the  former 
representing  something  concrete,  the  latter  something  abstract:  Ebene  level,  plain,  Ebenheit 
levelness;  Neuigkeit  something  new,  piece  of  news,  Neuheit  newness,  but  also  concrete,  eine 
Neuheit  a  novelty,  pi.  Neuheiten.  These  three  suffixes  have  the  same  general  force,  but  when 
they  are  affixed  to  the  same  stem  a  little  different  shade  of  meaning  sometimes  develops,  as 
plainly  as  in  the  preceding  examples  or  in  finer  shades  of  abstract  meaning.  Often,  however, 
the  differentiation  is  not  yet  complete:  Süßigkeit  on  the  one  hand  with  concrete  meaning  sorne- 
thing  sweet,  candy,  on  the  other  with  abstract  force  sweetness,  but  in  the  latter  meaning  some- 
times for  the  sake  of  a  better  differentiation  replaced  by  Süßheit  or  quite  commonly  in  figurative 
use  by  the  once  more  common  form  Süße  siueetness  of  manner.  In  earlier  period^of  the  language 
e  (O.H.G.  i)  was  used  much  more  frequently  than  now.  It  has  been  in  many  cases  replaced  by 
heit  and  also  by  ung  and  nis.  In  early  N.H.G.  we  still  frequently  find  words  in  e  which  are  now 
replaced  by  other  suffixes:  Die  Gleiche  (now  Gleichheit  or  Ähnlichkeit),  Schöne  (now  Schön- 
heit), <S:c.  These  words  in  e,  however,  have  found  favor  with  poets:  Wir  tragen  |  die  Trümmern 
ins  Nichts  hinüber,  |  und  klagen  über  die  verlorne  Schöne  (Goethe's  Faust,  11.  1613-16). 

c.  The  suffix  heit  and  its  corrupted  form  keit,  both  of  the  same  origin  as  our  hood  and  head 
(in  manhood,  Godhead),  represent  a  once  independent  noun  with  the  meaning  of  condition,  Izind, 
which  accounts  for  the  meaning  of  these  suffixes  to-day,  and  sometimes  leads  to  the  use  of  heit 
to  express  a  collective  idea:  Gesundheit  health,  lit.  healthy  condition,  Menschheit  human  race, 
mankind,  Christenheit  the  Christian  world.     See  also  14.  2  below. 

d.  Not  all  the  feminine  words  in  -e  are  of  the  same  origin  as  those  described  above.  These 
other  words  in  -e  distinguish  themselves  by  their  lack  of  mutation  in  many  cases  and  also  by  their 
concrete  meaning:    die  Flosse  (O.H.G.  flo^^a)  fin,  Grube  (O.H.G.  gruoba)  pit,  &c. 

B.  There  is  another  e  (Gothic  a(n)  and  ja(n),  the  latter  of  which  has  left 
its  imprint  in  the  mutation  of  the  preceding  vowel),  which  forms  weak  masc. 


404 SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES  245.  I.  1.  B. 

nouns  denoting  persons  or  other  living  beings:  Bote  messenger,  Bürge  bonds- 
man, Erbe  heir,  Gefährte  companion,  Geselle  fellow,  comrade,  Schütze  marks- 
man, Hase  hare.  &c.  Some  have  lost  the  distinguishing  suffixal  ending  in  the 
nom.:  Schultheiß  (gen.  des  Schultheißen),  Herr  (gen.  des  Herrn),  &c.  In 
many  words  -e  has  been  replaced  by  the  foreign  suffix  -er  (see  5  below),  which 
is  a  great  favorite:  (Gothic)  fiskja,  (O.H.G.)  fiscari,  (N.H.G.)  Fischer,  &c. 
Formerly  -6  was  also  found  in  many  weak  masc.  nouns  denoting  lifeless  things, 
of  which  a  few  traces  are  left:  Name,  &c.  For  the  history  of  these  nouns 
denoting  things  see  68,  2nd  paragraph. 

In  older  periods  three  suffixes  were  much  used  to  denote  living  beings,  namely 
-e,  -el,  and  -er,  each  of  which  was  a  live  force  in  the  language.  Of  these  -er 
has  been  gradually  replacing  the  other  two.  The  suffix  -el  is  now  least  common, 
and  its  former  meaning  is  no  longer  vividly  felt.  The  -e  is  best  preserved  in 
names  of  peoples,  where  it  competes  with  -er:  Preuße,  Russe,  &c.,  but  Englän- 
der, Sparüer,  &c.  In  Swiss  dialect  -i  competes  with  these  three  suffixes.  See 
8.  1./  and  Note  3  below. 

2.  Accented  ei,  ie  (i:),  and  unaccented  ien  (ian),  different  forms  of  the  same 
foreign  suffix,  from  which  are  made  abstract  and  concrete  substantives.  In 
Abtei  the  ei  goes  back  to  M.H.G.  eie,  but  elsewhere  it  corresponds  to  M.H.G.  le, 
which  in  N.H.G.  passed  over  into  ei.  Later,  especially  in  foreign  nouns,  the 
French  form  was  restored  to  some  of  the  words:  Theorei  (Klopstock,  Geliert), 
now  Theorie.  In  a  few  cases  both  suffixes  remain:  Melodie  or  sometimes  in 
poetry  for  sake  of  a  rhyme  Melodei.  In  one  word  differentiation  of  meaning 
has  taken  place:  Partei,  party,  faction;  Partie  parcel,  match  (in  matrimony), 
game,  party,  picnic. 

The  suffix  -ei  does  not  usually  mutate  the  stem  vowel.  However,  as  a  num- 
ber of  the  derivatives  to  which  it  is  added  already  have  a  mutated  vowel,  as  in 
the  case  of  Färber,  tändeln,  &c.,  mutation  has  in  several  instances  spread  by 
analogy:   Sämerei,  Büberei,  Andächtelei,  &c. 

The  following  general  points  with  regard  to  their  use  may  be  of  service: 

1.     The  form  ei  is  found: 

a.  Affixed  to  derivatives  in  -er,  which  denote  persons  engaged  in  a  certain 
business  or  occupation.  Here  the  ei  denotes  the  idea  of  a  trade,  business,  art, 
profession,  or  an  act  or  state  of  the  class  of  people  in  question:  Färberei  the 
dyeing  business,  Gerberei  the  tanning  business,  Verräterei  treachery,  Uber- 
läuferei  desertion.  These  words  often  take  on  concrete  meaning,  and  then 
denote  the  building  where  the  business  is  carried  on:  Färberei  dyeing  estab- 
lishment, Druckerei  printing-house,  Bäckerei  bakery,  &c. 

Note.  The  suffix  ei  is,  after  the  analogy  of  the  above  words  in  -er,  sometimes  added  to  the  plurals  in  -er,  as  Kinderei 
childishness,  Abgötterei  idolatry',  &c.  This  frequent  reoccurrence  of  ei  after  -er  has  led  to  tlie  erroneous  idea  that 
the  suffix  is  -erei:  Büberei  knavery,  Schurkerei  rascality,  Sklaverei  slavery,  Pfafferei  or  Pf äfferei,  &:c.  In  a  few 
cases  only  is  -ei  added  here  directly  to  the  stem  or  to  a  noun  not  ending  in  -er:  Abtei  abbey,  Dechanei  deanery. 
Pfarrei  parish,  parsonage,  Propstei  provost's  residence  or  office,  Vogtei  prefecture,  Narrei  (early  N.H.G.)  or  now 
Narretei  tomfoolery,  which  has  resulted  from  the  mingling  of  the  older  Narrei  with  Narrenteiding  or  Narrenteidung 
(Faust,  1.  5798),  Armutei  (Walther  Siegfried's  Urn  der  Heimat  willen,  IV;  S.G.  dialect,  sometimes  also  in  the  literary 
language)  cramped  financial  condition,  poverty,  Auskunftei  intelligence  bureau.  However,  in  student  slang  ei  is 
still  (not  so  much  tho  as  formerly)  in  some  university  towns  added  to  the  name  of  a  family,  to  indicate  a  house  where 
students  live:  Schiller  wohnte  zu  Jena  in  einer  Schrammei  und  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben  in  einer  Knabei.  Also 
the  beer-halls  where  the  different  academic  societies  meet  take  this  suffix:    die  Beckei,  Oppelei,  &c. 

b.  Affixed  to  verbs,  to  denote  the  abstract  idea  of  repetition  or  prolongation 
of  the  activity  expressed  by  the  verb:  eine  große  Graberei  (Frenssen's  Jörn 
Uhl,  chap.  26)  extensive  excavations,  Liebelei  love-affair,  flirtation,  Plackerei 
pestering,  Plauderei  chatting,  chat,  Neckerei  teasing,  Tändelei  toying. 

Note.  Only  ei  is  added  to  stems  in  -el  and  -er,  but  monosyllabic  stems  affix  -erei:  Ziererei  affectation  from  sich 
zieren.     The  noun  Andächtelei  (see  d  below)  false  devotion  affixes  -elei  after  the  analogy  of  the  verbs  in  -ein. 

c.  Sometimes  -ei  has  collective  force:  Reiterei  cavalry,  Bücherei  library, 
die  ganze  Treibelei  (Fontane)  the  whole  family  or  tribe  of  the  Treibeis. 

Sometimes  we  find  in  -el  the  combined  force  of  c  and  d:  Diese  Treibelei  war 
ein  Irrtum  (Fontane's  Fran  Jenny,  XVI)  This  whole  Treibel  business  (striving 
to  get  into  the  Treibel  family  by  marriage)  was  a  mistake. 

If  the  stem  of  the  word  does  not  end  in  -el  or  -er,  the  suffix  here  is  -erei:  die 
ganze  Felgentreuerei  (Fontane)  the  whole  Felgentreu  family. 


245.  I.  4.  b. SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES 405 

d.  In  the  uses  a  and  b  and  sometimes  c,  the  ei  very  often  has  a  disparaging 
force:  Juristerei  business  of  a  pettifogger,  Lauferei  much  unpleasant  running 
about,  Leserei  indiscriminate  reading,  Reimerei  poem  without  poetic  merit 
containing  jingHng  rhymes.  Ausländerei  predilection  for  everything  foreign, 
affectation  of  foreign  manners,  Engländerei  Anglomania,  Rückwärtserei  re- 
actionary movement,  retrogression,  Schieberei  profiteering  by  selling  things 
clandestinely  in  disregard  of  governmental  regulations  and  restrictions,  Preis- 
treiberei/orawg  prices  up  for  sordid  purposes  in  contrast  to  Preisabbau  bringing 
excessive  prices  down  to  a  healthy  level.  Und  daß  das  Mädel  bei  dieser  ewigen 
Warterei  vielleicht  um  die  schönsten  Partien  kommt,  das  kümmert  Sie  wohl 
gar  nicht?  (Beyerlein's  Dämon  Othello,  1,  8).  The  Ge  —  e  (see  83.  b)  formations 
have  a  somewhat  similar  meaning,  but  more  distinctly  abstract  and  verbal 
force,  and  cannot  be  used  in  the  plural,  as  can  those  in  -ei,  as  in  Zu  allem,  was 
er  sonst  .  .  .  auf  sich  genommen,  nun  auch  noch  die  Komiteesitzungen  wegen 
des  Kirchenbasars  und  die  Laufereien  von  einem  zum  andern,  um  eine  allge- 
meine Beteiligung  der  gebildeten  Kreise  zuwege  zu  bringen  (Telmann's  Wahr- 
heit, XI). 

e.  In  a  few  geographical  terms;    see  3  below. 

2.  The  form  ie  is  used  mostly  in  foreign  words,  especially  in  a  number  of 
scientific  and  geographical  terms:  Theologie,  Geographie,  Geologie,  Picardie, 
Normandie,  &c.    Also  in  the  arts:   Stenographie,  Lithographie,  Photographie,  &c. 

3.  The  form  ien  is  found  in  a  number  of  geographical  terms:  Spanien  (pro. 
S|pa:^nian),  I'talien,  Si'ziHen,  &c.,  but  Picar'die,  Norman'die,  &c.  These  for- 
eign names  in  -ien  have  been  conformed  to  the  German  model  Preußen  Prussia, 
&c.,  the  ie  becoming  ien.  In  a  few  geographical  names  the  form  is  ei:  Türkei, 
Lombardei,  Walachei,   Mandschurei,   Mongolei. 

3.  el  masc,  less  commonly  fem.  and  neut.,  suffix  with  the  general  idea  of  a 
close  association,  which  has  developed  different  groups  of  meanings  more  or  less 
distinct:  (1)  the  idea  of  a  thing  in  close  association  with  an  activity,  i.e.  an 
instrument:  Hebel  (from  heben  to  lift)  lever,  Meißel  (from  older  meißen  to 
hew,  cut,  now  no  longer  in  use)  chisel,  Stempel  (L.G.  and  M.G.  form  of  H.G. 
Stempfel  from  a  L.G.  verb  corresponding  to  H.G.  stampfen  to  stamp)  stamp, 
pestle,  Stachel  (from  stechen  to  prick)  prick,  spine,  goad;  (2)  a  person  or  living 
being  in  close  association  with  an  activity:  Krüppel  (originally  a  L.G.  form 
with  pp  instead  of  H.G.  pf  from  an  older  L.G.  verb  corresponding  to  older  H.G. 
krüpfen  to  bend)  cripple,  Gimpel  (from  older  gumpen  to  hop,  jump)  bull- 
finch, fig.  block-head,  dunce;  (3)  a  thing  in  close  association  with  a  thing: 
Knöchel  (from  Knochen  bone)  knuckle,  ankle,  Ärmel  (from  Arm  arm)  sleeve, 
die  Eichel  (from  Eiche  oak)  acorn,  die  (formerly  der)  Angel  (from  older  Ange 
sharp  point)  fish-hook;  (4)  a  person  in  close  relation  with  a  thing:  Tölpel 
(from  older  Dutch  dorper,  where  dorp  corresponds  to  H.G.  Dorf  village)  lout, 
rustic,  dunce,  lit.  villager;  (5)  a  person  in  close  association  with  a  person,  a 
large  productive  group  illustrated  in  8.  1.  /.  Note  3  below.  For  important 
additional  matter  see  1.  B.  (2nd  par.)  above. 

In  late  M.H.G.  this  suffix  lost  its  productivity  as  a  form  to  indicate  instru- 
ments, as  in  (1).  It  was  replaced  in  new  formations  by  -er.  See  5.  c  below. 
Much  earlier  than  this,  even  in  O.H.G.  -er  began  to  crowd  out  -el  in  its  functions 
to  denote  persons  in  a  close  relation  to  an  activity,  as  in  (2). 

Note.  The  -el  of  these  words  represents  O.H.G.  il,  al,  ul,  ilo,  &c.,  of  which  il,  ilo  have  left  their  imprint  in  the 
mutated  vowel  of  the  stem.  The  el  is  frequentlv  in  case  of  strong  verbs  affixed  to  the  stem  of  the  past,  in  other  cases 
to  the  present  stem:  Flügel  wing,  from  fliegen  to  fly;  Schlüssel  key,  from  schließen  to  lock;  Sessel  easy-chair — 
sitzen;  Zügel  rein — ziehen;  Griffel  slate-pencil — greifen;  Schlegel  mallet — schlagen;  Löffel  (corrupted  N.H.G. 
form  of  M.H.G.  Leffel)  spoon — O.H.G.  laffan  to  lick,  lap. 

4.  en  or  sometimes  only  e  or  even  disappearing  entirely,  usually  a  masc. 
suffix,  less  commonly  neut.  It  is  of  different  origin  in  different  words,  and  has 
to-day  no  appreciable  meaning.     It  is  used  in  words  which  denote: 

a.  An  instrument:    Spaten  spade,  Bogen  bow,  Haken  hook,  &c. 

b.  A  place  for  storing  or  securing  something:  Laden  store,  Schuppen  shed, 
Hafen  harbor,  &c. 


406 SUBSTANTR^AL  SUFFIXES 245.  I.  4.  c. 

c.  A  part  of  the  body:   Magen  stomach,  Rücken  back,  Daumen  thumb,  &c. 

d.  An  abstract  idea  in  a  few  cases:  Glaube (n)  faith,  Friede (n)  peace,  Schreck 
or  Schrecken  fright. 

e.  Various  other  things:  Same  or  Samen  seed,  Ost  or  Osten  east,  &c. 
/.     It  forms  the  ending  of  many  geographical  names.     See  88.  1. 

5.  er  (O.H.G.  äri,  from  Latin  ärius  =  English  er  or  the  latinized  form  ar, 
as  in  baker,  scholar),  masc.  suffix,  used  to  form  appellations  of  male  beings. 
Compare  1.  B.  2nd  paragraph.  Mutation  of  the  stem  vowel  is  the  rule  when 
the  sufBx  is  added  directly  to  the  stem-word,  but  there  are  some  exceptions: 
Bäcker,  &c.;  Dampfer,  Frager,  Maler,  &c.;  both  forms  without  differentiation 
in  der  Schlächter  or  Schlachter  butcher;  with  differentiation  in  case  of  der 
Schläger  beater,  swordsman,  sn'ord,  kicker  (of  a  horse)  and  der  Schlager  somc- 
thing  that  takes,  of  a  play  or  a  book,  as  in  Das  Buch  ist  ein  Schlager.  When 
-er  is  preceded  by  another  suffix  mutation  is  not  so  common,  perhaps,  as  non- 
mutation:  Stamm  (e)ler,  &c.,  but  also  Pförtner,  &c.  When  the  -er  is  added 
to  names  of  cities  and  places  a  few  irregularities  occur  in  the  form  of  the  stem, 
which  are  the  same  as  for  the  proper  adjectives  described  in  II.  10.  1.  b. 
Note  2.     The  leading  points  as  to  use  are  as  follows : 

a.  Affixed  to  substantives  it  indicates  that  the  person  either  manufactures 
the  article  or  thing  named  in  the  stem  of  the  substantive  or  is  associated  with 
it  in  a  business  or  professional  way:  Hafner  potter,  Gärtner  gardener,  Sänger 
singer,  Schauspieler  actor  (on  the  stage). 

b.  Affixed  to  verbal  stems  it  indicates  either  that  the  person  is  temporarily 
engaged  in  the  activity  expressed  in  the  verbal  stem,  or  is  engaged  therein  in 
a  business  or  professional  way:  der  Leser  the  reader,  Bettler  beggar,  Schneider 
tailor,  &c.  It  is  also  used  of  animals:  Weidenbohrer  caterpillar  of  the  goat- 
moth,  &c.  The  -er  is  added  to  verbal  stems  indicating  an  involuntary  activity 
in  order  to  denote  a  single  manifestation  of  such  involuntary  activity:  Seufzer 
sigh,  Schluchzer  sob,  especially  in  colloquial  speech,  as  in  Rülpser  belch,  etc. 
From  this  starting  point  -er  has  developed  into  a  productive  suffix  to  indicate 
an  activity  that  is  conceived  as  a  unit,  i.e.  not  indefinitely  prolonged  but  as  an 
individual  performance  or  act:  Jodler  yodling-song,  Hopser  hop-dance,  Walzer 
waltz.  Spritzer  (ein  Regen,  der  nur  ein  wenig  spritzt)  shower,  Abstecher 
excursion,  little  trip  (einen  Abstecher  nach  B.  machen),  Jauchzer  shout,  cheer, 
Treffer  lucky  hit,  Fehler  mistake,  Schnitzer  blunder,  -Puffer  thump,  nudge, 
Diener  bow   (einem  einen  Diener  machen),   &c. 

As  in  case  of  -ig  in  IL  9.1.  5  below -er  is  sometimes  employed  to  form  derivatives 
from  compounds  made  from  a  syntactical  group  of  words:  Befehlshaber  =  den 
Befehl  haben  -f-  er;  Eckensteher  =  an  der  Ecke  stehen  +  er;  Langschläfer  = 
lange  schlafen  +  er. 

^7?^%  -'^ftcr  the  analogy  of  the  numerous  derivatives  from  stems  in  el  and  en  in  a  and  h  above,  as  Battler  bcRgar 
and  Hafner  potter,  the  suffix  er  is  lengthened  to  ler  and  ner  in  a  large  number  of  words  with  stems  not  ending  in  el, 
en:  Dörfler  (now  more  common  than  the  older  form  Dörfer)  villager  from  Dorf,  Gegenfüßler  antipode,  Hinterwäldler 
backwoodsman,  Kriegervereinler  fRaabe's  Villa  Schono-.u,  v)  member  of  a  club  of  veteran  soldiers,  Künstler  artist, 
Neusprachler  one  wlio  devotes  himself  to  the  scientific  study  of  modern  languages,  Wissenschaftler  or  Wissenschafter 
scientific  investigator,  man  of  science.  Altertumskundler  areheologist,  Kriegsgewinnler  one  who  has  made  monev 
out  of  the  war.  Radier  cyclist,  Sommerfrischler  visitor  at  a  summer  resort,  Tischler  joiner,  &c.;  Glöckner  bdl-ritimr 
y°fl}  Glocke,  Harfner  harpist,  &c.  Lügner  liar  does  not  belong  here,  as  t  is  derived  from  the  older  form  Lügen 
(still  in  use  in  early  N.H.G. ),  now  Lüge.  There  is  usually  no  disparaging  sense  in  -ler,  as  is  sometimes  claimed. 
If  such  force  exists  it  lies  in  the  meaning  of  the  stem  word,  as  in  Zuchthäusler  (convict) — Zuchthaus  [perMentiary)  + 
ler. 

c.  Figuratively  er  \s  often  applied  to  names  of  lifeless  objects:  Wecker 
alarm  clock,  Bohrer  gimlet,  Schraubenzieher  screw-driver,  Verflüssiger  con- 
denser, Trockner  drying  apparatus,  Eindecker  monoplane,  Zweidecker  biplane. 
Bagger  dredger,  Operngucker  opera-glass,  &c.  In  a  number  of  words  it  indi- 
cates an  object  that  is  affected  by  an  action:  Ableger  or  Absenker  layer,  runner, 
lit.  a  shoot  that  has  been  bent  to  one  side  and  sunk  in  the  ground  for  the  purpose 
of  rooting  it,  Hinterlader  breech-loader,  lit.  a  gun  that  is  loaded  behind,  Wälzer 
heavy,  unwieldy  book,  lit.  a  book  that  must  be  rolled  when  it  is  moved,  &c. 

d.  It  forms  a  few  masculines  corresponding  to  feminines  in  e:  Tauber  or 
Täuber  male  pigeon  —  Taube  pigeon,  Witwer  widower  —  Witwe  widow;  Puter 
(N.G.)  turkey-cock  —  Pute  (N.G)  turkey-hen. 


245.  I.  7. SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES 407 

e.  Affixed  to  names  of  cities,  countries,  and  continents,  it  indicates  a  resi- 
dent or  subject  of  the  place  in  question:  Römer  Roman,  Irländer  Irishman, 
Euro'päer  inhabitants  of  Europe.  In  a  number  of  words  the  -er  is  usually 
added  to  a  shorter  stem  than  the  one  found  in  the  name  of  the  place:  Barmer 
inhabitant  of  Barmen,  Binger  inhabitant  of  Bingen,  Bremer  inhabitant  of 
Bremen,  Emder  inhabitant  of  Emden,  &c.  For  explanation  see  II.  10.  1.  6. 
Note  2  below. 

In  the  lengthened  form  -i'aner  it  is  often  added  to  a  name  of  a  person  to 
indicate  a  follower,  disciple  of:  Kantianer,  Goethianer,  Wagnerianer,  Ritsch- 
lianer,  &c. 

'Note  1.  There  is,  however,  much  irregularity  in  forming  such  nouns  from  names  of  countries,  and  often  there 
is  no  mutation.  Foreign  names  in  ien  drop  n  and  add  r,  as  Gallier  inhabitant  of  Gaul  (Gallien),  Spanier  inhabitant 
of  Spain  (Spanien),  but  exceptionally  Italiener  (pro.  ita''lie:noR).  In  some  other  foreign  names  the  endings  'aner, 
'iner,  'enser  are  added  to  the  stem  in  imitation  of  the  Latin  endings  anus,  iniis,  ensis:  Ameri'kaner  American.  Flo- 
ren'tiner  Florentine,  Atheni'enser  Athenian.  Under  learned  influence  these  foreign  endings  have  also  become  at- 
tached to  native  German  words:  Weima'raner,  Ba'denser,  Bre'menser,  Anhal'tiner,  &:c.  inhabitants  of  Weimar, 
Baden,  Bremen,  Anhalt,  &c.  Under  the  influence  of  the  strong  modern  trend  toward  native  German  forms  many 
scholars  now  recommend  the  use  of  the  forms  in  -er  here:  Weimarer,  Badener,  Bremer,  Anhalter,  &c.  In  many  other 
names  the  words  end  in  e,  and  are  inflected  weak:   Preuße  Prussian,  Pole  Pole,  &c. 

Nolc  2.  In  popular  language  -er  and  -erin  are  often  replaced  by  isch.  The  isch  is  added  to  the  stem,  and  the 
word  is  then  inflected  as  an  adjective:  der  Spanische  instead  of  der  Spanier,  die  Spanische  instead  of  die  Spanierin, 
Weimarsche  instead  of  Weimarer,  &c. 

/.  In  a  number  of  foreign  and,  in  colloquial  language,  a  few  German  words 
the  French  form  of  this  suffix,  accented  -ier  (i:R),  is  found  instead  of  -er :  Offi'zier 
officer,  Juwe'lier  jeweler.  This  same  suffix  is  also  found  in  English  in  the  form 
of  eer,  as  in  pioneer.  In  a  few  words  the  German  suffix  has  been  added  to 
the  foreign  -ier:  Ka'ssier  or  less  commonly  Ka'ssierer  cashier,  Tape'zier  or 
Tape'zierer  paper-hanger.  The  -er  indicates  that  the  noun  has  been  brought 
into  relation  to  the  corresponding  German  form  of  the  verb:  kassieren,  tape- 
zieren. In  a  few  cases  the  French  pronunciation  of  the  suffix  has  been  re- 
tained, as  in  Portier  (pro.  pop/ tier)  door-keeper,  Ban'kier  banker.  In  a  few 
instances  the  French  suffix  with  French  pronunciation  is  added  to  German  stems: 
Kneipier  toper,  beer-house  keeper,  &c.  In  a  large  number  of  foreign  words 
Latin  -or  (unaccented  in  the  sing,  and  accented  in  the  pi.)  and  its  French  form 
eur  correspond  to  German  er:  der  Pro'fessör  professor  (pi.  Profe'ssören), 
Redak'teur  editor,  &c. 

6.  1.  in  (usually  causing  mutation),  fem.  suffix,  used  to  form  fern,  from 
masc.  appellations  denoting  a  rank,  dignity,  occupation:  Gräfin  countess, 
Graf  count ;  Pfarrerin  pastor's  wife.     For  use  with  titles  see  92.  6. 

a.  Words  ending  in  e  drop  it  before  adding  in,  as  in  Fran'zösin  French  lady, 
from  Fran'zose.  Words  ending  in  erer  may  drop  one  of  the  er's  before  adding 
in,  as  in  Zauberin  sorceress,  from  Zauberer. 

b.  In  popular  language  -in  is  often  weakened  to  -en  or  -n:  die  Buchholzen 
Mrs.  Buchholz,  die  Frau  Junkern  Mrs.  Junker.     See  92.  6. 

c.  In  North  German  dialect  -in  is  often  replaced  by  -sehe:  Siindersche  = 
Sünderin),  &c.  It  is  most  commonly  found  after  masculine  stems  in  -er  as 
here.  It  is  derived  from  Latin  -issa  (as  in  abbatissa  abbess)  thru  the  French, 
and  is  thus  of  the  same  origin  as  English  -ess,  which  also  came  thru  the  French. 
For  the  use  of  -sehe  in  names  see  92.  6  (2nd  par.). 

2.  Most  appellations  of  male  persons  have 'corresponding  forms  for  female 
persons,  only  a  few  w^ords  as  Gast  guest  and  most  nouns  in  -ling  have  the  same 
form  for  both  genders:  Kaiser  emperor,  Kaiserin  empress;  Lehrer  teacher, 
Lehrerin  lady  teacher.  But  Sie  ist  unser  Gast.  Sie  ist  der  Liebling  aller. 
In  the  use  of  the  feminine  form  German  goes  very  much  farther  than  English. 
See,  however,  253,  III.  2.  a  for  other  exceptions  to  the  rule. 

7.  ing  (related  to  ung  in  15.  1  below),  now  commonly  written  ling  (cognate 
with  Eng.  ling,  as  in  sapling),  except  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  a  and  b,  usually 
a  masc.  suffix  whether  it  be  applied  to  males  or  females,  sometimes,  however, 
in  the  form  lingin  with  reference  to  the  latter,  as  die  britische  Jünglingin  (Raabe's 
Pechlin,  II,  chap.  11),  usually  causing  mutation  if  affixed  directly  to  the  stem. 
It  is  affixed  to  nouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  and  in  a  few  cases  to  other  parts  of 
speech,  to  form  designations  of  persons  or  other  living  beings,  less  commonly 


408 SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES 245.  I.  7. 

of  things,  with  the  meaning  of  intimate  relation  or  association:  Säugling  child 
at  the  breast  (so  called  from  its  close  association  with  sucking),  Säuerling 
mineral  water  with  a  sour  taste,  Ankömmling  new-comer,  Nädling  (Walther 
Siegfried's  Gritli  Brunnenmeister;  S.G.,  sometimes  used  in  the  literary  language) 
a  piece  of  thread  cut  off  from  the  spool  and  drawn  thru  the  eye  of  the  needle 
for  use  in  sewing,  Häuptling  one  who  is  associated  with  others  in  the  relation 
of  head,  chieftain,  Günstling  one  who  receives  favors,  favorite,  Peinling  (H. 
Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  p.  204)  one  who  gives,  causes  pain,  pedant,  Lüstling 
one  who  seeks  the  gratification  of  his  senses,  sensualist,  Gründling,  groundling 
(a  kind  of  fish  that  stays  upon  the  bottom  of  a  body  of  water),  Hänfling  a  bird 
that  feeds  upon  hemp-seed,  linnet,  Häftling  prisoner;  derivatives  from  verbs 
sometimes  with  active,  sometimes  with  passive  force,  as  Eindringling  i?itnider, 
lit.  one  who  intrudes,  Sträfling  convict,  lit.  one  who  is  being  punished;  Frühling 
spring,  Neuling  novice,  Finsterling  a  friend  of  darkness  and  ignorance,  ob- 
scurant. From  the  idea  of  a  close  relation  to  something  or  in  a  close  association 
with  someone  in  the  work  of  helping,  teaching  comes  the  idea  of  littleness, 
youth,  dependency:  Sämling  seedling,  Setzling  small  rooted  plant  for  setting 
out,  young  fish  to  be  put  into  a  pond  for  the  purpose  of  propagation,  Schößling 
shoot,  Nestling  young  bird,  Däumling  hop-o'-my-thumb,  Pflegling  ward, 
Schützling  protege,  Zögling  pupil,  Lehrling  apprentice,  &c.  In  dialect  this 
idea  of  littleness  and  that  of  the  closely  related  conception  of  endearment  are 
more  distinctly  and  commonly  associated  with  the  older  form  -ing.  These 
ideas  developed  in  Mecklenburg  and  Hither  Pomerania  in  the  course  of  the  last 
century  out  of  the  older  idea  of  association  as  found  in  names  of  animals,  as 
Brüning  ( =  Pferdchen),  originally  from  association  with  the  color  of  the  horse. 
The  idea  of  endearment  naturally  became  associated  with  -ing  when  it  was 
applied  to  a  pet  animal  and  the  idea  of  littleness  as  naturally  arose  when  it 
was  used  with  little  pets.  See  8.  1.  /  below.  Also  in  the  literary  language  the 
diminutive  force  in  -ling  is  so  strongly  felt  that  an  additional  diminutive  suffix 
is  rarely  added.  In  Old  Norse  and  in  modern  English  this  suffix  also  has  in 
a  number  of  cases  pure  diminutive  force,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  correspond- 
ing Latin  and  Greek  k-suffix. 

A  number  of  words  in  -ling  have  a  depreciatory  meaning:  Mietling  hireling, 
Eindringling  intruder,  Nachäffling  one  who  apes  another's  ways,  dress,  Aus- 
würfling scum,  one  cast  out  from  human  society,  Schädling  one  who  is  a  menace, 
a  source  of  harm  to  society,  <S:c.  This  -lin'^,  from  association  with  such  words 
as  have  in  themselves  a  depreciatory  meaning  or  from  the  general  idea  of  de- 
pendency developed  in  the  suffix,  often  assumes  depreciatory  force  and  has 
become  productive  especially  in  this  sense:  Höfling  courtier,  Dichterling 
poetaster,  Günstling  one  supported  by  the  favor  of  a  king,  lord,  &c.,  Witzling 
would-be-wit,  Emporkömmling  upstart,  parvenu,  Einseitling  (H.  Seidel's  Lang, 
lang  ist's  her)  one-sided,  narrow-minded  person,  &c.  Sometimes  in  a  milder, 
humorous  sense:   Feistling  (Raabe's  Stopfkuchen,  p.  129)  fat  fellow,  'fatty.' 

a.  The  idea  of  close  association  eariy  led  to  the  idea  of  origin  and  gave  rise  to  many  patro- 
nymics as  seen  in  the  names  of  old  Germanic  tribes  and  families:  Thüringer,  Merowinger, 
Karolinger,  &c.  There  are  many  modern  family  names  that  end  in  -ing,  as  Henning,  Griining. 
Corresponding  to  these  names  in  -ing  are  also  names  in  s  or  sen:  Ebers  (gen.)  =  Ebers  Sohn, 
Jansen  =  Jahns  Sohn,  Schmitz  =  Schmidts  Sohn.  The  Latin  genitive  ending  i  often  occurs 
here  instead  of  German  -s:  Eberti  =  Eberz.  Instead  of  the  genitive  here  the  diminutive  -lein 
(or  -lin,  -le,  &c.)  or  -ke  (Low  German  =  -lein)  may  be  added,  or  the  adjective  klein  prefixed: 
Böcklin,  Gödecke,  Kleinschmidt,  &c.  Many  names  of  places  are  derived  from  the  family 
names  in  -ing,  usually  ending  in  -ingen,  the  en  being  the  dat.  pi.  ending  after  the  prep,  zu  under- 
stood (see  also  88.  1):  Tübingen  city  of  Tübingen,  Göttingen,  &c.;  also  in  shortened  form, 
-ing,  especially  in  Bavaria:  Freising.  In  some  sections  of  the  Midland,  as  in  Thuringia  and 
Hesse  -ungen  is  also  found  here,  usually  added  to  a  noun  designating  a  thing,  thus  indicating 
a  close  association  with  the  thing  in  question:  Salzungen,  &c.  In  case  of  certain  ruling 
families  -er  is  added  to  -ing:  Karolinger  descendant  of  Karl  der  Große,  Carlovingian,  &c. 
This  is  a  survival  of  older  usage,  which  employed  here  linger  interchangeably  with  -ing.  Luther 
still  uses  both  Fremdling  and  Fremdlinger  (Luke  xvii.  18). 

b.  The  earlier  form  of  the  suffix  was  -ing.  As  it  very  commonly  stood  after  al,  il,  ul,  the 
preceding  1  became  associated  with  it,  and  finally  the  lengthened  form  -ling  supplanted  it  in 


245.  I.  8.  1.  e. DIMINUTIVE   SUFFIXES 409 

most  words.  The  few  existing  forms  in  -ing  are  thus  older,  and  the  force  of  the  suffix  is  not  now 
vividly  felt  or  is  not  felt  at  all:  Hering  herring,  Messing  brass  (both  words  of  uncertain  origin), 
Bucking  or  Bückling  bocking  (fish) ,  &c.  König  and  Pfennig  originally  had  an  n  before  the  final 
g  and  hence  belonged  here.     The  particular  group  in  a,  however,  always  take  -ing. 

As  the  form  -ling  is  added  to  many  words  in  -er,  the  suffix  has  from  analogy  assumed  the  form 
-erling  in  a  few  words:  Heiderling,  Windling  or  Winderling,  &c.  For  the  form  -linger  see  a 
above. 

8.  1.  lein  (O.H.G.  ilin)  and  chen  (earlier  ichin,  cognate  with  Eng.  kin  as 
in  lambkin),  neuter  diminutive  suffixes,  different  developments  of  the  older 
simple  form  -in  (see  /.  Note  3  below),  affixed  to  nouns,  usually  causing  mutation 
when  they  follow  an  accented  syllable.  The  former  is  the  original  H.G.  suffix, 
which  in  different  dialectic  forms  is  still  used  everywhere  in  the  South  in  familiar 
language  (see  /  below).  In  the  form  of  lein  and  lin  (more  common  in  his  later 
writings)  it  was  employed  by  Luther  in  his  translation  of  the  Bible  and  elsewhere 
as  the  more  dignified  form,  in  preference  to  the  M.G.  -chen,  but  it  has  only 
limited  use  to-day  in  the  literary  language  and  only  in  the  form  of  lein,  being 
largely  confined  to  a  beautiful  style  and  a  few  common  words  with  endings 
that  are  difficult  to  unite  with  chen,  as  Büchlein,  Fischlein,  &c.  Modern 
authors,  however,  do  not  seem  to  regard  a  number  of  these  combinations  as 
harsch:  die  Fischchen  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  15).  After  stems  in  ch 
and  g  it  is  common  to  employ  a  double  diminutive  formed  by  adding  chen 
to  -el  (the  shortened  form  of  -lein) :  Büchelchen  booklet,  Sächelchen  little 
matter,  pretty  little  thing,  gimcrack,  Wägelchen  little  wagon. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  -chen,  the  diminutive  suffix  of  the  middle  portion 
of  the  Midland,  replaced  -lein  in  the  language  of  the  prose  writers  Lessing, 
Wieland,  Herder,  and  others  who  had  taken  the  Upper  Saxon  dialect  as  their 
standard.  Gradually  -chen  became  established  in  the  literary  language  in 
general  and  the  familiar  language  of  the  North  in  particular,  while  under  the 
influence  of  the  poets  Goethe,  Bürger,  Voss,  and  others  -lein  secured  a  permanent 
place  of  honor  in  poetry. 

a.  If  a  word  ends  in  e,  el,  or  en,  these  endings  are  often  dropped  before  adding  the  diminutive 
suffix:   Bübchen  from  Bube;    Näglein  from  Nagel,  but  Nägelchen;   Gärtchen  from  Garten,  &c. 

b.  The  diminutive  endings  are  usually  added  to  the  sing.,  but  may  in  familiar  language  be 
affixed  to  plurals  in  er,  and  also  to  the  plural  form  Leute  people',  das  Kindchen,  pi.  die  Kind- 
chen or  Kinderchen  (see  /.  Note  2  below),  Leutchen  "small  fry,"  good  people,  people  spoken  of 
slightingly  or  in  a  tone  of  friendly  familiarity. 

c.  The  mutation  is  often  dropped,  especially  when  the  suffix  expresses  irony,  and  in  case  of 
proper  names  where  the  suffix  has  more  the  force  of  endearment  than  littleness  (see  2  below): 
Ich  habe  dies  Jahr  einen  Roggen  und  Weizen,  überhaupt  ein  Kornchen  ( =  ein  prachtvolles 
Korn  a  splendid  crop  of  grain)  gebaut  wie  noch  nie.  Dann  kam  auch  noch  ein  kleines  Schlag- 
anfallchen!  (Sudermann's  Heimat,  1,  4)  Then  there  came  in  addition  a  nice  little  (ironical) 
stroke  of  paralysis!  By  dropping  mutation  we  may  emphasize  the  idea  of  largeness  or  efficacy. 
while  the  use  of  mutation  makes  prominent  the  idea  of  littleness:  Der  Physiolog  spricht  von 
Blutkügelchen,  ein  Jagdfreund  aber  spricht  mit  begeisterter  Liebe  von  seinen  nie  fehlenden 
Kugelchen.  Vorläufig  friert's  und  schneit's  noch  lustig  weiter.  Das  gibt  wieder  ein  Wasser- 
chen (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  20)  a  great  flood.  In  the  literary  language  it  is  the  rule  that  the 
suffix  does  not  cause  mutation  if  it  follows  an  unacc„-nt  -d  syllable:  Monatchen,  Hoffnungchen, 
&c.  Most  of  the  exceptions  to  this  rule  occur  after  worJs  in  -el  and  -er:  Vögelchen,  Brüderchen, 
&c. 

We  say  Hansel  (also  Hansel  —  Rosegger),  Häuschen,  Ännchen,  (but  also  Annchen  — Bis- 
marck to  Herr  von  Puttkamer,  April  5,  1S4S),  Fränzchen,  Röschen,  but  usually  proper  names 
remain  unmutated:   Tonnerl,  Lottchen,  Karlchen,  iS:c. 

The  use  of  mutation  varies  a  good  deal:  Frauchen,  but  Fräulein;  Onkelchen,  but  Väterchen, 
Jüngchen  (also  Jungchen  — •  Sudermann's  Der  Stnrmgeselle  Sokrates,  3,  3)  or  Jüngelchen;  Tant- 
chen, but  Bäschen,  Mütterchen  (also  Mutterchen  —  Sudermann's  D.  S.  S.,  1,  17;  Schwieger- 
muttelchen  —  Hauptmann's  Friedensfest,  p.  59),  &c. 

d.  Sometimes  the  diminutives  are  fern,  according  to  the  natural  sex  instead  of  neut.  according 
to  grammatical  gender:    die  (or  das)  Gretchen  little  Margaret.     See  263.  I.  1,  2,  3,  4. 

e.  These  suffixes  are  usually  affixed  to  nouns  only,  but  in  familiar  language  can  be  added 
on  to  the  case  ending  or  the  stem  of  an  adjective  used  as  a  noun,  and  also  to  other  parts  of  speech: 
Alterchen  or  Altchen  dear  old  fellow,  mein  liebes  Dickerchen  (Raabe)  my  dear  fat  friend,  Dumm- 
chen!  You  foolish  thing!,  Geduldchen!  (noun  used  as  an  imperative)  Just  have  a  little  patience! 
Wieder  nach  einer  Weile  sagte  Hedwig:  ,,Ahne!"  „Wasele?"  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  2, 
p.  91)  "Grandmother!"  "What,  my  Dear?"  Ich  will  mich  sachtchen  in  mein  Bettchen  stehlen 
(Goethe).     Warting  (see/)  noch!  Wait  a  moment!     Die  jungen  Mädchens,  die  sind  ja  hier  so 


410 DIMINUTIVE   SUFFIXES 245.  1.8.  1.  e. 

feining  gezogen  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandhmg,  1).     In  verbs  the  form  1  is  very  common:  lächeln 
to  smile,  from  lachen  to  laugh,  &c.     See  III.  2  below. 

/.  In  dialect  these  suffixes  have  assumed  a  great  variety  of  forms  which  can  be  indicated  here 
in  only  the  roughest  outlines:  in  southern  Bavaria  and  Austria  -el,  -erl,  -1  with  a  plural  of  the 
same  form  or  one  in  -ein,  -erln,  &c.;  -le  with  a  plural  of  the  same  form;  -le  or  -1  with  the  plural 
-Ian  or  -len;  in  Upper  Bavaria  in  palatalized  form,  -ei,  -ai,  -i,  -Ö,  &c.  with  a  plural  of  the  same 
form:  Biibel,  jedes  Aderl,  Herzerl  (with  lengthened  form  after  the  analogy  of  many  words  in 
-er,  as  Ader,  dimin.  Aderl),  bissei  =  bissei  (S.G.  for  bißchen);  in  Switzerland  -li  with  the 
plural  -li  or  -lini;  also  found  in  palatalized  form  -ji  or  -ti:  Retli  (Rädlein),  pi.  Retli  or  Retlini; 
Meitji  (Mädlein),  Vogulti  (Vöglein);  i  (older  -in;  see  Note  3)  with  the  plural  -ini,  used  as  a 
pure  diminutive,  also  in  pet-names  and  in  words  denoting  a  relationship,  also  found  in  other 
sections  of  the  German-speaking  territory  in  pet-names:  Hischi  (Häuslein),  pi.  Hischini,  Ruodi 
(Ru:odi:,  character  in  Schiller's  Tell,  now  Ruedi  or  Riiedi,  pet-name  from  Rudolf),  Ehni  grand- 
father; in  Württemberg  -le  with  the  plural  -le  or  the  three  reduced  forms  -la,  -li,  -lieh  (from 
older -lach;  see  17.  a.  Note  below):  Tischle,  pi.  Tischle,  Tischla,  Tischli,  Tischlich;  in  Fran- 
conia -la  (from  -lein)  with  the  plural  -li  (from  older  -lach):  Kindla,  pi.  Kindli;  in  the  Mid- 
land -chen  or  che,  pi.  -chen  or  -eher;  in  the  North  -ken  with  the  plural  -ken,  -kens,  kes; 
often  in  palatalized  form  -je,  tje  with  the  plural  -jes,  -tjes;  sometimes  -ke,  -eke,^,  -elken, 
-sken,-tjen  instead  of -ken:  Mäken  (Mädchen),  pi.  Mäkens,  &c.;  Annatje  =  Annchen. 
In  Mecklenburg  and  Hither  Pomerania  -ing  (see  7  above)  is  used  as  a  diminutive,  especially, 
however,  as  a  sign  of  endearment. 

Note  1.  The  Austrian  and  Swiss  dialects  are  especially  inclined  to  the  use  of  diminutive  endings,  which  in  con- 
sequence of  their  frequent  use  naturally  lose  somewhat  of  their  original  force.  Hence  some  words,  as  Hörnl  (  =  Hörn- 
lein), &c.,  are  often  found  with  diminutive  ending,  whether  the  reference  is  to  something  small  or  large,  beautiful 
or  ugly.  The  Swiss  often  refer  to  some  familiar  mountain  even  tho  it  be  a  high  one  as  das  Bergli.  Thus  the  diminutive 
often  seems  to  be  only  a  means  of  sharp  individualization,  a  kind  of  personification.  Similarly  the  North  German 
refers  to  his  native  village  as  mein  Dörfchen.  In  general,  however,  the  North  is  more  sparing  with  the  use  of  the 
diminutive  than  the  South.  In  the  dialect  of  some  parts  of  the  North  the  diminutive  occurs  very  little.  This  may 
be  a  survival  of  older  general  usage.  In  the  oldest  historical  period  the  diminutive  was  little  used.  It  first  became 
common  in  M.H.G.  and  spread  from  the  South  northward. 

Note  2.  In  M.H.G.  diminutives  did  not  have  a  distinctive  plural  ending.  As  can  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  /  above 
most  of  the  dialects  have  since  developed  a  distinctive  plural  form.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  middle  portion  of 
the  Midland,  upon  which  the  literary  language  rests,  there  is  no  such  distinctive  plural  as  words  with  the  ending 
-chen  are  inflected  according  to  the  e-less  plural  class.  The  impulse,  however,  to  give  some  expression  to  the  plural 
idea  in  diminutives  is  often  so  strong  that  the  stem  word,  if  an  er-p!ural.  is  given  its  regular  plural  form  if  the  diminu- 
tive is  used  in  the  plural:  Kinderchen  instead  of  the  strict  literary  form  Kindchen.  In  loose  colloquial  speech  and 
sometimes  even  in  the  literary  language  the  er-plural  here  is  not  felt  as  incongruous  as  it  is  closely  associated  with 
the  neuter  gender  and  hence  does  not  seem  improper  in  the  plural  of  a  neuter  diminutive.  Such  formations,  Kinder- 
chen, Kinderlein,  &c.,  tho  not  strictly  correct,  began  to  appear  in  the  literary  language  in  the  fourteenth  century  and 
have  not  since  entirely  disappeared.  Further  to  the  west  in  the  Midland  the  dialectic  form  of  the  diminutive,  -che, 
made  it  easy  to  find  a  plural  form.  The  neuter  plural  ending  -er  is  added  to  the  suffix  and  in  some  dialects  also  to 
the  stem  word:  Kindche,  pi.  Kindcher  or  Kindercher;  Mädche,  pi.  Mädcher  or  Madercher.  In  the  last  example 
the  plural  of  the  stem  word  does  not  end  in  -er,  but  this  ending  here  has  in  certain  dialects  become  a  fixed  type.  Under 
N.G.  influence  a  plural  in  -s  also  occurs:    Mädchens,  Fräuleins,     See  80.  3. 

Note  3.  The  oldest  diminutive  forms  are  -ilo  (masc.)  or  -ila  (fem.)  of  O.H.G.,  -iko  of  Old  Saxon,  and  -In  (identical 
with  the  -in  in  II.  3  belowi,  all  with  the  meaning  close  association  with,  coming  from,  springing  from,  hence  often 
with  the  idea  of  endearment,  sometimes  with  the  conception  of  littleness:  die  Eichel,  from  O.H.G.  eihhila  acorn, 
something  coming  from  the  oak  tree.  O.H.G.  eih,  N.H.G.  Eiche;  der  Ärmel,  from  O.H.G.  arrailo  sleeve,  something 
closely  associated  with  the  arm;  Uulfilo  coming  from  Wolfhart,  i.e.  son  of  Wolfhart,  in  oldest  German  a  type  widely 
used  for  pet-names,  sometimes  also  with  diminutive  force.  The  suffix  -In  survives  as  a  fossil  in  Schwein  (Sau  -f-  in, 
M.H.G.  su  -|-  in)  pig,  lit.  young  of  a  sow,  also  in  Low  German  Küken  (=  Kiichlein).  It  is  still  found  as  a  living 
suffi.x  in  Swiss  dialect  as  the  diminutive  -i,  especially  in  pet-names:  Äugi  (=  Äuglein),  Ruedi  (pet-name),  &c.  In 
names  the  suffixes  -ilo,  -iko  often  lost  every  vestige  of  their  original  force,  so  that  the  words  containing  the  suffixes 
became  family  names:  Wölfel,  Reineke  or  Reinecke,  &c.  As  these  suffixes  from  the  very  start  had  more  frequently 
the  idea  of  endearment  than  that  of  littleness  -In,  or  in  shortened  form  i,  was  even  in  oldest  German  sometimes  added 
to  the  1  or  k  to  bring  out  clearly  the  diminutive  idea:  O.H.G.  Kindilin  or  kindili;  M.H.G.  kindelln,  kindel.  These 
strengthened  forms  are  the  common  S.G.  -lein,  -le,  -el  or  -1,  M.G.  -chen,  N.G.  -ken  of  to-day  as  given  in  /above. 
Modern  -el  (or  -1)  represents  both  O.H.G.  -ilo  and  -ill.  Out  of  the  diminutive  idea  of  the  strengthened  forms  arose 
the  conception  of  endearment,  so  that  these  forms  now  indicate  both  littleness  and  endearment.  As  the  -el  that 
came  from  O.H.G.  -ilo  is  now  identical  in  form  with  the  -el  that  came  from  O.H.G.  ill  it  is  no  longer  felt  as  a  sep- 
arate suffix.  In  names  also  the  strengthened  suffixes  have  often  lost  every  vestige  of  their  original  meaning  as  in 
case  of  the  simple  suffixes  described  above,  and  the  words  containing  them  have  become  mere  family  names:  WölfUn, 
Beyerlein  (for  Bayerleia),  &c.     Compare  7.  a  above. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  often  find  in  sections  of  the  Southwest  the  present  diminutive  suffix  -le  with  the  meaning 
of  close  association,  either  as  a  survival  of  older  usage  or  as  a  modern  development  out  of  the  diminutive  idea,  in 
either  case  indicating  the  close  relation  between  the  two  ideas:  der  Pfarrerle  the  son,  nephew,  or  servant  of  the  pastor, 
i.e.  someone  closely  associated  with  the  pastor;  der  Studentle  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  II,  p.  97),  here  used  of 
one  who  had  once  been  a  student,  lit.  one  of  or  belonging  to  the  students;  Räuberles  (260.  2.  X  under  spielen)  spielen 
to  play  robbers,  lit.  to  play  belonging  to  the  robbers.  This  idea  of  association  is  also  found  in  these  sections  in  nouns 
made  from  adjectives:  der  Geschwindle  a  slow  worker,  lit.  ironically  "the  swift  one,"  der  Gescheidtle  one  who  thinks 
himself  bright,  &c.  In  the  Midland  we  find  -chen  similarly  used:  Soldätches  spielen  (G.  Asmus's  Amerikanisches 
Skizzenbuch.  p.  .59).  The  old  idea  of  association  is  well  preserved  in  Swiss  -i:  Götti  godfather,  Lufti  (Luft  -|-  i  = 
Windbeutel),  Schlichi  f  =  Schleicher),  Choli  (Kohle  -|-  i)  coal-black  horse,  Pläri  (plärren  -t-  i)  one  who  starts  to  cry, 
bawl  for  every  little  thing,  &c.  There  always  lies  in  -i  a  touch  of  feeling,  a  tone  o  endearment,  playfulness,  and 
often  censure,  disapproval,  or  scorn. 

2.  These  suffixes  have  not  only  diminutive  force,  but  are  also  used  to  express 
the  idea  of  endearment,  tenderness,  comeliness,  neatness,  something  affording 
satisfaction  and  pleasure,  as  well  as  the  idea  of  slyness,  stealth,  and  lastly  con- 
tempt. Here  lein  and  chen  often  form  somewhat  different  shades  of  mean- 
ing. In  the  literary  language  of  the  North  chen  has  usually  the  idea  of  en- 
dearment, comeliness,  sarcasm,  contempt,  slyness,  pleasure,  and  even  of  large- 
ness, as  the  diminutive  is  often  used  ironically,  implying  the  opposite  of  what 
is  actually  asserted:    Frauchen  dear  wife,  Pa'pachen  dear  Papa,  Hütchen  a 


245.  1.9.^. SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES 411 

pretty  hat,  Kästchen  an  ornamental  little  box  or  jewel  casket,  die  jungen  Herr- 
chen the  young  gentlemen  (sarcastic),  ein  Poten'tätchen  an  insignificant  little 
potentate,  ein  hübsches  Sümmchen  a  nice  little  (meaning  a  big)  sum  of  money. 
Lein,  besides  its  use  in  beautiful  poetic  style,  is  also  found  sometimes  in  common 
style,  be  it  prose  or  poetry,  where  it  has  more  strictly  than  chen  the  idea  of 
littleness  and  more  intensely  the  idea  of  contempt:  ein  Hündlein  a  little  dog, 
but  ein  Hündchen  a  nice  dog;  das  arme  geschlagene  Kaiserlein  (a  contemptuous 
reference  to  Napoleon  in  a  poem  appearing  in  1813),  feiste  Pfäfflein  (contempt.), 
das  Produktlein  modernen  Aufklärichts  (Spielhagen's  Was  ivill  das  werden?,  I, 
chap,  viii)  the  product  of  modern  sham  enlightenment,  &c.  As  lein  is  so  little 
used  in  the  North  in  plain  prose,  the  simple  idea  of  littleness  is  best  expressed 
by  placing  the  adj.  klein  before  the  noun.  In  South  German  authors  the  very 
opposite  use  of  lein  and  chen  above  mentioned  may  be  found.  Lein  denotes 
something  nice  and  large,  and  chen  something  spoken  of  in  a  sense  of  disparage- 
ment and  littleness:  ein  Siebenträuberl  (Rosegger)  a  nice  large  bunch  of  seven 
cherries.  Das  letzte  schäbige  Knechtchen,  das  er  gehabt,  hatte  ihn  schon 
seit  einigen  Wochen  verlassen  (G.  Keller).  Ein  paar  schlechte  Kämmerchen 
(id.). 

The  two  forms  chen  and  lein  are  in  certain  cases  differently  distributed,  the 
one  being  used  in  connection  with  certain  words,  the  other  employed  with  others: 
We  say  Ohrläppchen,  Zündhölzchen,  Liebchen,  ein  bißchen.  Bleib  noch  ein 
Stündchen  bei  mir,  but  Bäuerlein,  Brünnlein,  sein  Scherflein  beitragen.  Sein 
Stündlein  hat  geschlagen.  Sometimes  differentiation  takes  place:  Frauchen 
dear  loife  and  Fräulein  Miss;  Männlein  and  Weiblein  of  human  beings,  Männ- 
chen and  Weibchen  of  animals. 

In  a  number  of  words  and  expressions  only  the  diminutive  form  of  the  noun 
is  used:  Gänsefüßchen  quotation  marks,  Fräulein  Miss,  unmarried  woman, 
Grübchen  dimple,  Häutchen  membrane,  Scherflein  mite,  sein  Schäfchen 
scheren  to  feather  one's  own  nest,  sein  Mütchen  an  einem  kühlen  to  vent  one's 
anger  upon  a  person,  ins  Fäustchen  lachen  to  laugh  in  one's  sleeve,  &c.  In 
case  of  Fräulein,  chen  is  in  colloquial  language  added  to  lein  to  bring  out  the 
diminutive  force  or  to  give  expression  to  the  idea  of  endearment,  &c.,  as  the 
original  meaning  of  the  lein  is  no  longer  vividly  felt:  Da  auf  dem  Tisch,  gnädiges 
Fräuleinchen  (Sudermann's  Fritzchen,  1). 

9.  nis  (cognate  with  ness  as  in  goodness;  see  15.  2  below),  earlier  in  the  period 
also  nüß  (nuß)  especially  in  S.G.,  a  neut.  and  less  commonly  fem.  (99.  2.  b  and 
3.  c)  suffix,  usually  causing  mutation,  affixed  to  nouns,  adjectives,  perfect  par- 
ticiples (as  in  Geständnis  confession  =  gestand[en]  -f  nis),  and  verbs  (especially 
such    as  have  prefixes)  to  denote: 

a.  An  act,  performance,  activity,  function  or  something  concrete  which  is 
represented  as  having  active  force:  Gelöbnis  vow,  Wagnis  daring  deed,  Be- 
sorgnis fear,  concern,  Ereignis  occurrence,  Begräbnis  funeral,  also  tomb  (ac- 
cording to  b),  Gedächtnis  memory,  Verständnis  understanding,  comprehension, 
Vermächtnis  testament,  legacy,  Hindernis  hindrance,  that  which  hinders, 
Ärgernis  that  which  gives  offense,  Verhängnis  evil  fate  that  brings  about  evil 
things. 

b.  That  which  is  the  result  or  object  of  the  activity  implied  in  the  verbal 
stem  of  the  noun,  or  that  which  is  at  the  same  time  the  result  of  an  action  and 
yet  is  itself  an  active  force:  Verzeichnis  catalogue,  list,  Erzeugnis  product, 
Ergebnis  result,  Bedürfnis  need,  that  which  one  needs,  Verhängnis  sad  or  evil 
fate,  Bündnis  alliance,  that  which  is  the  result  of  union  and  at  the  same  time 
has  active  binding  force. 

c.  A  condition  or  quality  or  something  concrete  which  possesses  the  quality 
indicated  by  the  stem  of  the  word:  Finsternis  darkness,  Fäulnis  rottenness, 
Wirrnis  chaotic  condition,  confusion,  Geheimnis  secret  thing,  a  secret,  Bitternis 
bitter  thing. 

d.  The  place  where  the  condition  implied  in  the  stem  of  the  word  is  found: 
Gefängnis  prison,  lit.  a  place  where  one  is  caught,  Wildnis  wilderness. 


412 SUBSTANTIVAL   SUFFIXES 245.  I.  10. 

10.  rich,  see  17.  h. 

11.  1.  sal  or  its  weakened  form  sei  (O.H.G.  isal),  usually  neut.,  but  in 
a  few  cases  fern.  (99.  3.  c),  and  formerly  also  in  a  few  cases  masc.  (99.  3.  c), 
sometimes  causing  mutation.  They  are  usually  found  after  verbal  stems,  and 
only  in  several  instances  are  affixed  to  nouns.  These  suffixes  have  in  part  a 
force  similar  to  that  of  nis,  but  differ  often  from  it  in  that  they  have  a  more 
comprehensive  and  intensive  force.  They  have  usually  an  abstract  meaning 
and  contain  a  collective  idea,  implying  that  the  activity  expressed  in  the 
verbal  stem  is  long  continued,  oft  repeated,  customary,  or  is  extended  over 
a  considerable  field,  or  is  associated  with  a  large  number  of  objects.  Some- 
times they  may  take  on  concrete  meaning,  especially  sei.  Nouns  having  these 
suffixes  denote : 

a.  A  thing  which  is  represented  as  the  subject,  or  the  object,  or  result  of  the 
activity  implied  in  the  verbal  stem  of  the  noun :  Das  Schicksal  that  which  sends, 
or  is  sent,  hence  good  or  evil  fate,  destiny,  der  Stöpsel  that  which  stops,  a  stopper, 
das  (also  der)  Häcksel  that  which  is  chopped,  chopped  feed,  das  Füllsel  that 
which  is  filled  in,  stuffing,  das  Rinnsal  that  which  has  resulted  from  flowing 
water,  a  channel,  watercourse,  das  Labsal  anything  (as  food,  drink,  encourage- 
ment, &c.)  which  refreshes  body  or  mind. 

b.  A  condition,  state,  or  an  action:  das  Wirrsal  confusion,  confused  state, 
die  Trübsal  affliction,  die  and  das  Mühsal  difficulty,  misery,  das  Irrsal  state  of 
erring,  erring  course,  erring,  serious  error  (as  in  religious  belief),  which  causes 
a  train  of  errors.  In  these  same  words  and  others  the  meaning  may  sometimes 
become  more  concrete,  indicating  something  that  causes  this  condition  or  state, 
or  the  place  where  the  condition  is  found  or  the  action  takes  place:  das  Mühsal 
that  which  causes  misery,  das  Wehsal  that  which  causes  serious  trouble,  sorrow, 
das  Scheusal  that  which  instils  fear  and  aversion,  a  monster,  das  Irrsal  a  place 
where  one  can  easily  err,  a  labyrinth. 

c.  Sei  often  denotes  something  insignificant  or  contemptible:  das  Über- 
bleibsel something  left  over,  remnant,  das  Geschreibsel  a  miserably  written 
production,  das  Hervorbringsei  inferior  production.  Erschachert,  indem  er 
für  ein  Mitbringsel  (insignificant  acquisition)  unsre  Ehre  preisgab  (Fontane's 
Schach  vo?i  Wuthenow,  chap.  6). 

2.  In  derivatives  in  -ig  possessing,  full  of,  formed  from  words  in  -sal,  this 
suffix  becomes  sei:  Wehsal  sorroiv,  but  wehselig  sorrowful;  Mühsal  toil,  misery, 
but  mühselig  toilsome,  miserable,  full  of  misery;  Trübsal,  but  trübselig;  Saum- 
sal,  but  saumselig.  Sometimes  the  original  noun  has  gone  out  of  use:  armselig 
miserable,  from  M.H.G.  armsal  misery.  As  these  old  nouns  in  -sal  have  dis- 
appeared or  are  little  used  -sehg  is  now  felt  as  an  independent  suffix  with  the 
meaning  possessing  or  full  of  the  thing  indicated  by  the  stem-word,  so  that  new 
derivatives  in  -selig  have  arisen:  feindselig  hostile,  holdselig  charming,  hab- 
selig  rich  (now  little  used  but  common  in  the  derivative  Habseligkeiten  effects, 
traps),  &c.  Derivatives  in  -selig  have  the  same  form  as  compounds  with  the 
adjective  selig  happy  in,  blessed  ivith:  gottselig  pious,  glückseUg  happy,  blessed 
with  happiness,  redselig  talkative,  friedselig  peaceable,  «S:c.  The  two  groups 
cannot  always  be  distinguished. 

12.  schaft  (from  schaffen  to  shape,  create;  cognate  with  Eng.  ship  as  in 
friendship) ,  once  an  independent  noun,  now  a  fem.  suffix,  affixed  to  the  sing,  or 
pi.  of  nouns,  also  to  adjectives,  participles,  and  verbs,  to  denote: 

a.  An  act,  activity:  Wanderschaft  traveling,  journeying,  Urheberschaft  act 
of  originating,  authorship,  Täterschaft  perpetration,  Rechenschaft  account, 
Wirtschaft  management  of  a  house,  business,  or  government,  Wissenschaft 
scientific  study,  Herrschaft  rule,  authority,  Kaufmannschaft  business  of  a 
merchant,  Gesandtschaft  duties  and  position  of  an  ambassador,  embassy. 

This  suffix  often  assumes  concrete  meaning,  denoting  some  person  carrying 
on  the  activity  or  something  which  is  associated  with  it  or  resulting  from  it: 
die  Herrschaft  master  or  mistress  or  according  to  c  both,  Wirtschaft  restaurant, 
Gesandtschaft  dwelling  or  office  of  an  ambassador,  Errungenschaft  something 


245.  I.  14.  2. SUBSTANTIVAL   SUFFIXES 413 

won,  achievement,  Meisterschaft  mastery,  masterly  skill,  Wissenschaft  news, 
information. 

b.  Relationship,  condition:  Bruderschaft,  or  now  more  commonly  Brü- 
derschaft relationship  of  brothers,  close  friendship,  Freundschaft  friendship, 
Feindschaft  enmity,  Meisterschaft  championship,  Bereitschaft  readiness,  Ge- 
fangenschaft captivity,  Brautschaft  state  of  being  betrothed,  engagement, 
Witwenschaft  widowhood. 

c.  A  collective  idea:  Wissenschaft  science,  Bruderschaft  or  now  less  com- 
monly Brüderschaft  fraternity,  Studentenschaft  student  body,  Arbeiterschaft 
working  class,  Ärzteschaft  medical  society,  men  of  the  medical  profession,  die 
bayrische  Ärzteschaft,  Bürgerschaft  all  the  citizens  of  a  place,  meine  Herr- 
schaften! (in  direct  address)  ladies  and  gentlemen!,  Gegnerschaft  opponents, 
opposing  party,  or  (according  to  a)  opposition.  Verbraucherschaft  consumers, 
Kaufmannschaft  all  the  merchants  of  a  place,  Gesandtschaft  embassy,  an  am- 
bassador with  his  corps  of  assistants,  Ortschaft  city,  town,  village,  Wirtschaft 
family,  household  (Es  sind  vier  Wirtschaften  im  Hause),  doings,  goings-on,  espe- 
cially of  wild,  noisy,  disorderly  doings  (eine  lustige,  tolle,  schöne  [sarcastic]  Wirt- 
schaft), Hinterlassenschaft  property  left  by  a  person  at  his  death,  Briefschaften 
papers,  written  documents. 

13.  tel,  reduced  form  of  Teil  (formerly  neut.)  part,  a  neuter  suffix  added  to 
the  stem  of  ordinals  to  form  fractions.  The  final  t  of  the  stem  of  the  ordinal 
is  dropped  before  the  t  of  the  suffix:  Drittel  third,  Sechstel  sixth,  Zwanzigstel. 
See  also  126.  2.  a. 

Note.  Both  ordinal  and  suffix  were  formerly  independent  words:  M.H.G.  da?  viinfte  tell.  Later  both  words 
entered  into  a  compound  as  they  had  in  their  union  developed  a  peculiar  oneness  of  meaning  somewhat  different 
from  that  suggested  by  the  literal  meaning  of  the  components.  The  change  of  meaning  obscured  the  original  syn- 
tactical relations  of  the  components  and  brought  about  the  shifting  of  the  stress  from  tlie  second  component  upon 
the  first  in  accordance  with  the  usual  principle  of  accenting  compounds  upon  the  first  element.  Thus  das  fünft 'e) 
Teil  became  das  Fünfteil.  As  the  oneness  of  meaning  became  fixed  and  the  stress  firmly  established  upon  the  first 
clement  the  second  component  lost  more  and  more  of  its  accent  and  suffered  a  further  reduction  of  form.  Thus 
Fünfteil  became  Fünftel.  These  changes,  which  have  taken  place  in  the  present  period,  fitly  illustrate  the  process 
by  which,  in  general,  words  used  as  components  have  gradually  under  the  loss  of  accent  changed  their  form  and  at 
last  lost  their  identity  and  become  mere  prefixes. 

14.  1.  tum  (cognate  with  Eng.  dorn  as  in  kingdom),  once  an  independent 
noun,  now  a  neuter  (except  in  the  two  masc.  nouns  Reichtum  wealth,  Irrtum 
error)  suffix,  added  to  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  to  denote: 

a.  The  dignity,  rank,  profession  of  the  class  of  persons  mentioned  in  the  stem 
of  the  noun,  with  all  the  peculiar  characteristics  which  attach  to  such  a  dignity, 
rank,  or  profession:  Kaisertum  office  and  power  of  an  emperor,  Priestertum 
priesthood,  Volkstum  nationality. 

b.  A  condition,  state,  or  an  action:  Siechtum  a  state  of  poor  health,  Wachs- 
tum a  state  of  healthy  growth,  Reichtum  wealthy  state,  Irrtum  state  of  error, 
erring,  error. 

c.  A  collective  idea:  Bürgertum  the  citizens  of  a  place,  Judentum  the  Jewish 
people,  Reichtum  all  that  which  is  implied  by  the  word  'rich,'  riches,  Altertum 
all  that  period  of  time  which  can  be  said  to  have  age,  antiquity,  Pfaffentum  or 
Bonzentum  priests  (collectively  and  in  a  disparaging  sense),  priesthood,  priest- 
craft, the  arts  and  doings  of  crafty  clericals,  Schiebertum  throng  of  profiteers 
who  prey  upon  society,  especially  in  times  of  distress,  arts  and  doings  of  sordid 
profiteers  who  sell  things  clandestinely  in  disregard  of  governmental  regulations 
and  restrictions.  These  words  may  also  take  on  concrete  meaning:  Heiligtum 
sanctuary,  Kaisertum  empire,  Eigentum  property,  lit.  all  that  which  is  one's 
own,  Altertum  an  object  that  has  been  preserved  from  a  former  age. 

Note.  If  tum  and  Schaft  may  both  be  affixed  to  the  same  stem  to  show  the  collective  idea,  there  is  a  little  shade 
of  difference  in  their  meaning.  The  latter  marks  more  distinctly  the  collective  idea,  the  former  the  dignity  or  the 
peculiar  character  or  nature  which  attaclies  to  the  dignity,  rank,  or  profession:  Priesterschaft  priests  taken  collec- 
tively, Priestertum  peculiar  character  and  nature  of  the  priesthood. 

2.  The  suffixes  heit,  schaft,  tum  had  originally  about  the  same  force,  and  are 
still  so  used,  but  in  cases  where  these  suffixes  are  added  to  the  same  stem  as  in 
the  Note  above,  differentiation  of  meaning  usually  takes  place:  Christenheit 
Christian  world,  Christentum  Christianity,  peculiar  character  and  nature  of  the 
Christian    faith   and    life;    Eigentum   property,    Eigenheit   peculiarity.   Eigen- 


414 SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES 245.  I.  14.  2. 

schaft  quality;  Bereitschaft  outward  readiness,  preparedness,  Bereitheit  inward 
readiness,  willingness.  Their  use  is  sometimes  subject  to  caprice,  not  to  a  fixed 
difference  of  meaning:  Heidenschaft  heathenism,  heathen  world,  but  Christenheit 
Christianity,  Christian  ivorld. 

15.  1.  ung  (cognate  with  Eng.  ing  as  in  warbling),  usually  a  fern,  suffix, 
affixed  in  most  cases  to  the  stem  of  verbs,  especially  compounds  and  deriva- 
tives, rarely  to  the  stem  of  nouns.  It  means  close  associatio7i  with,  origin  and 
hence  is  related  to  -ing  fsee  7  above),  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  few  words  where 
the  suffix  is  masculine:  die  Nibelungen  the  children  of  the  mist  (Nebel),  name 
usually  given  to  the  sons  and  vassals  of  Nibelung,  a  mythical  king.  The  form 
-ungen  is  found  in  the  Midland  in  some  names  of  towns  instead  of  the  more 
common  -ingen.  See  7  a  above.  Altho  the  prefix  -ing,  -ung  originally  denoted 
the  close  association  of  a  person  or  thing  to  some  other  person  or  thing  the  form 
-ing  in  English  and  -ung  in  German  early  became  useful  to  denote  a  close  asso- 
ciation of  a  person  or  thing  to  an  activity. 

The  feminine  suffix  has  become  exceedingly  fruitful  and  is  now  used  to  denote: 

a.  An  activity:  Bewachung  guarding,  Bewaffnung  arming,  Erziehung 
education.  This  suffix  gives  the  noun  sometimes  almost  pure  verbal  force,  so 
that  it  can  usually  take  a  dependent  object  or  a  prepositional  phrase  which  has 
almost  the  force  of  an  adverb:  objective  gen.:  die  Erziehung  der  Knaben; 
Gotteslästerung;  ace.  object,  found  only  in  group-words  (247.  2)  and  compounds: 
Haushaltung.  In  case  there  are  two  objects  one  is  usually  understood:  (ace. 
object  omitted,  gen.  object  expressed)  Ämtsentsetzung  (Man  entsetzt  ihn  des 
Amtes).  Adverbial  modifier:  Die  Befreiung  aus  der  Not  deliverance  from  dis- 
tress. The  -ung  is  also  added  to  intransitive  stems:  Die  Binden  stillten  die 
Blutung  The  bandages  stopped  the  bleeding.  With  intransitive  stems  it  can 
take  a  predicate  noun,  which  is  written  as  one  word  with  the  verbal  substantive: 
die  Menschwerdung  the  incarnation,  lit.  the  becoming  a  man.  These  derivatives 
cannot  only  have  active  force  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  but  also  some- 
times passive  and  even  reflexive  and  reciprocal  force:  Seine  Erhebung  auf  den 
Thron  verdankte  er  seinen  Siegen  He  owed  his  being  elevated  to  the  throne 
to  his  victories.  In  der  Opferung  für  andere  seiner  Seele  Glück  zu  finden, 
ist  nur  wenigen  gegeben  Only  a  few  find  happiness  of  soul  in  sacrificing  them- 
selves for  others.  Die  Kaiserbegegnung  in  Björkö  (substantive  form  of  Die 
Kaiser  begegnen  sich  in  Björkö).     See  189. 

Notice  that  the  corresponding  English  verbal  noun  in  -ing,  the  so-called 
gerund,  has  developed  still  more  verbal  force,  as  it  can  take  an  accusative  object 
outside  of  compounds  and  can  assume  compound  active  and  passive  forms: 
the  thought  of  having  performed  my  duty.  Gloves  prevent  the  hands  from  being 
injured.  In  oldest  English  and  German  these  verbal  nouns  did  not  have  very 
strong  verbal  force.  English  began  to  develop  it  much  earlier  than  German 
and  has  gone  much  farther  in  this  direction. 

Note.  A  number  of  such  formations  which  were  common  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  even  later  are  now  re- 
placed by  shorter  formations:  Abschließung,  Anhauchung,  Betrachtung,  Genießung,  Reizung,  Verlegung,  Versteckun'', 
Wachsung,  Zurücknehmung,  now  replaced  by  Abschluß,  Anhauch,  Betracht,  Genuß,  Reiz,  Verlag,  Versteck,  Wuchs, 
Zurücknahme.  The  shorter  form  usually  has  more  concrete  force  tlian  the  longer  one  in  -ung  and  thus  indicates 
the  development  of  a  finer  differentiation.  On  the  other  hand,  where  abstract  verbal  force  is  prominent  the  der- 
ivatives in  -ung  are  becoming  ever  greater  favorites  and  the  construction  is  extending  its  boundaries.  An  interesting 
extension  is  the  now  common  construction  which  prefers  to  clothe  the  chief  idea  of  the  predicate  in  the  form  of  a 
noun  rather  than  that  of  a  verb:  Das  Stück  wird  bald  zur  Aufführung  gebracht  (instead  of  aufgeführt)  The  piece 
will  soon  be  played.     See  252.  1.  a.  Note  2. 

h.     A  condition,  state:   Aufregung  excitement,  Beklemmung  anxiety. 

c.  Sometimes  it  denotes  something  concrete  which  is  closely  associatea  with 
an  activity  in  the  relation  of  an  active  force,  a  result,  product,  means,  place, 
&c.:  Erfrischung  refreshment,  that  which  refreshes,  Schickung  the  Divine 
Will,  the  one  that  decrees,  sends,  a  decree  of  Heaven,  bitter  affliction  or  trial, 
lit.  something  sent,  Zeichnung  the  product  of  drawing,  a  drawing,  Kleidung 
that  with  which  one  is  clothed,  i.e.  clothes,  Wohnung  a  dwelling-house,  Biegung 
a  bend  in  the  road,  Krümmung  a  turn  in  the  river,  Festung  fortress,  Niederung 
low  ground. 


245.  L  17.  c. SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES 415 

d.  A  collective  idea,  since  a  number  of  persons  or  things  may  be  involved  in 
the  same  activity:  Regierung  government,  Bedienung  body  of  servants  in  a 
house,  Bemannung  crew,  Besatzung  (besetzen)  garrison,  Dickung  (Hermann 
Löns  in  Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Dec.  16,  1905;  for  the  more  common  Dickicht), 
Winterbereifung  tires  for  winter  use,  Leitung  pipes,  management,  &c.  This 
collective  idea  is  also  seen  in  derivatives  from  nouns:  Waldung  large  forest 
(in  its  entirety),  Holzung  wood,  grove. 

2.  The  suffix  -nis  sometimes  approaches  near  to  the  force  of  -ung:  Verlöbnis 
or  Verlobung  betrothal,  Hindernis  and  Verhinderung  hindrance,  &c.  How- 
ever, in  most  cases  the  verbal  force  is  stronger  in  -ung,  as  can  be  seen  in  the 
objective  gen.  which  may  follow  it.  In  other  cases  the  meaning  of  the  two 
suffixes  drifts  still  farther  apart:  Bildnis  picture,  lit.  that  which  has  been  formed, 
Bildung  education,  culture,  lit.  that  which  has  been  formed;  Ergebnis  result, 
Ergebung  resignation,  submission. 

16.  A  few  suffixes  which  were  originally  used  in  forming  proper  names  are 
later,  as  also  to-day,  used  in  common  class  nouns: 

a.  bold  (from  M.H.G.  bait)  hold:  Leopold  {the  hold  one  among  the  people). 
This  suffix  in  common  class  nouns  indicates  an  inclination  to  that  which  is 
indicated  by  the  stem  of  the  derivative:  Witzbold  wit,  one  fond  of  getting  off 
witty  things,  Raufbold  one  fond  of  getting  into  a  fight,  Trunkenbold  drunkard,  &c. 

h.  jan,  Low  German  form  of  Johannes  John,  added  to  adjectival  and  verbal 
stems  to  indicate  a  person  endowed  with  the  quality  or  inclined  to  the  activity 
expressed  in  the  stem  of  the  derivative :  Dummerjan  a  stupid  fellow,  lit.  stupid 
Jack,  Liederjan  dissolute  fellow,  Murrjan  grnnihling  fellow.  Other  forms  of  this 
name  or  other  names  are  similarly  used  with  the  force  of  a  suffix:  Faselhans 
driveler,  Zigarrenf ritze  cigar-dealer,  Angstmeier  coward,  &c.  Sometimes  with 
the  parts  written  apart  with  the  original  descriptive  group-stress:  dümmer 
Peter,  dumme  Lise,  &c. 

The  suffix  -jan  may  be  replaced  by  the  foreign  suffix  ian  of  like  meaning; 
hence  there  is  sometimes  a  double  form,  as  in  Dummerjan  or  Dummrian.  Some 
have  more  commonly  the  foreign  form:  Grobian,  Schlendrian,  Blödian  (Voegt- 
lin's  Das  neue  Geivissen,  p.  169),  Fadian  (Anzengruber's  Das  vierte  Gebot,  II),  &c. 

17.  A  few  suffixes  occur  only  in  a  few  words  and  have  a  force  that  is  not 
always  felt  distinctly: 

a.  icht  (O.H.G.  achi  or  ach,  early  N.H.G.  ich),  usually  a  neut.,  sometimes 
a  masc.  suffix,  sometimes  both,  affixed  to  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs  to  denote  a 
collective  idea:  das  Röhricht  reeds  or  a  place  where  reeds  grow,  das  Dickicht 
thicket,  das  Dornicht  thornbrake,  das  Tannicht  grove  of  fir-trees,  das  Riihricht 
hotchpotch,  der  or  das  Kehricht  sweepings,  das   (der)  Spülicht  slops,  &c. 

No/e.  In  dialect  this  suffix  occurs  in  different  forms:  (1)  In  S.G.  dialects  a  neuter  suffix  in  tlie  form  of  -ach,  used 
formerly  of  plants  and  trees  to  denote  a  collective  idea,  now  only  found  in  names  of  places:  Birkach,  formerly  = 
Birkengehölz  grove  of  birch-trees,  now  the  name  of  a  place.  (2)  As  a  plural  of  diminutives  in  -le,  formerly  in  dif- 
ferent dialects  in  the  form  of  -ach,  still  in  use  in  Franconian  in  the  form  of  a,  i,  or  ich,  as  in  Tischle,  pi.  Tischla,  Tischli, 
or  Tischlich  =  Tischlein. 

b.  rich,  in  Gothic  an  independent  word  reiks  nder,  in  M.H.G.  an  adjective 
rich  mighty,  rich,  surviving  in  the  adjective  reich  rich  and  the  suffix  rich,  which 
is  affixed  to  names  of  persons  and  plants  with  its  original  m.eaning  rider,  but 
weakened  in  force:  Friedrich  Frederick,  lit.  prince  of  peace,  Wegerich  plantain, 
lit.  ruler  of  the  road,  &c.  Enterich  (M.H.G.  antreche)  is  now  felt  as  belonging 
here,  meaning  ruler  of  the  ducks,  as  its  older  form  -reche  developed  in  N.H.G. 
phonetically  into  -rich,  which  suggested  relationship  with  the  -rich  in  names, 
but  in  fact  it  is  of  different  origin.  The  last  part  of  the  word  is  of  the  same 
origin  as  Eng.  drake.  The  first  part  is  .the  German  Ente.  Gänserich  and 
Täuberich  have  been  formed  after  the  analogy  of  Enterich,  but  the  older  simpler 
form  Tauber  is  still  more  common. 

c.  nd,  present  participle  ending,  but  not  felt  as  such;  hence  all  words  with 
this  suffix  have  the  inflection  of  nouns  and  are  true  fossils:  Heiland  (heilen  to 
heal)  the  Savior,  lit.  the  healing  one,  Wind  (wehen  to  blow)  wind,  Feind  (Gothic 
fijan  to  hate)  enemy,  Freund  (Gothic  frijön  to  love)  friend,  &c. 


416 SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES 245.  I.  18. 

18.  A  few  words  are  about  to  be  degraded  to  mere  suffixes: 

a.  a(ch)  (=  M.H.G.  ahe  river,  cognate  with  Latin  aqua),  employed  in  the 
names  of  a  number  of  rivers  and  small  streams  and  places  named  from  them: 
Salzach  (river),  Werra  (river),  Fulda  (river  and  city).  The  names  of  rivers 
are  fern,  but  the  names  of  places  are  of  course  neuter  according  to  the  rule  for 
such  names.  This  form  is  not  a  genuine  suffix  as  it  is  employed  as  an  inde- 
pendent noun  in  the  names  of  a  number  of  streams:  die  Ach  (tributary  of  the 
Danube),  die  Aach  (in  Baden),  die  Ohe  (in  Hesse),  &c. 

b.  kunft,  formed  from  a  former  gradation  (201.  e)  of  kommen  to  come,  once 
an  independent  noun  with  the  meaning  coming  and  occasionally  so  used  within 
the  present  period,  especially  in  poetic  language  (as  in  des  Heilands  Kunft — 
Burger's  St.  Stephan),  but  now  usually  found  only  as  a  suffix:  Ankunft  arrival, 
Herkunft  origin,  Zukunft  future,  &c. 

c.  nähme,  formed  from  the  vowel-gradation  of  the  past  tense  of  nehmen 
to  take,  once  a  noun  with  the  meanings  a  taking,  robbing,  now  found  as  a  noun 
only  in  S.G.  dialect  in  the  second  meaning,  usually  employed  as  a  suffix  in  the 
first  meaning:  Aufnahme  reception,  Ausnahme  exception,  Besitznahme  taking 
possession,  Stellungnahme  attitude,  stand,  <S:c. 

19.  at,  an  accented  foreign  suffix  from  the  Latin  -atus  affixed  to  foreign 
stems  to  denote  a  rank,  office,  position,  building  where  the  office-holder  resides, 
state.  It  is  always  neuter  in  a  number  of  words,  as  Rekto'rat  rectorship, 
Konsu'lat  consulship,  Majo'rat  (right  of)  primogeniture,  Novizi'at  novitiate, 
Pasto'rat  pastorate,  parsonage,  where  the  suffix  has  the  force  of  the  native 
suffix  tum  and  is  consequently  influenced  by  its  gender.  In  others  under  learned 
influences  the  masculine  gender  is  also  found  as  in  Latin :  der  (especially  in  the 
2nd  meaning)  and  das  Episko'pat  episcopate,  body  of  bishops  collectively, 
der  and  das  Pri'mat  primateship,  der  and  das  Zöli'bat  celibacy,  &c.  In 
Magi'strat  city  council,  Or'nat  official  costume,  Trak'tat  treaty,  treatise,  it  is 
usually  masculine. 

20.  Hybrids.  Certain  suffixes  are  added,  not  only  to  foreign  words,  but 
also  to  native  German  stems  and  such  foreign  stems  as  have  become  thoroly 
established  and  are  felt  as  German  words  in  spite  of  their  foreign  form.  A  large 
number  of  these  hybrids  now  belong  to  serious  normal  speech,  but  in  many 
cases  the  suffix  gives  a  facetious  turn  to  the  thought  or  contains  depreciatory 
force.  Besides  the  forms  -aner,  -ei,  -enser,  -er,  -ian,  -ianer  (5.  e),  -ie,  -ier, 
-iner,  and  -sehe  (under  -in  in  6.  1.  c)  treated  above  are  the  following  suffixes: 

a.  'age  ('a:59),  a  fem.  ending  indicating  a  disagreeable  activity  or  a  collec- 
tive idea  with  depreciatory  force:  Pa'ckage  packing,  riff-raff  (in  this  sense  from 
das  Pack  riff-raff  under  the  influence  of  die  Ba'gage  riff-raff),  Klei'dage  (or  in 
Low  German  form  Kle'dage)  duds,  traps,  &c. 

b.  'alien,  a  plural  form  indicating  a  collective  idea  with  depreciatory  force: 
Schmie'ralien  gifts  for  the  purpose  of  bribing,  scrawl,  &c. 

c.  'ant  a  masc.  ending  to  form  appellations  of  male  beings:  Pau'kant  (in 
student  language)  duellist,  &c. 

d.  'eum,  a  neut.  ending  indicating  a  place  consecrated  to  the  worship,  service, 
or  study  of:  Mozar'teum  building  devoted  to  the  study  and  enjoyment  of  the 
music  of  Mozart,  Lauso'leum  facetiously  used  for  Entlausungsanstalt,  place 
where  soldiers  are  freed  from  the  lice  which  they  have  acquired  in  the  trenches,  &c. 

e.  i'äde,  a  fem.  ending  indicating  facetiously  a  discourse  or  epic:  Jeremi'ade 
lamentation  in  the  plaintive  style  of  Jeremiah,  Jobsi'ade  (a  humorous  epic  by 
Karl  Arnold  Kortum  dealing  with  the  life  and  doings  of  Hieronymus  Jobs),  &c. 

/.  ikus,  a  masc.  ending  to  form  facetious  appellations  of  male  beings:  Luftikus 
wind-bag,  Pfiffikus  sly-boots,  &c. 

g.  'insky,  a  masc.  ending  with  pronounced  disparaging  force:  Bucke'linsky 
hunchback,  Liede'rinsky  dissolute  fellow,  die  Herren  Radika'linskys  the  extreme 
radicals,  &c. 

h.  'ismus,  a  masc.  ending  corresponding  closely  to  English  -ism:  Ber- 
li'nismus  Berlinism,  &c. 


245.  II.  3.  b. ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES 417 

i.  'ist,  a  masc.  ending  corresponding  to  English  -ist:  Hor'nist  hornist,  horn- 
player,  Blu'mist  florist,  Gar'dist  soldier  of  the  guards,  &c. 

j.  i'tät,  a  fern,  ending  indicating  a  condition  of  things:  Schwuli'tät  (student 
slang)  uneasiness,  &c. 

k.  'ür  (Latin  -ura),  a  fern,  ending  indicating  an  activity  or  the  results  of  an 
activity:  Dre'ssur  breaking  in,  training,  from  the  common  foreign  verb  dre'ssie- 
ren;  Fri'sur  act  of  dressing  or  curling  the  hair,  or  hair-dress,  from  the  common 
foreign  word  fri'sieren. 

II.     Derivative  Adjectives. 

1.  artig  (=  Art  kind,  manfier  -f-  ig),  an  independent  adjective  with  the 
meaning  well-hehaved ,  and  also  added  seemingly  as  a  sufhx  to  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives to  indicate  a  kind,  manner,  resemblance:  aalartig  like  an  eel,  eely,  bergartig 
resembling  a  mountain,  turmartig  tower-like,  &c.;  fremdartig  strange,  groß- 
artig grand,  magnificent,  gutartig  good-natured,  &c.;  ein  aalartiger  Höfling; 
mit  seiner  affenartigen  Geschwindigkeit.  Artig  is  now  perhaps  often  felt  here 
as  a  sufhx,  but  the  real  suftix  is  -ig,  which  is  added  to  a  compound  or  a  group: 
affenartig  =  Affenart  -}-  ig;  gutartig  =  gute  Art  +  ig.  Hence  -artig  really 
belongs  to  9.  1.  b  below. 

2.  bar  (from  O.H.G.  beran,  to  carry,  bear),  once  an  independent  adj.,  bäri 
hearing,  now  a  sufifix,  affixed  to  nouns  and  verbs,  to  denote: 

a.  That  the  stem-word  in  the  derivative  is  the  object  of  the  verb  that  is 
implied  in  the  suffix:  streitbar  bellicose,  war-like,  lit.  bearing  war,  fruchtbar  fertile, 
lit.  bearing  fruit,  dankbar  grateful,  lit.  bearing  thanks. 

b.  The  possibility  or  ability  to  perform,  or  more  commonly  to  receive  the 
activity  implied  in  the  stem  of  the  derivative:  streitbar  able  to  fight,  in  fight- 
ing trim,  unfehlbar  infallible,  nahbar  approachable,  lesbar  legible,  capable  of 
being  read,  schiffbar  navigable,  gangbar  passable,  sichtbar  visible.  Compare  11. 
2.  C.  b,  3  below. 

Note.  In  some  words  both  active  and  passive  force  lie  in  bar:  haltbare  Leinwand  strong  linen,  linen  that  will 
hold;   eine  haltbare  Behauptimg  a  tenable  assertion,  one  that  can  be  held. 

c.  Rarely  with  other  parts  of  speech:    offenbar,  sonderbar. 

3.  en  (M.H.G.  in),  n  (after  er),  ern,  a  suffix  sometimes  causing  mutation, 
affixed  to  a  name  of  a  material  to  indicate  that  the  substantive  which  the 
adj.  modifies  represents  an  object  made  of  that  material:  golden  golden,  hänfen 
or  hänfen  hempen,  silbern  silver,  hölzern  wooden. 

This  suffix  is  closely  related  to  the  diminutive  endings  -chen  and  -lein.  The 
original  idea  is  that  of  close  association,  origin,  from  which  come  the  derived 
ideas  of  material  (literally  coming  from,  made  of  wood,  &c.),  endearment, 
diminution,  as  explained  in  I.  8.  l.f.  Note  3  above. 

a.  The  form  -en  is  usually  added  to  the  stem  of  the  noun  unless  the  latter 
ends  in  -e  or  -er,  in  which  case  only  -n  is  added:  Wolle  wool,  wollen  woolen; 
Kupfer  copper,  kupfern  copper  (adj.).  In  a  number  of  cases  the  suffix  -n  is 
added  to  the  plural  of  such  words  as  form  a  pi.  in  -er:  Holz  wood,  hölzern 
wooden;  Glas  glass,  gläsern  glass,  of  glass.  After  the  analogy  of  many  adjec- 
tives thus  ending  in  -ern  a  number  have  likewise  mutated  the  stem  vowel  and 
added  -ern  to  the  stem  as  if  this  were  the  regular  suffix,  especially  in  cases  of 
stems  ending  in  1,  n,  s:  stählern  steel,  beinern  made  of  bone,  steinern  made 
of  stone,  zinnern  tin,  tönern  earthen,  wächsern  waxen. 

Note.  As  explained  in  73.  a,  the  er  of  the  plural  of  nouns  was  originally  not  a  plural  case  ending,  but  a  suffix  which 
was  also  found  in  the  singular.  Thus  in  case  of  nouns  ending  in  -er  in  the  plural  the  adjective  suffix  -n  is  only  seemingly 
added  to  the  plural,  as  it  was  in  fact  originally  added  to  the  singular.  The  -er  in  the  plural  of  nouns.  ho\vever,  has 
long  been  felt  and  construed  as  a  plural  case  ending,  as  the  -er  of  the  singular  was  dropped  and  its  existence  forgotten. 
Thus  the  -er  in  the  adjective  suffix  -ern  is  now  felt  as  belonging  to  the  plural  of  the  noun  in  question,  or  as  a  forma- 
tion made  after  the  analog^'  of  such  words,  while  in  fact  it  is  a  fossil  remnant  of  the  original  stem  suffix.  In  most 
cases,  however,  it  is  not  really  the  old  stem  suffix,  as  words  not  entitled  to  it  have  only  assumed  it  after  the  analogy 
of  the  original  group. 

b.  This  suffix  denotes  that  the  object  in  question  is  entirely  rnade  of  the 
mentioned    material:     hölzerne    Bänke    wooden   benches,    but   holzige    Rettige 

radishes  of  a  woody  fibre. 


418 ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES 245.  II.  3.  c. 

c.  This  suffix  is  not  much  used  in  the  predicate,  being  there  replaced  by  the 
preposition  von  and  a  noun,  and  in  the  attributive  relation  is  sometimes  replaced 
by  a  compound  noun:  Der  Tisch  ist  von  Holz.  Marmorsäule  marble  pillar, 
instead  of  marmorne  Säule.  But  in  elevated  diction  the  suffix  is  also  found 
in  the  predicate:  Der  Stuhl  ist  elfenbeinern,  darauf  der  Kaiser  sitzt  (Rückert's 
Barbarossa).  Rarely  in  piain  prose,  occasionally,  however,  in  case  of  eichen: 
Die  Bücherschränke  waren  in  Eiche  geschnitzt,  und  eichen  war  auch  der 
breite  Arbeitstisch  (Fedor  von  Zobeltitz's  Die  papierue  Macht,  p.  9).  In  fig- 
urative use  adjectives  with  this  suffix  are  quite  commonly  found  in  the  predicate: 
Sein  Gesicht  war  jetzt  grau  und  steinern  (rigid)  wie  das  der  Riesen  am  Tor 
(Volkmann's  Die  beiden  Weiser). 

4.  erlei,  see  126.  1.  a. 

5.  fach,  see  126.  l.b. 

6.  fältig,  see  126.  1.  b. 

7.  haft  (related  to  Haft  clasp),  once  an  independent  adjective  perfect  par- 
ticiple, now  a  mere  suffix.  It  is  usually  added  directly  to  the  stem,  but  weak 
nouns  take  en  between  stem  and  suffix,  which  is  probably  felt  as  the  weak  genitive 
ending  usually  found  in  weak  nouns  forming  the  first  component  of  compounds, 
altho  corresponding  strong  genitive  formations  do  not  occur  here:  bärenhaft, 
knabenhaft,  heldenhaft,  riesenhaft,  frauenhaft,  lehrerinnenhaft  schoolma'am- 
like,  but  mannhaft,  schülerhaft,  meisterhaft,  &c.  Neuter  er-plurals  usually 
have  their  plural  form  here,  as  kinderhaft,  weiberhaft,  and  it  is  possible  to 
construe  all  the  derivative  stems  in  -en,  -el,  -er  as  plurals:  frauen-,  gimpel-, 
schülerhaft. 

The  leading  points  as  to  use  and  form  are  as  follows: 

1.  a.  Added  to  abstract  nouns,  it  represents  something  as  infected  with, 
marred  by,  or  as  possessing  the  qualities  implied  in  the  stem  of  the  derivative: 
sündhaft  sinful,  lasterhaft  vicious,  fehlerhaft  faulty,  tugendhaft  virtuous, 
schamhaft  bashful,  &c. 

b.  Added  to  concrete  nouns  it  represents  something  as  possessing  or  in- 
clining towards  the  thing  or  the  characteristics  of  the  thing  mentioned  in  the 
stem  of  the  derivative:  teilhaft  having  a  part,  share  in,  seßhaft  having  a  dwelling, 
settled,  wohnhaft  residing,  schalkhaft  having  the  characteristics  of  a  wag, 
waggish,  riesenhaft  gigantic,  schülerhaft  schoolboy-like. 

Note.  Here  -haft  touches  close  to  -isch  and  -lieh:  heldenhaft  and  heldisch  heroic,  göttlich  divine.  See  also  10.  2. 
a.  Note  below. 

c.  In  the  adjectives  boshaft  malicious,  krankhaft  morbid,  wahrhaft  trntJrful, 
leckerhaft  loving  nice  things  to  eat,  &c.,  it  represents  persons  as  resembling  in 
their  manner  and  ways  the  attribute  mentioned  in  the  stem  or  as  having  a 
fondness  for  things  possessing  this  attribute. 

d.  Added  to  verbal  stems  it  implies  an  inclination  towards  the  activity  that 
is  mentioned  in  the  stem-word,  or  indicates  that  the  person  or  thing  to  which . 
reference  is  made  performs  the  activity  or  incites  it:  naschhaft  fond  of  eating 
tit-bits,  schwatzhaft  loquacious,  schmeichelhaft  containing  something  which 
flatters,  hence  complimentary,  glaubhaft  containing  that  which  inspires  belief, 
hence  zvorthy  of  belief,  triistiuorthy,  ekelhaft  containing  that  which  nauseates. 
It  touches  here  close  to  -ig  and  -isch.  See  10.  3.  Note  below.  Sometimes 
-haft  and  -sam  differ  only  in  that  the  latter  emphasizes  the  idea  of  possession 
of  pleasant  or  praiseworthy  attributes:  lehrhaft  didactic,  moralistic,  but  lehrsam 
instructive,  as  in  Sie  (die  Geschichten)  sind  natürlich,  volkstümlich  und  lehrsam 
(Max  Dreyer's  Ohm  Peter,  XXV). 

2.  In  some  words  the  lengthened  form  -haftig  is  also  used  with  the  same 
general  meaning  as  the  shorter  one:  wahrhaftig  truthful,  or  now  more  commonly 
an  adverb,  truly,  while  wahrhaft  is  usually  employed  as  an  adjective,  truthful;  teil- 
haftig having  a  part,  share  in,  leibhaftig  bodily,  in  person,  &c.  The  -ig  was 
once  more  common  and  as  a  survival  of  older  usage  is  still  always  thus  added  be- 
fore -keit  to  form  abstract  nouns:  tugendhaft  virtuous,  Tugendhaftigkeit  virtu- 
ousness. 


245.  II.  9.  2.  A.c. ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES 419 

8.  icht,  closely  related  in  origin  and  meaning  to  -ig  (see  9  below),  so  that  in 
most  cases  it  has  been  entirely  supplanted  by  the  latter,  or  survives  only  as  a 
less  common  variant:  bergicht,  or  more  commonly  bergig,  &c.  Only  the  forms 
töricht  and  regnicht  (or  regnerisch)  are  established. 

a.  In  M.H.G.  -icht  appears  as  eht,  oht,  aht,  and  hence  there  is  no  mutation 
in  these  words,  except  töricht  foolish. 

b.  Formerly  -icht  was  most  common  after  the  suffix;  -el,  as  in  kitzlicht  (now 
kitzlig)  in  Schiller's  Wallensteins  Lager,  9,  and  it  is  still  occasionally  found  there 
in  the  form  of  -ich  instead  of  the  more  common  ig:  fünf  von  den  weißmäntlichen 
Kürassieren  (Fontane's   Vor  dem  Sturm,  III,  chap.  12);  kurzärmlich  (id.,  III,  4), 

c.  In  S.G.  dialect  icht  often  appears  as  et:  flachshaaret  for  flachshaarig,  &c, 

d.  This  suffix  in  one  meaning  has  assumed  the  form  of  -lieh.  See  -lieh  in 
11.  2.  B.  b.  Note  below. 

9.  ig  (cognate  with  y  in  hungry),  a  very  common  suffix  with  the  general 
meaning  of  having,  possessing.  The  leading  points  as  to  form  and  meaning  are 
as  follows: 

1.  a.  Its  O.H.G.  form  was  ag  or  ig;  hence  there  have  resulted  two  groups 
of  words,  one  with  mutation,  the  other  without  it:  frostig,  durstig,  &c.,  but 
flüchtig,  sündig,  &c. 

b.  It  is  affixed  to  all  parts  of  speech,  also  to  compounds,  as  in  affenartig 
(Affenart  +  ig)  monkeylike,  aalartig  (Aalart  +  ig)  like  an  eel,  and  in  a  number 
of  cases  it  is  even  added  to  compounds  which  do  not  exist  outside  of  this  com- 
bination, as  in  vielköpfig  many-headed  (but  not  Vielkopf),  eigenhändig  (eine 
eigenhändige  Unterschrift)  with  one's  own  hand,  zweischneidig  two-edged, 
warmherzig  warm-hearted,  &c.  Notice  that  in  English  -ed  is  often  similarly 
used.  The  basal  element  of  such  formations  is  a  syntactical  group  of  two 
words  which  have  entered  into  such  close  relations  to  each  other  that  they  have 
formed  a  compound,  and  like  many  other  compounds  with  an  adjective  as  the 
first  element  have  the  adjective  without  an  ending:  eigenhändig  =  eigene 
Hand  +  ig.  The  basal  element  may  be  a  compound  formed  from  a  genitive 
group:  volksmäßig  popidar  =  early  N.H.G.  in  des  Volkes  Mäße  i7i  the  manner 
of  the  common  people  -\-  ig.  The  first  component  of  the  compound  here  some- 
times takes  -s,  sometimes  -en,  sometimes  assumes  the  form  of  the  bare  stem, 
just  as  in  compounds  in  general:  gefühlsmäßig,  bühnenmäßig,  gewohnheits- 
mäßig, schulmäßig,  gesetzmäßig,  &c.  The  basal  component  is  often  a  verbal 
stem,  while  the  modifying  component  is  an  adverb:  schwerhörig  ( =  er  hort-schwer 
+ig),  schwerfällig,  etc.  Compare  I.  5.  6  (last  par.)  For  the  stress  here  see  249. 
II.  2  and  247.  2.  b. 

2.  Affixed  to  some  parts  of  speech,  it  has  a  definite  meaning,  while  after  others 
it  is  a  mere  mechanical  form  used  to  make  an  adj.  out  of  some  other  part  of  speech. 
The  following  points  may  be  a  guide  as  to  its  use: 

A.     It  denotes: 

a.  The  possession  or  the  presence  of  the  thing  implied  in  the  stem  of  the 
noun:  sonnig  sunny,  buschig  bushy,  fleißig  diligent,  sandig  sandy,  löcherig 
full  of  holes,  porous,  ein  vierjähriges  Kind  a  four-year-old  child,  eine  drei- 
wöchige Reise,  a  three  weeks'  journey.  Compare  B,  also  11.  2.  A.  e  below. 
This  idea  leads  sometimes  to  a  causative  relation:  freudige  Nachrichten  news 
that  contains  joy,  hence  news  which  makes  us  rejoice,  verdächtig  causing,  arousing 
suspicion. 

b.  The  presence  of  the  quality  implied  in  the  adj.  stem,  usually,  however, 
in  a  less  degree  or  a  different  shade:  spitz  running  to  a  sharp  point,  spitzig 
(possibly  from  the  noun  Spitze)  pointed;  fett  fat,  fettig  greasy;  laß  wearied, 
lässig  indolent,  lacking  energ\^ 

c.  An  inclination  toward  or  a  quality  naturally  associated  with  the  activity 
implied  in  the  verbal  stem:  bissig  inclined  to  bite  (as  of  a  dog),  brummig  in- 
clined to  grumble,  fähig  (fahen  =  fangen)  capable,  gefällig  of  a  nature  such  as 
to  please,  agreeable,  anxious  to  please,  ergiebig  productive,  freigebig  liberal, 
fällig  due,  lit.  which  should  now  fall  or  be  paid,  harthörig  hard  of  hearing,  fein- 


420 ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES  245.  II.  9.  2.  A.  c. 

fühlig  of  delicate  feeling,  sich  einem  Vorschlage  zustimmig  erklären  to  announce 
one's  readiness  to  assent  to  a  proposition;  (with  reflexive  force)  wendig  so  con- 
structed as  to  turn  or  maneuver  easily  (of  an  aeroplane),  &c. 

d.  It  has  much  the  same  force  as  haft.  Some  stems  regularly  take  the  one 
suffix,  some  the  other,  and  some  have  both.  If  both  suffixes  are  added  to  the 
same  stem,  they  sometimes  have  the  same  force,  sometimes  a  differentiation  of 
meaning:  klatschig  or  klatschhaft  prone  to  gossip;  herzig  lovely,  but  herzhaft 
courageous:  gläubig  believing,  but  glaubhaft  inspirijig  belief,  worthy  of  belief. 
Sometimes  the  meaning  of  -ig  is  also  identical  with  that  of  -isch  and  -lieh. 
See  10.  3.  Note  and  11.  3  below. 

B.  It  is  a  mere  formal  suffix  used  to  make  an  adj.  out  of  other  parts  of  speech, 
when  added  to  the  stem  of  pronouns,  prepositions,  and  adverbs:  derjenige, 
der  meinige,  die  übrigen  (über  over,  above)  Personen  the  remaining  persons, 
die  jetzige  (jetzt  now)  Mode  the  present  fashion,  die  heutige  (heute  to-day) 
Zeitung  to-day's  newspaper,  der  obige  Satz  the  above  sentence,  die  dortigen 
Gebräuche  the  customs  of  that  place.  In  a  few  words  of  more  than  one  syllable 
the  stem  is  shortened :  die  morgige  Feier,  in  der  übermorgigen  Sitzung  (Suder- 
mann's  Der  Sturmgeselle  Sokrates,  1,  15).  In  several  cases  an  s  is  now,  contrary 
to  earlier  usage,  inserted  between  the  adverbial  stem  and  the  suffix  to  prevent 
two  vowels  from  coming  together:  die  hiesigen  fhie  here)  Fabriken  the  factories 
of  this  place,  dasig  (da  there)  of  that  place.  Thus  also  any  noun  or  expression 
denoting  the  time  or  duration  of  an  act  or  state  may  take  on  adjective  function 
by  affixing  ig:  das  nächtige  Wegschleppen  der  Angeklagten  the  dragging  away 
of  the  accused  in  the  night,  diese  vierzehnmonatige  Haft  this  fourteen  months' 
imprisonment.  Also  lieh  can  be  affixed  to  such  nouns  and  expressions,  but  it 
denotes  the  repetition  or  manner  of  the  activity.  See  11.  2.  A.  e,  f.  All  such 
formations  in  -ig  and  -lieh  are  in  fact  true  adverbs,  as  they  denote  some  cir- 
cumstance of  time,  place,  or  manner,  and  hence  are  adjectives  only  in  form. 

10.  isch  (cognate  with  Eng.  ish  as  in  childish)  or  sch  (see  1.  a  below),  a 
common  suffix  denoting  a  belonging  to  that  mentioned  in  the  stem  of  the  deriva- 
tive. This  original  meaning  can  still  be  seen  in  the  following  groups  which 
illustrate  its  present  use  as  to  meaning  and  form : 

1.  Affixed  to  names  of  persons,  countries,  peoples,  districts,  and  places,  it 
usually  has  the  force  of  an  English  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  or  the  objective 
after  the  prep,  of,  and  thus  indicates  a  belonging  to,  or  something  concerning, 
or  a  coming  or  descent  from  the  person,  people,  or  place  mentioned  in  the  stem, 
or  indicates  a  participation  in  their  personal  or  local  peculiarities  and  charac- 
teristics: die  Schirrmachersche  Hypothek  the  mortgage  held  (i.e.  owned)  by 
Mr.  Schirrmacher,  das  Schmidtsche  Haus  the  Smith  residence,  die  Treibeischen 
Diners  the  dinners  given  by  the  Treibeis,  der  Kommerzienrat  Treibeische 
Kutscher  the  coachman  of  Mr.  Treibel,  councilor  of  commerce,  ein  Schmidtsches 
Lieblingsthema  a  favorite  theme  of  Mr.  Schmidt,  das  Schmidtsche  that  which 
characterizes  a  true  Schmidt,  ich  persönlich  bin  mehr  ins  Gieshüblersche  ge- 
schlagen I  myself  have  taken  more  after  the  Gieshüblers  (the  father's  side  of 
the  speaker's  family),  die  Paul  Heyseschen  Novellen  Paul  Heyse's  novelettes, 
das  HaUische  Waisenhaus  the  Orphans'  Home  of  Halle,  die  straßburgische 
Universität  the  University  of  Strassburg,  die  darmstädtische  Verwaltung  the 
government  of  the  city  of  Darmstadt,  die  römische  Geschichte  the  history  of 
Rome,  or  Roman  history.  In  Austria  adjectives  in  -isch  are  often  used  substan- 
tively much  as  the  plural  of  a  name  is  used  in  North  German  and  English:  Es 
g'freut  mich  recht  aufrichtig,  daß  ich  und  die  Meinigen  jetzt  mit  so  scharmanten 
Familien,  wie  die  Leodolterischen  und  die  Beywaldischen  es  sind,  in  ein  ver- 
wandschaftliches  Verhältnis  treten  sollen   (Ertl's  Freiheit,  p.  62). 

Adjectives  formed  from  names  of  persons  do  not  suffer  mutation,  and  likewise 
most  adjectives  from  names  of  places,  but  a  few,  as  hannoverisch  (or  more  com- 
monly hannoverisch),  römisch,  and  those  in  -stadt  (friedrichstädtisch,  &c.,  after 
the  analogy  of  städtisch  formed  from  the  common  noun  Stadt),  are  mutated. 
Those  derived  from  names  of  peoples  usually  mutate:    fränkisch,  französisch, 


245.  II.  10.  2.  a. ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES 421 

jüdisch,  sächsisch,  &c.  A  number,  however,  especially  foreign  words  and  new 
formations,  do  not  sufifer  mutation:  badisch,  amerikanisch,  arisch,  gotisch, 
russisch,  spanisch,  &c. 

a.  The  original  method  of  adding  the  suffix  was  to  affix  it  directly  to  the  simple  stem,  as  in 
bremisch,  (from  Bremen),  sächsisch  (from  Sachsen),  schwäbisch  (from  Schwaben),  Goethisch, 
but  the  modern  trend  is  to  shorten  the  suffix  to  sch  (also  'sch),  and  then  add  it  to  the  full  name: 
bremensch,  Goethesch.  In  this  way  the  name  is  not  mutilated,  and  can  always  be  inferred 
from  the  adjective  form.  Proper  adjectives  made  from  names  of  countries  do  not  as  yet  usually 
follow  this  new  trend  except  in  case  of  pohlisch  (from  Polen).  The  new  trend  has  in  general 
gained  the  ascendency  in  adjectives  made  from  the  name  of  a  person.  The  full  suffix  isch,  how- 
ever, is  still  used  in  case  of  a  few  names  from  antiquity:  Ho'merisch,  Ho'razisch,  &c.  Differen- 
tiation of  meaning  between  the  two  forms  sometimes  takes  place.  The  form  sch  is  employed 
where  there  is  reference  to  one  person,  and  isch  where  the  meaning  becomes  general  or  abstract: 
die  'Luthersche  Sprache  Luther's  language,  but  die  lu'therische  (see  also  47.  2.  A.  d)  Kirche  the 
LiUheran  church.  The  form  isch  is  most  commonly  employed  thus  in  the  predicate  relation: 
die  Gottschedsche  Orthographie  the  orthography  of  Gottsched,  but  Die  Orthographie  ist  Gott- 
schedisch. Die  Rankische  or  more  commonly  Rankesche  Weltgeschichte  Ranke's  History  of 
the  World,  but  Er  versucht  zwar  Ranke  nachzuahmen,  aber  seine  Darstellung  klingt  gar  nicht 
Rankisch.  However,  we  also  now  find  the  shortened  form  in  the  predicate:  Ihre  Losung  ist 
hier  ja,  wir  sind  konservativ,  sehr,  aber  nicht  Bismarcksch  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  July  20,  1849). 
Ja,  Corinnchen,  in  diesem  Belang  bist  du  auch  ganz  Schmidtsch  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap. 
11).  Emil,  der  Professor,  Bruder  des  Majors,  ein  großer  vielleicht  von  allen  am  wenigsten 
Eysensch  aussehender  Mann  (G.  Ompteda)  looking  least  of  all  like  an  Eysen  (family). 

b.  Many  names  of  cities  form  indeclinable  adjectives  in  -er  (see  111.  7.  a)  instead  of  taking 
(i)sch,  and  some  admit  of  either  suffix:  Limburger  Käse  Limburg  cheese,  der  kölnische  or 
Kölner  Dom  the  cathedral  of  Cologne;  Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  but  Hamburger  Nach- 
richten (newspapers) ;  das  Bremer  Rathaus  the  town-hall  of  Bremen  in  contrast  to  der  bremische 
Staat  the  state  of  Bremen.  It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  only  the  form  in  (i)sch  can  be  used 
in  the  substantive  relation  or  predicatively  in  the  adjective  relation:  Das  Berlinische  the  dialect 
of  Berlin,  not  das  Berliner.  Das  ist  Berlinisch  (not  Berliner)  that  is  a  Berlin  trait.  A  few 
adjectives  in  -er,  however,  become  substantives  by  simply  dropping  the  following  noun:  Rüdes- 
heimer  (Wein),  ein  Leonberger  (Hund),  der  Rheinländer  (Tanz). 

Note  1.  Also  some  names  of  countries,  sections  of  a  country,  islands,  valleys,  parks,  cemeteries,  buildings,  and 
other  localities  sometimes  take  the  suffix  -er  instead  of  -isch,  especially  Schweizer  (or  schweizerisch),  Holländer 
(or  holländische.  Holsteiner  (or  holsteinisch),  Schwarzwälder  (very  common,  as  in  Schwarzwälder  Uhren),  Dalma- 
tiner Wein,  Kärnthner  Lieder,  Banater  Grenzsoldat,  Krainer  Höhlen,  Steyrer  Wagen,  Tiroler  Landsturm,  Helgo- 
länder  Mundart,   &c. 

Note  2.  The  adjectives  of  this  group  which  take  -isch  usually  add  the  suffix  directly  to  the  name,  but  schweizerisch 
and  wienerisch  regularly  suffix  -isch  to  the  lengthened  form  in  -er.  The  -sr  in  adjectives  formed  from  names  of 
cities  is  usually  added  directly  to  tlie  name  of  the  city,  but  in  case  of  names  in  -hausen  (ori«inaIh-  dat.  pi.;  see  88.  1). 
-ingen  (dat.  pi.),  -leben  (dat.  nl.)  the  suffix  is  usually  added  to  the  orig  nal  siem,  so  that  -hausen,  -ingen,  -leben 
become  -häuser  (in  S  G.  -hauser),  -inger,  -leber:  Nordhausen,  but  Nordhäuser;  Neuhausen  isuburb  of  Munich), 
but  Neuhauser;  Tübingen,  but  Tübinger;  Aschersleben,  but  Aschersleber.  Short  forms  are  also  found  in  a  few 
other  words,  as  Barmer,  Binger,  Bremer,  Emder,  Spicherer,  but  the  tendency  elsewhere  and  sometimes  in  the  above 
cases  seems  to  be  to  give  the  full  form,  so  as  to  avoid  mutilating  the  name:  das  Alvenslebener  Hügelland  {Mitteilungen 
des  Vereins  für  Erdkunde  zu  Halle  a.  S.,  19Ü4,  p.  54). 

c.  In  a  number  of  cases  usage  adopts  here  the  Latin  adjective  suffixes  anus, 
inus,  and  ensis,  converting,  however,  the  last  syllable  into  isch:  ameri'kanisch, 
American,  floren'tinisch  Florentine,  atheni'ensisch  or  more  commonly  asthenisch 
Athenian,  &c.  The  foreign  form  should  be  avoided  in  case  of  German  words: 
ha'nnoverisch  or  ha'nnöverisch  rather  than  hannove'ranisch;  'weimarisch  rather 
than  weima'ranisch;  &c.  'bremisch  rather  than  bre'mensisch(used,  however, 
by  Hauptmann  in  Neue  Rundschau,  Jan.  1908,  p.  9). 

2.     Affixed  to  common  nouns  denoting  persons  or  things,  it  denotes: 

a.  The  peculiar  manner  and  character  of  the  class  of  persons  or  things 
mentioned  in  the  stem  word:  teuflisch  devilish,  dichterisch  poetic,  kriegerisch 
warlike,  durchgängerisch  inclined  to  run  away  (of  a  horse),  verschwenderisch 
extravagant,  erfinderisch  inventive,  tierisch  animal,  brutal,  höfisch  courtly, 
fawning,  städtisch  after  the  manner  of  city  people,  irdisch  earthly,  höllisch 
infernal,  demokratisch  democratic,  &c.  It  is  added  to  a  plural  in  freigeisterisch 
free-thinking.  There  are  a  few  contracted  forms:  deutsch  (O.H.G.  diot  people 
+  isch,  used  of  the  popular  language  in  contradistinction  to  the  Latin  of  the 
learned  class)  German;  Mensch  (contracted  form  of  männisch,  hence  originally 
an  adjective)  human  being  =  Latin  homo;  hübsch  (originally  another  form  of 
höfisch  courtly,  but  now  with  differentiated  meaning)  pretty. 

The  suffix  usually  causes  mutation  here.  Those  in  -erisch,  however,  only 
mutate  when  the  stem  word  is  mutated:  träumerisch,  from  Träumer;  but 
malerisch,  from  Maler. 


422 ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES  245.  II.  10.  2.  a. 

Note.  Here  -isch  has  the  signification  of  -lieh  and  -haft,  but  when  they  can  be  added  to  the  same  word  their  mean- 
ings often  diverge,  the  first  of  the  forms  sometimes  taking  on  a  disparaging  sense:  kindlich  child-Hlie  (in  a  good  sense), 
kindisch  childish;  weiblich  womanly,  weibisch  (in  early  N.H.G.  still  in  good  sense;  see  Peter  iii.  7)  womanish,  wei- 
berhaft  after  the  manner  or  ways  of  women,  as  in  weiberhaftes  Klagen,  Plaudern,  an  objective  statement  without 
a  tinge  of  censure;  männlich  manly,  männisch  isee  also  b)  like  a  man,  when  used  in  a  derogatory  sense  of  a  woman, 
or  coarse,  when  used  of  a  man,  referring  to  his  lack  of  refinement;  höfUch  polite,  höfisch  fawning,  &c.  Thus  nouns 
meaning  primarily  something  good,  as  Recht  riglit,  Gott  God,  Jungfrau  virgin,  do  not  usually  take  -isch,  and  those 
signifying  something  bad,  as  Satan  Satan,  Abgott  idol,  do  not  take  -Uch.  On  tlie  other  hand,  -isch  does  in  some 
words  occur  in  a  good  sense:  Ich  bin  kein  Held,  und  das  Heldische  läßt  sich  nicht  lernen  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny, 
chap.  viii).  Er  brauche  ja  nur  ein  Bauerngewand,  denn  herrisch  (dressed  like  a  gentleman)  dürfe  niemand  kommen 
(Berlepsch  s  Fortiinais  Roman,  p.  183). 

b.  Somebody  or  something  concerned  or  connected  with,  something  affected 
by  or  restricted  to  that  which  is  mentioned  in  the  stem  word,  usually  causing 
mutation  only  in  native  German  words:  historisch  historical,  philologisch 
philological,  seelisch  of  the  soul,  festländisch  continental,  städtisch  municipal, 
eine  telegraphische  Antwort  an  answer  by  telegraph,  überseeisch  transatlantic, 
transmarine,  völkisch  national,  eine  zweimännische  Kurbel  a  windlass  for  two 
men,  ein  zweimännisches  (provinc;  or  more  commonly  zweischläfiges)  Bett  a 
bed  for  two  persons.  We  usually  find  männlich  male,  weiblich  female,  on  ac- 
count of  the  disparaging  sense  often  found  in  -isch,  but  männisch  is  quite  com- 
monly used  in  a  good  sense  in  compounds:  männliche  Studenten,  but  in  fach- 
männischen Kreisen  in  professional  circles,  kaufmännische  Beziehungen,  &c. 

Nole.  Tho  -isch,  here  as  in  a,  has  the  same  general  meaning  as  -lieh,  it  is  decidedly  the  favorite  with  words  of 
foreign  origin,  as  nicely  illustrated  by  the  following  examples:  Und  doch,  lieber  Pentz,  ich  möchte  heute,  wenn  es 
geht,  etwas  anderes  von  Ihnen  hören  als  Kulinarisches  oder  Frühstückliches  (Fontane's  Unwiederbringlich,  chap. 
16).     Mündlicher,  schriftlicher  Verkehr,  but  telegraphischer  Verkehr.     Compare  2.  A.  c  under  lieh,  below. 

c.  As  in  1  above,  it  contains  the  possessive  idea,  but  this  idea  is  more  com- 
monly expressed  in  this  category  by  -lieh  (see  11.  2.  A.  h  below):  tierische 
Gewebe  tissti.es  of  animals,  animal  tissues,  die  gegnerische  Auffassung  the  view  of 
the  opposing  party,  &c.,  but  pflanzliche  Gewebe,  das  königliche  Schloß,  &c. 

3.  Affixed  to  stems  of  abstract  nouns  or  verbs,  it  denotes  an  inclination 
toward  the  thing  or  quality  denoted  by  the  stem,  usually  causing  mutation: 
zänkisch  quarrelsome,  neckisch  inclined  to  tease,  droll,  mürrisch  morose.  This 
is  a  favorite  formation  with  the  people,  who  extend  it  beyond  the  literary  limits: 
Robinson  ißt  immer  so  wenig,  wiewohl  er  den  Streußel  ungeheuer  gern  mag. 
Aber  so  sind  die  Engländer,  sie  sind  nicht  so  zugreif  seh  (Frau  Imme  in  Fon- 
tane's Stechlin,  chap.   14,  p.   ISO). 

Note.  Here  -isch  has  the  same  force  as  -haft  and  -ig,  some  stems  preferring  one  sufiix,  some  another.  Also  -sam 
has  the  same  general  force,  but  it  differs  from  the  other  three  in  expressing  usually  only  an  inclination  toward  praise- 
worthy things:  folgsam  obedient;   arbeitsam  industrous.     See  a   o  7.  1.  d  above. 

4.  It  is  suffixed  to  an  adj.  in  the  one  word  linkisch  awkward,  lit.  left-handed, 
to  an  adverb  in  heimisch  home-like,  to  a  pronoun  in  selbstisch  selfish. 

5.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  -isch  after  stems  in  -er,  as  in  2  above,  has 
given  rise  to  the  idea  that  the  sufhx  is  -erisch,  as  can  be  seen  in  regnerisch  rainy. 

General  Note.  As  there  is  a  fluctuation  of  usage  in  English  between  forms  in  -zcand  -ical,  as  in  heroic  and  keroical, 
there  is  also  in  German  in  the  same  group  of  foreign  words  a  fluctuation  between  -isch  and  -i'kalisch,  but  only  in  a 
few  cases,  as  in  gra'mmatisch  or  sometimes  grammati'kalisch.  In  English  both  forms  are  often  used  with  differentiated 
meanings,  as  historic  and  historical,  but  in  German  such  differentiation  is  only  found  in  a  few  instances  as  physisch 
physical  (with  reference  to  the  body  or  the  possible  in  nature:  meine  physischen  Kräfte)  and  physikalisch  physical 
(with  reference  to  physics:  physikalische  Instrumente).  In  most  cases  the  short  form  alone  survives  in  German: 
bibUsch  biblical,  &c.     Only  in  a  few  instances  has  the  long  form  become  established,  as  in  musi'kalisch. 

11.  lich  (cognate  with  Eng.  -ly  as  in  friendly),  once  an  independent  word, 
now  a  suffix  with  the  general  meaning  of  resembling  or  befitting  that  which  is 
contained  in  the  stem  of  the  derivative.  The  following  points  may  serve  as  a 
guide  to  its  use: 

1.  It  is  affixed  to  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs:  männlich  manly,  zärtlich 
tender,  loving,  verständlich  intelligible,  begreiflich  conceivable. 

a.  An  excrescent  t  appears  after  the  stem,  when  it  is  an  infinitive  or  a  noun 
or  adjective  ending  in  -en:  hoffentlich  as  is  to  be  hoped,  wissentlich  wilful, 
wöchentlich  (M.H.G.  wochenlich)  weekly,  gelegentlich  occasional,  &c.  In  case 
of  tunlich  the  infinitive  form  is  preserved.  Earlier  in  the  period  tulich  was  also 
common. 

b.  In  some  words  the  lengthened  form  -erlich  is  found  instead  of  -lich: 
lächerlich,  leserlich,  fürchterlich,  &c. 

c.  If  the  stem-word  is  a  monosyllable  the  vowel  is  mutated,  except  in  be- 
haglich,  faßlich,   folglich,   fraglich,   gastlich,   gedanklich,   glaublich,    sachlich, 


245.  II.  11.  2.  B.  a.  ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES 423 

sanglich,  sorglich,  sportlich,  sprachlich,  staatlich,  stattlich,  tauglich,  unerforsch- 
lich,  verdaulich,  vertraglich  (2.  A.  c),  wahrlich,  widerruflich.  If  the  stem-word 
is  a  dissyllabic,  it  is  also  sometimes  mutated:  brüderlich,  mütterlich,  väterlich, 
jämmerlich,  nebensächlich.  The  same  stem-word  may  be  mutated  or  not  with 
a  difference  of  meaning:  sächlich  neuter,  sachlich  sticking  to  the  question  at 
hand,  objective. 

2.  It  differs  somewhat  in  meaning  according  to  the  part  of  speech  to  which 
it  is  affixed : 

A.     Affixed  to  nouns  it  denotes: 

a.  An  attribute  which  naturally  belongs  to  the  person  or  thing  denoted  by 
the  stem:  ein  väterlicher  Rat  a  piece  of  paternal  advice,  männlicher  Mut  manly 
courage;  festlich  festive,  herbstlich  autumn-like,  autumnal,  sonntägliche 
Stimmung.  Mir  ist  nur  immer  merkwürdig,  daß  du,  neben  Homer  und  sogar 
neben  Schliemann,  mit  solcher  Vorliebe  Kochbuchliches  (matters  which  belong 
to  a  cook-book)  behandelst  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap.  vii). 

h.  Possession  or  origin,  often  when  expressing  the  possessive  idea  equivalent 
to  an  attributive  possessive  genitive:  kaiserliche  Schlösser  castles  of  the  em- 
peror, pflanzliche  Gewebe  tissues  of  plants,  plant  tissues,  sprachliche  Eigen- 
heiten peculiarities  of  speech,  sein  mütterliches  Vermögen  property  inherited 
from  his  mother.     Compare  10.  2.  c  above. 

c.  Something  concerning,  or  concerned  or  connected  with,  or  effected  by  that 
which  is  mentioned  in  the  stem-word :  nebensächlich  concerning  a  minor  point, 
of  secondary  importance,  Frühstückliches  (Fontane's  Unzu lederbrin glich ,  chap.  16) 
matters  pertaining  to  breakfast,  friedlich  peaceful,  ängstlich  anxious,  ein  müt- 
terlicher Onkel  an  uncle  on  the  mother's  side,  unter  den  günstigsten  vertrag- 
lichen (compare  C.  a)  Bedingungen  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  securable 
by  contract,  künstliche  Zähne  artificial  teeth.  Compare  10.  2.  b.  Note  above, 
under  -isch. 

Note.  Notice.. the  difference  here  between  -ig  and  -lieh:  der  fremdsprachliche  Unterricht  instruction  in  foreign 
languages,  but  Österreich  war  früher  ein  vielsprachiges  Land  und  hatte  zwei-  und  dreisprachige  Schulen  Austria 
was  a  land  in  which  many  languages  were  spoken,  and  hence  it  had  schools  in  which  two  or  even  three  languages  were 
used  as  mediums  for  imparting  instruction. 

d.  Somebody  afflicted  or  blessed  with  that  which  is  mentioned  in  the  stem- 
word:   gebrechlich  afflicted  with  infirmities,  glücklich  happy. 

e.  Repetition:  eine  jährliche  Reise  a  journey  taken  every  year,  ein  täglicher 
Gast  a  daily  guest,  unser  tägliches  Brot  our  daily  bread,  i.e.  bread  that  we  need 
each  day,  tägliche  Kleidung  every-day  clothes,  eine  halbjährliche  Prüfung,  &c. 

/.  An  attribute  of  an  abstract  noun,  indicating  the  manner  in  which  an 
activity  proceeds,  or  the  means  by  which  it  operates,  or  the  agents  which  direct 
the  force:  eine  Wohnung  mit  halbjährlicher  Kündigung  a  rented  dwelling  to 
which  attaches  the  obligation  to  give  notice  six  months  before  one  leaves,  eine 
tätliche  Beleidigung  an  insult  offered  in  the  way  of  blows,  briefliche  Auskunft 
information  obtained  by  letter,  eine  schriftliche  Zusicherung  a  written  as- 
surance, drahtliche  Nachricht  news  by  wire,  sinnliche  Wahrnehmung  perception 
thru  the  senses,  polizeiliches  Einschreiten  intervention  by  the  police.  The 
suffix  is,  with  this  meaning,  also  added  to  adjectives,  as  ein  gänzlicher  Mangel 
a  complete  lack.  Such  adjectives  are  really  adverbs  in  the  form  of  adjectives, 
and  hence  cannot  be  attributes  of  objects,  as  they  only  modify  the  activity 
implied  in  the  noun.  Even  when  such  adjectives  modify  nouns  representing 
persons,  they  refer  more  to  the  activity  exercised  than  to  the  persons:  ein 
glücklicher  Spieler  a  lucky  gambler. 

B.     Affixed  to  adjectives  and  participles  it  has: 

a.  Adverbial  force,  being  used  just  as  the  derivatives  from  nouns  described 
in  A.  /  above,  to  denote  an  attribute  of  an  abstract,  verbal  noun:  bitterlich 
bitterly,  völlig  complete,  gänzUch  complete,  wissentlich  wilful  (sin,  lie),  gütlich 
amicable,  &c.  Ex.:  die  gütliche  Beilegung  des  Streites  the  amicable  settle- 
ment of  the  quarrel.  In  a  number  of  cases  such  formations  are  only  used 
adverbially:  freilich  to  be  sure,  surely,  kürzlich  lately,  bekanntlich  as  is  well 
known,  &c.    See  also  IV.  2.  b  below. 


424 ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES  245.  II.  11.  2.  B.  h. 

b.  The  idea  of  approach  to,  partaking  somewhat  of  the  quality  of  with 
reference  to  things  and  the  idea  of  incHnation  toward  when  appHed  to  persons: 
schwärzlich  blackish,  bräunlich  brownish,  länglich  oblong,  rundlich  roundish, 
&c.;  kleinlich  inclined  to  be  small,  pedantic,  mean-souled,  kränklich  sickly, 
süßlich  sweetish,  affected,  soft,  fulsome,  schwächlich  weakly,  ältlich  elderly,  &c. 

Note.  Earlier  in  the  period  and  in  dialect  still  the  form  -licht  is  found  in  certain  words:  Der  Sonne  rötlichter 
(now  rötlicher)  Untergang  (Schiller).  The  older  form  indicates  clearly  that  this  suffix  in  this  word  and  a  number 
of  others  is  identical  with  -icht  described  in  8  above  and  thus  originally  had  nothinc:  to  do  with  -lieh.  The  1  became 
connected  witli  -icht  in  M.H.G.  as  the  suffix  was  often  attached  to  words  in  -el,  as  in  M.H.G.  buckelecht,  later  buckelig. 
Thus  arose  M.H.G.  rcetelecht,  later  rötlich.  In  most  words  older  -echt  or  -icht  later  became  -ig,  but  in  the  group 
in  b  it  remained  with  the  form  -licht  as  an  independent  suffix  with  the  meaning  having  or  possessing  a  lillle  of,  the 
latter  of  which  ideas  seems  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  /,  which  in  verbs  and  nouns  so  often  has  diminutive  force. 
Later  this  group  was  confounded  with  the  group  in  -lieh,  which  on  account  of  the  signification  of  the  suffix  -lieh  like 
unto  had  a  similar  meaning. 

c.  In  other  cases  where  there  is  a  simple  adjective  and  a  derivative  in  -lieh, 
a  differentiation  of  meaning  takes  place:  arm  poor,  ärmlich  having  the  outward 
signs  of  poverty;    &c. 

C.  Affixed  to  verbs,  sometimes  with  a  lengthened  form  in  -er,  lächerlich,  &c., 
it  has: 

a.  Active  force,  representing  the  person  or  thing  to  which  it  refers  as  acting, 
or  acting  upon  something:  erbauHch  edifying,  schädlich  injurious,  schmerzlich 
painful,  &c.  Exs.r  etwas  tief  Betrübliches  (Fontane's  Unwiederhringlich, 
chap.  22),  nichts  geradezu  VerstimmHches  (id.,  Stechlin,  chap.  viii). 

It  also  expresses  a  willingness,  a  natural  tendency  to  perform  the  activity, 
or  indicates  that  something  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  incite  it:  empfänglich 
willing  to  receive,  open  to  (für  Eindrücke,  Schmeicheleien,  das  Schöne  em- 
pfänglich), unterhaltlich  inclined  to  entertain  and  interest  (eine  unterhaltUche 
Dame),  bewegUch  (from  sich  bewegen;  see  next  par.)  inclined  to  move  around, 
active,  vivacious  (die  beweghchen  Wellen,  beweghche  Augen,  eine  bewegHche 
Zunge,  ein  beweglicher  Mann),  lächerlich  inclined  to  laugh  (Mir  ist  nicht 
lächerlich  zu  Mute),  of  such  a  nature  as  to  incite  laughter,  laughable,  weinerlich 
inclined  to  weep,  küsserlich  fond  of  kissing,  of  such  a  nature  as  to  incite  kissing, 
fürchterhch  of  such  a  nature  as  to  instil  fear,  leserlich  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be 
easily  read,  legible,  hence  with  passive  force  as  in  h. 

Also  with  reflexive  force:  Die  in  seiner  BibUothek  befindHchen  Bücher; 
den  damals  in  Leipzig  aufhältHchen  Lessing  (Proelß's  Geschichte  d.  dram.  Lit.  und 
Kunst,  I,  p.  40);  ein  verträgHcher  Mensch.  Mir  ist  brechUch  (colloq.,  from 
sich  brechen);  eine  einläßhche  Charakterisierung  (eine  Charakterisierung,  die 
sich  auf  den  Gegenstand  einläßt).     The  reflexive  is  regularly  suppressed. 

b.  Passive  force,  representing  the  person  or  thing  to  which  it  refers  as  a 
possible  or  deserving  (often  in  a  reprehensible  sense)  recipient  of  an  action: 
bestechHch  capable  of  being  bribed,  bribable,  beweglich  movable,  faßlich  com- 
prehensible, erhältUch  to  be  had  (Formulare  sind  bei  allen  Reichsbankan- 
stalten erhälthch),  löblich  deserving  of  praise,  beachtHch  worthy  of  being  con- 
sidered (ein  sehr  beachthcher  Vorschlag),  bedauerhch  to  be  deplored,  de- 
plorable, sträflich  deserving  punishment,  verwerflich  deserving  rejection,  bad, 
abominable,  &c.  With  the  idea  of  the  possibility  of  an  action  but  with  active 
force,  as  in  unabkömmlich  indispensable  (lit.  unable  to  get  away:  Ich  bin  hier 
unabkömmUch),  dienlich  serviceable,  &c. 

Lieh  here  touches  close  to  -bar,  but  is  more  common  in  composition  with 
prefixes,  and  not  so  common  with  simple  stems:  brechbar,  brennbar,  &c.,  not 
usually  brechUch,  brennlich,  &c.,  on  the  other  hand  more  commonly  zerbrech- 
lich, verbrennlich,  &c.  The  -bar,  however,  can  also  usually  be  employed  here, 
as  it  has  a  little  different  shade  of  meaning:  it  has  more  verbal  force  and  em- 
phasizes the  idea  of  possibility.  Lieh,  however,  is  always  used  in  möglich, 
leidlich,  unausstehlich,  üblich,  löbHch,  &c.     See  also  12.  1.  b.  Note  below. 

c.  Either  active  or  passive  force,  according  as  a  relation  is  felt  to  the  intrans. 
or  the  trans,  use  of  a  verb,  which  is  used  both  intransitively  and  transitively: 
zerbrechlich  breaking  easily  or  easily  broken.  The  positive  form  is  sometimes 
active,  while  the  negative  form  is  passive:  vergeßlich  forgetful,  but  unvergeßlich 
never  to  be  forgotten,  &c. 


245.  11.12.  l./>. ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES 425 

3.  The  meanings  of  -lich  often  touch  very  close  to  those  of  -haft  and  -bar. 
When  -lich  and  -haft,  or  -lich  and  -bar,  may  be  added  to  the  same  stem  or  two 
stems  of  kindred  meanings,  the  different  words  sometimes  have  about  the  same 
force:  tugendhaft  and  tugendUch  virtuous.  Es  war  bei  allem  Tantlichen 
etwas  ausgesprochen  Onkelhaftes  in  der  Art  und  Weise,  wie  sie  das  junge 
ängstliche  Mädchen  an  den  Handgelenken  ergriff  (Raabe's  Eidenpfifigsten , 
chap.  5).  Sometimes  a  shade  appears:  schadhaft  injured,  broken,  schädlich 
injurious;  schmerzhaft  accompanied  with  pain,  as  eine  schmerzhafte  Krank- 
heit, Wunde,  Operation,  schmerzlich  causing  pain,  as  in  Des  Freundes  schmerz- 
hafte Krankheit  ist  uns  schmerzlich  (D.  Sanders);  glaubhaft  worthy  of  belief, 
trustworthy,  glaublich  credible,  probable,  likely,  as  in  Glaubhaft  ist  der  Zeuge, 
glaubUch  seine  Aussage;  sündhaft,  sündig  or  sündlich  sinful,  all  three  of  persons 
or  things,  but  more  commonly  the  first  two  of  persons  and  the  last  of  things, 
acts,  as  in  sündhafte  or  sündige  Menschen,  sündHche  Handlungen;  kostbar 
costly,  kösthch  precious;  lesbar  decipherable,  also  readable,  interesting,  leser- 
lich legible,  easy  to  read.  The  meaning  of  -lich  is  sometimes  identical  with  that 
of  -ig:  kußlich  kissable,  made  to  be  kissed,  küssig,  küsserlich  kissable,  fond  of 
kissing.  Of  these  sufifixes  -bar  is  not  employed  with  simple  verbal  stems  to 
denote  an  inclination  to  perform  the  activity  or  to  indicate  that  something  is 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  incite  it,  and  hence  does  not  compete  with  -haft,  -lich, 
and  -ig  at  this  point:  schwatzhaft  or  less  commonly  schwätzig  loquacious,  but 
not  schwatzbar;  lächerlich  or  less  frequently  lachhaft  laughable,  but  not  lach- 
bar.  On  the  other  hand,  -haft  is  not  used  with  verbal  stems  with  passive  force 
and  does  not  compete  here  with  -bar  and  -lich.     See  12.  1.  h.  Note  below. 

12.  sam,  related  to  the  Latin  similis  similar.  Eng.  same  and  -some  (as  in 
winsome),  and  German  samt  together  with,  denoting  originally  a  close,  intimate 
connection  with  or  similarity,  but  this  meaning  cannot  always  easily  be  detected. 

It  is  now  usually  affixed: 

1.     To  abstract  nouns  and  verbs  to  denote: 

a.  An  inclination  toward  a  thing  implied  in  the  stem  of  the  noun,  or  an 
attribute  which  naturally  belongs  to  it:  sorgsam  careful,  furchtsam  (originally 
belonging  here,  but  now  felt  as  belonging  to  h)  timid,  gewaltsam  violent,  wonne- 
sam delightful,  mühsam  requiring  laborious  toil,  wegsam  passable  (of  a  road, 
&c.),  unwegsam. 

Note.  Here  -sam  touches  close  to  -lich,  sometimes  with  no  difference,  sometimes  with  a  greater  or  less  variation  of 
meaning, -sam  referring  more  to  the  inclination  of  the  mind  and  character,  and  -lich  pointing  more  to  the  exterior  nature 
of  the  thing  in  question:  ein  friedsamer  Mensch  a  peaceful  man,  but  ein  friedliches  Tal  a  peaceful  valley;  sittsam 
inclined  to  keep  within  the  bounds  of  proper  eonduct,  modest,  but  sittlich  moral,  concerning  or  conforming  to  the  estab- 
lished code  of  morals.  Of  the  last  two  words  the  former  sometimes  has  the  idea  of  an  unnatural  exaggerated  moral 
tendency:  O  Sittsamkeit,  I  noch  sittlicher  als  Sitte!  (Grillparzer's  Die  Jüdin  von  Toledo,  1).  Other  shades  appear: 
wundersam  (poetic  for  wunderbar)  wonderful,  wunderhch  queer;  ehrsam  honorable  (used  to-day  in  a  half  comical 
sense),  ehrUch  honest,  upright. 

b.  In  a  passive  sense  a  possibility  that  the  activity  implied  in  the  verbal 
stem  may  be  performed,  or  in  an  active  sense  a  possibility  of  performing  it,  or 
a  natural  inclination  to  do  so:  bildsam  capable  of  being  moulded,  fashioned, 
biegsam  flexible,  wirksam  efficacious,  capable  of  making  an  effect,  kleidsam 
becoming,  folgsam  willing  to  follow,  obedient,  schweigsam  taciturn,  sparsam 
saving,  economical,  störsam  disturbing,  apt  to  disturb,  überlegsam  thoughtful^ 
reflective. 

Note.  The  suffixes  -bar,  -lich,  and  -sam  here  touch  close  to  each  other  in  their  passive  meaning,  sometimes  blend- 
ing entirely  togetiier,  sometimes  diverging.  In  -bar  lies  often  the  general  idea  that  sometliing  can  be  done,  while 
-lich  implies  sometimes  more  particularly  that  it  can  be  done  with  reasonable  ease:  Hartes  Fleisch  ist  vielleicht  ver- 
daubar, aber  jedenfalls  nicht  verdaulich  Tough'  meat  can  perhaps  be  digested,  but  at  any  rate  it  cannot  easily  be 
done.  Somewhat  different  from  -hch  is  -sam,  which  not  only  implies  that  the  activity  can  be  performed  with  fair 
ease,  but  also  indicates  that  the  reason  for  the  easy  performance  lies  in  the  nature  of  the  object  in  question:  Die 
Metalle  sind  dehnbar  Metals  are  capable  of  being  drawn  out  (into  a  wire,  &c.),  but  Gold  ist  sehr  dehnsam  Gold  is 
very  ductile.  In  -sam  may  lie  the  idea  that  the  activity  leads  to  desirable  results:  reizsam  open  to  impressions  and 
stirred  to  activity  by  them,  incitive,  as  in  ein  reizsamer  Idealismus  an  idealism  open  to  impressions  and  stirred  tO' 
activity  by  them,  hut  reizbar  irritable.  .Also  when  they  have  active  force  -sam  and  -lich  have  meanings  more  or 
less  similar:  empfindlich  sensitive,  empfindsam  sentimental.  Sometimes  -bar  has  passive,  while  -lich  and  -sam 
have  active  force:  ausführbar  practicable,  ausführlich  giving  the  details,  full,  complete;  genießbar  eatable,  palatable, 
bekömmlich  agreeing  witii  one  (of  food,  &c. );  lehrbar  teachable,  lehrsam  instructive;  furchtbar  dreaded,  dreadful, 
formidable  (ein  furchtbares  ICriegsheer,  Gewitter,  also  in  weakened  meaning:  eine  furchtbare  Hitze),  furchtsam 
fearing,  timid,  and,  with  a  meaning  differing  somewhat  from  that  of  the  former,  fürchterlich  instilling  fear,  horror 
as  in  ein  fürchterliches  Geschrei,  also  in  weakened  meaning:    ein  fürchterlicher  Geruch).     See  also  11.  .3  above. 


426 VERBAL  SUFFIXES 245.  II.  12.  \.c. 

c.  An  inclination  of  a  person  to  act  upon  himself:  enthaltsam  abstemious, 
corresponding  to  Er  enthält  sich  (aller  geistigen  Getränke);  regsam  active, 
corresponding  to  Er  regt  sieh.     The  reflexive  is  here  regularly  suppressed. 

2.  Afifixed  to  a  few  adjectives,  it  denotes  an  inclination  toward  the  quality- 
indicated  by  the  stem  of  the  adjective  or  some  condition  associated  with  it: 
langsam  slow,  einsam  lonely,  gemeinsam  joint,  common.  Differentiation  takes 
place  also  here  between  adjectives  in  -lieh  and  -sam:  länglieh  oblong,  langsam 
slow:  (un)lieblich  (un)lovely,  liebsam  (now  little  used)  affectionate,  unliebsam 
(not  infrequent)  unpleasant,  disagreeable  (unliebsames  Aufsehen  erregen, 
unliebsame  Erfahrungen  maehen). 

13.  selig,  see  I.  11.  2  above. 

14.  zig  (in  the  form  of  -ßig  in  dreißig),  formerly  an  independent  noun  with 
the  meaning  decade,  related  to  zehn,  now  used  to  form  numeral  adjectives: 
zwanzig,  &c.  In  the  lengthened  form  -ziger  it  is  also  employed  to  form  nouns 
and  adjectives.     See  121.  2.  b  and  5. 

15.  Hybrids.  In  slang  and  colloquial  speech  the  French  -eux  in  the  form 
of  -'ÖS  is  added  to  German  stems  to  give  a  facetious  turn  to  the  thought  and  at 
the  same  time  convey  emphasis:  pe'ehös  unfortunate,  schaude'rös  frightful, 
sta'tiös  elegant. 

III.     Derivative   Verbs. 

Derivative  verbs,  which  are  in  most  part  weak,  constitute  by  far  the  greatest 
number  of  German  verbs.  They  cannot  only  be  formed  from  simple  words 
but  also  from  compounds,  as  explained  at  length  in  217.  a,  b. 

The  following  suffixes  are  used  in  the  formation  of  derivative  verbs: 

1.  en  (representing  older  jan,  on,  en),  sometimes  lengthened  to  igen  after 
the  analogy  of  the  many  verbs  that  have  an  ig  in  the  stem  preceding  en,  as 
heiligen  to  hallow,  from  heilig  holy.  Sometimes  both  of  these  forms  may  be 
added  to  the  same  stem  without  a  shade  of  meaning,  sometimes  the  one  form 
is  more  common  and  the  other  more  choice,  sometimes  a  slight  shade  of  meaning 
has  developed :  beenden  or  beendigen  to  end ;  sich  erkunden,  or  more  commonly 
erkundigen  to  inquire;  kreuzen  to  cross,  kreuzigen  to  crucify;  reinen  to  cleanse, 
now  only  used  in  poetic  style,  usually  replaced  by  reinigen  to  clean,  cleanse; 
befehlen  to  command,  order  (someone),  befehligen  to  command  (an  army); 
begnaden  to  bless,  favor,  formerly  also  to  pardon,  amnesty,  begnadigen  to 
pardon,  amnesty.  In  many  cases  the  older  simple  form  has  been  replaced  by 
the  form  in  -igen:  beschönen  (still  used  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century)  now  beschönigen.  Derivatives  with  the  prefix  be-  show  a  preference 
for  the  forms  in  igen.     See  246.  II.  1.  d.  Note. 

A  large  number  of  these  words  suffer  mutation  (ä  often  appearing  in  the  form 
of  e)  of  the  stem-vowel,  as  they  had  a  j  in  the  suffix  (-jan)  in  an  earlier  period 
of  the  language:  fällen  (falljan)  to  fell,  legen  (lagjan)  to  lay.  In  verbs  de- 
rived from  adjectives  mutation  is  in  general  characteristic  of  transitives  and  the 
lack  of  it  the  mark  of  intransitives:  wärmen  to  warm,  make  warm,  but  erwär- 
men to  grow  warm. 

The  following  common  groups  illustrate  the  meaning  and  use  of  this  suffix: 

(1)  Affixed  to  the  past  tense  of  intrans.  str.  verbs  it  makes  a  trans,  factitive 
verb:  legen  to  lay  from  lag,  past  tense  of  liegen  to  lie.  See  197.  A.  d,  and  under 
each  class  of  str.  verbs  (beginning  at  art.  198)  for  a  full  treatment  of  this  inter- 
esting group  of  words. 

Also  other  derivatives  are  formed  from  the  gradation  forms  of  strong  verbs. 
For  examples  see  198.  2.  Division,  c. 

(2)  Affixed  to  the  positive  or  comparative  of  descriptive  adjectives  it  is  used : 

(a)  To  make  factitive  verbs:  härten  to  harden,  zähmen  to  tame,  heizen 
(from  heiß;  see  197.  A.  d)  to  heat,  befreien  (frei)  to  free;  vergrößern  (groß) 
to  make  larger,  verschlechtern  to  make  worse. 

(b)  To  make  verbs  which  denote  a  passing  over  into  a  condition  or  the  con- 
dition itself:   erwärmen  to  grow  warm;   faulen  to  rot,  hungern  to  be  hungry. 


245.  III.  3. VERBAL  SUFFIXES 427 

(3)  Affixed  to  sing,  or  pi.  of  nouns  it  denotes: 

(a)  An  activity  which  is  directed  toward  the  object  imphed  in  the  stem 
of  the  noun,  or  which  is  employed  to  produce  or  procure  this  object:  köpfen 
to  cut  off  the  heads  or  tops,  er  blättert  (from  pi.  of  the  noun)  im  Buche  he  is 
turning  over  the  pages  of  the  book,  lochen  (from  the  sing.)  to  punch,  punch  a 
hole  or  holes  in  (eine  Fahrkarte,  ein  Eisen  lochen),  durchlöchern  (from  the  pi.) 
to  punch  holes  in,  perforate,  buttern  to  churn,  fischen  to  fish. 

(b)  A  working  or  busying  oneself  with  the  object  implied  in  the  stem: 
pflügen  to  plow,  eggen  to  harrow,  meißeln  to  chisel. 

(c)  In  student  slang  verbs  are  made  from  nouns  in  the  freest  manner: 
ochsen  or  büffeln  to  study  hard  (especially  for  examination),  'cram,'  'bone,' 
holzen  to  cane,  bechern  to  drink  freely,  &c. 

(4)  It  is  sometimes  affixed  to  other  parts  of  speech: 

(a)  To  particles:  bejahen  (ja)  to  answer  affirmatively,  verneinen  to  answer 
in  the  negative. 

(b)  To  numerals:  vereinigen  to  unite,  entzweien  to  set  at  variance. 

(c)  To  interjections:   juch'heien  to  call  out  juch'hei  (hurrah). 

2.  ein  (O.H.G.  -ilön  and  -alön),  a  suffix  usually  causing  mutation,  added 
to  the  stem  of  verbs,  adjectives,  and  nouns,  to  express: 

a.  The  idea  of  iteration,  i.e.  the  idea  of  the  frequent  occurrence  and  repeti- 
tion of  an  activity:  betteln  to  beg  for  a  living,  winseln  to  whine,  streicheln  to 
stroke,  häkeln  to  crochet,  lit.  to  keep  hooking,  schütteln  to  shake.  Also  the 
idea  of  rapidity  often  enters  into  the  meaning:  prasseln  to  clatter  down,  fall 
thick  and  fast,  zappeln  to  wriggle,  strike  out  in  all  directions  (with  hands  or 
feet  or  both).  The  blending  of  the  iterative  with  the  diminutive  idea  is  very 
common.  See  b  below.  The  idea  of  iteration  is  often  coupled  with  more  or 
less  depreciatory  force:  schmeicheln  to  flatter  (lit.  smooth  over),  heucheln  to 
play  the  hypocrite  (lit.  keep  bowing),  schmuggeln  to  smuggle,  verzärteln. 

b.  A  diminutive  idea:  lächeln  (lachen  to  laugh)  to  smile,  tröpfeln  to  fall  in 
little  drops,  drip,  kritteln  to  cavil,  make  trifling  criticisms,  sticheln  to  make 
mean,  little,  stinging  remarks,  nörgeln  to  find  fault  with  in  little  things,  gängeln 
to  teach  a  child  to  make  its  first  little  steps.  Er  fluchte  nie,  er  flüchelte  höch- 
stens (Siegfried's  Ein  Wohltäter).  Ach  ja,  es  ,,menschelte"  (a  bit  of  human 
nature  or  weakness  cropped  out)  überall.  Mit  diesem  schönen  Wort  pflegte 
Holder  (name)  die  Schwäche  der  Gesellschaft  nicht  zu  bemänteln,  aber  dem 
Verständnisse  näher  zu  bringen  (Stilgebauer's  Göt:;  Krafft,  I.  1,  p.  12).  The 
iterative  idea  described  in  a  often  blends  with  the  idea  of  diminution:  hüsteln 
to  hack,  emit  a  short  dry  cough  and  repeat  it  often,  kränkeln  to  be  sickly,  have 
frequent  but  rather  light  attacks  of  sickness.  The  iterative  idea  can  also  be 
felt  in  a  number  of  the  examples  given  above.  The  idea  of  diminution  is  often 
coupled  with  more  or  less  depreciatory  force:  geistreichein  to  try  to  write  in  a 
bright  sprightly  style,  klügeln  to  affect  wisdom,  tüfteln  to  draw  over-nice  dis- 
tinctions. Weil  er  nicht  auf  dem  geraden  Weg  der  Uhrmacherei  geblieben 
war,  immer  Neues  entdecken  wollte  und  daher  iminer  allerlei  probierte  oder 
pröbelte,  daher  hieß  er  der  Probier  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  2,  p.  7). 

c.  The  idea  of  likeness,  similarity,  close  association:  Es  füchselt  It  smell's  of 
foxes;  anheimeln  to  remind  one  of  home,  ein  bündelnder  Höfling  a  fawning 
courtier,  frömmeln  to  aft'ect  piety,  schwäbeln  to  speak  the  Swabian  dialect, 
näseln  to  talk  thru  the  nose.  The  idea  of  likeness,  similarity,  close  association 
is  often  coupled  with  depreciatory  force  as  in  a  number  of  these  examples. 

d.  This  prefix  sometimes  has  ingressive  perfective  (164)  force:  Es  herbstelt 
It  is  getting  autumn.  Often  in  the  southern  dialects:  Es  knuegelet  (i.e.  gnu- 
gelt)  mir  =  Es  wird  mir  genug  I  am  beginning  to  get  enough. 

e.  In  Swiss  dialects  it  is  much  used  to  express  the  feeling  of  endearment:  (to 
a  child)  Chumele  (i.e.  kommele)  zu  mir. 

3.  ern  (developed  in  part  out  of  the  ern  which  arises  from  the  addition 
of  n  to  a  comparative  suffix  or  the  pi.  of  a  noun  as  mentioned  in  1.  (2).  (a)  and 
(3).  (a)  above),  a  suffix  usually  affixed  to  the  stem  of  verbs  to  express: 


428 VERBAL   SUFFIXES 245.  III.  3.  a. 

a.  The  frequent  repetition  or  the  continuation  of  an  action  which  is  often 
conceived  of  as  proceeding  by  jerks  or  with  unsteady  motion:  schnattern  to 
cackle  (Hke  geese),  stottern  to  stutter,  flackern  to  flicker,  klettern  to  cHmb,  lit. 
to  keep  on  sticking,  plätschern  to  splash,  dabble. 

Note.  Here  -ein  and  -ern  approach  each  other  very  closely,  some  stems  preferring  the  one  suffix,  other  stems  the 
other  suffix.  Where  both  suffixes  may  be  added  to  the  same  stem  -ein  expresses  a  weaker  activity:  wandeln  to  saun- 
ter along  slowly,  leisurely,  wandern  to  go  from  one  place  to  another,  auswandern  to  emigrate;  schütteln  to  shake 
(hands,  &c.),  schüttern  to  shake  violently  (as  the  earth  in  an  earthquake,  or  the  human  frame  under  the  influence 
of  violent  emotion). 

b.  The  irresistible  desire  of  doing  that  which  is  implied  in  the  stem,  a  usage 
rare  in  older  periods,  at  first  confined  largely  to  popular  speech,  but  now 
gaining  a  foothold  in  the  literary  language,  especially  frequent  in  impersonal 
constructions:  mich  schläfert,  trinkert,  durstert,  tanzert  I  feel  like  going  to 
sleep,  &c.  Es  lächert  mich  noch  (Wilbrandt's  £/;/  Mecklenburger,  p.  30). 
Also  with  a  noun  as  subject:  Dann  begann  ein  peinliches  Darben,  durch  kurze 
und  kraftlose  neue  Anläufe  unterbrochen,  deren  Hoffnungslosigkeit  ihn  schier 
selber  lächerte  (Hermann  Hesse's    Unterm  Rad,  p.  189). 

c.  In  a  few  cases  it  makes  factitive  verbs:  folgern  to  draw  a  conclusion, 
to  conclude,  lit.  to  make  follow  out  of,  steigern  to  raise  (the  price),  to  increase, 
lit.  to  make  ascend,  &c. 

4.  sen,  sehen,  zen  with  iterative  and  weak  diminutive  force,  'enzen  (or 
ein)  denoting  likeness  or  inclination:  mucksen  to  mumble,  mutter  to  one's 
self  in  complaint,  klatschen  to  clap  (with  the  hands),  ächzen  to  groan,  grunzen 
to  grunt,  duzen  to  address  by  du  thou,  fi'schenzen  (or  fischeln)  to  smell  of  fish, 
wil'denzen  to  smell  or  taste  of  game,  po'lenzen  to  be  fond  of  the  Poles  and  their 
ways,  grie'chenzen  to  imitate  the  Greeks,  'faulenzen  to  idle  away  one's  time. 
The  sufiix  -'enzen  is  a  Middle  German  form  and  earlier  in  the  period  when 
M.G.  writers  were  prominent  was  much  used.  In  general  the  literary  language 
now  prefers  as  iterative  and  diminutive  sufftx  the  S.G.  -ein  (see  2.  a,  b,  c  above). 
The  verb  'faulenzen,  however,  is  still  quite  common,  but  its  stress  on  the  first 
syllable  might  indicate  that  it  doesn't  belong  here  but  comes  from  Faulenz  = 
fäuler  Lenz,  i.e.  lazy  Lawrence. 

5.  chen,  cken,  pfen,  suffixes  which  in  reality  are  the  strengthening  of  the 
final  consonants  of  the  stem  to  express  a  strengthening  or  intensification  of  the 
meaning  of  the  stem:  horchen  (hören  to  hear)  to  listen,  bücken  (biegen  to 
bend)  to  bow  humbly,  rupfen  (raufen  to  pull)  to  pluck  (a  chicken). 

6.  'ieren  (from  the  Old  French  ending  ier),  a  foreign  sufiix,  hence  the  accent. 
It  has  no  distinct  meaning,  but  is  only  a  formal  sign  of  the  infinitive,  afifixed 
not  only  to  foreign  stems  but  also  to  German:  re'gieren  to  rule,  mar'schieren 
to  march;  buchsta'bieren  to  spell,  hal'bieren  to  divide  into  two  equal  parts, 
stol'zieren  to  strut,  t&c. 

a.  From  the  last  half  of  the  twelfth  ce-ntury  on,  foreign,  especially  French  verbs  with  this 
suffix  began  to  appear,  and  later  fairly  swarmed  into  the  language,  assuming  quite  a  stylish, 
aristocratic  tone  under  the  existing  literary,  political,  and  social  supremacy  of  the  French,  but 
now  for  some  time  the  tide  has  turned,  and  they  are  disappearing,  and  a  number  have  sunk  to 
the  level  of  mere  slang,  or  imply  contempt,  or  mark  something  as  being  of  a  light,  frivolous, 
"Frenchy"  nature,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  following  ironical  sentence  from  Lessing's  Minna  von 
Barnhelm,  3,  2:  Es  wax  ein  ganzer  Mensch!  Er  konnte  frisieren  und  rasieren  und  parlieren 
(palaver  or  here  perhaps  'talk  French,'  'parley  voo')  — und  charmieren  (flirt). 

b.  Notice  that  the  German  ending  en  is  added  to  the  foreign  infinitive  ending,  so  that  there 
are  in  fact  two  endings  in  all  these  words.  In  O.H.G.  the  GeVman  infinitive  ending  was  added 
to  the  stem  of  the  foreign  word:  tihtön  (from  Latin  dictare)  now  dichten.  Sometimes  we  have 
the  older  and  newer  formation  side  by  side  with  dififerentiated  meaning:  dichten  and  diktieren; 
doktern  and  doktorieren;  fabehi  and  fabulieren;  ordnen  (L.  ordinäre)  and  ordinieren;  opfern 
(L.  operari)  and  operieren;  proben  and  probieren;  spenden  (L.  spendere)  and  spendieren,  &c. 
These  two  endings  arc  also  added  to  German  stems  for  purposes  of  differentiation:  hausen  and 
hausieren,  schatten  and  schattieren,  &c. 

7.  i'sieren,  a  suffix  corresponding  in  large  part  to  the  English  ize:  moderni- 
sieren to  modernize,  tyrannisieren  to  tyrannize,  homerisieren  to  homerize, 
write  in  the  style  of  Homer,  goethisieren  to  write  in  the  style  of  Goethe,  &c. 

8.  'eien,  a  suffix  corresponding  to  the  foreign  ending  ei  in  nouns  and  the 


245.  IV.  3.  DERIVATIVE   &   COMPOUND   ADVERBS 429 

M.H.G.  infinitive  ending  igen,  Ten.     It  has  no  distinct  meaning:   prophe'zeien 
to  prophesy,  ka'steien  to  chastise,  &c. 

General  Note.  It  should  be  noticed  that  all  these  verbal  suffixes  frequently  appear  in  nouns,  as  the  infin.  of  a  verb 
is  often  used  as  a  neut.  abstract  noun:    Das  Gehen  ermüdet.     Sie  konate  vor  Schluchzen  nicht  sprechen. 

IV     Derivative  or  Compound  Adverbs. 

Most  adverbs  are  particles  which  are  derived  from  adjectives,  participles, 
nouns,  pronouns,  and  a  few  from  verbs.  The  commonest  of  the  adverbs  derived 
from  other  words  may  be  divided  into  the  following  groups: 

1.  From  adjectives  and  participles,  by  casting  off  the  inflectional  endings: 
gut  well,  kühn  boldly,  trefflich  excellently,  gelehrt  learnedly,  ausgezeichnet 
splendidly,  entzückend  charmingly,  &c. 

a.  Instead  of  assuming  the  simple  uninflected  form  of  the  adj.  or  participle 
the  adverb  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  case  of  the  adjective  or  participle, 
especially  the  gen.  in  -s:  rechts  to  the  right,  links  to  the  left,  anders  otherwise, 
bereits  already,  but  in  southwest  Germany  almost,  zusehends  perceptibly,  &c. 

2.  From  adjectives,  nouns,  and  sometimes  other  parts  of  speech  by  adding 
the  sufiixes  -e,  -lieh,  -lings,  -warts,  and  by  forming  compounds  with  Weg  and 
Weise:  gerne  willingly,  endlich  finally,  meuchlings  treacherously,  südwärts 
southward,  kurz'weg  abruptly,  paarweise  by  twos,   &c. 

a.  In  a  few  instances  there  is  still,  as  in  M.H.G.,  a  slight  formal  difference 
between  the  positive  of  adjectives  and  adverbs.  The  adverb  adds  e  to  the  stem 
of  the  adjectives,  or  if  the  adjective  has  mutation  the  adverb  is  distinguished 
from  it  by  taking  no  mutation.     See  222.  2.  E.  Note. 

b.  Some  adverbs,  especially  those  formed  from  adjectives  in  -ig,  were  formerly 
distinguished  from  the  corresponding  adjectives  by  suffixing  -lieh:  traurig  (adj.), 
trauriglich  (adv.).  Also  to-day  a  few  of  these  formations  in  -lieh  are  07ily  used 
as  adverbs,  as  bekanntlich,  ewiglich,  fälschlich,  freilich,  gewaltiglich,  gewü51ich, 
höchlich,  kürzlich,  schwerlich,  sicherlich,  wahrlich.  In  English  the  similar 
development  of  adverbial  -ly  has  gone  much  farther.  A  number  of  formations 
in  -lieh  are  adjectives  only  in  form,  and  are  in  reality  adverbs.  See  II.  11.  2.  A. 
/  and  B.  a  above. 

c.  The  adverbial  suffix  -lings  (related  to  the  masc.  substantive  suffix  -ling) 
is  suffixed  to  nouns,  adjectives,  verbal  stems,  prepositions,  and  adverbs  to 
denote  manner  or  indicate  position  or  direction  toward :  bäuchlings  lying  flat  on 
one's  belly,  rücklings  backward,  blindlings  blindly,  rittlings  astraddle,  vorlings 
forward.  This  suffix  was  common  earlier  in  the  period,  often  in  the  form  lingen 
or  ling,  but  is  now  restricted  to  a  few  words. 

d.  The  suffix  warts  denotes  direction  toward:  ostwärts,  westwärts,  vorwärts, 
seewärts,  &c. 

e.  The  compounds  with  -weg  and  -weise  denote  manner  and  have  arisen 
from  prepositional  phrases:  (M.H.G.)  in  manegen  wee  in  many  a  way,  in  men- 
schen (gen.)  wise  according  to  the  icays  of  men.  The  group  with  -weg  is  not  large : 
frisch'weg  resolutely,  briskly,  glatt'weg  roundly,  flatly,  plainly,  &c.  The  word 
'halbweg  half-way  does  not  belong  here  as  it  comes  from  M.H.G.  halben  wee 
(ace.  of  extent).  This  word  also  appears  in  the  forms  'halbwege  (ace.  pi.)  and 
'halbwegs  (gen.)  in  the  same  meaning. 

The  group  in  -weise  is  quite  large.  In  M.H.G.  we  find  a  prepositional  phrase 
here:  in  kriuzes  wise  crosswise,  now  'kreuzweise  as  in  dropped  out  and  the 
group  was  felt  as  a  compound.  Now  as  in  other  compounds  we  sometimes  find 
the  first  component  in  the  form  of  the  sing,  or  pi.  stem,  sometimes  with  the 
ending  -s:  faßweise  or  fässerweise  by  the  barrel,  in  barrels,  paarweise  by  pairs, 
schrittweise  step  by  step,  stufenweise  by  degrees,  ausnahmsweise  by  way  ot 
exception,  &c.  These  compounds  in  -weise  are  now  often  also  used  as  adjec- 
tives: das  stufenweise  Steigen,  die  teilweise  Erneuerung,  die  versuchsweise 
Einführung. 

3.  From  nouns: 


430 FORMATION    OF    PREPOSITIONS         245.  I\".  3.  A.  a. 

A.  a.  From  the  cases  of  nouns,  especially  the  gen.:  vormittags  in  the  fore- 
noon, teils  partly,  rings  round  about,  Donnerstags  on  Thursdays,  rechter  Hand 
to  the  right  hand,  unnötigerweise  unnecessarily;  and  often  with  an  s  in  the  gen. 
in  case  of  fern,  nouns  after  the  analogy  of  masculines:  meinerseits  on  my  part, 
unserseits  on  our  part;  (in  the  ace.)  heim  home,  weg  (=  M.H.G.  enwec,  i.e. 
auf  den  Weg)  away,  ein  bißchen  a  little  bit,  jeden  Tag  every  day,  ein  Jahr  one 
year,  &c.;  (in  the  old  instrumental)  heute,  from  older  hiu  tagu  on  this  day, 
corresponding  to  Latin  Jwdie,  from  older  hoc  die.  The  genitive  construction  is 
treated  more  at  length  in  223.  I.  10.  a,  II.  1,  2,  3,  4,  III.  a,  IV.  2.  A.  a,  b,  c, 
B.  a,  c,  d,  C.  a,  VI,  VII,  XI,  249.  II.  2.  A.  a;  the  dative  in  223.  I.  10,  c,  II.  1,  2. 
b,  III.  c;  the  accusative  in  223.  I.  10.  d,  II.  1,  3,  IV.  2.  A,  B,  C. 

b.  From  nouns  or  adjective-substantives  with  a  preceding  governing  prep, 
or  a  following  particle:  übermorgen  day  after  to-morrow,  ab'handen  removed 
from  its  proper  place,  auf  gut  Glück  at  random;  berg'auf  uphill,  jahr'ein, 
jahr'aus  year  in,  year  out;   bei  weitem  by  far,  vor  allem  above  all,  &c. 

c.  From  two  nouns  separated  by  und  or  a  prep. :  Knall  und  Fall  suddenly, 
Tag  für  Tag  day  by  day.  Arm  in  Arm  arm  in  arm. 

B.  Among  the  cases  mentioned  in  A.  a  and  b  that  are  especially  worthy  of 
notice  is  a  large  group  of  adverbs  formed  from  nouns  which  have  lost  their 
original  meaning  and  force,  and  now  form  together  with  the  verb  a  single  idea. 
Such  adverbial  nouns  in  an  oblique  case  after  a  preposition  are  now  in  force 
true  compound  adverbs,  and  can  be  distinguished  from  genuine  nouns  by  the 
dropping  of  their  article,  and  also  by  this  that  they  no  longer  retain  their  original 
restricted  literal  meaning,  but  have  taken  on  a  much  more  general  or  a  figurative 
one:  zu  Bette  gehen  to  go  to  bed  (not  any  especial  bed,  but  in  a  general  sense 
of  to  sleep),  zutage  kommen  to  come  to  light,  in  See  gehen  to  put  to  sea,  not  any 
especial  sea,  but  the  broad  ocean  in  contrast  to  land,  zugrunde  gehen  to  go  to 
ruin,  zuleide  tun  to  hurt,  außer  acht  lassen,  or  außer  aller  Acht  lassen  to  pay 
no  attention  to,  zu  Herzen  nehmen  to  take  to  heart,  &c.  These  adverbs  are 
sometimes  written  with  capitals,  especially  when  a  preceding  inflected  modifier 
reminds  us  of  their  originally  substantive  nature,  but  in  many  cases  they  are 
written  with  a  small  letter  when  the  originally  substantive  nature  is  not  dis- 
tinctly felt.  These  adverbs  are  in  force  separable  prefixes,  and  should  be  written 
in  one  word  with  the  verb,  but  as  yet  this  practice  is  not  always  followed,  and 
some  fluctuation  in  usage  in  this  respect  occurs:  zu  Grunde  gehen,  or  zu  gründe 
gehen,  or  most  commonly  zugrunde  gehen  to  go  to  wreck  and  ruin ;  in  Stand 
setzen,  in  stand  setzen,  or  most  commonly  instand  setzen  to  put  into  working 
order,  &c.     Compare  59.  III.  j  (and  also  bb  thereunder)  and  62.  E.Note. 

4.  From  pronominal  stems:  wo  where,  from  the  same  stem  as  wer;  da  there, 
dann  the7i,  both  from  the  same  stem  as  the  demon,  der. 

5.  From  other  particles:  Die  Sonne  hellt  den  Himmel  auf.  Ich  habe  aus- 
geschlafen I  have  had  my  sleep  out. 

6.  In  composition  with  other  particles:  dagegen  on  the  contrary,  hierin  in 
this,  &c. 

7.  From  verbs:  gelt  (=  es  gelte,  pres.  subj.)  in  the  popular  language  of 
South  Germany,  expecting  the  confirmation  of  the  speaker's  position,  isn't  that 
true?,  expressing  assurance.  /  say,  I'm  sure,  indeed,  also  as  an  introduction  to  an 
entreaty  or  command;  bewahre,  or  ei  behüte,  or  Gott  bewahre,  or  behüte  no, 
not  at  all. 

V.     Formation  of  Prepositions. 

The  oldest  and  most  common  prepositions  were  originally  adverbs,  as  de- 
scribed in  226.  Similarly  other  parts  of  speech  have  from  time  to  time  been 
pressed  into  service  at  first  temporarily  to  show  the  relation  between  a  verb 
and  some  other  word.  In  course  of  time  the  feeling  of  their  former  function 
disappeared,  and  the  temporary  office  became  a  permanent  one.  Thus  new 
prepositions  are  constantly  being  formed.  The  following  instances  may  serve 
to  illustrate  in  brief  the  varied  origin  of  the  prepositions  that  have  come  from 


246.  I.  2.  b. SUBSTANTIVAL   PREFIXES 431 

other  sources  than  from  adverbs.  In  an  earlier  period  the  comparative  of  the 
adj.  was  followed  by  the  dat.  (just  as  in  the  Latin  by  the  ablative).  Later  this 
dat.  construction  after  a  comparative  died  out  except  in  case  of  the  two  com- 
paratives ehe  sooner  than  and  seit  farther  on.  At  present  all  feeling  that  they 
are  comparatives  is  lost,  but  since  they  still  as  formerly  govern  the  dat.  they 
are  construed  as  prepositions  with  the  dat.  The  latter  of  these  words,  seit, 
is  now  the  common  prep,  since,  and  the  former,  ehe,  is  also  felt  as  a  prep.,  tho 
only  found  written  together  with  its  dependent  dat.  in  the  one  word  ehedem 
before  that  in  the  literary  language,  but  often  heard  thus  as  a  prep,  in  the  language 
of  the  common  people  in  such  expressions  as  Ehe  (before)  Dienstag  kann  ich 
nicht  kommen.  Anstatt  or  statt  instead  of  are  examples  of  recently  formed 
prepositions,  the  word  Statt  still  existing  independently  as  a  noun.  When  the  two 
elements  of  anstatt  are  separated  the  latter  element  is  distinctly  felt  as  a 
noun,  as  also  Statt  when  preceded  by  an  article  or  other  modifying  word,  and 
hence  written  with  a  capital  letter:  an  Kindes  Statt  in  place  of  a  child  (of  one's 
own),  Gutes  Wort  findet  eine  gute  Statt,  and  Ich  bitte,  es  an  meiner  Statt  zu 
tun.  When  an  and  statt  are  found  together  the  compound  is  felt  rather  as  a 
prep.,  and  is  written  with  a  small  letter,  and  likewise  statt  when  there  is  no 
article:  Und  nun  anstatt  or  statt  des  Vaters  erschien  die  Mutter.  The  prep. 
neben  is  compounded  of  the  prep,  in  and  eben  level,  and  hence  its  meaning 
on  a  level  with,  alongside  of.  See  also  228.  L  b  and  4  under  während  and  unge- 
achtet. 

246.     Formation  of  Words  by  Means  of  Prefixes. 

Only  two  classes  of  words — nouns  and  verbs — have  especial  prefixes.  Ad- 
jectives and  adverbs  have  their  prefixes  in  common  with  verbs  and  nouns.  Of 
course,  very  many  nouns  derived  from  derivative  or  compound  verbs  have  the 
same  prefixes  as  the  corresponding  verbs:  Ver'stand  binder  standing,  ver'stehen 
to  understand,  &c.  In  one  prefix,  however,  the  form  differs  in  nouns  and  verbs, 
Rück-  re-,  back  in  nouns,  but  zurück-  in  verbs:  Rückfall  relapse,  but  zurück- 
fallen to  fall  back,  relapse.  Only  those  prefixes  are  discussed  here  which  are 
peculiar  to  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns,  or  which  present  difificulties  when  y 
used  with  these  parts  of  speech.  The  prefixes  in  derivative  words  were  once 
independent  words,  but  have  in  course  of  time  lost  their  identity  as  such,  and 
have  now  no  existence  outside  of  compounds.  In  connection  with  the  loss  of 
their  independence  is  the  loss  of  accent.  In  nouns,  however,  all  the  prefixes 
except  ge-  usually  have  stress.     For  details  concerning  accent,  see  Art.  47. 

I.     Formation  of  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Pronouns  hy  means  of 

Prefixes. 

1.  ab  has  two  meanings: 

a.  Aivay,  off,  down:  Abfahrt,  Abweg,  Abgrund,  &c. 

b.  The  idea  of  falseness,  worthlessness,  negation:  Abgott  idol,  Abschaum, 
abhold,  and  in  an  earlier  period  abholz  (=  Abfallholz),  abewitze  (=  Unver- 
stand), &c. 

2.  aber,  originally  a  comparative  of  ab  off  with  the  vaesimng  farther  off,  with 
regard  to  time  later,  has  three  meanings: 

a.  It  is  still  in  early  N.H.G.  an  independent  word,  meaning  again,  which 
naturally  developed  out  of  the  original  meanings  farther  off,  later:  Vnd  der 
HERR  rief  Samuel  aber  zum  dritten  mal  (1  Sam.  iii.  8).  To-day  aber  is  in  this 
meaning  rarely  used  as  an  independent  word,  and  is  now  found  only  as  a  prefix 
in  a  few  words,  as  abermals  once  more,  again,  Abersaat  second  sowing,  lit.  later 
sowing  or  sowing  again,  Aberglaube  superstition,  lit.  belief  farther  off  (from 
the  proper  belief),   &c. 

b.  In  the  conjunction  aber  the  original  idea  oi  farther  off  naturally  leads  to 
the  idea  of  something  different,  a  contrast,  in  English  rendered  by  but,  however. 


432 SUBSTANTIVAL,  ADJECTIVAL  PREFIXES        246.  I.  2.  c. 

c.  In  a  few  words  aber  is  a  corrupted  form  of  ober  tipper,  higher:  Aberacht, 
now  under  the  influence  of  aber  again  felt  as  meaning  a  ban  which  has  been 
proclaimed  again  and  made  more  severe,  lit.  a  higher  imperial  ban  resting  upon 
the  former  one. 

3.  after  (identical  with  Eng.  after),  which  is  prefixed  to  nouns,  participles, 
and  adjectives  and  has  the  meanings  behind,  after  in  their  literal  local  or  tem- 
poral sense,  and  also  in  their  applied  meanings  undeveloped,  imperfect,  approach- 
ing to,  inferior,  false:  Afterbürge  one  ivho  stands  behind  another  as  sectirity, 
Aftermieter  one  who  sublets,  Afterrede  talk  behind  ones  back,  calumny,  After- 
mutter  hard-hearted  mother,  Afterklaue  dew-claw,  Afterblättchen  bot.  stipule, 
Afterkugel  spheroid,  Afterkritiker  would-be  critic,  Aftergröße  false  greatness, 
aftergelehrt  having  a  superficial  knotvledge,  afterweise  would-be  wise. 

4.  ant  (the  full  form  corresponding  to  the  unaccented  ent-,  emp-;  see  II.  2 
below),  prefixed  now  only  to  two  nouns  Antwort  answer  and  Antlitz  poetic  word 
for  face.     Here  the  prefix  denotes  toward  or  against. 

5.  et,  prefixed  to  a  few  pronouns  in  order  to  convey  to  them  a  general  or 
indefinite  meaning:   etwas  something,  etlich  some,  several. 

6.  erz  (=  Eng.  arch-,  Gk.  apxO,  prefixed  to  nouns  (1)  to  denote  the  leader 
of  a  class:  Erzbischof  archbishop,  Erzengel  archangel,  Erzherzog  archduke, 
Erzpriester  archpriest,  Erzvater  patriarch,  &c.;  (2)  to  convey  intensifying  force: 
Erzdieb  arrant  thief,  Erzdemokrat  radical  democrat,  Erzdummkopf  regular 
blockhead,  Erzlügner  infernal  liar,  arch-liar,  &c.  It  is  also  added  to  adjectives 
to  convey  intensifying  force:  erzdumm  extremely  stupid,  erzfaul  very  lazy, 
erzkatholisch  ultra-catholic,  &c.  For  accent  of  these  substantive  and  adjective 
derivatives  see  47.  3.  A.  b.  aa,  c. 

7.  ge  (cognate  with  i  in  English  handiwork  and  Latin  co-,  con-,  cum; 
compare  II.  4  below),  prefixed  to  the  stem  of  nouns  and  verbs  to  denote: 

a.  A  collective  idea:  Gebirge  mountain-system,  Gebüsch  thicket  of  bushes, 
Gesinde  all  the  servants  of  a  household,  Gebrüder  two  or  more  brothers  of  a 
family.     See  also  67.  Note. 

b.  A  person  engaged  with  another  in  the  activity  mentioned  in  the  stem, 
or  a  person  sharing  something  with  another:  Gefährte  a  fellow-traveler,  Ge- 
spiele play-mate,  Tischgenosse  table-companion,  Geselle  companion,  literally 
one  sharing  the  same  room  (Saal)  with  another. 

c.  The  idea  of  a  collection  or  association  naturally  passes  over  into  that  of 
repetition,  duration,  that  which  is  connected  in  order  of  time:  Gezwitscher 
chirping,  Geplauder  conversation.  Here  the  idea  of  duration  or  repetition  may 
be  unpleasant,  and  hence  ge-  often  takes  on  the  meaning  of  disparagement, 
contempt.     See  83.  b. 

d.  In  verbal  derivatives  Ge-  denotes  an  aggregate  that  has  resulted  from 
the  activity  indicated  by  the  verbal  stem:  Gewächs  plant,  lit.  all  that  has 
resulted  from  the  process  of  growing,  Geschick  fate,  lit.  all  that  has  been  sent 
to  someone,  Gebäude  that  which  has  resulted  from  building,  Getreide  (O.H.G. 
gitregidi,  from  tragen  to  bear)  grain,  lit.  all  that  has  resulted  from  the  process 
of  bearing,  Gemälde,  &c. 

e.  In  adjectives  the  force  of  ge-  is  in  general  scarcely  appreciable,  as  the 
stem-word  is  in  most  cases  lost:  genug  enough,  genehm  acceptable,  gesund 
healthy,  &c.  In  a  few  cases  where  the  stem-word  is  also  in  use  a  shade  of 
meaning  develops  between  the  stem-word  and  the  derivative:  treu  true  (as  in 
ein  treuer  Freund),  but  getreu  loyal  (to  a  ruler),  true  (dem  Original  getreu), 
close  (eine  getreue  Übersetzung),  faithful  (eine  getreue  Nachbildung);  streng 
strict,  severe,  but  gestreng  in  use  earlier  in  the  period  to  address  persons  of 
noble  rank,  especially  such  as  have  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  subjects, 
as  in  gestrenger  Herr  your  Worship. 

8.  miß  (in  M.H.G.  misse,  which  still  survives  in  Missetat,  cognate  with 
Eng.  mis,  as  in  mistake),  prefixed  in  most  part  to  stems  having  an  abstract 
meaning  to  denote: 


246.  I.  10.  SUBSTANTIX^AL,  ADJECTIVAL    PREFIXES 433 

a.  The  opposite  of  that  contained  in  the  stem:  Mißgunst  disfavor,  Mißfallen 
displeasure;    mißfällig   displeasing,    unpleasant,    &c. 

b.  Something  wrong,  erroneous,  defective,  unsuccessful,  bad:  Mißstand 
abuse,  Mißheirat  mesalliance,  Mißverständnis  misunderstanding,  Mißton  dis- 
sonance, Mißernte  bad  crop,  Missetat  misdeed;  mißgestaltet  misshapen,  miß- 
tönend ill-tuned,  discordant. 

9.  un  (cognate  with  English  an-),  prefixed  to  the  stem  of  nouns,  adjectives, 
participles,  and  adverbs,  to  denote: 

a.  The  opposite  of  that  mentioned  in  the  stem  or  mere  negation  or  lack: 
prefixed  to  the  stem  of  nouns:  Undank  ingratitude,  Unart  naughtiness,  Unsinn 
nonsense,  Unverstand  want  of  judgment,  Unding  nothingness,  impossibility, 
more  commonly  according  to  b  absurdity,  foolish  thing.  In  a  few  words  un-  or 
miß-  can  be  used  without  difference  of  meaning:  Unbehagen  or  Mißbehagen 
uncomfortable  feeling,  &c.  Un-  is  also  prefixed  to  adjectives,  adjective  par- 
ticiples, and  adverbs  with  the  same  force:  undankbar,  &c.  For  accent  in  sub- 
stantive and  adjective  derivatives  see  47.  2.  B.  a. 

In  younger  group-words  (247.  2.  b),  however,  where  the  negative  is  not  used 
to  indicate  the  absence  of  an  inherent  quality  or  force  but  to  state  a  fact  nega- 
tively, nicht,  not  un-,  is  employed,  just  as  nicht  is  usually  employed  in  negative 
statements,  but  differing  from  usage  in  a  normal  sentence  it  is  stressed,  as  it  is 
the  first  component  of  a  younger  group-word  and  the  stress  of  course  is  that 
of  a  younger  group-word:  ein  'Nichtbiirger  one  who  is  not  a  citizen,  an  alien, 
ein  'Nichtraucher  a  car  where  there  is  no  smoking,  'nichtadelig  not  of  noble 
birth,  das  'Nichthalten  eines  Versprechens,  die  'Nichteinklagbarkeit  von 
Zechschulden  the  irrecoverableness  of  drinking  debts  (but  eine  'uneintreibbare 
Forderung  a  claim  that  can't  be  collected  under  the  law,  i.e.  a  claim  of  a  certain 
kind).  Present  participles  usually  have  almost  pure  verbal  force  and  indicate 
acts  or  facts,  hence  like  verbs  they  usually  take  unaccented  nicht:  die  nicht 
tanzenden  Herren  the  gentlemen  who  are  not  dancing.  Only  when  they  ap- 
proach the  nature  of  pure  adjectives  do  they  take  un-,  as  in  'unbedeutend, 
'unwissend,  'unzutreffend,  &c.  Perfect  participles  can  of  course  only  take 
un-  when  they  are  used  adjectively.  In  adjective  function  they  take  nicht 
when  they  denote  an  act,  un-  when  they  denote  a  state:  Der  noch  nicht  ge- 
öffnete Brief  the  letter  that  hasn't  been  opened  yet;  der  ungeöffnete  Brief  the 
unopened  letter;  der  Brief  ist  noch  nicht  geöffnet  [worden]  The  letter  has  not 
yet  been  opened;  der  Brief  ist  ungeöffnet  The  letter  is  unopened.  For  the  stress 
here  see  47.  2.  B.  a.  In  183.  2.  C.  c  a  few  traces  are  seen  of  an  older  order  of 
things,  where  in  the  predicate  appositive  relation  un-  can  be  used  even  when 
the  perfect  participle  denotes  an  act. 

b.  Something  defective,  bad,  aside  from  the  regular  and  usual,  unnatural, 
hence  sometimes  repulsive,  contemptible,  also  something  worthless,  unpleasant: 
Untat  (usually  Untätchen)  spot,  blemish,  Unsitte  bad  custom,  Unkosten  trans- 
portatioji  charges,  that  is,  charges  aside  from  the  regular  price  of  the  goods,  also 
disagreeable  expenses,  Unmensch  a  brutish  person,  Unnatur  that  which  is  con- 
trary to  nature,  Unland  land  swampy  and  good  for  nothing,  Unkraut  weeds, 
Ungeziefer  vermin,  Unwetter  bad,  stormy  weather,  Unmut  or  Mißmut  ill  humor. 

c.  A  strong  intensification  of  the  idea  contained  in  the  stem,  however,  with 
indefinite  force  so  that  the  extent  of  the  idea  is  not  accurately  defined:  eine 
'Untat  an  atrocious  crime,  eine  'Un'menge  or  'Un'masse  Menschen  a  great 
crowd  of  people,  eine  'Unzahl  Maikäfer  a  great  number  of  may-bugs,  ein  'Untier 
a  monster,  'Un'summen  vast  sums  of  money,  'Untiefe  a  great  depth,  a  deep  place 
in  a  river,  or  according  to  a,  above,  just  the  reverse,  a  shoal.  For  accent  see 
47.  3.  A.  b.  aa,  c. 

d.  In  dialect  and  a  few  expressions  in  the  literary  language  un-  is  sometimes 
used  pleonastically,  somewhat  as  nicht  (see  223.  XI.  B.  a):  unzweifellos  = 
zweifellos,  &c.     Compare  223.  XI.  B.  a.  (6). 

10.  ur  (full  form  corresponding  to  unaccented  er-;  see  II.  3  below),  a  prefix 
originally  meaning  out,  which  can  still  be  seen  in  its  present  signification,  the 


434 VERBAL    PREFIXES:   BE- 246.  I.  10. 

extreme,  in  the  direction  of  the  beginning,  source,  from  which  or  out  of  which 
a  thing  may  come,  or  of  the  end  of  something,  literally  the  coming  out  of  some 
condition:  Urwald  primeval  forest,  Urgroßvater  great-grandfather,  Urbewohner 
aborigines,  Urheimat  original  home,  Uranfang  first  beginning;  Urenkel  great- 
grandson,  Urfehde  oath  to  put  an  end  to  a  feud,  lit.  feud  at  an  end. 

a.     In  most  words  ur-  is  long,  but  in  Urteil  judgment,  sentence,  it  is  short. 

h.  The  idea  of  the  extreme  has  in  adjectives  given  to  ur-  intensifying  power: 
'ur'alt  very  old,  'ur'plötzlich  very  sudden,  all  of  a  sudden,  'ur'kräftig  extremely 
powerful.     For  accent  see  47.  3.  A.  h.  aa. 

11.  Foreign  prefixes.  Besides  erz-,  described  in  6  above,  the  following 
foreign  prefixes  are  placed  before  German  or  foreign  words:  anti-,  ex-,  hyper-, 
super-,  quasi-,  pseudo-,  vize-.  They  have  the  same  force  as  in  English:  anti- 
'deutsch,  'Exminister,  hyperaristo'kratisch,  'superklug,  'Quasigelehrter  would- 
be  scholar,  'Pseudofiirst,  'Vizekönig,  &c. 

II.     Formation  of   Verbs  by  mea7is  of  Prefixes. 

The  long  list  of  separable  prefixes  are  not  discussed  here,  as  they  largely 
consist  of  words  which  have  an  independent  existence  outside  of  compounds. 
Verbs  containing  such  prefixes  are  compounds,  not  derivatives.  Some  of  these 
prefixes,  however,  are  little  used  outside  of  compounds  and  are  approaching 
the  nature  of  the  inseparable  prefixes  discussed  below.  They  are  treated  under 
the  other  separable  prefixes  in  215.  II.  1.  B  and  at  greater  length  under  adverbs 
in  223.  The  following  inseparable  prefixes  were  once  also  independent  words, 
but  as  they  are  now  only  used  in  derivatives  and  have  lost  their  former  concrete 
meaning  they  present  many  difificulties  and  are  hence  treated  here  in  detail. 

1.  be  (related  to  the  prep,  bei)  has  the  meaning  around,  on  all  sides  of. 
Originally  be  was  also  a  preposition,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  be'hende  (=  M.H.G. 
behende  =  bei  der  Hand)  quick,  nimble.  Originally  this  preposition  governed 
also  the  ace,  and  this  former  construction  still  occurs  in  composition  with  in- 
transitive verbs,  where  the  compound  takes  an  object  in  the  ace.  which  is  in 
fact  the  object  of  the  preposition  be.     See  a  below. 

The  original  local  meaning  around,  on  all  sides  of  can  still  be  seen  in  a  number 
of  verbs:  bedenken  to  study  something  from  all  sides,  consider,  bedrängen  to 
press  someone  hard  on  all  sides.  The  idea  of  around,  encircling  leads  directly  to 
grasping,  seizing:  begreifen  to  grasp  mentally,  comprehend,  benehmen  seize, 
take  away  (Etwas  benimmt  einem  den  Atem),  sich  gut  benehmen  to  conduct 
oneself  well,  lit.  to  have  a  good  grasp,  hold  on  oneself.  The  idea  of  around, 
encircling,  shutting  in  is  seen  in  befangen  (in  einem  Wahn  befangen  wrapped  up 
in  a  delusion),  belagern  to  besiege,  lit.  put  a  camp  around,  &c. 

The  original  local  meaning  of  be  is  no  longer  vividly  felt,  but  out  of  it  distinct 
groups  of  applied  meanings  have  been  developed.  The  idea  of  around,  en- 
circling often  leads  to  the  idea  of  a  definite,  limited  sphere  or  plane,  upon  which 
the  action  plays  or  over  which  it  extends,  or  into  which  it  penetrates.  Hence 
be-  is  often  used: 

a.  To  bring  the  action  expressed  in  intransitive  verbs  to  bear  ^lpon  some 
object,  and  change  thereby  intransitive  verbs  into  transitive:  Sie  weint  she 
weeps,  but  Sie  beweint  den  Tod  ihrer  Mutter,  or  beweint  ihre  Mutter  she  is 
mourning  over  the  death  of  her  mother,  or  weeping  over  her  mother,  lit.  around,  in 
the  sphere  of,  co7icerning,  about.  Furcht  und  Entsetzen  befällt  mich  Fear  and 
horror  seize  me,  lit.  fall  around  me,  in  my  sphere,  near  me.  Thus  also  besitzen 
to  possess,  lit.  sit  upon,  betreten  to  step  upon,  bekommen  to  get,  lit.  come  upon, 
&c.  Older  bekennen  to  knoiv,  know  about  survives  in  the  participles  bekannt 
and  Bekannter  and  in  the  factitive  bekennen  to  cause  another  to  know  about: 
seine  Schuld  bekennen  to  confess  his  guilt,  lit.  cause  another  to  know  about 
his  guilt.  One  of  these  verbs  has  a  genitive  instead  of  an  accusative  object: 
Er  bedarf  des  Trostes  He  needs  consolation,  lit.  is  needy  in  the  sphere  of,  with 
regard  to  consolation. 


246.  II.  2.  a. VERBAL    PREFIXES:   BE-,   ENT- 435 

h.  In  composition  with  verbs  already  trans.,  to  bring  the  action  to  bear 
upon  some  object  or  extend  the  force  of  the  action  entirely  over  or  about  some- 
thing: Sie  begießt  die  Blumen  She  is  watering  the  flowers.  Der  Landmann 
bebaut  (cultivates)  das  Feld.  Er  stahl  einen  Rock  He  stole  a  coat,  but  Er 
bestahl  seinen  Herrn  He  robbed,  stole  from  his  master. 

Nole.  Observe  that  the  object  of  the  simple  verb  often  becomes  in  the  construction  with  the  derivative  a  dative 
after  the  prep,  mit:  Die  Arbeiter  laden  Getreide  auf  das  Schiff  The  workmen  are  loading  grain  on  to  the  ship,  but 
Die  Arbeiter  beladen  das  Schiff  mit  Getreide. 

c.  To  give  intensifying  force  to  the  simple  verb.  The  idea  of  around,  on  all 
sides  leads  to  the  idea  of  completion,  doing  something  well,  thoroly,  accurately: 
bekommen  to  agree  with  (one's  health,  more  lit.  to  come  along,  go  along  well, 
in  early  N.H.G.  of  plants  to  do  well,  flourish),  besehen  to  examine  carefully, 
lit.  look  at  on  all  sides,  berechnen  to  compute,  calculate  accurately.  _  bestehen  to 
stand  firmly,  pass  thru  a  test  successfully,  insist  upon,  beheben  (Übel,  Hinder- 
nisse, Widersprüche  beheben,  growing  ever  more  common  instead  of  the  simple 
form  heben)  to  remove  entirely,  befolgen  to  follow  closely  (Gesetze,  Lehren, 
Regeln,  Vorschriften  befolgen"),   &c. 

d.  In  composition  with  adjectives,  to  indicate  that  the  attribute  in  question 
is  placed  all  arounrl,  is  bestowed  upon  or  put  in,  on,  over  something:  feucht 
moist,  befeuchten  to  moisten;  ruhig  calm,  beruhigen  to  calm;  reicher  richer, 
bereichern  to  enrich.  Thus  beschleunigen  to  hasten,  betrüben  to  grieve, 
belustigen  to  amuse,  &c. 

Note.  Some  verbs  are  formed  after  the  analogy  07  those  derived  from  adjectives  in  -ig,  and  thus  end  in  -igen, 
altho  there  is  no  ig  in  tlie  stini  from  which  tliey  are  formed:  beeidigen  (be  -\-  Eid),  beerdigen  (be  +  Erde),  befrie- 
digen, bekräftigen,  benachrichtigen,  &c. 

e.  In  composition  with  nouns  to  indicate  that  that  which  is  implied  by  the 
noun  is  placed  all  around,  is  bestowed  upon  someone,  or  that  something  or 
somebody  is  supplied,  furnished,  endowed  wath  what  is  contained  in  the  noun: 
Laub  foliage,  belauben  to  furnish  with  foliage;  Saite  string  (of  an  instrument), 
besaiten  to  furnish  with  strings;  Seele  soul,  life,  beseelen  to  put  life  into, 
animate. 

/.  There  is  also  an  ironical  application  of  the  idea  over,  07i  in  some  verbs 
formed  from  adjectives  or  nouns:  Ich  bin  elend!  Ach  was,  ich  will  dich  be- 
elenden! I  feel  miserable!  What,  I  will  give  }.ou  something  to  make  you  feel 
miserable  about.  Sie  behauptet,  sie  sei  die  Frau  Junkern  (245.  I.  6.  1.  b),  aber 
ich  will  sie  be  Junkern,  daß  sie  an  mich  denken  soll  She  pretends  to  be  Mrs. 
Junker,  but  I  will  'junker'  her  so  that  she  will  remember  me.  Was  Latein? 
(What!  you  want  to  study  Latin?)  ich  will  dich  Knirps  belateinen  (Raabe's 
Hungerpastor,  chap.  5). 

g.  Altho  the  decided  tendency  has  been  for  these  derivatives  to  become 
transitive,  a  few  of  them  are  nevertheless  intransitive  with  the  same  general  mean- 
ings: beharren  (c)  to  stand  firmly  by  (Er  beharrt  auf  seiiier  Meinung),  be- 
kommen to  agree  with  one's  health  (see  example  and  explanation  in  c),  bestehen 
(c)  to  insist  upon,  pass  (come  off  well  in  a  test),  beruhen  to  rest  upon,  behagen 
to  be  agreeable  to,  afford  comfort  or  pleasure  to,  lit.  put  protection  around  some- 
one, begegnen  to  meet,  lit.  come  into  the  sphere,  neighborhood  of,  bedürfen 
(example  and  explanation  in  a). 

2.  ent  (or  emp  before  a  few  verbs  in  initial  f),  which  is  found  in  its  original 
form  ant-  only  in  Antwort  and  Antlitz,  is  identical  wnth  Greek  am  and  hence 
meant  originally  toivard,  against.  This  meaning  can  now  only  be  found  in  a 
few  words:  entbieten  to  send  to,  entgelten  to  pay  for,  atone  for,  enthalten  to 
contain,  entsprechen  to  answer,  correspond  to,  empfangen  to  receive,  empfehlen 
to  recommend,  empfinden  to  feel,  be  sensible  of. 

The  following  derivative  meanings  are  now  more  common: 

a.  From  the  original  meaning  of  movement  toward  comes  that  of  a  beginning 
of  an  activity,  a  change,  a  passing  into,  a  putting  into  a  new  state  or  condition: 
entbrennen  to  take  fire,  become  inflamed,  entstehen  to  arise,  originate,  ent- 
zünden to  inflame,  entfachen,  to  enkindle,  entschlummern  to  fall  asleep  (in 
death),  entleeren  to  empty,  entblößen  to  lay  bare,  strip,  einem  etwas  ent- 


436 VERBAL   PREFIXES:   ENT-,   ER- 246.  II.  2.  a. 

fremden  to  alienate  something  from  someone,  sich  entledigen  (262.  II.  A.  b)  to 
free  one's  self  from,  sich  entblöden  to  become  ashamed,  most  commonly  used 
negatively  (:  Du  entblödest  dich  nicht,  mir  das  ins  Gesicht  zu  sagen?),  &c. 
As  can  be  seen  from  the  examples  the  basal  part  of  such  verbs  is  either  a  verb 
or  an  adjective. 

Note  1.  The  prefix  of  a  number  of  the  verbs  in  this  group  whose  basal  element  is  a  verb  is  in  fact  the  modern 
corrupted  form  of  O.H.G.  in  (identical  with  N.H.G.  prep,  in)  toward,  into,  which  was  closely  related  in  meaning  to 
the  original  force  of  ent,  and  in  certain  verbs  became  confounded  with  it,  as  int  (the  O.H.G.  form  of  ent)  was  itself 
often  used  in  the  corrupted  form  of  in. 

b.  A  change  is  not  only  a  movement  in  the  direction  of  that  which  is  new, 
but  is  also  a  breaking  away  from  the  old,  hence  in  general  separation,  removal, 
withdrawal,  now  the  most  common  meaning:  entreißen  to  snatch  away  from, 
enttäuschen  to  disappoint,  lit.  to  tear  away  from  a  pleasant  illusion,  entlassen 
to  turn  off,  dismiss,  entlohnen  ( =  ablohnen)  to  pay  off,  lit.  to  send  someone 
off  rejoicing  with  his  pay,  wages,  entkommen  to  escape,  entsagen  to  renounce, 
entgleiten  to  slip  out  of;  entblättern  to  strip  off  the  leaves,  enthaupten  to  take 
off  the  head,  decapitate,  entthronen  to  dethrone,  entkräften  to  enervate; 
sich  entblöden  to  have  the  audacity,  lit.  to  tear  one's  self  away  from  being 
modest,  shy,  bashful,  to  make  one's  self  bold,  now  little  used  in  this  meaning 
altho  common  in  the  meaning  in  a.  As  can  be  seen  from  the  examples,  the 
basal  part  of  such  verbs  may  be  a  verb,  noun,  or  less  commonly  an  adjective. 
Verbs  of  this  class  of  meanings  are  called  privatives.  For  comparison  of  this 
meaning  of  ent-  with  its  synonyms  see  223.  I.  7.  G.  c. 

c.  Intimately  related  to  the  preceding  is  the  idea  of  reversal,  denoting  the 
opposite  of  the  simple  vjerb:  ehren  to  honor,  but  entehren  to  dishonor;  laden 
to  load,  but  entladen  to  unload;   siegeln  to  seal,  but  entsiegeln  to  unseal. 

d.  With  the  idea  of  separation  there  is  often  associated  the  idea  of  a  careful, 
systematic  or  natural  unfolding  or  division:  entwirren  to  disentangle,  entwickeln 
to  unravel,  develop,  entfalten  to  unfold,  develop,  entwerfen  to  sketch,  map 
out,  lit.  to  throw  or  take  apart,  entfallen  to  fall  to  one's  regular  share,  &c. 
This  meaning  stands  in  marked  contrast  to  that  in  b,  which  usually  contains 
the  idea  of  violent  or  unnatural  separation.  The  idea  of  care  and  system 
did  not  originally  lie  in  ent  but  in  the  verb  itself,  as  in  the  first  examples.  From 
these  verbs  the  idea  may  have  become  attached  to  the  prefix  and  then  spread 
to  other  verbs. 

3.  er  (in  Austrian  and  Bavarian  dialects  der),  which  is  found  in  its  original 
form  ur  only  in  nouns  and  adjectives,  originally  meant  /rom  within  out,  out  of, 
and  building  upon  this  has  developed  a  rich  store  of  shades,  all  of  which  can 
be  brought  into  connection  with  the  fundamental  meaning. 

a.  In  its  original  literal  sense  or  much  more  frequently  its  figurative  applica- 
tion, but  only  dimly  felt  if  felt  at  all :  erpressen  to  press  out  (wine  out  of  grapes), 
extort,  erziehen  to  educate,  lit.  to  draw  out,  erbauen  to  edify,  erheben  to  elevate 
the  thought  or  feeling,  erschöpfen  to  exhaust,  sein  Inneres  erschließen  to  dis- 
close one's  feelings,  &c. 

b.  The  prefix  gradually  lost  its  original  local  meaning,  which  faded  away 
into  mere  abstract  perfective  force,  i.e.  the  idea  of  point-action,  not  calling 
attention  to  the  act  as  a  whole  but  to  only  one  point  in  it,  the  beginning  or  the 
end,  in  ingressive  perfectives  calling  attention  to  the  beginning,  in  effective 
perfectives  calling  attention  to  the  end,  that  is,  the  idea  of  motion  from  within 
outward  passed,  on  the  one  hand,  into  that  of  change  or  transition  into  a  state 
or  condition,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  into  the  idea  of  the  final  result  or  outcome 
of  an  action:  (ingressives)  erblühen  to  come  out  into  blossom,  erwachen  to 
wake  up  (intrans.),  erwecken  to  wake  (trans.),  ermüden  to  become  tired,  to 
tire  out  (trans.),  erwärmen  to  warm,  make  warm,  erwärmen  to  grow  warm, 
erblinden  to  grow  blind,  erröten  to  blush,  sich  ermannen  to  summon  up  courage; 
(effectives)  erleben  to  live  to  see,  erliegen  to  succumb  (the  action  resulting  in 
somebody's  lying  down,  i.e.  giving  up),  erlöschen  to  become  extinguished, 
ergeben  (die  Untersuchung  hat  seine  Unschuld  ergeben  has  proved  his  inno- 
cence, lit.  has  given  his  innocence  as  a  final  result),  &c.     As  can  be  seen  from 


246.  Tl.  4. VERBAL    PREFIXES:    ER-,   GE- 437 

the  examples,  the  basal  part  of  such  verbs  may  be  a  verb,  adjective,  or,  less 
commonly,  a  noun.  Also  ver-  in  composition  with  verbs  derived  from  nouns 
and  adjectives  has  perfective  force.     See  5.  D.  a,  h  (and   Note),  c  below. 

The  derivatives  with  er-  often  stand  in  a  more  or  less  marked  contrast  to  their 
simple  verbal  forms,  the  simple  verb  representing  an  action  in  its  duration,  the 
derivative  form  representing  only  a  particular  point  in  the  course  of  the  action, 
namely,  the  entrance  into  the  state  or  condition,  or  the  outcome  or  result  of  the 
action:  grünen  to  be  or  remain  green,  but  ergrünen  to  become  green;  wachen  to 
be  awake,  watch,  but  erwachen  to  wake  up;  wählen  to  choose  (i.e.  the  entire  act, 
including  the  period  of  deliberation  and  the  final  act  of  settling  upon  a  choice), 
but  erwählen  to  select,  elect,  choose  (referring  only  to  the  resulting  choice,  ex- 
cluding the  preceding  period  of  deliberation);  steigen  to  climb,  but  einen  Berg 
ersteigen  to  attain  the  summit  of  a  mountain  by  climbing.  Ich  sterbe,  sterbe, 
und  kann  nicht  ersterben  (Goethe's  Götz,  5,  10).  The  derivative  form  often  has  a 
figurative  application,  while  the  simple  verb  has  its  literal  meaning:  sättigen  to 
satisfy  (one's  stomach,  &c.),  but  ersättigen  to  satisfy  (one's  longings,  &c.); 
weichen  to  soften  (leather,  &c.),  but  erweichen  to  soften  (the  heart,  feelings, 
&c.).  In  a  few  verbs  er-  converts  intransitives  into  transitives:  warten  to  wait, 
erwarten  to  await,  expect.  In  some  cases  the  distinction  of  meaning  between 
the  simple  verb  and  the  derivative  is  very  faint. 

Note.  In  ingressives  er-  often  represents  the  change  as  coming  from  within  from  inner  causes:  Lackmuspapier 
in  Säure  getaucht  wird  rot  Litmus-paper,  dipped  into  an  acid,  becomes  red,  but  Das  Mädchen  errötet  vor  Scham  the 
girl  blushes  (Ut.  turns  red)  for  shame. 

c.  The  original  idea  and  the  more  common  one  of  result  can  be  clearly  seen 
in  such  expressions  as  etwas  erfragen  to  get  something  out  of  one  by  questioning. 
From  such  expressions  comes  the  very  common  meaning  of  getting,  obtaining 
something  in  the  manner  described  by  the  simple  verb:  erfahren  to  experience 
(i.e.  to  get  by  going,  passing  thru),  to  learn  (i.e.  to  get  in  driving  along,  to  pick 
up,  in  contrast  to  the  laborious  process  indicated  by  lernen  to  learn),  erflehen  to 
get  by  entreaty,  erstürmen  to  get  something  by  storm,  as  a  city,  &c.,  erstreiten 
to  get  by  fighting,  ergaunern  to  obtain  by  knavish  tricks,  erreichen  to  obtain 
by  reaching,  to  reach  (an  object,  a  river,  a  town,  &c.)  Compare  the  force  of 
the  simple  verb  with  that  of  the  derivative  in  the  following:  Das  Kind  reichte 
nach  den  Früchten,  aber  es  konnte  sie  nicht  erreichen. 

d.  Er  refers  in  so  many  cases  where  a  result  is  expressed  to  the  life  within, 
as  in  erbittert  embittered,  erfrischen  to  refresh  the  inner  man,  erlösen  to  save 
the  soul  from  sin,  &c.,  that  it  is  associated  in  general  with  the  vital  forces,  and 
when  placed  before  certain  verbs  it  indicates  that  the  person  died  or  was  killed 
in  the  manner  described  by  the  simple  verb:  erdolchen  to  stab  to  death,  er- 
drosseln to  throttle,  erschießen  to  kill  by  shooting,  erschlagen  to  kill  by  striking, 
ertrinken  to  drown,  erlegen  (huntsman's  expression)  to  kill,  lit.  to  lay  out  dead, 
erdrücken  to  press  to  death,  &c 

e.  In  accordance  with  the  original  meaning  oi  from  within  out  and  the  more 
common  meaning  of  a  result,  there  is  a  distinction  made  between  freuen  and 
erfreuen.  The  former  is  used  of  some  thing,  the  existence  of  which  merely 
occasions  us  joy,  the  latter  of  some  body  or  thing  that  working  from  within  out- 
ward, i.e.  intentionally  or  by  virtue  of  inherent  qualities,  produces  joy:  Es 
freut  mich,  Sie  zu  sehen,  but  Erfreuen  Sie  mich  doch  mit  einer  Antwort,  Ein 
weiser  Sohn  erfreut  den  Vater,  and  Der  Wein  erfreut  das  Herz.  The  reflexive 
sich  erfreuen  (an,  w.  dat.)  expresses  a  warmer,  deeper  interest  than  sich  freuen 
(über,  w.  acc.)  The  participle  gefreut  is  not  used  adjectively,  because  it  is 
here  the  question  of  a  result:   Er  ist  darüber  erfreut,  not  gefreut. 

4.  ge  is  cognate  with  i  in  English  handiwork  and  Latin  co-,  con-,  cum-,  and 
hence  denotes  a  collection  or  union  (of  persons,  or  things,  or  related  parts). 
This  meaning,  so  common  in  nouns,  as  in  Gebirge  a  chain  or  system  of  mountains, 
Geläut  a  chi^ne  of  bells,  is  now  only  rarely  found  in  verbs:  gerinnen  to  coagulate, 
lit.  to  run  compactly  together,  gefrieren  to  freeze,  gefallen  to  please,  lit.  to  fall 
together  with,  coincide  with  (one's  wishes).  More  common  are  the  following 
derived  meanings: 


438 VERBAL    PREFIXES:    GE-,   VER- 246.  II.  4.  a. 

a.  Like  er-  (see  3.  b  above),  tho  now  much  less  common,  ge-  is  used  to 
represent  a  particular  point  in  the  course  of  an  action,  namely,  the  entrance 
into  a  state  or  condition,  or  the  outcome,  or  result  of  the  action:  gebrechen  to 
lack,  originally  meaning  in  its  impersonal  form  es  gebricht  there  arises  a  breakage, 
a  loss,  hence  a  lack;  M.H.G.  bern  (now  no  longer  used)  to  carry,  bear,  gebären 
to  ^ive  birth  to,  referring  to  the  result. 

From  the  idea  of  a  result  comes  the  idea  of  completeness:  horchen  to  hearken, 
gehorchen  to  hearken  to  faithfully,  hence  to  obey.  The  idea  of  completeness 
is  most  commonly  found  in  the  ge-  of  the  perfect  participle:  Er  hat  einen  Brief 
geschrieben.  The  use  of  ge-  with  this  meaning  in  the  present  perfect  has 
gradually  differentiated  this  tense  from  the  past  tense,  which  represents  an  act 
as  going  on  in  past  time  at  the  same  time  as  another  past  act.  Originally  ge- 
here  had  only  perfective  force,  thus  not  expressing  the  completion  of  an  act  as 
a  whole,  an  accomplished  fact  as  now,  but  only  calling  attention  to  one  point 
in  the  action,  namely  the  beginning  or  the  end  or  result.  As  a  survival  of  older 
usage  when  ge-  had  pure  perfective  force  it  cannot  even  to-day  stand  in  the 
perfect  participle  before  the  perfective  prefixes  be-,  emp-,  ent-,  er-,  ge-,  miß-, 
ver-,  zer-:  begangen,  not  gebegangen.  According  to  older  feeling  ge-  was 
here  superfluous  as  the  perfective  prefixes  expressed  the  perfective  idea.  For 
the  same  reason  ge-  could  not,  a  little  earlier  in  the  period,  stand  before  a  word 
that  of  itself  had  perfective  force  expressing  the  idea  of  entrance  into  a  condition 
or  that  of  end,  result,  such  as  werden  to  become,  kommen  to  come,  arrive,  kriegen 
to  get.  This  older  usage  still  survives  in  the  perfect  participle  worden  when 
used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive. 

The  perfect  participle  of  these  derivatives  with  an  unstressed  perfective  pre- 
fix has  influenced  the  form  of  all  other  verbs  unaccented  on  the  first  syllable 
in  that  they  too,  contrary  to  older  usage,  now  assume  no  ge-  in  the  perfect 
participle:  stu'diert  (not  now  as  formerly  gestu'diert),  &c.  See  also  178.  2. 
A.  b  (1),  (2),  (3).  Thus  it  is  clear  that  the  absence  of  ge-  in  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple before  the  unstressed  prefixes  be-,  emp-,  ent-,  er-,  ge-,  miß-,  ver-,  zer-  is 
no  longer  understood  and  hence  is  ascribed  to  their  lack  of  accent,  so  that  this 
usage  has  spread  to  other  verbs  unaccented  on  the  first  syllable.  For  further 
suppression  of  ge-  in  the  participle  in  S.G.  see  c.  (2)  below. 

b.  The  idea  of  coincidence  and  result  naturally  gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  suc- 
ceeding or  doing  something  satisfactorily:  gefallen  to  please,  lit.  to  fall  together 
with,  coincide  with  (one's  wishes),  gedeihen  to  prosper,  gelingen  to  be  success- 
ful, genesen  to  recover  (from  sickness),  geraten  to  turn  out  well,  gewinnen  to 
win,  geziemen  to  befit. 

c.  In  a  number  of  words  all  feeling  of  the  meaning  of  the  prefix  has  been  lost, 
and  in  general  it  has  in  connection  with  verbs  ceased  to  be  productive  and  is 
frequently  a  mere  fossil.  This  can  be  seen:  (1)  from  the  fact  that  in  some 
cases  the  simple  verb  has  been  lost  and  now  the  compound  alone  exists:  genesen, 
geschehen,  &c.  (2)  In  a  number  of  words,  especially  those  whose  stem  begins 
with  1,  r,  or  n,  the  vowel  of  the  prefix  is  suppressed  and  is  no  longer  felt:  glauben, 
gönnen,  &c.  In  S.G.  the  e  of  the  prefix  in  the  perfect  participle  is  usually 
suppressed  followed  by  the  hardening  of  the  g  of  the  prefix  to  k  and  of  a  following 
b,  d,  g  to  p,  t,  k  and  the  assimilation  of  the  k  of  the  prefix  to  a  following  p,  t,  k, 
so  that  the  prefix  is  felt  little  or  not  at  all:  k'wese,  pote,  tienet,  tanzet,  kange, 
kesse  for  gewesen,  geboten,  gedient,  getanzt,  gegangen,  gegessen.  On  the 
other  hand,  its  force  in  the  group  in  b  must  be  dimly  felt,  for  when  miß-,  which 
means  the  very  opposite  of  ge-,  is  added  the  ge-  is  dropped:  gefallen,  but  miß- 
fallen; gelingen,  but  mißlingen;  geraten,  but  mißraten.  Notice  also:  gebieten, 
but  verbieten. 

5.  ver  is  a  very  common  prefix  with  meanings  not  always  clearly  defined 
and  sometimes  even  contradictory.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  it 
represents  three  older  prefixes — Gothic  fra,  faur,  fair,  Latin  pro-,  por-,  per-  — 
with  all  their  meanings.  Thus  verzuckern  may  mean  to  spoil  by  sugaring  too 
much  (A.  c),  to  cover  with  sugar  (C),  to  turn  to  sugar  (D.  b).     On  account  of  this 


246.  II.  5.  B.  h. \ERBAL    PREFIXES:   VER- 439 

ambiguity  ver-  has  in  the  last  centuries  been  gradually  replaced  in  many  cases 
by  other  prefixes  or  other  expressions.  On  the  other  hand,  in  certain  groups 
described  below  ver-  has  become  productive.  The  development  of  meanings 
is  here  given  with  as  much  accuracy  as  possible,  but  at  a  number  of  points  we 
are  not  able  to  attain  to  even  a  reasonable  degree  of  certainty  as  the  prehistoric 
growth  is  hidden  from  view. 

A.  Groups  of  meaning  corresponding  to  those  of  Gothic  fra: 

a.  The  commonest  meaning  seems  to  be  that  of  away,  forth:  verlaufen  to 
pass  away  (of  time,  &c.),  verreisen  to  go  away  on  a  journey,  verschenken  to 
give  away,  verjagen  to  chase  away,  vergeben  to  forgive,  lit.  give  away,  let 
(a  fault)  go  by,  verkaufen  to  give  away  in  exchange  for  something,  to  sell, 
verheiraten  to  give  away  in  marriage  (eine  Tochter  verheiraten).  This  idea 
often  leads  to  the  conception  of  a  change  of  place:  verlegen  to  move  (as  in  Die 
Universität  wurde  von  Ingolstadt  nach  München  verlegt),  versetzen  to  trans- 
plant (einen  Baum  versetzen),  promote  (einen  Schüler  in  eine  höhere  Klasse 
versetzen),  put  (Versetzen  Sie  sich  in  meine  Lage),  &c. 

h.  The  idea  of  away  may  lead  to  that  of  the  end,  exhaustion,  entire  consumption 
of,  even  waste,  and  reckless  and  lavish  use  of:  verblühen  to  come  to  an  end  of 
blooming,  etwas  verschmerzen  to  get  over  something  (as  sorrow,  &c.),  verhallen 
to  die  away  (of  a  sound),  verbluten  to  bleed  to  exhaustion  or  death,  verkümmern 
to  waste  away,  verhungern  to  die  of  starvation,  verbrennen  to  burn  (something) 
up,  verbrauchen  to  use  up,  versaufen  to  squander  away  in  drink,  verschlafen 
to  sleep  (precious  time,  &c.)  away,  vertändeln  to  trifle  away.  This  is  a  very 
productive  group. 

c.  The  idea  of  away  may  lead  to  that  of  loss,  destruction,  error,  out  of  the 
proper  place,  wrong,  improper  doing,  spoiling,  and  the  reversal  of  the  meaning 
of  the  simple  verb:  verwirken  to  forfeit,  verderben  to  destroy,  verurteilen  to 
condemn,  sentence,  verführen  to  mislead,  seduce,  verraten  to  betray,  originally 
to  give  advice  or  information  that  leads  to  the  destruction  of  someone,  now  also 
used  in  the  derived  meanings  to  disclose,  divulge,  show  (as  in  Es  verrät  eine 
Meisterhand),  verdrucken  to  misprint,  sich  verrechnen  to  make  a  mistake  in 
figures,  verschreiben  to  write  incorrectly,  sich  verschreiben  (as  in  Ich  habe 
mich  verschrieben  It's  a  mere  slip  of  the  pen)  to  make  a  mistake  in  writing, 
sich  versprechen  (as  in  Ich  habe  mich  versprochen  //  was  a  mere  slip  of  my  tongue) 
to  make  a  mistake  in  speaking,  sich  verlaufen  to  lose  one's  way,  verlegen  to 
misplace,  verkehrt  wrong,  lit.  turned  wrong  (as  in  die  verkehrte  Seite,  etwas 
verkehrt  anfangen),  verrenken  to  dislocate  (den  Arm  verrenken),  sich  an 
jemandem  vergreifen  to  lay  violent  hands  on  someone,  versalzen  to  spoil  by 
oversalting,  verzuckern  to  spoil  by  sugaring  too  much,  verzärteln  to  spoil  by 
too  much  coddling,  verachten  to  despise,  opposite  of  achten,  verkennen  to 
misjudge,  verlernen  unlearn,  forget  (little  by  little),  &c. 

B.  Groups  of  meanings  corresponding  to  Gothic  faur: 

On  the  basis  of  the  few  meager  known  facts  we  attempt  to  distinguish  here 
three  groups: 

a.  The  general  idea  of  ver-  in  this  group  is  that  of  a  general  forward  move- 
ment toward  a  goal,  or  a  general  outward  movement:  verkündigen  to  announce, 
make  known  to,  verbeugen  to  bow  to,  lit.  bend  forward,  versehen  (mit)  to  look 
ahead,  i.e.  provide  with,  sich  versehen  to  look  forward,  expect  (as  in  Ich  hatte 
mich  des  Angriffs  nicht  versehen),  verschlagen  to  knock,  push  forward,  i.e.  to 
avail  (as  in  Es  verschlägt  nichts),  versetzen  to  deal  (jemandem  einen  Schlag 
versetzen),  to  reply  (lit.  to  put  forward),  versprechen  to  promise,  verlegen  to 
lay  out  or  put  up  (the  money)  for,  i.e.  to  publish  (as  in  ein  Buch  verlegen). 

h.  The  general  idea  of  movement  forward  into  a  position  before  something 
as  found  in  a  leads  to  the  idea  of  protecting,  guarding,  defending,  concealing, 
hindering,  refusing,  obstructing:  verfechten  to  fight  for,  lit.  to  go  fighting  before 
something  to  defend  it,  verschließen  to  lock  up,  lit.  to  put  a  lock  before  to 
protect,  verantworten  to  answer  for,  be  responsible  for,  verwesen  to  manage, 
conduct  (as  a  substitute  for  another),  vertreten  to  take  the  place  of,  represent, 


440 VERBAL    PREFIXES:   VER- 246.  II.  5.  B.b. 

versetzen  to  pawn,  lit.  to  giv^e  as  security  for,  verschleiern  to  veil,  verwehren 
to  hinder,  prevent,  versagen  to  refuse,  (jemandem  den  Weg)  verlegen  to  cut 
off,   (einem  Hause  die  Aussicht)  verbauen  to  shut  out,  &c. 

Note.  Also  be-  has  a  similar  meaning.  It  has,  however,  only  the  general  idea  of  over,  upon,  while  ver-  implies 
that  the  covering  is  to  protect  or  conceal:  bedecken  to  cover  (the  earth,  &c.  with  snow,  &c.),  verdecken  to  cover 
(one's  face  to  remove  it  from  the  observation  of  others  or  to  conceal  one's  feeling);  bekleiden  to  clotlie,  verkleiden 
to  disguise. 

c.  The  idea  of  a  general  fonvard  movement  leads  to  the  conception  of  going 
beyond  the  goal,  indicating  excess:  (eine  Gelegenheit,  den  Zug)  versäumen  to 
miss,  (den  Zug)  verschlafen  to  miss  the  train  by  sleeping  too  long,  sich  ver- 
schlafen to  oversleep  one's  self. 

C.  Meaning  corresponding  to  Gothic  fair: 

The  original  meaning  of  the  prefix  represented  by  Gothic  fair  cannot  be 
clearly  gleaned  from  the  few  Gothic  words  that  have  come  down  to  us.  From 
these  meager  materials  it  might  possibly  be  assumed  that  the  original  idea  was 
around,  encircling,  covering,  as  seems  to  be  suggested  by  a  few  words  still  in  use: 
verschütten  to  cover  over  with  earth,  &c.,  fill  up  (a  ditch,  &c.),  vergolden  to 
cover  over  with  or  as  with  gold,  to  gild,  versilbern  to  cover  with  silver  plate, 
verzuckern  to  sugar  over,  verhüllen  to  wTap  up,  cover  over,  &c. 

D.  The  more  or  less  concrete  meanings  in  A,  B,  C  have  in  many  words  faded 
entirely  away  into  mere  abstract  perfective  (see  3.  b  above)  force.  There  are 
three  groups  more  or  less  distinct: 

a.  We  often  find  in  ver-  pure  effective  (3.  b  above)  force,  so  that  it  indicates 
that  the  activity  is  sustained  to  the  end,  meets  with  successful  issue,  or  is  directed 
with  energy  to  a  certain  goal  or  end:  verbleichen  to  grow  pale  in  death,  ver- 
bleiben to  remain  until  the  end,  verlesen  to  read  (a  roll  of  names,  &c.)  to  the 
end,  verbüßen  to  serve  out  (as  in  seine  Strafzeit  verbüßen),  vernehmen  to 
perceive,  lit.  to  take  a  firm  hold  of  (with  the  senses),  verfangen  to  operate,  take 
effect,  avail,  lit.  to  catch  a  good  hold  on,  verhelfen  to  help  someone  to  get  some- 
thing, lit.  to  help  so  effectually  that  the  object  is  attained,  verstehen  to  under- 
stand, lit.  to  stand  firmly  and  thus  have  control  of  the  situation,  verfolgen  to 
pursue  (a  course,  design,  &c.),  verhandeln  to  negotiate,  transact,  verkehren  to 
ply,  go  back  and  forth  between  definite  points  (as  in  Die  Züge  verkehren  stünd- 
lich zwischen  diesen  Orten),  to  associate  wath,  versuchen  to  try,  test,  lit.  to 
seek  thoroly,  persistently,  &c. 

b.  It  often  has  pure  ingressive  (3.  b  above)  force,  so  that  it  denotes  a  change, 
transformation  into  a  state  or  thing  indicated  now  usually  by  some  adjective 
or  noun  which  forms  the  stem  of  the  verb:  verarmen  to  grow  poor,  verbilligen 
to  reduce  the  price,  the  expense  of,  render  cheaper,  vereinfachen  to  simplify, 
verdeutschen  to  translate  into  German,  veredeln  to  ennoble,  verdicken  to  thick- 
en, versumpfen  to  become  like  a  swamp,  stagnant,  vergöttern  to  deify,  idolize, 
verketzern  to  brand  as  a  heretic,  versilbern  to  cash,  vertonen  to  set  to  music, 
einen  Roman,  ein  Drama  verfilmen  to  film  a  novel,  a  drama  so  that  it  can  be 
presented  in  the  form  of  moving  pictures,  vertrusten  to  form  into  a  trust,  ver- 
zuckern to  turn  (intrans.)  into  sugar.     This  is  a  large  productive  group. 

Nole.  Also  er-  has  perfective  force,  indicating  a  change  or  transformation  into  a  state  or  thing,  some  verbs  pre- 
ferring er-,  others  ver-:  erhöhen,  but  vertiefen;  erweitern,  but  verengen;  sich  ermannen,  but  s  ch  vernarren.  In 
a  number  of  cases  ver-  has  supplanted  er-  since  early  N.H.G.:  in  early  N.H.G.  erarmen,  erfaulen,  ergrößern,  er- 
hungern, &c.,  all  now  with  ver-.  In  other  cases  er-  has  supplanted  ver-,  as  in  erschrecken.  In  dialect,  however, 
the  form  may  be  preserved  that  has  been  rejected  in  the  literan.'  language:  Er  ist  ganz  verschreckt  (Uschci  in  Mar- 
riot's  Der  geislliche  Tod,  chap.  vi).  Except  in  a  few  cases  ver-  is  now  used  exclusively  in  case  of  verbs  formed  from 
nouns:  versteinern,  verwässern,  &c.  There  is  a  slight  shade  of  difference  in  meaning  between  verbs  with  er-  and 
those  with  ver-,  not  always,  however,  can  the  difference  be  seen.  Those  with  er-  represent  tlie  tran-formation  as  a 
process  of  development,  while  those  with  ver-  represent  it  as  a  final  result:  ergriinen  to  grow  green  (of  the  grass), 
but  verewigen  to  immortalize,  versteinern  to  petrify;  jemanden  erbittern  to  exasperate,  irritate  somebody  (of  a 
temporary  condition),  but  jemanden  verbittern  or  jemandem  das  Leben  verbittern  to  embitter  someone  or  some- 
one's life  (of  a  chronic  condition). 

c.  It  often  has  effective  (3.  b  above)  force,  denoting  a  close  fusion  or  union: 
verschmelzen  to  fuse,  blend,  vermischen  to  mix  all  up,  confound,  blend,  ver- 
wachsen to  grow  together,  verbinden  to  join,  verketten  to  join  together  in  close 
intimate  relations,  &c.     This  is  a  large  productive  group. 

E.  It  sometimes  converts  intransitive  verbs  into  transitives:  verlachen  to 
deride,  from  lachen  to  laugh;    verspotten  to  ridicule,  from  spotten  (über  with 


247.  1. COMPOUNDS   AND   GROUP-WORDS 441 

ace.)  to  make  fun  of,  make  sarcastic  remarks  about;  verfluchen  to  curse,  damn, 
from  fluchen  to  swear,  &c.  Also  be-  converts  intransitive  verbs  into  transitives, 
but  there  is  usually  a  difference  of  meaning,  resulting  either  from  the  former 
concrete  meaning  of  the  two  prefixes  or  from  gradual  differentiation:  belachen 
to  laugh  at  (in  mirth),  verlachen  to  deride:  Die  guten  Witze  wurden  belacht, 
die  schlechten  verlacht.  Man  belacht  den  Sonderling,  but  Er  verlachte  mich 
mit  meinen  Träumereien.  Both  be-  and  ver-  indicate  intensity,  but  ver-  con- 
tains the  additional  idea  of  a  desire  to  injure  or  a  desire  to  attain  to  a  definite 
end:  befolgen  to  follow  closely  (Regeln,  Vorschriften  befolgen),  verfolgen  to 
pursue,  persecute,  give  chase  to  (Christen,  Ketzer,  ein  Schiff  verfolgen),  pursue, 
follow,  hold  (einen  Weg,  einen  Kurs  verfolgen). 

6.  wider  against  and  re-  or  hack:  wider'sprechen  (w.  dat.)  to  contradict, 
wider'legen  to  refute,  wider'stehen  (w.  dat.)  to  resist;  wider'rufen  (258.  1,  B.  a) 
to  retract,  repeal, -lit.  to  call  back;  widerhallen  (215.  II.  3.  A.  e)  re-echo,  &c. 

7.  zer  denotes  separation,  a  breaking  to  pieces,  dissolution,  a  scattering: 
zerbrechen  to  break  to  pieces,  zerschneiden  to  carve,  zerfleischen  lacerate, 
zerfließen  to  melt  away,  zerstreuen  to  scatter. 

8.  miß.  A.  This  is  a  very  productive  prefix,  expressing  failure,  error, 
something  false  or  the  opposite  of  the  simple  verb:  mißlingen  to  fail  of  success, 
mißdeuten  to  interpret  falsely,  mißfallen  to  displease,  mißbilligen  to  disapprove 
of,  mißgönnen  to  begrudge,  the  opposite  of  gönnen  to  be  glad  to  see  somebody 
have  something. 

B.  The  meaning  of  miß-  causes  no  trouble,  but  its  accent  in  composition 
with  verbs  has  become  uncertain.  In  some  verbs  the  prefix  is  usually  unac- 
cented, in  others  it  is  either  strongly  accented  or  unaccented,  and  is  hence 
treated  as  a  separable  or  inseparable  prefix.  In  the  main,  however,  even  tho 
accented,  it  is  not  separated  from  the  verb  in  the  literary  language  except  by 
zu  and  ge-  in  the  infinitive  and  participle,  where  sometimes  three  forms  can 
be  found  for  the  one  word:  zu  miß'deuten,  zu  'mißdeuten,  'mißzudeuten;  miß- 
'deutet,  ge'mißdeutet,  'mißgedeutet.  Thus  the  infinitive  and  participle  can 
in  a  number  of  verbs  be  treated  as  separable  or  inseparable  verbs,  and  the 
participle  may  in  addition  be  treated  as  if  made  from  a  compound  noun  (see  217) : 
ge'mißbilligt  (also  miß'billigt),  &c.  The  prefix  was  originally  unaccented,  but 
its  newer  use  of  placing  the  derivative  in  contrast  to  the  simple  verb  naturally 
resulted  in  shifting  in  such  cases  the  accent  upon  the  prefix  in  accordance  with 
its  logical  importance.  Such  participial  forms  as  'mißgedeutet,  &c.,  are  after 
the  analogy  of  adjectives  and  adjective  participles  such  as  'mißgelaunt  ill- 
humored,  which  (see  47.  2.  B.  c.  bb)  uniformly  accent  the  prefix.  Moreover  for 
rhythmical  reasons  the  prefix  is  regularly  stressed  in  all  forms  before  an  un- 
accented prefix:  mißzubehagen,  mißzuverstehen,  mißverstanden.  O  wie 
mißverstehen  Sie  mich! 

Tho  the  prefix  is  in  general  only  separated  in  the  above-mentioned  cases,  there 
is  a  slight  tendency  toward  complete  separation,  as  can  be  occasionally  heard 
in  facetious  or  sarcastic  language:  O  wie  verstehen  Sie,  mein  Vater,  mich  einmal 
wieder  recht  gründlich  miß!  (Immermann's  M.,  2.  5.)  Vogel  in  his  "Grarn- 
niatisch-orthographisches  Nachschlagebuch"  even  recommends  separation  in 
case  of  mißstimmen :  Du  stimmst  mich  stets  miß. 


COMPOUNDS  AND  GROUP-WORDS. 

247.  1.  Compounds.  A  compound  is  a  word  formed  by  the  close  union  of 
two  or  more  words  whose  meanings  blend  so  thoroly  as  to  produce  one  single 
idea.  The  natural  tendency  is  to  distinctly  mark  this  oneness  of  meaning  by  a 
oneness  in  form,  that  is,  by  writing  together  the  different  words  of  a  compound: 
Abendmahl  Lord's  Supper,  not  literally  evening  meal.  Languages  differ  in  the 
accuracy  with  which  they  distinctly  mark  compounds  as  such  by  writing  the 
parts  in  one  word.      German,  tho  more  careful  than  English  in  this  respect,  often 


442 OLD   GROUP-WORDS   &    COMPOUNDS 247.  1. 

fails  to  recognize  the  distinct  unity  in  a  group  of  words:  alt  und  jung  old  and 
young  =  jedermann  everybody,  die  heilige  Schrift  Holy  Writ  =  die  Bibel 
Bible,  kaltes  Blut  sang-froid  =  Kaltblütigkeit. 

A  compound  originates  in  a  group  of  words  which  stand  in  close  syntactical 
relations  to  one  another  and  have  a  certain  oneness  of  meaning.  Such  a  group 
— here  called  a  group-word — has  two  strong  stresses,  one  a  little  stronger  than 
the  other.  The  origin  and  classes  of  group-words  are  discussed  at  consid- 
erable length  below\  A  compound  often  develops  out  of  a  group-word  as  the 
different  syntactical  members  of  the  group-word  often  lose  their  literal  meaning, 
as  in  case  of  Abendmahl  Lord's  Supper,  originally  and  historically  evening  meal, 
or  their  meaning  and  syntactical  force,  as  in  case  of  Herzog  duke,  lit.  leader  of  the 
army,  but  now  no  longer  felt  as  having  this  meaning  or  as  indicating  these 
syntactical  relations,  altho  originally  the  literal  meaning  and  the  syntactical 
relations  were  distinctly  felt.  Sometimes  the  members  of  the  group-word 
acquire  a  distinct  oneness  of  meaning  and  a  peculiar  signification  altho  the 
literal  meaning  and  the  original  syntactical  relations  are  still  felt,  as  in  das 
Dritteil  third,  from  das  dritte  Teil  (formerly  neut.,  now  masc.)  the  third  part. 
In  proportion  as  the  idea  of  the  oneness  of  meaning  grows  the  idea  of  group 
becomes  obscured  and  the  compound  develops.  If  this  development  continues, 
the  compound  develops  into  a  simple  word  with  only  one  strong  stress:  Schulze 
village  mayor,  from  Schultheiß  (i.e.  Schuldheiß)  mayor,  lit.  one  who  commands 
the  performance  of  duty,  a  compound  still  in  use;  Drittel  third,  from  Dritteil. 
When  the  same  unaccented  syllable  occurs  in  a  number  of  reduced  compounds, 
as  in  Drittel,  Viertel,  Fünftel,  &c.,  the  syllable  becomes  a  suffix.  Thus  out  of 
compounds  develop  suffixes  and  simple  words.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the 
idea  of  group  remains  intact  as  in  a  group-word,  the  vowels  of  the  components 
have  the  same  quality  as  in  independent  words,  while  the  vowels  of  compounds 
are  often  different  from  those  of  independent  words.  Thus  in  the  group-word 
Heerführer  commander,  lit.  leader  of  the  army,  the  first  component  has  the  same 
vowel  as  in  the  independent  word  Heer  army,  the  vowel  having  become  long  in 
early  N.H.G.  in  both  component  and  independent  word,  while  in  the  compound 
Herzog  it  is  still  short  as  in  M.H.G.  In  the  compound  elend  miserable,  lit.  in  a 
foreign  land  no  one  now  feels  that  the  second  component  has  any  relation  to 
Land.  The  two  stresses — -somewhat  reduced  in  strength  however — alone  indi- 
cate that  the  word  is  a  compound.  It  stands  on  the  boundary  between  a  com- 
pound and  a  simple  word. 

2.  Group-words.  Group-words  are  old  syntactical  groups  or  modern  forma- 
tions after  the  analogy  of  old  syntactical  groups  which  have  differentiated  them- 
selves more  or  less  from  modern  groups,  so  that  they  are  written  as  one  word 
by  way  of  distinction:  Kopfverletzung  (group-word),  but  Verletzung  des 
Kopfes  (modern  group).  In  the  group- word  the  first  member  is  stressed,  in  the 
modern  group  the  last  member. 

There  are  three  classes  of  group-words  and  compounds,  which  represent  dif- 
ferent stages  of  development. 

a.  Old  Group-words  and  Compounds.  In  old  group-words  the  first  member 
of  the  group  has  no  case  ending.  It  is  a  bare  stem  and  represents  the  oldest 
stage  of  development  when  the  language  did  not  have  inflectional  forms  for 
adjectives  and  nouns.  With  the  help  of  a  fixed  word-order — the  modifying 
element  always  being  in  the  first  place — the  mere  juxtaposition  of  the  members 
suggests  the  syntactical  relations  and  makes  the  idea  clear:  subject  relation, 
with  the  force  of  a  subjective  genitive:  firdbeben  earthquake,  i.e.  the  earth 
quakes;  the  relation  of  a  genitive  of  origin  or  cause:  Wässerschäden  damage 
from  or  caused  by  w^ater;  the  relation  of  a  possessive  genitive:  Bäumsaft  sap  of 
the  tree,  Fußgelenk  joint  of  the  foot;  the  object  relation:  Weintrinker,  Schuh- 
macher, Blutvergießen;  the  prepositional  relation:  blutbespritzt  (mit  Blut 
bespritzt);  the  adjective  relation:  Gästfreund  (ein  Freund,  der  ein  Gast  ist), 
Steinkrug  (ein  Krug,  der  von  Stein  ist).  Notice  that  in  this  primitive  type  of 
expression  subject,  object,  &c.  precede  the  member  containing  the  verbal  idea 


247.  2.  b.  YOUNGER   GROUP-WORDS   &   COMPOUNDS 443 

or  the  governing  noun,  as  they  are  felt  as  modifiers  of  it  or  as  having  grammatical 
relations  to  it.  There  is  here,  however,  little  danger  of  confusion  as  attested 
by  the  wide  use  of  this  construction  in  modern  speech.  Notice  also  that  instead 
of  Blutvergießen,  &c.  we  say  in  English  shedding  of  blood,  as  we  have  dissolved 
all  such  old  descriptive  group-words  into  modern  groups,  which  require  the 
stressed  member  to  stand  in  the  last  place  in  the  group.  German  more  easily 
retained  the  old  group-word  form  since  it  was  supported  elsewhere  by  old 
descriptive  groups  with  the  same  word-order  and  scress,  namely:  (1)  in  attribu- 
tive adjective  groups:  der  vom  Regen  triefende  Hut,  das  vom  Meere  umgebene 
Land;  (2)  in  end-groups,  in  groups  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  with  end-stress 
(215.  II.  1.  A,  3rd  par.):  Er  will  Blut  vergießen.  Er  hat  Blut  vergössen.  Das 
Haus  ist  von  Bäumen  umgeben.  Old  group-words  are  also  well  preserved  in 
English  and  have  attained  even  wider  boundaries  than  in  German  where  the 
logical  force  of  the  first  member  is  distinctly  felt:  cotton  crop,  pure  food  laws, 
infant  class,  toothbrush,  &c.,  as  we  feel  the  logical  contrast  to  other  kinds  of 
crops,  laws,  classes,  brushes.  For  fuller  treatment  of  English  usage  see  255.  I.  h 
(2nd  par.).  In  descriptive  groups,  however,  old  group-words  are  much  less  used 
than  in  German,  so  that  such  old  group-words  must  in  English  usually  be  dis- 
solved into  modern  descriptive  groups:  müskelschwäch  weak  in  muscle,  meer- 
umgeben  surrounded  by  the  sea,  Steinkrug  stone  jar,  &c.  Notice  that  in  the 
last  example  the  old  group  is  In  English  transformed  into  a  modern  group,  not 
by  changing  the  word-order  but  by  merely  transferring  the  stress  from  the  first 
to  the  second  member,  as  this  simple  procedure  is  sufficient  to  convert  an  old 
group  into  a  modern  group  when  the  first  member  is  construed  as  an  adjective. 
See  215.  I.  3.  Historical  Note  for  the  explanation  of  the  fact  that  compound 
verbs  do  not  assume  the  form  of  old  group-words. 

A  large  nurnber  of  German  group-words  from  this  class  have  developed  into 
compounds:  Abendmahl,  Gröbschmied  a  smith  who  manufactures  coarse  iron 
articles,  Äugäpfel,  Konigsee  (city),  Sälzäch  (river),  &c.  Also  Old  English  com- 
pounds have  been  well  preserved,  as  the  oneness  of  meaning  and  the  loss  of 
concrete  literal  force,  i.e.  the  loss  of  feeling  for  the  meaning  of  the  parts,  were 
factors  that  naturally  tended  to  preserve  the  original  form,  for  the  forces  that 
were  elsewhere  active  for  dissolution  of  the  parts  were  here  not  felt  at  all :  star- 
board, cowslip,  bridegroom,  &c. 

b.  Younger  Group-words  and  Compounds.  In  many  later  formations  we  find 
inflection  in  the  modifying  word  to  indicate  the  grammatical  relation:  (sub- 
jective genitive)  Sonnenaufgang,  Herzensergüß ;  (objective^  gen.)  Ländesver- 
teidigung; (dative)  erdenfern;  (adjective)  Rotkehlchen,  Ältenbürg,  Neuen- 
bürg, jedermann  (-mann  with  its  older  meaning  of  Mensch  as  still  preserved 
in  English  man);  (preposition)  Unterseeboot,  Überseedampfer,  &c.  We  say 
ein  rotes  Kehlchen,  eine  junge  Frau,  über  See,  but  ein  Rotkehlchen,  eine 
Jungfrau,  ein  Überseedampfer.  The  clear  development  of  the  idea  of  a  group- 
word  or  compound  in  a  modern  group  thus  often  converts  a  modern  group  into 
a  younger  group-word  or  compound.  Modern  group-words  and  compounds, 
however,  often  preserve  their  original  modern  group-stress.  See  c  below.  The 
reason  that  all  modern  compounds  and  group-words  do  not  thus  assume  younger 
group-word  stress  is  that  the  accent  of  the  younger  compound  or  group-word 
stands  in  open  conflict  with  the  pronounced  descriptive  force  of  these  groups. 
Compare  249.  II.  1.  A. 

Group-words  and  compounds  with  an  endingless  adjective  as  the  first  mem- 
ber may  in  some  instances  have  been  originally  old  group-words  and  compounds, 
but  it  is  probable  that  most  of  them  are  younger  group-words  and  compounds 
from  the  older  periods  when  the  adjective  did  not  have  distinctive  forms  for  all 
its  cases  and  genders,  as  explained  in  249.  II.  1.  In  all  cases,  however,  they 
have  the  stress  of  old  group-words  and  compounds,  indicating  thus  clearly  that 
they  have  given  up  their  modern  stress  under  the  influence  of  the  old  group- 
words  of  the  same  form.  Also  many  group-words  with  an  inflected  adjective 
as  the  first  member  have  followed  the  analogy  of  old  group-words  and  take  the 


444 CLASSIFYING   cS:    DESCRTPTIXE   STRESS  247.  2.  h. 

stress  upon  the  first  member.  Both  of  these  classes  of  group-words  are  here 
designated  younger  group-words  in  contrast  to  the  modern  group-words  in  c 
which  retain  their  original  stress.  They  are  younger  formations  than  the  old 
group-words,  but  they  now  hav^e  the  stress  of  the  old  group-words. 

A  large  number  of  stressed  genitives  that  in  oldest  German  and  English  stood 
before  the  governing  word,  now  stand  after  it,  while  unstressed  genitives,  as  in 
the  oldest  period,  still  stand  before  it:  Goethes  Leben  Goethe's  life,  but  das  Leben 
Goethes  the  life  of  Goethe.  The  tendency  to  place  the  strongly  stressed  genitive 
after  the  governing  noun  is  common  in  all  the  Germanic  languages  and  stands 
in  close  relation  to  the  tendency  to  place  the  strongly  stressed  modifier  of  the 
verb  after  the  verb.  Just  as  the  strongly  stressed  modifier  of  the  verb,  however, 
often  remains  before  the  verb,  so  does  a  strongly  stressed  genitive  often  remain 
before  the  governing  noun.  Such  a  strongly  stressed  genitive  did  not  follow  the 
tendency  to  take  a  place  after  the  governing  noun  because  it  was  felt  as  having 
a  different  force.  Thus  the  meaning  became  differentiated  according  to  the 
position  of  the  modifying  word.  When  the  stressed  genitive  stood  before  the 
governing  noun,  it  had  logical  force,  indicating  a  desire  to  distinguish,  or  classify, 
when  it  followed,  it  had  descriptive  force,  indicating  a  desire  to  describe:  with 
distinguishing  force:  An  meine  Mutter  schrieb  ich,  nicht  an  meinen  Väter; 
Luthers  Geburtstag,  nicht  Goethes  Luther  s  birthday,  not  Goethe's.  With  dis- 
tinguishing or  classifying  force:  eine  Fräuenhänd  a  ivomans  hand,  ein  Mannes- 
wort a  man's  ivord,  ein  Wespennest  a  ivdsp's  nest,  ein  Hornissennest  a  hornet's 
nest,  but  with  descriptive  force:  die  Belagerung  der  Stadt  the  besieging  of  the  city, 
der  Einzug  der  siegreichen  Truppen  the  entrance  of  the  victorious  troops,  &c. 
As  can  be  seen  by  the  translation  of  the  German  examples  the  younger  group- 
word  is  also  in  English  a  favorite.  It  is  often  employed  where  the  old  group- 
word  form  is  used  in  German,  but  this  construction  has  its  limitations  in  English, 
as  it  is  of  necessity  confined  to  words  that  may  take  an  s  in  the  genitive,  i.e.  desig- 
nations of  living  beings  and  words  denoting  a  unit  of  measurement:  a  bird's 
nest  ein  Vogelnest,  a  brewer's  cart  ein  Bräuerwägen,  baker's  bread  Bäckerbrot; 
a  boat's  length  eine  Schiffslänge,  a  stone's  throw  ein  Steinwürf,  &c.,  but  a 
whip-stock  ein  Peitschenstiel,  a  street-corner  eine  Straßenecke,  &c.,  as  the  first 
member  cannot  take  s  in  the  genitive.  Thus  outside  of  these  two  groups  English 
must  employ  the  old  group-word  form,  to  convey  distinguishing  force.  In 
English  a  modern  group  very  often  corresponds  to  an  old  or  a  younger  group- 
word  in  German:  breach  of  promise  Wortbruch,  letter  of  thanks  Dänkbrief, 
crown  of  thorns  Dornenkröne,  tour  of  inspection  Besichtigungsreise,  presence 
of  mind  Geistesgegenwart,  &c.  The  evident  reason  for  English  usage  is  that 
such  groups  have  descriptive  force.  Here  as  elsewhere  English  observes  much 
more  carefully  the  characteristic  differences  in  meaning  between  the  old  and 
the  younger  group-word  form  on  the  one  hand  and  the  modern  group  on  the 
other — the  former  with  distinguishing,  the  latter  with  descriptive  force.  Com- 
pare 255.  I.  b  (2nd  par.).  Altho  this  differentiation  is  not  so  sharp  in  German 
the  tendency  is  in  the  same  direction.  Both  old  and  younger  group-words  are 
freely  used  with  distinguishing  force  but  without  any  fixed  rule  for  the  use  of 
the  older  or  younger  form,  an  old  group-word  being  preferred  in  some  instances, 
a  younger  group-word  in  others:  Ohrverletzung,  Ohrenkrankheit;  Kindtaufe, 
Kindesgefühl,  Kleinkinderbewähranstalt,  &c.  There  is  sometimes  a  differen- 
tiation of  meaning  between  old  and  younger  group-words:  Herzkrankheit,  &c. 
with  reference  to  the  organ  of  the  heart,  but  Herzensangelegenheit,  &c.  with 
reference  to  the  heart  as  the  seat  of  feeling,  emotion.  In  general,  however, 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  replace  the  old  with  the  younger  formation,  as  it 
expresses  the  grammatical  relations  more  clearly.  Many  younger  group-words 
now  in  use  had  the  older  form  in  early  N.H.G.     See  249.  II.  1.  B.  b. 

A  stressed  modifying  genitive  that  precedes  its  governing  noun  still  not  in- 
frequently has  descriptive  force  as  in  older  usage,  which  did  not  recognize  dis- 
tinguishing or  classifying  force  as  the  normal  meaning  of  a  stressed  genitive 
that  preceded  its  governing  noun:   beim  Kriegsäusbruch  =  beim  Ausbruch  des 


247.  2.  r.  MODERN    GROUP-WORDS   &   COMPOUNDS 445 

Krieges,  gegenseitige  Freundschaftsversicherungen  =  gegenseitige  Versiche- 
rungen der  Freundschaft,  das  Fränkenreich  =  das  Reich  der  Franken,  See. 
Very  often  also  in  old  group-words,  altho  the  modifying  form  still  as  in  the 
prehistoric  period  has  no  formal  expression  for  the  grammatical  relations:  das 
schmale  meerumgebene  ( =  das  vom  Meere  umgebene)  Land.  As  the  stress 
here  on  the  first  member,  as  in  a  compound,  gives  the  impression  of  oneness 
of  meaning,  it  is  often  felt  as  desirable  on  mere  formal  grounds  to  employ  the 
old  or  the  younger  group-word  form:  Der  Vertägungsäntrag  Klotz  (name), 
where  by  its  form  the  group  Vertagungsantrag  is  brought  as  a  whole,  as  a  unit, 
into  apposition  with  Klotz.  The  impression  of  oneness  is  imparted  not  only 
by  the  stress  upon  the  first  member,  but  also  by  the  use  of  the  article  or  other 
adjective  modifiers  that  limit  the  second,  i.e.  the  basal,  component  and  hence 
the  thought  as  a  whole:  diese  einzige,  kleine  Grenzüberschreitung.  Of  course, 
the  old  or  younger  group  form  cannot  be  used  at  all  when  for  any  reason  it  is 
desired  to  break  up  the  idea  of  oneness  and  call  attention  to  a  detail  concerning 
the  first  member.  Thus  in  the  last  example  we  should  have  to  use  the  modern 
group  if  we  should  desire  to  modify  Grenze :  Die  Überschreitung  ihrer  (unserer, 
&c.)  Grenze.  Furthermore,  the  old  or  younger  group  form  is  often  found  useful 
to  avoid  ambiguity:  Die  durch  den  Krieg  notwendig  gewordenen  Gesetzent- 
würfe rather  than  die  Entwürfe  der  Gesetze,  die  durch  den  Krieg  notwendig 
geworden  sind,  as  the  relative  die  might  be  construed  as  referring  to  Gesetze 
instead  of  Entwürfe,  as  here  intended.  Of  course,  the  old  or  younger  form  has 
become  absolutely  fixed  in  compounds,  as  the  oneness  of  the  meaning  and  the 
loss  of  concrete  literal  force  resist  dissolution  into  a  modern  group:  Frankreich 
France,  formerly  =  das  Reich  der  Franken;  Sigmund  (name),  originally  =  der 
Schütz  des  Sieges,  &c.  English  development  is  somewhat  different.  Old 
English  group-words  with  distinguishing  force  are  well  preserved,  as  in  ciricbell 
church-bell,  but  those  with  descriptive  force  have  been  dissolved  into  modern 
groups,  as  in  ciricbryce  breaking  into  a  chiirch.     Compare  255.  I.  b. 

Younger  group-words  have  in  many  cases  developed  into  compounds:  Men- 
schensohn  Son  of  man,  Königsberg,  &c.  As  we  say  Fürstenberg  but  Fürsten- 
wälde  scholars  have  tried  to  establish  the  rule  that  the  stress  has  been  put  upon 
the  second  element  for  rhythmical  reasons  wherever  as  in  Fürstenwälde  it  has 
two  syllables.  The  dative  ending  e  here  in  -walde,  however,  seems  rather  to 
indicate  that  the  name  originated  in  a  modern  group — an  des  Fürsten  Walde — 
and  hence  naturally  stresses  the  second  member.  Many  other  names  have  a 
monosyllabic  form  as  the  second  component  and  nevertheless  take  the  stress 
upon  that  member,  which  seems  to  indicate  that  they  are  felt  as  modern  groups: 
Friedrichsruh,  Rippoldsau,  &c. 

c.  Modern  Group-iivrds  and  Compounds.  A  modern  group  becomes  a  modern 
group-word  when  a  modern  group  acquires  a  distinct  oneness  of  meaning,  with 
especial  frequency  where  by  a  change  of  function  a  group  becomes  a  single  word : 
ein  freiwilliges  Sichbegeben  (from  sich  begeben)  der  Stärke,  anstatt,  indem,  &c. 

Out  of  modern  group-words  have  arisen  a  large  number  of  modern  compounds, 
which  have  differentiated  themselves  from  modern  group-words  by  their  peculiar 
signification:  zufrieden  (zu  Frieden)  contented,  eine  alte  Jungfer  an  old  mäid, 
das  gelbe  Fieber  yellow  fever,  das  Schwärze  Meer,  der  Weiße  Saal  the  White 
Room  (of  the  Imperial  Palace  of  William  II  in  Berlin),  unsere  liebe  Frau  the 
Holy  Virgin,  Neustettin,  Jüngdeutschiand  (literary  movement);  eine  Müt- 
tergottes a  picture  of  the  Holy  Virgin,  der  Söhn  Gottes  the  Son  of  God,  die 
Kinder  Gottes,  &:c.  As  modern  group-words  and  compounds  have  no  peculiar 
form  differing  from  that  of  a  modern  group  few  of  them  have  as  yet  found  a 
formal  expression  in  the  written  language.  In  a  small  number  the  parts  are 
written  together,  in  a  few  others  the  adjective  component  is  begun  with  a 
capital. 

The  modifying  adjective  in  such  group-words  and  compounds  is  usually,  as  in 
a  modern  group,  inflected,  but  as  a  survival  of  older  usage  it  remains  uninflected 
in  many  set  expressions  containing  a  neuter  noun,  as  in  Neujähr  (see  also  249. 


446         THE  PARTS  OF  A  GROUP-WORD  OR  COMPOUND       247.  2.  c. 

II.  2),  Größberlin,  Jüngdeutschland,  auf  gut  Glück  at  random,  bar  Geld  cash, 
&c.,  in  poetry  sometimes  also  with  other  genders  in  order  to  add  a  touch  of 
endearment,  as  in  jung  Werner  (better  Jung-Werner)  in  Scheffel's  Trompeter. 
In  some  names  of  places,  as  Schonbrunn,  the  old  uninflected  masc.  form  is  found 
in  its  literal  meaning.     See  also  249.  ILL 

3.  Abbreviated  Compounds.  Compounds  are  often,  especially  in  colloquial 
language,  shortened  by  cutting  off  the  final  element:  der  Korn,  short  for  der 
Kornschnaps;  der  Ober,  short  for  der  Oberkellner;  der  Schnauz,  short  for 
Schnauzbart;  das  Vieruhr  for  das  Vieruhressen;  das  (under  the  influence  of 
das  Theater )  or  der  Kino  for  der  Kinematograph ;  das  Kilo  for  das  Kilogramm ; 
der  Vize  for  der  Vizefeldwebel ;  «&c.  Similarly  in  decomposites  the  final  dement  of 
the  modifying  component  may  be  suppressed :  Ölzweig  instead  of  Olbaumzweig,  &c. 

Parts  of  a  Group-word  or  Compound. 

248.  A.  Tho  a  group-word  or  compound  may  consist  of  two  words  or  several, 
it  can  as  a  rule  have  only  two  component  elements — the  basal  component,  which 
contains  the  more  general  idea,  and  the  modifying  component,  which  contains 
the  more  special  meaning,  usually  some  essential  modification  of  the  meaning  of 
the  basal  component,  and  hence,  on  account  of  its  logical  force,  accented: 
Zweig-eisenbahn  a  branch  railroad,  Vaterlands-liebe  love  of  native  land.  Each 
element  can  thus  be  either  simple  or  compound.  The  exceptions  to  the  rule 
that  a  compound  has  but  two  components  are  found  in  249.  II.  2. 

a.  If  several  compound  words  have  the  same  basal  or  modifying  compo- 
nent, the  element  which  they  have  in  common  need  only  be  expressed  once, 
but  a  hyphen  must  in  the  written  word  follow  the  modifying  element,  in  the 
first-mentioned  case,  and  precede  the  basal  element,  in  the  second  case:  Wiirfel- 
und  Schachspiel  the  games  of  dice  and  chess;  Wortableitung  und  -Zusammen- 
setzung formation  of  words  by  derivation  and  composition. 

b.  One  of  the  components  is  often  shortened  by  dropping  a  word,  as  the 
natural  tendency  is  toward  simpler  forms:  Bahnhof  railroad  depot,  for  Eisen- 
bahnhof. 

B.  The  basal  component  determines  the  part  of  speech  to  which  the  com- 
pound belongs  except  in  such  cases  as  in  249.  II.  2,  where  there  are  more  than 
two  components.  Since  every  part  of  speech  except  the  article  can  become  the 
basal  component,  all  parts  of  speech  except  the  article  can  form  group-words 
and  compounds:  Mannesmut  courage  of  a  man,  hilfsbedürftig  requiring  help, 
fünfzehn  fifteen,  derselbe  the  same,  bergab  down  hill,  &c.  In  inflected  words 
the  basal  component  stands  last  and  assumes  the  inflectional  endings  of  the 
compound  and  in  case  of  substantives  also  the  gender:  frühstücken  to  break- 
fast, ich  frühstücke;  das  Frühstück,  des  Frühstücks.  This  rule,  however,  holds 
only  in  a  broad  general  sense,  the  limitations  being  discussed  in  249.  II.  2. 

C.  The  accent  usually  rests  upon  the  modifying  element,  as  it  is  the  special 
point  to  which  the  attention  is  called.  There  are,  however,  manifold  excep- 
tions, and  the  whole  question  of  accent  in  compounds  is  treated  at  length  under 
the  head  of  Accent,  47.  3.  The  general  historical  explanation  has  been  given 
in  247.  2,  where  also  the  accent  is  treated  in  considerable  detail. 

249.  Form  of  Group-words  and  Compounds. 

I.     Old  Group-words  and  Compounds. 
The  first  member  is  a  bare  stem,  which  in  words  of  more  than  one  syllable 
ending  in  a  vowel  is  often  shortened:    Hausherr    (Haus -f  Herr),  ehescheu 
(Ehe  +  scheu),  Birnbaum  (Birne  +  Baum),  &c. 

a.  In  an  earlier  period  of  the  language  the  stem  of  a  word  was  not  always  identical  with  its 
nom.  sing,  as  to-day,  but  often  ended  in  one  of  the  vowels  a,  i,  u.  In  compounds  the  first  ele- 
ment always  stood  in  its  simple  stem-form,  the  second  element  was  inflected:  (O.H.G.)  N. 
taga-sterro  or  taga-stern  morning  star,  G.  taga-sterren  or  taga-sternes,   &c.     As  a  survival  of 


249.  II.  1.  A.  g.      YOUNGER  GROUP-WORDS  &  COMPOUNDS 447 

this  older  usage  are  still  found  a  few  words  with  the  final  stem  vowel  e  (which  is  the  usual  N.H.G. 
weakened  form  of  O.H.G.  a,  i,  uj :  Tagereise  a  day's  journey,  Badehaus,  &c.  In  a  few  words 
this  e  is  not  a  stem-ending  but  a  contraction  of  the  genitive  ending  -es  before  an  s-sound,  as  in 
Hundeschnauze,  Pferdesattel,  &.c.  Other  words  have  been  formed  after  this  model:  Pferdefuß, 
&c.  In  a  number  of  these  cases  the  e  is  now  felt  as  a  pi.  ending:  Tagebuch,  Pferdestall,  &c. 
In  most  cases,  however,  the  former  final  stem-vowel  has  disappeared:  Tagwache,  tagtäglich,  &c. 
This  vowel  instead  of  disappearing  has  become  productive  in  case  of  verbal  stems,  which  now 
freely  add  e,  especially  if  the  stem  ends  in  b,  d,  g,  s:  Sterbezimmer,  Ladestock,  Zeigefinger, 
Lesebuch,  Haltestelle,  &c.;  many,  however,  without  the  e,  as  in  case  of  nominal  stems:  Schreib- 
feder, Kaufleute,  &c.  In  general  the  old  stem-vowel  e  has  not  only  disappeared  in  a  large 
number  of  words,  but  this  old  formation  of  stem-composition  is  often  replaced  by  composition 
with  inflection  in  the  modifying  component,  as  described  in  II,  especially  in  modern  words: 
Tagespresse,  &c.  The  same  modifying  component  often  shows  all  three  formations,  the  forms 
differing  in  different  compounds  or  even  in  the  same  compound:  Tagedieb  or  Tagdieb,  Tagelohn 
or  Taglohn,  Tagewerk  or  Tagwerk,  Tagereise,  Tageslicht,  Tagesordnung,  &c.  In  case  of  ad- 
jectives the  modifying  component  may  have  different  forms  with  the  same  basal  element:  wort- 
brüchig, but  vertragsbrüchig;  gehaltreich,  but  verkehrsreich,  inhalt(s) reich;  gottfürchtig 
(Luke  ii.  25),  now  gottesfürchtig,   <S;c. 

b.  In  case  of  verbs  whose  stems  end  in  en  (now  always  contracted  to  n),  as  rechnen  to  cotmt, 
compute,  we  find  the  full  stem  only  in  compounds  and  group-words:  Rechenlehrer  arithmetic 
teacher. 

c.  If  the  stem  ends  in  a  vowel  it  is  usual  in  most  cases  to  suppress  the  vowel,  but  in  certain 
cases  the  vowel  is  retained,  especially  in  proper  names,  where  there  is  a  growing  aversion  to 
mutilation:  Erdball,  Saalbahn  Saale  Railroad,  but  Rachedurst,  Saale-Zeitung  (newspaper 
published  at  Halle  a.  S.),  &c. 

II.     Group-words  and  Compounds  with  Inflected  Modifying  Component. 

There  are  here  two  classes: 

1.  Younger  Group-words  and  Compounds  with  Stressed  Modifying  Component. 
These  formations,  such  as  Dritteil,  Edelmann,  &c.,  tho  not  so  old  as  old  group- 
words  and  compounds,  often  bear  plainly  the  marks  of  an  older  structural 
system  than  found  to-day  in  a  normal  modern  group.  As  explained  in  104.  2. 
E.  a,  the  modifying  adjective,  tho  here  never  a  bare  stem  and  always  a  form 
that  in  the  older  periods  could  stand  in  a  normal  group  of  a  sentence,  often  seems 
to  us  to  be  uninflected,  as  in  the  course  of  the  natural  phonetic  development  of 
the  language  the  endings  have  disappeared.  In  oldest  German  descriptive 
adjective  forms  with  the  endings  -er,  -e,  -a^  (now  es)  after  the  analogy  of  the 
common  demonstrative  forms  der,  die,  da^  (now  das)  had  already  begun  to 
replace  the  older  seemingly  uninflected  forms.  In  our  own  day  these  new 
forms  have  in  the  ordinary  normal  modern  group  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  older  forms  without  an  ending,  but  the  latter  survive  in  many  younger 
compounds  that  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  older  order  of  things.  The 
old  forms  survived  because  the  groups  in  which  they  stood  developed  into 
compounds,  which  as  set  expressions  naturally  resisted  further  development. 
Many  recent  group-words  and  compounds  have  been  coined  after  the  analogy 
of  these  older  formations. 

The  following  groups  appear: 

A.  Group-words  and  Compounds  with  an  Adjective  as  First  Member.  When 
the  idea  of  a  group-word  or  compound  develops  in  a  modern  group  there  is  a 
tendency  in  many  cases  to  convert  the  modern  group  into  a  younger  group-word 
or  compound  by  transferring  the  stress  from  the  second  to  the  first  member. 
There  are  two  classes  of  such  younger  group-words  and  compounds,  one  in  which 
the  adjective  is  seemingly  without  an  ending  as  in  older  periods,  as  explained  in 
1  above,  one  in  which  there  is  a  weak  or  strong  ending:  Dritteil  a  third,  Kleingeld 
change,  Rotkehlchen  robin  redbreast,  Edelmann,  Höchstpreis  (from  der  höchste 
Preis)  maximum  price  allowed  by  laiv,  a  common  word  during  the  Great  War, 
Hochkirch  (city),  Deutschland  (formerly  das  deutsche  Land),  Kleinschmidt 
(family  name);  Weißenfels  (from  zum  weißen  Fels),  jedermann  (gen.  jeder- 
manns, from  late  M.H.G.  ieder  man,  gen.  iedes  männes),  &c.  Compare  247. 
2.  b. 

a.  The  different  compound  elements  of  such  compounds  have  in  a  number  of  cases  become 
so  contracted  and  corrupted  in  the  course  of  time  that  they  are  no  longer  clearly  distinguished: 


448 FORM  OF  YOl'NGER  GROUP-WORDS  249.  II.  1.  A.  a. 

Hoffart  pride,  arrozntnc.  from  older  hochfart,  from  hoch  high  and  "Eahrt  riding,  living;  Jungfer 
maid,  miss,  from  Jungfrau;  Junker  young  nobleman,  from  M.H.G.  juncherre  =  junger  Herr,  <S:c. 

B.  A  Genitive  of  a  Noun  as  First  Member.  In  some  group-words  and  com- 
pounds the  syntactical  relation  between  the  components  is  clearly  that  of  a  noun 
and  its  modifying  genitive:  (str.  gen.)  Gottesdienst  divine  service,  public  wor- 
ship of  God,  Frühlingsregen  spring  rain,  Wirtshaus  inn,  tavern,  Herzenslust 
desire  of  one's  heart,  Glaubensfreiheit;  (wk.  gen.)  Hirtenstab  shepherd's  staff, 
Gräfenständ  dignity  and  rank  of  a  count;  (pi.  gen.)  Stundenplan  time-table, 
program  of  studies  or  recitations,  Blumenzucht  floriculture,  lit.  culture  of  flowers, 
Wirteverein  association  of  tavern  keepers,  Gasterecht  the  rights  of  foreigners, 
Städtebünd  confederation  of  cities,  Völkerbund  league  of  nations,  Gptterlehre 
mythology,  treatise  on  the  ancient  gods;  also  many  proper  names:  Königsberg, 
&c.;    fgen  pi.)  Pharaonenreich  realm  of  the  Pharaohs,  &c. 

Such  substantives  are  formed  by  placing  the  singular  or  the  plural  ending  of 
the  strong  or  weak  genitive  form  of  the  modifying  component  before  the  basal 
component.  In  declining  such  compounds  the  genitive  form  of  the  modifying 
component  remains  constant  thruout  the  different  cases,  only  the  basal  compo- 
nent assuming  the  inflection. 

Note.  M.H.G.  usage  often  placed  the  article  which  belonged  to  a  governing  noun  before  the  preceding  dependent 
genitive:  der  gotes  segen.  As  many  such  old  forms  remained  after  this  M.H.G.  usage  gave  way  to  the  N.H.G.  rule 
that  the  preceding  modifying  genitive  retains  its  article,  while  the  governing  noun  is  without  one,  as  in  des  lieben 
Gottes  Segen,  it  is  evident  that  in  case  of  these  old  forms  the  preceding  genitive  and  the  following  governing  noun 
were  no  longer  felt  as  a  modern  group,  but  as  a  younger  group-word  or  compound  in  which  the  genitive  had  strong 
distinguishing  or  classifying  stress  and  force,  often  with  the  full  meaning  of  a  stressed  classifying  adjective,  so  that 
the  words  naturally  did  not  develop  into  a  modern  descriptive  group  with  unstressed  genitive  and  the  article  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  general  rule  for  group-words  and  compounds  followed  the  gender  and  case  of  the  last  component: 
der  Gottessegen  the  divine  blessing,  die  Kindesunschuld  the  childlike  innocence,  das  Schafsgesicht  the  stupid  look, 
das  Diebsgesicht  the  face  of  a  thief,  der  Freundesdienst  the  friendly  service,  der  Knäbenhüt  the  boy's  hat,  &c.  Thus 
this  X.H.G.  change  of  construction  has  forced  the  recognition  of  such  group-words  or  compounds  in  the  common 
orthography.  In  German  the  form  of  the  article  reveals  to  us  at  once  whether  the  words  are  considered  as  a  group- 
word  or  a  modern  group,  but  in  English  we  have  no  such  formal  evidence,  as  the  article  is  uninflected:  dieser  Hirten- 
stab Ihis  (pause)  shepherd's  staff,  dieses  Hirten  Stab  this  shepherd's  (pause)  staff  =  the  staff  of  this  shepherd.  The 
accent  in  both  English  and  German  is  usually  different  in  these  two  cases.  As  explained  in  247.  2.  b,  the  accent  is 
upon  the  first  member  in  case  of  a  group-word  or  compound.  There  is  thus  also  in  English  a  real  difference  between 
these  two  forms,  but  it  has  not  found  a  formal  expression  in  the  orthography  as  in  German. 

a.  In  a  number  of  words  the  old  weak  genitive  still  stands  in  such  group- 
words  and  compounds,  altho  the  same  words  have  elsewhere  long  since  become 
strong,  or  in  case  of  feminines  in  the  singular  have  lost  inflection:  Greisenalter 
(see  76.  I.  3.  b)  old  age,  Schelmenstück  piece  of  roguery,  Herzogenbusch  (70. 
1.  c.  (2)),  Spionenriecher  (63.  7.  c.  General  Note)  one  who  is  always  on  the  look- 
out for  spies,  Epigrammendichter  (63.  7.  c.  General  Note)  epigrammatist,  Ge- 
lehrtenversammlung (111.  10.  Note);  Sonnenschein  sunshine,  Freudentag  day 
of  joy,  &c.  In  a  number  of  words  the  old  feminine  genitive  of  the  strong  de- 
clension, which  was  exactly  like  the  nominative,  has  been  retained:  Rachegott 
god  of  vengeance,  Mußestunde  hour  of  leisure,  &c.  In  an  earlier  period  some 
of  these  strong  feminines  added  e  in  the  genitive  singular,  and  the  vowel  was 
mutated.  See  70.  2.  c.  This  old  genitive  survives  in  a  few  compounds:  Gänse- 
feder, Bräutigam  (the  first  component  being  the  genitive  of  Braut  with  an  i 
corrupted  from  e,  the  second  component  an  old  noun,  not  now  found  elsewhere, 
the  modern  form  of  O.H.G.  gomo  man,  related  to  Latin  homo),  &c. 

b.  The  connecting  of  the  two  components  by  an  s  or  es  (62.  D.  (1))  has  be- 
come very  popular,  probably  to  give  formal  expression  to  the  feeling  that  the 
modifying  component  stands  in  a  syntactical  relation  to  the  following  basal 
component,  hence  the  s  has  spread  to  a  large  number  of  words  originally  with- 
out it,  often  even  to  feminines,  where  Luther  rarely  has  an  s.  Note  especially 
the  following  cases  where  the  s  is  now  used: 

aa.  When  a  fem.  modifying  component  ends  in  -at,  -ut,  -heit,  -schaff,  -t  (in 
compounds  and  derivatives  only),  ion,  ung,  tat:  Freundschaftsdienst,  Hoch- 
zeitstag (but  Zeitpunkt;  see  dd  below),  Krönungstag,  &c. 

bb.  Usually  after  the  modifying  components  Acht,  Geschichte,  Hilfe,  Liebe, 
and  often  Miete:  Achtserklärung,  Geschichtsforscher,  Hilfstruppen,  Liebes- 
dienst, Miet(s  deute,  Miet(s)wagen,  &c.  Also  in  Kindtaufskuchen  (see  dd 
below),  Frauensperson,  Frauensleute,  Seelengüte  or  Seelensgute  (after  the 
analogy  of  Herzensgute).     In  the  last  three  cases  the  s  is  added  to  the  weak 


249.  II.  1.  B.b.ff. AND    COMPOUNDS 449 

gen.  Colloquuilly  the  ns  often  occurs  instead  of  n  in  Menschenskind  fellow, 
lad,  'my  boy':  Jakob:  1st  es  nicht  so,  Ohm  Reinhold?  Ulrichs:  So  ist  es, 
Menschenskind!  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  8). 

cc.  In  a  few  feminines  in  -d  and  -nähme:  Geduldsfaden,  Aufnahmsbe- 
dingung, &c. 

Note.  The  s  in  the  cases  in  aa,  bb,  cc  after  feminine  nouns  has  resulted  from  analogy,  the  feminines  following 
the  example  of  the  masculines  and  neuters.  It  first  appeared  in  the  thirteenth  century,  but  for  a  long  time  spread 
only  slowly. 

dd.  Often  when  the  modifying  compound  is  itself  a  compound,  except  of 
course  when  the  modifying  component  ends  with  a  feminine  other  than  those 
described  in  aa,  bb,  cc:  Weihnachtsabend,  but  Nachtfalter;  Handwerkszeug, 
but  Werkzeug;    Reichsverkehrsminister,  &c.,  but  Reichswehrminister,  &c. 

Nole.  The  reason  that  the  connecting  s  is  thus  often  found  in  decomposites  and  not  in  sim7)le  compounds  is  that 
decomposites  were  little  used  in  earlier  periods,  when  the  old  group-word  type  was  so  common.  They  came  into 
use  late,  when  the  younger  group-word  type  had  become  the  favorite  formation,  hence  the  s.  There  was,  however, 
also  a  natural  tendency  to  use  s  here  as  it  served  as  a  clear  boundary  line  between  a  compound  modifying  and  the 
basal  component:   Tobsuchtsanfall,  &c. 

ee.  The  connecting  s  now  often  stands  where  Luther  has  the  old  group-word 
form :  Aber  der  Vnterheubtman  gleubet  dem  Schiffherrn  vnd  dem 
Schiffman  mehr  |  denn  dem  das  Paulus  saget  (Acts  x.kvü.  11),  in  the 
revised  edition  Schiffsherrn  and  Schiffsmann. 

Sometimes  the  same  word  has  both  the  younger  form  with  s  and  the  older 
form  without  it,  with  differentiation  of  meaning:  Landmann  peasant,  Lands- 
mann fellow  countryman;    Wassernot  lack  of  water,  Wassersnot  inundation. 

//.  The  connecting  s  now  so  common  in  group-words  and  compounds  does 
not  always  have  the  force  of  a  genitive  singular  ending.  It  may  indicate: 
(1)  that  the  modifying  component  is  to  be  considered  as  an  appositive  to  the 
basal  component:  Jägersmann,  Rittersmann,  Lieblingsbuch,  «Sec,  after  the 
analogy  of  Volksmann,  Volksbuch,  where,  however,  the  s  represents  a  real 
genitive  ending.  (2)  It  may  in  fact  contain  a  plural  idea:  Diebesbande, 
Gastwirtsverein,  Freundeskreis,  Anwaltstag,  Bischofsversammlung,  Jüng- 
lingsverein Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  Kardinalskollegium  college  of 
cardinals,  Heringsfang,  Offizierskorps  (Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan?,  xiii),  das 
beste  Offiziersmaterial  (ib.)  the  best  material  out  of  which  officers  can  be  made, 
Schiffsverkehr,  Zwillingspaar,  &c.  Nouns  with  the  plural  ending  e  do  not  with 
absolute  freedom  enter  compounds  with  their  regular  plural  ending  as  do  most 
other  nouns,  but  they  often  take  an  s,  as  in  the  examples  given  above,  or  fre- 
quently have  the  form  of  an  old  group-word,  or  in  the  case  of  certain  nouns 
(see  a  above)  which  were  once  weak,  or  which  are  now  weak  or  strong,  or  after 
the  analogy  of  such  assume  the  weak  plural  ending  en:  Offizierkorps  (preferred 
to  the  form  in  s  by  a  number  of  grammarians),  Kopfzahl  number  of  persons 
present,  &c.;  Sinnenaufregung,  Spionenriecher,  Dokumentenwurm,  Inseraten- 
teil, &c.  In  S.G.  strong  nouns  can  readily  enter  into  compounds  with  their 
regular  plural,  as  the  plural  ending  -e,  which  often  seems  to  be  avoided  in  group- 
words  and  compounds,  is  regularly  dropped  even  in  the  simple  form  of  the  word, 
and  thus  the  endingless  plural  easily  enters  the  compound  as  a  sort  of  mutated 
stem:  die  Tannenästbahre  (Meinrad  Lienert's  Der  Strahler,  p.  191).  The  e 
in  the  formations  described  in  I.  a  above,  may  in  part  be  felt  as  a  plural  ending, 
but  it  was  originally  an  old  stem-suffix.  (3)  It  may  contain  the  idea  of  a  com- 
parison: engelsgut,  finger (s)lang,  lebensgroß,  kerzengerade,  &c.  In  a  num- 
ber of  cases  this  s  has  resulted  from  the  analogy  of  similar  noun  formations 
where  the  s  represents  a  real  genitive  ending:  Engelsgüte,  Fingerslänge,  &c. 
(4)  It  may  have  the  force  of  an  accusative:  das  Ineinander  von  wirklichkeits- 
bejahendem Realismus  und  wirklichkeitsüberflügelndem  Ideahsmus  (Otto 
Eißfeldt  in  Preußische  Jahrbücher,  1919,  p.  380),  geistestötend  (more  commonly 
geisttötend),  verfassungsgebend  (more  commonly  verfassunggebend),  wahr- 
heitsliebend, &c.  after  the  analogy  of  Geistestod,  Wahrheitsliebe,  «S:c.  (5)  The 
force  of  a  predicate  nominative:  weniger  von  jenem  seligen  Rausch  der  Jüng- 
lingswerdung  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Haindlkinder,  p.  61).  (6)  The  force  of  a 
dative:   gegenwartsnäher  (Prof.  Karl  Lamprecht  in  Frankfurter  Zeit.,  May  6, 


450 FORM    OF   YOUNGER   GROUP-WORDS     249.  II.  1.  B.  6.#. 

1914)  =  der  Gegenwart  näher;  mittelstandsfeindlich  (Dr.  Wirth  in  the  ''Natio- 
nalversammlung,'' April  2(3,  1920)  =  dem  Mittelstand  feindlich,  regierungs- 
freundlich, reichsfreundlich,  &c.  after  the  analogy  of  Reichsfreund,  &c.,  but 
real  compounds,  not  derivatives  from  them,  see  111.  7.  c.  (1);  erfahrungsgemäß, 
wahrheitsgetreu.  (7)  It  is  often  equivalent  to  a  prep,  phrase:  eine  Auflachens- 
neigung ihrer  Lippen  (Jensen's  Schatzsucher,  p.  288)  =  eine  Neigung  ihrer 
Lippen  zum  Auflachen;  Arbeitslosenfürsorge  =  Fürsorge  für  die  Arbeitslosen; 
Auslandsaufenthalt  (Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  Oct.  1914,  p.  377)  =  Aufenthalt  im 
Ausland;  in  dem  Kreuzestod  Christi  (Adolf  Metz  in  Preußische  Jahrbücher, 
Nov.  1914,  p.  214)  =  in  dem  Tode  Christi  am  Kreuze;  Vom  Gegenwartswert 
des  griechischen  Unterrichts  auf  dem  Gymnasium  (ib.,  Dec.  1915,  title  of  an 
article  by  Ma.\  Siebourg)  =  vom  Wert  des  griechischen  Unterrichts  auf  dem 
Gymnasium  in  der  Gegenwart,  but  much  clearer  and  hence  better  as  it  brings 
Gegenwart  near  the  word  (Wert)  which  it  modifies. 

The  use  of  -s  in  such  varied  relations  clearly  shows  that  it  is  no  longer  felt  as 
a  genitive  ending.  It  is  a  new  formative  indicating  a  syntactical  relation 
between  the  two  components,  thus  performing  exactly  the  same  grammatical 
function  as  in  old  group-words  the  simple  stem,  which  in  quite  a  different  way, 
namely  by  the  entire  absence  of  inflection,  also  indicates  a  syntactical  relation 
between  the  two  components.  Altho  both  the  old  form  with  the  simple  stem 
and  the  new  form  with  the  ending  -s  merely  indicate  a  syntactical  relation 
without  specifying  it  definitely  the  connection  usually  makes  the  thought 
entirely  clear,  so  that  both  constructions  by  reason  of  their  pithy  terseness  have 
come  into  wide  use. 

c.  The  connecting  of  the  two  components  by  an  -en,  the  weak  genitive  end- 
ing, tho  not  so  popular  as  that  of  -s,  has  spread  to  a  number  of  words  originally 
without  it.  Especially  those  feminines  now  ending  in  -e  which  were  originally 
strong  take  this  -en  in  compounds  after  the  analogy  of  weak  feminines,  which 
formerly  ended  regularly  in  -en  in  the  genitive  sing. :  Gnadenakt,  Säulenknopf, 
Entenschnabel,  &c.  Some  words  enter  into  compounds  with  their  simple 
stem  or  the  weak  genitive  ending  with  differentiated  meaning:  Erdgeruch  smell 
of  fresh  earth,  but  in  figurative  sense  Erdengeschick  lot  of  this  earth  or  world, 
human  fate,  &c. 

Masculines  do  not  usually  take  an  -en  when  they  are  not  entitled  to  it,  but 
weak  masculines  often  take  an  -en,  especially  in  derivatives,  altho  corresponding 
strong  nouns  enter  similar  formations,  not  with  the  strong  genitive  ending  -s, 
but  with  their  simple  stem:  bubenhaft,  but  schülerhaft;  Fürstentum,  but 
Kaisertum,  &c.  See  245.  II.  7.  The  -en,  as  -s  in  b.  ff.  (1)  above,  not  only 
denotes  the  genitive  relation  but  may  also  indicate  that  the  modifying  compo- 
nent is  to  be  considered  as  an  appositive  to  the  basal  component:  Hirtenknabe, 
Botenfrau,  &c.  Sometimes  this  weak  genitive  is  used  where  in  a  strict  sense  a 
predicate  nominative  should  be  employed:  Die  Zeit  der  Austrocknung,  Ver- 
sandung und  Wüstenwerdung  (Dr.  Max  Eckert  in  Westermanns  Monatshefte, 
Oct.  1906,  p.  140).  Thus  -en  is  now  sometimes  used,  just  as  -s  in  b.  ff  above, 
as  a  formative  to  indicate  a  grammatical  relation  between  the  two  components. 

C.  An  Adverbial  Element  as  First  Member.  In  many  group-words  the  modi- 
fying component  stands  in  the  relation  of  a  modifying  adverb  or  preposi- 
tional phrase:  hochbegabt  highly  endowed,  weitverbreitet,  aufstehen,  Aufstand, 
Wohltat,  Anten,  Ausland,  Inland,  Hinterland,  Mitbürger,  Nebenfluß,  übergroß, 
landesübHch,  ortsangesessen,  Inbe'triebsetzung,  &c.  To  this  group  of  group- 
words  belongs  the  large  class  of  verbs  with  a  separable  prefix  (215.  II.  1.  B.  a) 
or  prepositional  phrase  (215.  II.  1.  B.  d).  These  are  not  fixed  group-words,  as 
the  prefix  is  separable  in  simple  tenses  in  principal  propositions.  Nouns  made 
from  such  verbs  are,  however,  fixed  formations:  Ausgang,  In'standsetzung,  &c. 
There  is  also  in  case  of  verbs  a  tendency  toward  the  fixed  form.     See  215.  II.  2.  c. 

Instead  of  a  younger  group-word  or  an  end-group  (247.  2.  a),  or  an  attributive 
adjective  group  (247.  2.  a)  we  still  often  find  the  old  group-word  form,  where 
the  preposition  and  sometimes  the  number  of  the  noun  and  other  grammatical 


249.  II.  2.  MODERN   GROUP-WORDS   &   COMPOUNDS 451 

relations  must  be  gathered  from  the  context:  regentnefend  =  von  Regen 
triefend,  windumräuscht  =  vom  Winde  umräuscht,  bäum-  und  büschum- 
geben  (Spielhagen's  In  Reih'  und  Glied,  3,  76)  =  von  Bäumen  und  Büschen 
umgeben.  In  many  instances  the  phiral  idea  here  finds  a  formal  expression  by 
means  of  a  plural  ending,  but  it  is  the  mere  plural  stem  without  expression  of 
the  idea  of  case:  von  den  Riesenstädten  mit  iliren  schiffewimmelnden  Häfen, 
der  häuserumgebene  Platz,  &c. 

D.  The  modifying  component  may  be: 

(1)  The  object  (215.  II.  1.  B.  c)  of  the  verbal  stem  contained  in  the  basal 
component,  as  in  stattfinden  to  take  place,  freudebringend,  menschenbeglückend, 
or  in  case  of  adjectives  it  may  be  the  objective  predicate  (104.  2.  A.  c  and  215. 
II.  1.  B.  b),  as  in  großziehen  to  bring  up,  rear.  Such  compounds  are  in  large 
part  separable  verbs,  and  hence  are  not  fixed  compounds.  In  case  of  verbal 
nouns  the  object  is  sometimes  in  the  ace,  sometimes  in  the  gen.:  (ace.  sing.) 
Mäßhalten  or  Mäßhaltung,  Besitzergreifung,  Äuskunftgeber,  ace.  pi.  Hüte- 
schwenken;  (gen.  sing.)  Gehorsamsverweigerung,  Friedensbrecher,  &c.  The 
words  in  the  accusative  group,  tho  for  the  most  part  modern  formations  and 
now  felt  as  accusatives,  may  also  be  classed  as  old  group-words,  for  they  have 
also  the  form  of  old  group-words  and  the  oldest  members  of  the  group  had  in 
Gothic  a  distinctive  stem  (I.  a)  ending,  indicating  clearly  that  they  were  old 
group-words. 

(2)  The  modifying  component  may  be  the  object  of  an  adjective  in  the  gen. 
or  dat.  according  as  it  governs  the  gen.  or  dat.  in  the  sentence:  lebensmüde 
tired  of  life,  vorwurfsvoll  reproachful,  herzensfroh,  seelenfroh  or  seelensfroh 
(after  the  analogy  of  herzensfroh),  strahlenreich,  problemenreich  {Beilage  zur 
Allg.  Ztg.,  No.  203,  1904,  p.  446;  pi.  here  weak  after  the  analogy  of  strahlen- 
reich, «&c.,  as  the  pi.  in  -e  is  often  avoided  here  as  in  B.  b.Jf.  (2).);  milchähnlich 
milklike,  gottergeben  resigned  to  the  will  of  God,  devout.  Altho  the  gen.  form 
is  always  clearly  marked  here,  the  dat.  form  rarely  takes  a  clear  dat.  ending 
except  in  case  of  weak  nouns,  and  there  it  remains  uncertain  whether  the  number 
is  sing,  or  pi.:  gottähnlich  (not  gotteähnlich),  but  menschenähnlich.  In 
erdenfern  far  from  earth  and  its  cares  we  have  a  clear  case  of  the  old  dative 
form. 

Instead  of  a  younger  group-word  the  old  group-word  form  is  still  very  common 
here:  kampfmüde  tired  of  fighting,  denkgewohnte  Männer  men  accustomed  to 
think  (=  des  Denkens  gewohnte  Männer),  &c. 

E.  The  modifying  dement  may  be  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective :  die  Mensch- 
werdung the  incarnation,  lit.  the  becoming  a  man,  das  Flüssigwerden  fester 
Körper,  das  Gefühl  des  Stärkerseins;  (objective  predicate)  Bekanntmachung, 
&c. 

2.     Modern  Group-words  and  Compounds. 

The  development  of  modern  group-words  and  compounds  with  stress  upon 
the  second  member  out  of  modern  groups  with  stress  upon  the  second  member 
and  their  differentiation  in  meaning  from  old  and  younger  group-words  have 
been  treated  in  247.  b  and  c.  While  in  general  the  two  classes  are  clearly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  logical  force  of  the  modifying  component  in  old  and  younger 
group-words  and  compounds  and  its  descriptive  force  in  modern  groupwords  and 
compounds,  this  distinction  sometimes  entirely  disappears  in  compounds  made 
from  sentences  or  fragments  of  a  sentence,  where  the  desire  is  not  to  convey 
the  sentence  with  the  concrete  force  of  the  words  as  a  sentence  but  to  indicate 
a  type  of  people,  animals,  or  things  by  a  short  characterization.  It  here  becomes 
necessary  to  distinguish  the  compound  from  the  sentence  by  placing  the  stress 
upon  the  first  member  as  in  younger  group-words  and  compounds  (247.  2.  b), 
altho  it  has  no  logical  force  whatever:  Päckän  big  watch  dog,  but  with  literal 
meaning  in  a  sentence:  Pack  an!  Seize  him!  Likewise  Säufäus,  Lügäus,  Lug- 
insland, Springinsfeld,  Schlagetot,  &c.  A  younger  group-word  with  an  adjec- 
tive as  second  member  can  be  used  thus  without  a  change  of  accent,  as  it  already 


452 MODERN    GROIP-WORDS   &   COMPOUNDS  249.  II.  2. 

has  this  stress,  but  it  differs  from  an  ordinary  younger  group-word  in  having 
no  inflection:  ein  alter  Schadenfroh.  These  sentence  compounds  are  common 
also  in  EngUsh:  a  gad-about,  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  such  modern  groups  in 
German,  even  tho  used  as  substantives,  often  have  modern  group-stress  where 
the  Hteral  force  of  the  components  is  distinctly  felt,  as  in  ein  warmes  Lebewohl. 
See  also  H  below. 

Likewise  a  number  of  proper  names,  where  the  literal  force  of  the  compo- 
nents is  not  felt  at  all,  have  given  up  their  modern  descriptive  stress  upon  the 
last  component  andjiave  assumed  the  stress  of  younger  group-words  and  com- 
pounds: Amsteg,  Imhof,  names  of  places;  (2)  certain  Swiss  family  names: 
Von  der  Mühl,  Auf  der  Mauer,  &c. 

The  development  of  a  new  or  somewhat  different  meaning  in  modern  descrip- 
tiv^e  groups  in  which  the  first  member  is  an  adjective  or  a  preposition  often  results 
in  development  into  younger  group-words  and  compounds  (247.  2.  b):  Kürz- 
wären hard -ware,  i.e.  nails,  screws,  etc.,  but  sometimes  still  with  its  modern 
endings  and  modern  group-stress:  kürze  Wären.  The  trend  toward  younger 
group-words  is  especially  strong  in  decomposites,  and  in  derivatives  it  has  become 
the  fixed  form:  Kürzwarenhändler;  mein  wärmherziger  Freund,  but  Mein 
Freund  hat  ein  warmes  Herz;  überseeisch,  but  über  See;  vormärzlich,  but 
vor  dem  März  (des  Revolutionsjahres  1848) ;  widernatürHch,  but  wider  die 
Natur;  &c.  See  also  245.  II.  9.  1.  b.  The  memory  of  the  original  modern 
group-stress  here,  however,  is  often  so  strong  that  it  is  retained  even  where 
inflection  has  been  dropped  and  the  parts  are  written  together:  Neujähr  Neiv- 
year,  still  perhaps  more  common  than  Neujähr;  Mittag  from  older  der  mitte 
(adjective)  Tag,  now  the  prevailing  form,  but  the  original  modern  group-stress 
is  still  found  in  poetry,  as  in  Nach  Mittage  säßen  wir  (Goethe's  Stirbt  der  Fuchs, 
so^  gilt  der  Balg),  and  in  many  modern  dialects;  Armsünderglocke,  das  Ärm- 
sündergesicht  or  Ärmesündergesicht,  die  Schwärze-Meer-Flotte  or  Schwärz- 
meerflotte, das  Zweimärkstück,  &c.     See  also  94.  6. 

Of  course,  the  desire  to  distinguish  often  leads  to  transferring  the  stress  from 
the  second  member  to  the  first:  Ich  wohne  nicht  in  Ältstrelitz,  sondern  in 
Neustrelitz,  but  usually  Ältstrelitz»  Neustrelitz.  On  the  other  hand,  the  opposite 
tendency  is  found.  In  a  few  names  of  places,  as  Sälzbrünn,  Sälzschhrf  the 
desire  to  describe  rather  than  to  distinguish  has  removed  the  stress  from  the 
first  to  the  second  element.  See  also  47.  3.  A.  e  (10)  and  g.  This  tendency  is 
marked  in  a  large  number  of  onomatopoeic  formations:  piffpäff,  &c.  See  also 
47.  3.  A.  e  (11).  In  a  number  of  names  of  places  there  is  fluctuation  of  usage. 
The  people  who  live  in  Weißensee  say  Weißensee  as  descriptive  stress  seems 
natural  and  sufficient  to  them,  but  others  pronounce  Weißensee  as  they  feel 
the  first  component  as  having  distinguishing  force.  In  Berlin  the  desire  to 
describe  leads  to  the  common  pronunciation  Vormittag,  Nachmittag,  which  of 
course  become  old  groups  again  when  there  is  a  desire  to  distinguish:  Komm 
nicht  vormittags,  sondern  nachmittags! 

In  general,^ however,  compound  nouns  retain  intact  their  original  group  form 
and  stress:  Aufgang,  aufgehen;  Verstand,  verstehen;  das  gelbe  Fieber,  das 
kälte  Fieber  (ague),  das  Röte  Meer,  &c.,  which  retain  their  original  group  form 
and  stress  except  that  occasionally  for  logical  reasons  they  assume  logical  stress, 
as  in  kaltes  Fieber,  nicht  gelbes  Fieber.  For  exceptional  development  of 
Durchstich  from  durchstechen  see  47.  3.  B.  a. 

The  following  groups  will  illustrate  the  kinds  of  modern  group-words  and 
compounds: 

A.  The  compound  consists  of  a  noun  and  its  modifying  adjective,  which  is 
inflected  as  well  as  the  noun:  der  Höhepriester  high-priest,  ein  Höherpriester, 
des  Höhenpriesters;  das  Höhelied  Song  of  Solomon,  des  Höhenliedes,  &c. 
Also  many  geographical  names:  Neuenteich  (=  zum  neuen  Teich),  &c.  Many 
of  these  compounds  have  a  stress  upon  the  first  member  as  they  have  become 
younger  compounds  (1.  A  above),  sometimes  with  the  modern  endings  of  the 
adjective,    sometimes    with    the    old    seemingly    endingless    form:     Altenburg, 


249.  II.  2.  F.  g.    MODERN  GROUP-WORDS  &  COMPOUNDS 453 

Hohenstein;  ein  Zweitmädchen  or  ein  zweites  Mädchen;    der   Geheimrat  or 
der  Geheime  Rät;   aus  Längweile  or  Längerweile. 

a.  A  number  of  adverbial  compounds  consist  of  a  noun  in  the  adverbial  gen., 
modified  by  an  adj.  in  the  gen.,  often  with  logical  stress  upon  the  first  component: 
nötigenfalls  or  nötigenfalls  in  case  of  need,  jedenfalls  at  all  events.  Ina  number  of 
pi.  compounds,  where  all  feeling  for  the  original  construction  has  been  lost, 
the  substantive  element  of  the  compound  has  dropped  its  gen.  pi.  ending,  and 
after  the  analogy  of  the  sing,  compounds  taken  on  the  ending  s,  altho  the  modi- 
fying adjective  still  remains  as  originally  in  the  gen.  pi.:  aller  Dinge  (seven- 
teenth century),  allerdings  (present  form)  to  he  sure,  certainly,  allerorts  every- 
where, &c.  In  a  number  of  such  compounds  the  substantive  element  adds  s 
even  to  fem.  nouns,  following  here  the  analogy  of  masculines:  seinerseits  upon 
his  part,  mütterlicherseits  upon  the  mother's  side.  For  a  similar  formation  see 
unterwegs,  223.  I.  10.  a. 

B.  The  article  forms  a  compound  with  a  following  adj.  or  noun:  derselbe, 
desgleichen. 

C.  A  noun  forms  a  group-word  or  compound  with  its  modifying  gen. :  Mut- 
tergottes, zeitlebens.  For  accent  see  47.  3.  A.  e.  (3).  Also  many  geographical 
names  (47.  3.  A.  g):  Rippoldsäu,  &c. ;  sometimes  also  common  class  nouns  as 
described  in  47.  3.  A.  e.  (3) :  Tagesänfang,  &c.,  very  common  in  English  in  groups 
containing  a  genitive  of  measure:  a  day's  journey,  a  thirty  years'  war,  &c.  The 
words  of  this  group  resemble  in  form  the  younger  compounds  with  distinguishing 
force,  described  in  1.  B  above,  but  differ  from  them  in  having  modern  group- 
stress  with  descriptive  force  (see  50.  A.  6./,  247.  2.  b.,  and  255.  II.  1). 

D.  The  name  of  a  material  or  something  measurable  forms  a  group-word 
with  some  word  denoting  a  measure,  quantity,  or  weight :  Viertelstünde  quarter 
of  an  hour.     See  126.  2.  a.  Note. 

E.  A  prep,  forms  a  group-word  or  compound  with  its  dependent  noun: 
abseiten.  Du  hattest  doch  hier  'n  sichres,  warmes  Zuhause  (Hauptmann's 
Friedensfest,  1).  Also  verbal  derivatives  are  formed  from  such  prepositional 
phrases:    übernachten,  überwintern. 

a.  In  some  of  these  words,  all  feeling  for  the  nature  of  the  compounds  having  disappeared, 
inflectional  endings  are  added  to  the  obHque  case  ending:  vorhanden  (dat.  pi.)  on  hand,  die 
vorhandenen  Vorräte  the  provisions  on  hand. 

F.  In  some  group-words  and  compounds  the  syntactical  relation  between 
the  parts  is  that  of  apposition,  co-ordination,  or  addition:  Göttmensch  God  in- 
carnate, Fürstbischof  a  bishop  who  has  also  the  dignity  of  a  prince,  Prinzregent 
a  prince  temporarily^^  filling  the  place  of  the  ruler,  Hanswurst  jack-pudding, 

Hansnarr  tom-fool;  Österreich-Ungarn  Austro-Hungary,  Meyer-Bremen  Meyer 
who  lives  in  Bremen,  das  Ministerium  Bismarck,  die  schwarzrote  Fahne  Würt- 
tembergs the  flag  of  Württemberg  consisting  of  black  and  red,  das  schwarzrot- 
goldene Banner  Deutschlands  1848  the  banner  of  Germany  in  1848  consisting  of 
black,  red,  and  gold;  Nordost,  Südwest;  einundzwanzig;  bimbambüm!  piffpäff ! 
a.  Not  all  words  indicating  a  co-ordination  of  parts  are  written  together  as 
one  word.  In  a  number  of  cases  a  pair  of  words  connected  by  und  or  oder  form 
a  single  idea,  when  the  two  words  are  synonyms,  and  thus  represent  the  same  thing 
from  two  different  standpoints,  or  are  opposites  or  complements,  and  thus  show 
the  whole  range  of  the  idea  from  the  two  extremes  (see  94.  5) :  sein  ganzes  Hab 
(die  Habe)  und  Gut  all  he  owns  or  all  his  property,  der  Verlust  ihres  Häb  und 
Gutes,  sein  Tun  und  Lassen  his  actions,  in  die  Kreuz  und  Quere  fragen  to  cross- 
examine,  in  die  Kreuz  und  Quere  schwatzen  to  talk,  chat  upon  this  subject 
and  that,  and  the  other  similar  examples  in  94.  5;  auf  ein  oder  die  ändere' 
Weise  in  one  way  or  another,  schwärz  und  weiße  Fahnen  flags  cojisisting  of  black 
and  white,  and  the  other  similar  examples  in  111.  7.  b.  In  the  preceding  examples 
the  inflection  of  only  the  second  of  the  two  words,  the  heavier  stress  upon  the 
second  word,  and  the  use  of  the  article  which  belongs  to  the  second  word  as  the 
article  for  the  combination,  clearly  stamp  them  as  compounds,  tho  not  written 
as  such.     In  many  other  cases  words  are  in  fact  compounds  as  indicated  by  the 


454 MODERN  GROUP-WORDS  &  COMPOUNDS    249.  II.  2.  F.  a. 

stress  upon  the  last  component,  but  the  absence  of  an  inflectional  ending  in  the 
second  part  does  not  show  it  so  clearly:  weit  und  breit,  in  Sack  und 
Äsche  trauern  to  repent  in  sackcloth  and  ashes,  durch  dick  und 
dünn,    über   Land    und    Meer. 

G.  In  some  modern  group-words  the  syntactical  relation  between  the  parts 
is  that  of  verb  and  object:  das  immer  erneute  Sichflüchten  zu  dem  Herrn 
(Brückner),  Sichüberheben,  Sichvergessen.  In  accordance  with  older  usage 
the  reflexive  object  is  still  often  omitted  here,  especially  in  certain  words,  par- 
ticularly in  connection  with  selbst:  sich  befinden,  but  Befinden;  sich  hingeben, 
but  Hingäbe  or  Hingeben;  sich  selbst  beherrschen,  but  Selbstbeherrschung, 
&c.  See  also  188.  a.  A  dative  object  is  sometimes  found:  Sichselbstüber- 
lässensein,  &c.  A  dative  of  reference  is  also  found:  Das  Menschenmögliche 
hab'  ich  getan  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  109). 

There  may  be  a  double  object,  an  ace.  object  and  an  objective  predicate: 
Sobald  ich  am  Menschen  dieses  unnötige  Wesen  und  Sich-mäusig-mächen 
bemerke,  so  lasse  ich  ihn  laufen  (G.  Keller  an  T.  Storm,  5.  Juni  1882).  Also 
a  dative  and  a  direct  object  in  the  form  of  a  dependent  infinitive:  das  träge 
und  knechtschaffene  Sich-genügen-lässen  am  Regiertwerden  von  oben  herab 
(Der  Türmer,  Jahrg.  VI,  p.  352). 

The  verbal  stem  may  be  modified  by  both  an  object  and  a  prepositional 
phrase:  Dein  seliger  Vater  würde  darin  kaum  eine  Ursache  zum  Sichimgräb- 
ümdrehen  finden  (Baumbach 's  Der  Schwiegersohn,  v). 

H.  A  whole  sentence,  or  the  important  part  of  it,  may  become  a  group-word 
or  compound,  especially  in  imperative  sentences:  Lebehoch,  Lebewohl,  Göttlob 
(Gott  sei  Lob),  Gottseibeiuns,  Grüßgott,  Vergißmeiniücht,  unser  Märchen  vom 
Tischleindeckdich,  ein  warmes  Gütenächt  (Ich  wünsche  Ihnen  eine  gute  Nacht), 
Jelängerjelieber,  &c.  Here  we  have  modern  group-stress,  but  many  words 
have  old  group-stress,  as  explained  in  2  above. 

I.  Some  group-words  and  compounds  consist  of  two  components,  of  which 
the  first  is  a  modern  group-word  or  compound  and  has  the  principal  accent,  which 
is  placed  according  to  the  rules  for  a  modern  group:  Gütenächtgruß,  Dreikönigs- 
fest, Altweibersommer,  Dümmerjüngenstreich,  in  dieser  Dröschke-erster- 
Klässe-Gesellschaft  (Raabe's  Im  alten  Eisen,  XVII),  die  Kaiser- Wilhelm-II.- 
Reälschule  (read  Wilhelm  der  Zweite),  die  Lös-von-Röm-Bewegung.  The  first 
element  is  sometimes  inflected,  and  sometimes  remains  uninflected.    See  94.  6. 

3.  A  large  number  of  words  which  by  their  form  belong  to  one  or  other  of  the 
above-described  categories  form  with  respect  to  accent  and  meaning  a  distinct 
group,  namely  compounds  the  first  element  of  which  does  not  contain  an  essen- 
tial modification  of  the  basal  compound,  but  only  an  intensification  of  the  idea 
or  a  concrete  or  specific  illustration  of  it,  and  hence  does  not  take  the  principal 
accent:  hundselend  very  miserable,  stockfinster  very  dark,  pechschwarz  jet- 
black,  kreuzfidel  as  merry  as  a  cricket,  &c.  For  particulars  as  to  accent  see 
47.  3.  A.  b.  aa,  bb,  cc,  c,  d. 


PART  IV 

SYNTAX. 

The  Simple  Sentence  and  its  Parts  and  Kinds. 

250.  A  sentence  is  an  expression  of  a  conception  by  means  of  a  word  or  words 
used  in  such  form  and  manner  as  to  convey  the  meaning  intended.  The  sen- 
tence may  be:  (1)  exclamatory,  uttering  an  outcry,  or  giving  expression  to  a 
command,  prohibition,  warning,  request,  wish,  or  desire,  closing  with  an  exclama- 
tion point — perhaps  the  oldest  form  of  the  sentence;  (2)  declarative,  stating  a 
fact,  closing  with  a  period;  (3)  interrogative,  asking  a  question,  closing  with 
an  interrogation  point. 

It  is  usually  considered  that  there  are  two  essential  elements  in  every  sen- 
tence— the  subject  and  the  predicate:  Karl  singt.  The  subject  is  that  which 
is  spoken  of.  The  predicate  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject.  In  a  normal 
sentence  both  subject  and  predicate  are  present,  but  sometimes  the  one  or  the 
other  or  both  may  be  absent  and  yet  the  sentence  be  a  complete  expression  of 
thought.     See  a  below. 

The  proper  intonation  employed  in  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  is  described 
in  53.  2. 

c.  Sentences  Lacking  the  One  or  the  Other  or  Both  of  the  Essential  Elements.  In  accurate 
thinking  we  often  need  a  large  vocabulary  and  intricate  grammatical  form,  but  language  also 
adapts  itself  readily  to  the  simpler  needs  of  practical  life,  where  action  and  the  situation  are 
often  more  expressive  than  words  and  grammatical  form.  If  we  call  out:  Fritz!,  to  indicate 
that  he  should  come  we  pronounce  in  loud  prolonged  tones  Fritz  as  a  dissyllabic,  fRi-its.  If  we 
scold  him  we  pronounce  Fritz  as  a  monosyllabic,  fRits,  and  raise  the  tone  of  the  voice.  If  we 
desire  Fritz  to  hold  his  tongue  we  say  to  him  in  a  stern  tone:  Schweig!  If  in  the  dead  of  the 
night  we  wake  up  and  find  the  house  in  flames  we  cry  out  in  loud  excited  tone:  Feuer!  Often 
an  adverb  suffices:  Herein!  Frequently  a  pronoun  spoken  in  angry  tone  is  sufficient  to  express 
a  threat:  Du!  Still  as  in  primitive  speech  an  interjection  often  conveys  our  meaning:  Au!  (241). 
In  answer  to  a  question  ja  or  nein  is  a  complete  thought,  similarly  gleichfalls  in  answer  to  a 
wish,  as  in  „Glückliche  Reise!"  „Gleichfalls!"  The  same  to  you.  Short  terse  expression  was  not 
only  characteristic  of  primitive  speech  when  language  was  undeveloped  but  in  passionate,  excited, 
or  lively  language  this  older  type  has  maintained  itself  thruout  the  ages  and  thrives  even  to-day 
in  the  inflectional  period,  indeed  inflection  suggests  and  facilitates  its  employment:  Subject:  (in 
distressed  tone)  Mein  Hut!  =  Mein  Hut  ist  in  Gefahr!  Predicate:  (in  tone  of  lively  assent) 
Stimmt  =  Es  stimmt  That's  true  enough.  Accusative:  (in  tone  of  a  command)  Meinen  Hut! 
Dative:  „Wem  soll  ich  den  Apfel  geben?"  „Mir,  mir,  mir!"  Non-inflection  of  the  adjective, 
thus  clearly  indicating  that  it  is  a  predicate:  Prächtig!  In  all  these  cases  the  expression  of  the 
thought  is  perfect.  The  sentences,  tho  brief,  are  complete.  In  the  setting  in  which  they  appear, 
not  a  word,  not  a  syllable  is  lacking.  A  learned  grammarian  with  mistaken  enthusiasm  might 
desire  to  expand  these  brief  utterances  into  full  sentences,  but  in  spite  of  his  grammatical  skill  the 
language  would  be  bad,  for  it  would  violate  good  usage.  We  do  not  here  usually  employ  full 
sentences  and  for  a  good  reason.  Fuller  expression  would  be  incomplete  expression,  for  it  would 
mar  the  thought,  take  something  vital  away  from  it.  Thus  such  brief  sentences  are  as  complete 
as  those  of  exact  scientific  language,  where,  however,  the  thinker  removed  from  plain  everyday 
life  must  express  himself  fully  if  he  would  describe  accurately  the  hidden  forces  he  is  studying. 
In  this  book  the  brief  constructions  for  the  want  of  a  better  expression  are  called  elliptical,  but 
this  word  does  not  denote  incomplete  expression,  it  indicates  that  according  to  good  usage  certain 
parts  of  a  normal  sentence  are  under  the  given  circumstances  regularly  lacking  as  they  are  not 
necessary  to  make  the  thought  complete,  or  would  mar  the  thought.  Compare  219,  1,  4.  B.  o. 
Note,  5.  B.  a;  251.  II.  A.  d;  252.  1.  a.  Note  1.  (2),  h.  Note;   177.  I.  B.  e.  Note  3. 

The  oldest  form  of  the  sentence  contained  only  one  word,  which,  however,  was  a  complete 
sentence,  not  a  word  in  its  modern  sense,  for  a  word  is  a  later  development  in  language  growth 
than  a  sentence.  This  oldest  type  of  sentence  still  survives  in  case  of  exclamations,  as  au!,  and 
the  simple  imperative  forms.  In  course  of  time  successive  sentences  often  stood  in  such  close 
relation  to  each  other  that  the  different  sentences  developed  into  words:  Sieh!  Da!  Feuer!  becom- 
ing Sieh  da  das  Feuer!  In  the  oldest  form  of  the  sentence,  the  thing  type,  which  in  somewhat 
changed  form  is  still  widely  used,  the  single  word  which  constituted  the  sentence  indicated  a 
thing.  This  thing — an  action,  quality,  place,  person,  or  thing — in  connection  with  the  situation 
suggests  the  thought,  as  illustrated  by  a  number  of  examples  in  the  preceding  paragraph.     In 

455 


456 CASE   AND   FORMS   OF  THE  SUBJECT 250.  a. 

a  later  stage  of  development  the  thought  may  be  suggested  by  the  association  of  two  things  by 
simply  placing  one  word  alongside  of  another  word,  which  in  reality  is  a  predicate  but  in  form 
an  appositive  noun,  adjective^  adverb,  or  prepositional  phrase,  as  in  the  early  period  when  this 
construction  arose  the  idea  of  predication  by  means  of  a  verb  had  not  yet  come  into  use:  Träume 
Schäume.  Alles  still.  "Wer  da?  IVlore  examples  of  the  appositional  variety  of  the  thing  type  are 
given  in  252.  1.  b.  Note.  In  this  appositional  type  wherever  the  appositive  was  a  verbal  noun 
it  became  common  in  the  prehistoric  period  to  append  to  it  personal  endings  in  order  to  bring 
the  action  into  relation  to  a  personal  subject.  The  verbal  appositive  thus  became  a  verb  and 
the  old  stvle  of  expressing  thought  by  the  association  of  two  things  was  in  large  measure  replaced 
by  the  new  style  of  representing  the  subject  as  resting,  acting,  or  being  acted  upon:  Der  Junge 
schläft,  arbeitet,  arbeitete,  wird  geschlagen,  wurde  geschlagen,  kleidet  sich,  &c.  With  the 
new  style  came  new  possibilities  of  human  expression.  The  new  type — the  predicating  type — 
can  represent  the  subject  in  a  number  of  the  different  phases  of  its  life,  while  the  old  appositional 
thing  type  can  represent  it  in  only  one  phase,  that  of  the  present  moment.  Moreover,  the  new 
predicating  type  possessed  great  possibilities  of  future  development.  XVherever  in  the  old 
appositional  type  the  appositive  was  a  noun,  adjective,  adverb,  or  prepositional  phrase  a  verb 
without  a  concrete  meaning,  now  called  a  copula,  was  in  the  prehistoric  period  inserted  before 
the  appositive  in  order  to  conform  the  sentence  to  the  new  predicating  type:  Der  Fluß  ist  tief. 
.A.  fuller  explanation  is  given  in  252.  1.  b.  Note.  Altho  the  normal  sentence  has  thus  contained 
a  verb  from  the  earliest  historic  times  the  older  verbless  thing  type  has  never  been  entirely  dis- 
placed, as  illustrated  above  and  more  fully  in  252.  1.  b.  Note.  Moreover,  even  tho  the  copula 
is  now  usually  found  before  a  predicate  noun,  adjective,  adverb,  &c.,  the  spirit  of  the  old  thing 
type  of  sentence  survives,  for  we  always  feel  the  thought  as  suggested  by  a  thing,  not  by  the 
copula.  Indeed  the  modern  form  of  the  old  thing  type  of  sentence  with  a  copula  is  now  such  a 
fav^orite  that  it  is  one  of  the  marked  features  of  current  speech  not  to  put  the  main  thought  into 
the  verb  but  to  express  it  by  means  of  the  name  of  a  thing,  i.e.  a  noun,  in  connection  with  a 
copula-like  verb,  i.e.  a  verb  that  is  chosen  not  to  convey  the  desired  meaning  but  merely  to 
indicate  predication:  Das  Stück  gelangt  bald  zur  Aufführung  The  drama  will  soon  be  put  npon  the 
boards,  instead  of  wird  bald  aufgeführt  ivill  soon  be  played.  For  other  examples  see  252.  1.  a. 
Note  2.  We  should,  however,  not  forget  that  the  modern  form  of  the  old  thing  type  is  a  great 
improvement  upon  the  original  form,  for  the  copula  brings  with  it  the  power  to  express  the 
time  and  modal  relations.  The  spirit  of  older  speech  is  not  only  thus  preserved  in  modern  form 
in  sentences  containing  a  verb  of  incomplete  predication,  such  as  a  copula  or  a  copula-like  verb, 
but  sometimes  also  in  sentences  containing  a  verb  of  complete  predication:  Es  regnet  It  rains. 
There  was  originally  no  es  or  it  here,  for  there  is  no  subject  expressed  or  understood.  Later  in 
oldest  German  and  English  we  usually  find  here  a  formal  subject,  es  or  it,  which  was  inserted 
to  conform  such  sentences  in  a  mere  formal  way  to  the  predicating  type,  which  requires  a  subject 
for  a  verb,  but  the  spirit  of  the  older  sentence  remains,  for  the  activity  has  not  yet  been  brought 
into  relation  to  a  real  subject.     For  fuller  discussion  see  219  and  219.  1,  .3  and  a  thereunder. 

251.      The  Subject. 
I.     The  Case  and  Forms  of  the  Subject,  v 

1.     A.     The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative:   Der  Schüler  lernt. 

The  genitive  cannot  stand  in  an  elHptical  subject  without  a  governing  word, 
as  in  EngHsh :  Von  den  drei  Kraftwagen  ist  der  Wilhelms  der  beste,  or  in  loose 
colloquial  and  popular  language:  Von  den  drei  Kraftwagen  ist  dem  Wilhelm 
seiner  der  beste  Of  the  three  aulas  William  s  is  the  best.  Goethes  Leben  war 
in  fast  jeder  Beziehung  ein  glückliches  Goethe's  was  in  almost  every  respect  a 
happy  life,  which  we  say  instead  of  Goethe's  life  was  in  almost  every  respect  a 
happy  one,  as  we  desire  to.  avoid  the  use  of  weak,  meaningless  one. 

a.  The  subject  can  still  as  in  older  German  be  in  the  gen.  or  now  more  commonly  in  the  dat. 
after  von.     See  255.  II.  1.  H.  c. 

b.  In  a  number  of  instances  a  noun  in  an  oblique  case  after  a  prep,  is  considered  the  subject 
of  the  sentence,  since  the  real  origin  of  the  construction  is  no  longer  felt:  Gegen  hundert  Mann 
sind  gefallen  About  a  hundred  men  fell.  An  die  tausend  Menschen  waren  versammelt.  Aus 
Deutschland  werden  jährlich  für  mehr  als  100  Millionen  Mark,  namentlich  an  Damenkonfektion, 
ausgeführt,  aber  für  viel  mehr  bleibt  im  Inland  (Sombart's  Die  deutsche  Volkswirtschaft,  p.  339). 
In  these  sentences  the  prep,  an,  für,  gegen  are  now  usually  felt  as  adverbs  with  the  force  of 
ungefähr  and  etwa.     Compare  225.  1.  c. 

B.     The  form  of  the  subject  may  be  that  of: 

a.  A  noun:  Die  Sonne  leuchtet.  Things  are  often  personified :  Das  Messer 
schneidet  gut.  Eine  Brücke  verbindet  das  rechte  Ufer  mit  dem  Unken.  The 
subject  is  often  metonymic,  i.e.  indicating  not  the  real  subject  but  a  thing  or  a 
person  in  close  association  with  it:  Das  Faß  fließt  über.  Die  Bank  sitzt  voller 
Menschen. 


251.  I.  2.  B.      GRAMMATICAL   &   ANTICIPATIVE  SUBJECT 457 

After  certain  words,  anscheinlich,  angeblich,  wahrscheinlich,  &c.,  the  subject 
has  the  logical  force  of  a  predicate  of  a  relative  clause:  Der  angebliche  Chirurg 
ist  eigentlich  ein  Barbier  =  Der,  der  als  Chirurg  angegeben  wird,  ist  eigentlich 
ein  Barbier. 

b.  A  pronoun:   Ich  schreibe. 

c.  An  adjective  or  participle  used  substantively:  Der  Fröhliche  lacht.  Zu 
grob  ist  unanständig,  und  die  Rechnung  wird  das  ausweisen  (Raabe's  Der 
Dräumling,  XXVI).     Der  Trauernde  weint.     Der  Besiegte  trauert. 

d.  An  infinitive  with  or  without  zu:  Andern  zu  dienen  macht  ihr  Freude. 
Mäßig  leben  macht  stark. 

e.  Any  other  part  of  speech  used  substantively:   Auf  ist  eine  Präposition. 
/.     A  whole  clause:   Wer  nicht  hören  will,  muß  fühlen. 

2.  A.  Grammatical  Es.  Sometimes  there  are  two  subjects  in  a  sentence — 
the  logical  and  the  grammatical  subject:  Es  (grammatical  subject)  war  einmal 
ein  König  (logical  subject).  The  grammatical  subject  is  usually  the  uninflected 
es,  which  as  a  provisional  subject  serves  only  as  a  formal  introduction  to  the 
sentence,  and  points  forward  to  the  logical  subject  in  the  nom.,  which  follows 
the  verb:  Es  sind  viele  hier  gewesen  There  have  been  many  here.  The  logical 
subject  is  here  the  real  subject,  as  it  regulates  the  number  of  the  verb.  In 
inverted  order  the  es  drops  out:  Hier  sind  viele  gewesen.  It  is  also  dropped 
when  the  real  subject  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sentence:  Viele  sind  hier  gewe- 
sen.    For  the  use  of  the  grammatical  subject  see  II.  B  below. 

It  should  be  noted  that  this  use  of  es  as  grammatical  subject  corresponds  in 
part  to  the  use  of  there  in  English,  but  the  construction  has  in  German  a  wider 
field  of  usefulness,  as  it  is  in  English  not  used  at  all  with  transitives  in  the 
active  and  is  not  freely  employed  with  intransitives  and  passives:  Es  weiß  ja 
niemand,  wann  er  zuletzt  zur  Beichte  gegangen  ist  Indeed,  nobody  knows  when 
,he  confessed  (to  the  priest)  last.  In  English,  on  the  other  hand,  the  expletive 
there  is  in  one  particular  case  more  used  than  es  is  in  German,  namely,  it  can 
be  used  even  when  some  other  word  introduces  the  sentence,  while  in  German 
es  is  then  uniformly  dropped:  A  few  years  ago  there  lived  in  this  house  a  lonely 
old  man  Vor  einigen  Jahren  wohnte  in  diesem  Hause  ein  einsamer,  alter  Mann. 
Are  there  many  people  here?    Sind  viele  Menschen  hier? 

Note.  In  oldest  German  tlie  grammatical  subject  was  very  little  used.  The  position  of  the  verb  in  the  first  place 
unaccompanied  by  the  subject  sugRested  that  the  subject  would  follow  later:  Stuant  tho  thar  umbiring  filu  manag 
ediling  (Otfrid,  I.  9.  9,  ninth  century)  Es  stand  da  in  dem  Kreise  mancher  Edelmann.  Later  after  the  analogy  of 
anticipative  es,  as  in  Es  freut  mich,  daß  er  morgen  kommt,  es  gradually  became  established  as  a  formal  grammatical 
subject  wherever  the  subject  did  not  introduce  the  sentence  and  the  verb  stood  in  the  first  place.  Originally  anticipa- 
tive es  had  a  little  concrete  force  as  it  pointed  to  the  following  clause  but  even  in  oldest  German  it  was  felt  as  a  mere 
formal  element  and  later  suggested  the  use  of  es  as  grammatical  subject,  as  the  feeling  had  arisen  that  the  verb  in  the 
first  place  gave  the  impression  of  a  question,  as  explained  more  fully  in  219.  On  the  other  hand,  as  anticipative  es 
was  in  O.H.G.,  perhaps  even  originally,  a  mere  formal  element  it  was  often  omitted  just  as  impersonal  es,  which  had 
arisen  under  its  influence,  was  often  used  or  omitted.  As,  however,  anticipative  es  was  and  still  is  often  needed  to 
make  the  thought  clear  it  has  persisted  thruout  the  centuries  and  has  become  more  firmly  established  than  ever  except 
in  certain  categories  described  below.  In  English  the  expletive  there  is  not  omitted  when  another  word  is  placed  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence  as  it  is  an  adverb,  not  a  grammatical  subject,  and  hence  like  any  other  adverb  can  take 
a  later  position  if  not  needed  in  the  first  place.  Altho  English  uses  the  expletive  there  to  point  forward  to  a  following 
emphatic  simple  subject  it  employs  the  anticipative  subject  ;'/  to  point  forward  to  a  following  infinitive  or  substantive 
clause  which  is  used  as  subject,  here  corresponding  in  general  to  the  German  use  of  as,  as  illustrated  in  B  below. 

a.  In  poetical  style  a  grammatical  subject  agreeing  in  gender,  number,  and  case  with  a  fol- 
lowing logical  subject  is  found:  Und  eilig  trocknet'  er  ab  die  Träne,  der  Jüngling  edeln  Gefühles 
(Goethe's  H.  u.  D.,  IV,  65-6).  Ein  unermüdlicher  Arbeiter  war  er,  dieser  Novemberwind 
(Hans  Hoff  mann). 

b.  Somewhat  different  from,  the  above  is  the  common  case  where  the  logical  subject  is  placed 
for  emphasis  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  in  the  form  of  an  exclamation  and  then  is  immediately 
or  after  an  interval  of  several  words  again  referred  to  by  a  personal  pronoun  or  demon,  which 
agrees  with  it:  Die  Freiheit,  sie  ist  kein  leerer  Wahn.  Der  arme  Mensch!  Nun  ist  er  ganz 
verlassen.   Das  Pergament,  ist  das  der  heil'ge  Bronnen?  {Faust,  1.  566). 

B.  Anticipative  Es.  Similar  to  the  grammatical  subject  in  A  is  the  anticipative 
subject  es,  which  points  forward  to  a  following  infinitive  or  substantive  clause 
which  explains  the  es  more  fully:  Es  macht  mir  großes  Vergnügen,  Sie  hier  zu 
sehen.  Es  ist  nicht  gut,  daß  der  Mensch  allein  sei.  This  es  differs  from  the 
grammatical  subject  es  in  having  more  independent  force  in  that  it  is  often 
needed  to  make  the  grammatical  relations  clear,  for  such  sentences  with  an 
infinitive  or  substantive  clause  as  subject  are  more  involved  than  sentence.'^ 


458 OMISSION   OF   THE   SUBJECF 251.  I.  2.  B. 

with  a  simple  subject.  Hence  it  is  usually  retained  even  when  some  other 
word  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sentence:  Heute  macht  es  mir  großes  Vergnügeü, 
Sie  hier  zu  sehen.  It  drops  out,  however,  when  the  real  subject  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  sentence:  Sie  hier  zu  sehen  macht  mir  großes  Vergnügen.  For  the 
origin  of  the  anticipative  subject  see  A.  Note  and  219. 

Nole.  The  anticipative  subject  es  is  sometimes  omitted  in  accordance  with  older  usage  where  it  had  not  yet  become 
necessary-  to  introduce  thus  formally  the  logical  subject:  Mich  freut  [esj,  daß  ich  dich  so  besonnen  finde  fGrillparzer's 
Medea,  4).  The  anticipative  es  is  regularly  omitted  when  an  unemphatic  predicate  word,  such  as  a  predicate  adjective, 
noun,  or  modal  verbal  (180.  A),  introduces  the  sentence,  for  the  presence  of  the  unemphatic  predicate  here  and  the 
rising  intonation  after  the  verb  pointing  forward  indicate  that  the  subject  has  been  withheld  for  emphasis  and  must 
follow.  An  illustrative  example  is  given  in  II.  B.  a.  aa.  Note.  Similarly  the  anticipative  es  is  not  needed  if  an  in- 
transitive verb  preceded  by  an  unstressed  modifying  word  introduces  the  sentence  and  there  is  a  rising  intonation^ 
here  indicated  by  a  raised  period — after  the  verb  pointing  forward  to  the  following  emphatic  subject  clause:  Hieraus 
folgt',  daß  usw.  Zum  Dichten  gehört-,  daß  dem  Menschen  Bilder  vor  Augen  stehen,  daß  er  den  Drang  fühle,  sie 
darzustellen  iHermann  Grimm's  Fragmente,  I,  p.  378). 

The  es  is  regularly  dropped  when  the  principal  proposition  is  inserted  in  the  subordinate  clause:  Dies,  wurde  gesagt, 
sei  falsch.     Warum,  ist  nicht  leicht  zu  sagen  It  is  not  easy  to  say  why. 

3.  Situation  Es.  Es  is  much  used  as  subject  to  point  to  something  definite 
which  is  more  or  less  clearly  defined  by  the  situation.  Examples  are  given  in 
219.  1  and  3  (last  par.),  where  this  es  is  distinguished  from  impersonal  es. 
Attention  is  here  called  to  the  peculiar  word-order  employed  here  when  the 
predicate  is  a  personal  pronoun.  In  this  case  the  predicate  usually  comes  first 
in  the  sentence,  and  so  influences  the  verb  that  the  verb  agrees  with  it  instead 
of  agreeing  with  the  subject:  ich  bin  es  it  is  I,  du  bist  es  it  is  you,  er  ist  es  it  is  he, 
wir  sind  es  it  is  we.  In  question  order:  bist  du  es?,  ist  er  es?  Only  rarely 
as  in  English:  Herr,  ich  höre  Pferde  im  Galopp!  Zwei!  Es  sind  sie  gewiß 
(Goethe's  Götz,  1,  2).  Quite  commonly  so  in  Swiss  dialect  and  colloquial  lan- 
guage: Nein,  es  ist  ihn  (252.  2.  C.  a)  nicht  (J.  Gotthelf's  Geld  und  Geist,  366). 
The  predicate,  however,  stands  at  the  end  when  the  proposition  is  introduced 
by  an  adverb  or  a  demonstrative  pronoun:  Wenn  jemand  hier  gelogen  hat, 
dann  bist  es  du.     Hier  ist  das  Bild,  dies  bin  ich  und  das  sind  Sie. 

The  form  ich  (emphatic  predicate)  bin  es  it  is  I  should  be  distinguished  from 
the  ich  (subject)  bin  (emphatic  to  emphasize  the  fact)  es  (129.  2.  C.  (4))  /  am, 
which  is  given  in  answer  to  such  a  question  as  bist  du  treu?  are  you  faithful? 
While  English  distinguishes  these  cases  sharply  by  a  difference  in  form, 
German  cannot  so  do,  except  often,  as  in  these  examples,  by  the  accent,  em- 
phasizing in  case  of  the  expression  of  identity  the  predicate  and  in  the  latter 
case  the  verb. 

4,  Impersonal  Es.  This  construction  is  treated  at  considerable  length  in 
219. 

II.     Omission  or  Expression  of  the  Subject. 

In  general  every  sentence  must  have  a  subject  expressed,  but  usage  admits 
of  certain  irregularities,  which  are  here  treated  briefly: 

A.     The  logical  subject  is  omitted : 

a.  As  a  rule  in  imperative  sentences  in  the  familiar  form  (177.  I.  A.  a): 
Fliehe!  Flieht! 

h.  In  the  first  person  in  a  few  set  expressions:  Danke  I  thank  you,  bitte  I  beg 
of  you,  please,  geschweige  (233.  C).  Bedauere  sehr,  kann  nicht  dienen  I  regret 
very  much  that  I  cannot  serve  you.  Besides  these  and  a  number  of  other  set 
expressions  the  subject  is  frequently  omitted  in  business  and  crisp  epistolary 
style  in  general,  and  also  often  in  poetry  and  familiar  language:  Ihr  Schreiben 
vom  16.  d.  M.  (dieses  Monats)  habe  erhalten.  Habe  nun,  ach!  Philosophie,  | 
Juristerei  und  Medizin,  |  und  leider  auch  Theologie!  |  durchaus  studiert,  mit 
heißem  Bemühn  (Goethe). 

c.  Often  in  the  2nd  person  in  poetry  and  familiar  language,  and  less  fre- 
quently in  the  3rd  person:  Füllest  (speaking  of  the  moon)  wieder  Busch  und 
Tal  I  still  mit  Nebelglanz,  |  lösest  (dost  free  from  oppressive  care)  endlich  auch 
einmal  |  meine  Seele  ganz  (Goethe).  Warum  hast  denn  bis  jetzt  kein  Feuer 
angemacht?  (Auerbach).  [Sie  you,  2nd  sing.]  Sehen  ja  frisch  und  blühend  aus 
wie  die  Gesundheit  selbst!  Es  is  especially  dropped  in  familiar  conversation: 
Mag  sein  //  may  be.  Kann  nicht  erlaubt  werden  It  can't  be  allowed.  Wird  schon 
kommen  It  will  surely  come. 


251.  II.  A.c.       OMISSION  OF  SUBJECT,  PREDICATE,  OBJECT         459 

d.  As  in  English,  a  pronominal  subject,  predicate,  or  object  is  often  omitted 
in  clauses  introduced  by  wie  as,  how,  sucJi  as,  als  as,  than,  so'weit  as  far  as.  The 
subject  is  omitted  especially  in  case  of  situation  es  (219.  3,  last  par.)  or  a  pro- 
noun which  can  easily  be  supplied  from  the  context:  Er  sprach,  wie  folgt.  Er 
benahm  sich  nicht,  wie  sich  schickte.  Es  läßt  sich  leicht  denken,  but  in  the 
subordinate  clause  after  wie :  wie  sich  denken  läßt,  or  in  a  question  after  wie : 
Wie  läßt  sich  da  bessern?  Bringen  Sie  mir  soviele  Bücher,  als  auf  dem  Tische 
liegen.  Er  hat  schon  mehr  getrunken,  als  ihm  bekommen  dürfte.  Denen  ist 
geholfen  und  mehr,  so  scheint's,  als  ihnen  gut  ist  (Otto  Erler's  Struensee,  p. 
66).  Hm,  hm,  ich  habe,  bei  Gott,  wüstere  Tanten  in  meinem  Dasein  gesehen, 
als  da  eben  auf  dem  Balkon  stand  (Raabe's  Eulenpfingsten,  chap.  viii).  Bisher 
haben  sich  den  Witbois  (dat.  pl.,  tribe  of  Africans),  soweit  bekannt  ist,  die 
Hottentotten  angeschlossen  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Nov.  27,  1904).  Omis- 
sion of  predicate:  Ich  möchte  dich  nicht  anders,  als  du  bist.  Omission  of  ob- 
ject: Das  ist  mehr,  als  ein  Mensch  ertragen  kann.  Ich  traute  Ihnen  eine  solche 
Niederträchtigkeit  nicht  zu,  wie  Sie  begangen  haben.  These  expressions  are 
the  survivals  of  a  much  older  period  when  speech  had  not  yet  become  fixed  in 
conventional  forms,  with  expressed  subject,  object,  &c.  Parts  of  the  sentence 
were  not  expressed  when  the  situation  made  the  reference  clear  without  the  use 
of  words.  Situation  es,  however,  was  early  in  the  historic  period  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence  in  order  to  keep  the  verb  from  standing  in  the  first  place 
and  thus  creating  the  impression  of  a  question  which  requires  yes  or  no  for  an 
answer.  Where,  however,  some  conjunction  or  adverb  like  wie,  &c.,  stands 
in  the  first  place  older  usage  without  a  formal  subject  or  object  here  is  in  set 
expressions  still  quite  common,  as  the  conjunction  or  adverb  clearly  indicates 
that  the  sentence  is  not  such  a  question.  The  wie  or  als  in  these  old  expres- 
sions is  now  often  felt  as  a  relative  pronoun  used  as  subject  or  object,  regularly 
so  in  case  of  English  as  after  stich. 

In  German,  however,  in  accordance  with  the  demands  of  modern  formal 
grammar  subordinate  clauses  often  have  an  expressed  subject,  predicate,  or 
object  where  English  does  not  admit  of  it:  Sie  trat  an  den  Tisch  und,  ihre 
Brieftasche  öffnend,  legte  sie  eine  Banknote  unter  den  brennenden  (illumi- 
nated Christmas)  Baum,  größer  als  sie  noch  je  in  dieser  armen  Hütte  gesehen 
worden.  Die  Gräfin  bekümmerte  sich  mehr  um  ihre  Kinder,  als  es  in  Wien 
der  Fall  war.  Wir  trinken  eine  Flasche  besseren  Weines,  als  man  ihn  uns  im 
Kurhause  vorsetzen  würde.  When  the  reference  is  to  a  preceding  predicate 
adjective,  or  predicate  noun,  or  the  thought  contained  in  the  preceding  propo- 
sition, the  pronominal  predicate  or  object  here  is  es  or  dies:  Du  bist  auch  be- 
scheidener als  ich  es  bin.  Ihre  Überraschung  war  groß,  aber  nicht  so  freudig, 
wie  er  dies  erwartet  hatte.  After  the  word  such  in  English  adjectival  clauses 
introduced  by  as  we  regularly  suppress  a  pronominal  subject  or  object  since  as 
is  felt  as  subject  or  object,  while  in  German  the  pronoun  is  regularly  inserted: 
Aus  dem  Krug  floß  kein  Dünnbier,  sondern  ein  Wein,  wie  der  weitgereiste 
Schuster  noch  keinen  getrunken  hatte  Out  of  the  jug  came  no  small  beer,  but 
a  wine  such  as  even  the  shoemaker,  who  had  traveled  so  much,  had  never  drunk. 
For  fuller  information  here  see  153.  3.  D.  (1). 

e.  If  several  verbs  have  the  same  subject,  it  may  usually  be  expressed  only 
once,  but  the  subject  must  be  expressed  in  each  proposition  where  some  modi- 
fier of  the  verb  (such  as  an  adverbial  element  or  an  object)  or  a  predicate  noun 
or  adjective  stands  before  the  verb:  Er  kam  zu  mir,  ging  aber  sogleich  weg, 
but  aber  sogleich  ging  er  weg.  The  word -order  need  not  necessarily  be  the 
same  in  the  different  propositions:  Nach  wie  vor  besuchte  er  wöchentlich 
mehrmals  das  kanzleirätliche  Haus  und  hielt  den  Damen  Vorträge  über  pom- 
pejanische  Ausgrabungen  im  besonderen  und  über  Altertum  im  allgemeinen 
(Baumbach's  Der  Schiviegersohn,  v).  In  this  sentence  an  adverbial  dement  is 
in  fact  understood  before  the  second  proposition,  as  the  adverbial  modifier  of 
the  preceding  proposition  belongs  also  to  the  following  one.  This  point  is  usually 
not  vividly  felt,  so  that  inversion  does  not  follow.     Sometimes,  however,  we 


460 OMISSION  OR  USE  OF  THE  SUBJECT  ES       251.  II.  A.  g. 

find  the  inverted  order  and  the  subject  repeated,  as  the  presence  of  the  preceding 
adverbial  element,  object,  or  predicate  noun  or  adjective  is  felt:  Schön  war  sie 
(die  Stadt  Kiel)  niemals,  ist  sie  auch  nicht  geworden  und  wird  sie  nie  werden 
(Jensen ) ;  or  also  Schön  war  sie  niemals,  ist  es  auch  nicht  geworden  und  wird 
es  nie  werden.  Sometimes  the  subject  is  expressed  but  once  and  follows  the 
last  verb:  Als  Leser  denke  und  wünsche  ich  mir  vor  allem  Studenten,  die 
usw.    (Brugmann's   Kurze  vergleichende  Grammatik,  p.  iv). 

B.  Omission  or  Expression  of  the  Grammatical  (see  I.  2.  A)  and  the  Antici- 
pative  (I.  2.  B)  Subject.  The  general  rules  for  the  omission  of  these  subjects 
have  already  been  given  in  the  articles  I.  2.  A  and  B.  Moreover,  the  retention 
or  omission  of  the  grammatical  and  anticipative  subjects  is  a  question  of 
emphasis  or  style  which  deserves  careful  attention. 

a.     The  es  is  retained  in  the  following  cases: 

aa.  To  make  emphatic  a  predicate  noun,  pronoun,  adjective,  or  modal 
verbal  (180.  A).  In  this  case  the  predicate  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence 
in  accordance  with  the  general  law  for  sentence  accent,  and  is  then  followed  in 
the  first  place  by  the  main  verb,  in  the  second  place  by  the  anticipative  subject 
es  spoken  with  falling  intonation  (53.  2) — here  indicated  by  a  period — and  in 
the  third  place  by  the  real  subject,  which  assumes  the  form  of  a  relative  clause 
or  a  clause  introduced  by  daß:  Deutsche  (predicate)  waren  es.  (anticipative 
subject),  die  das  Pulver,  die  Buchdruckerei  erfunden  haben  (subject  clause). 
Ich  bin  es.,  der  es  getan  hat.  Sie  waren  es.,  der  anfing.  Du  bist's.,  dem 
Ruhm  und  Ehre  gebührt.  Richtig  ist  es.,  daß  er  morgen  kommt.  Zu  loben 
ist  es.,  daß  er  dies  getan  hat.  Notice  in  these  sentences  that  in  case  of  a  predi- 
cate noun  or  pronoun  the  verb  does  not  agree  with  the  grammatical  subject  es 
or  with  the  real  subject,  but  with  the  predicate,  being  attracted  into  its  person 
and  number.  This  emphatic  form  also  has  the  following  word-order  in  case 
of  predicate  nouns:  Es  ist  dein  Brüder.,  den  du  damit  kränkst.  Es  ist  bloßer 
Neid.,  was  aus  ihm  spricht.  This  form  with  normal  word-order  cannot  be  used 
if  the  predicate  is  a  personal  pronoun.     See  I.  3  above. 

Note.  Where  the  predicate  word  is  brought  forward  to  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  not  for  emphasis  but  in 
order  that  the  subject  clause  may  take  the  emphatic  end  position  the  anticipative  es  drops  out  and  is  replaced  by 
the  rising  intonation  after  the  verb— here  indicated  by  a  raised  period— which  points  forward  to  the  subject  clause 
which  IS  to  follow:  Richtig  isf,  daß  Ibsen  seine  gewohnten  Tagesausfahrten  zufolge  des  anhaltend  winterlich  rauhen 
Wetters  bis  auf  weiteres  hat  einstellen  müssen  (  Ilanibui-Kir  Naihrichlen,  Nov.  28.  l'.HIJ,  wliere  the  passaee  in  question 
is  given  to  correct  a  false  report  that  represented  Ibsen  as  dangerously  sick).     See  also  269.  1.  b  (2nd  par.). 

hh.  It  is  also  used  when  it  is  desired  for  emphasis  or  some  other  reason  to 
bring  the  verb  forward  from  its  usual  position.  As  the  verb  cannot  stand  first 
in  the  sentence  without  giving  it  the  impression  of  a  question  or  of  a  conditional 
clause,  it  is  necessary  in  simple  tenses  of  a  principal  declarative  proposition  to 
introduce  the  sentence  by  es,  if  it  is  desired  to  bring  the  verb  forward  for  em- 
phasis: Es  irrt  der  Mensch,  solang  er  strebt  Man  errs  as  long  as  his  aspirations 
last.  The  es  is  not  used  here  in  case  of  the  pronominal  subjects  er,  sie,  es,  sie, 
as  they  themselves  can  introduce  the  sentence  as  well  as  es:  Er  muß  es  tun. 
As  all  the  personal  pronouns  are  light  unstressed  forms  the  verb  in  all  such 
cases  is  felt  as  practically  standing  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  altho  technically 
it  is  in  the  second  place. 

This  emphatic  word-order  is  sometimes  replaced  by  another  construction. 
In  this  case  the  predicate  verb  may  take  the  form  of  an  infinitive  depending 
upon  tun:  Loben  tat  sie  nicht  viel,  sie  hielt's  vom  Überfluß  She  rarely  praised 
anybody,  as  she  thought  it  superfluous.  This  construction  is  also  used  when  the 
subject  is  a  noun,  especially  in  colloquial  and  popular  language. 

There  is  no  need  of  the  construction  with  es  in  compound  tenses  where  the 
emphasis  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  participle  or  infinitive,  as  the  participle  and 
infinitive  which  contain  the  important  part  of  the  predicate  can  be  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  sentence:  Genommen  ist  die  Freiheit,  nicht  gegeben.  Laß  nur 
stehen!  Eingießen  wird  sich  jeder  selbst.  Likewise  with  modal  auxiliaries: 
Aber  essen  kannst  du  doch  zu  uns  kommen  (Maria  Tanitschek's  Einer  Mutter 
Sieg,  XVIII). 


251.  IL  B.  h. VERB    IN   THE   FIRST   PLACE 461 

In  ballads  and  epics  the  past  or  present  tense  is  often  brought  forward  in 
accordance  with  the  importance  that  attaches  to  the  verb  in  narrative.  The 
sentence  at  the  beginning  of  the  poem  is  usually  introduced  by  es  followed  im- 
mediately by  the  verb :  Es  zogen  drei  Bursche  wohl  über  den  Rhein.  Further 
on  in  the  narrative  lightly  stressed  da  takes  the  place  of  es  at  the  head  of  the 
sentence,  as  in  11.  19,  29,  and  41  of  Uhland's  "Schwäbische  Kunde."  In  col- 
loquial and  popular  speech  as  in  older  literary  usage  the  verb  itself  in  all  these 
cases  stands  in  the  first  place.     See  b  below. 

cc.  The  construction  with  es  must  be  used  if  it  is  desired  to  emphasize 
especially  the  subject  by  placing  it  after  the  verb.  In  this  case  es  becomes  the 
grammatical  (I.  2.  A)  subject:  Es  wanken  |  schon  ganze  Regimenter,  Garni- 
sonen (Schiller's  Die  Piccolomini,  5,  1).  As  this  construction  is  used  to  em- 
phasize either  the  verb  or  the  subject,  the  accent  and  context  sometimes  alone 
make  clear  which  in  each  particular  case  is  to  be  made  prominent.  It  is  the 
subject  that  is  to  be  emphasized  when  it  is  found  removed  from  the  verb  standing 
near  the  end  of  the  proposition,  which  is  usually  an  emphatic  position:  Es 
irren  in  Fällen  von  so  mißlicher  Natur  selbst  weisere  Männer.  Es  haben  in 
Fällen  von  so  mifslicher  Natur  selbst  weisere  Männer  geirrt.  Es  weiß  ja 
niemand,  wann  er  zuletzt  zur  Beichte  gegangen  ist.  Often  also  a  personal 
pronoun :  Es  irrte  auch  er. 

In  the  same  manner  a  subject  clause  can  be  removed  to  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence for  the  sake  of  emphasis:  Es  ist  eine  der  hauptsächlichsten  Eigentüm- 
lichkeiten, die  ihn  (i.e.  Caesar)  von  Alexander,  Hannibal  und  Napoleon  unter- 
scheidet, daß  in  ihm  nicht  der  Offizier,  sondern  der  Demagog  der  Ausgangs- 
punkt der  politischen  Tätigkeit  war  (Mommsen).  For  important  points  under 
this  head  see  aa.  Note  above  and  also  I.  2.  B.  Note. 

In  colloquial  speech  the  es  is  often  suppressed.     See  b. 

b.  In  popular  language  and  in  poetry  the  es,  following  older  usage  still 
common  in  early  N.H.G.,  is  often  omitted,  so  that  the  verb  introduces  the 
sentence:   Sah  ein  Knab  ein  Röslein  stehn  (Goethe's  Heidenröslein). 

Originally  there  was  more  freedom  in  the  word-order  than  now,  so  that  even 
a  verb  could  introduce  a  declarative  sentence,  if  it  was  to  be  emphasized,  lay 
nearer  in  thought,  or  if  the  statement  as  a  whole  was  to  be  put  in  a  more  lively 
manner,  or  if  the  verb  came  to  the  front  by  the  removal  of  the  subject  to  the 
end  of  the  sentence  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  as  described  in  a.  cc  above.  Later 
in  order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  interpreting  such  a  sentence  as  a  question 
which  must  be  answered  by  yes  or  no  es  was  often  placed  at  the  head  of  a  sen- 
tence and  immediately  after  it  the  verb,  so  that  the  declarative  character  of 
the  sentence  was  thus  made  perfectly  clear  and  at  the  same  time,  as  indicated 
in  a.  bb,  cc,  prominence  given  to  the  verb  or  the  subject.  Thus  by  a  simple  ex- 
pedient the  old  historic  word-order  can  still  be  used.  The  common  people  and 
poets  do  not  comply  with  the  formal  rules  of  grammar,  but  often  cling  to  older 
historic  forms,  and  thus  use  here  the  old  freedom  of  putting  a  verb  at  the  head 
of  the  sentence,  especially  to  make  a  statement  in  a  stronger,  more  lively  manner: 
Natürlich  müssen  wir  hin.  Gleich — bald.  Bin  ich  neugierig,  Mutti!  (Adele 
Gerhard's  Die  Geschichte  der  Antonie  van  Heese,  IV).  Other  examples  in  287. 
B.  (7).  Sometimes  in  ballads  and  epics  the  verb  as  the  essential  element  in  lively 
narrative  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  as  in  older  usage:  Wandte  der 
König  sein  Antlitz  ab,  und  wieder  zum  Fenster,  |  und  versuchte  Hilfe  beim 
höchsten  Herrn  zu  erlangen  (Frenssen's  Bismarck,  p.  198).  This  construction 
is  common  in  colloquial  German,  tho  it  is  in  English  found  only  in  a  choice  liter- 
ary style:  Kommt  da  plötzlich  ein  Kerl  herein,  hat  einen  Revolver  in  der 
Hand,  schießt  den  N.  nieder;  glaubt  doch  alles,  es  handle  sich  um  persönliche 
Feindschaft,  aber  usw.  (Heinrich  Winkler  in  Anzeiger  für  deutsches  Altertum, 
Jan.  1901,  p.  297).  In  English  we  can  approach  the  spirit  of  the  old  Germanic 
construction  by  beginning  the  sentence  with  there  (or  in  older  English  it)  followed 
immediately  by  the  verb:  There  entered  suddenly,  &c.  In  German  colloquial 
speech  as  in  older  literary  German  the  subject  may  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  be 


402 FORMS   &   CASE   OF   THE   PREDICATE        251.  II.  B.  b. 

withheld  until  the  end  of  the  sentence,  so  that  the  verb  often  stands  in  the  first 
place:  Ich  mache  die  Tür  auf — steht  da  vor  der  Tür  ein  baumlanger  Mensch 
(Rudolf  Blümel  in  Paul  and  Braune's  Beiträge,  vol.  XXXV,  p.  525).  In 
English  we  can  again  approach  this  old  Germanic  construction  by  beginning 
the  proposition  with  there  (or  in  older  English  it)  followed  immediately  by  the 
verb:  There  stood  there,  &c.  Tho  we  can  thus  still  approach  this  old  Germanic 
construction  we  cannot  now,  except  in  a  rather  choice  literary  style,  put  the 
verb  in  the  first  place.  In  German  the  older  freedom  is  also  sometimes  still 
found  in  the  literary  language  within  the  body  of  the  sentence  after  the  con- 
junction und:  Ganz  einfach  wie  ein  Stückholz  ist  sie  gewesen,  und  half  da 
kein  Zureden  und  kein  Bitten  (Hans  HofTmann's  Fo»  Haff  und  Hafen,  p.  114). 
Often  in  colloquial  language  and  dialect:  Neue  Lasten!  Und  drucken  (S.G.  for 
drücken)  uns  die  alten  schon  zentnerschwar  (for  zentnerschwer)!  (Schönherr's 
Sonnwendtag,  p.  91). 

c.  The  grammatical  subject  es  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  es  described 
in  141.  9.  a,  which  is  used  in  expressions  of  identity.  In  the  former  construction 
the  noun  following  the  verb  is  the  real  subject,  while  in  the  latter  construction 
it  is  the  predicate.  Es  war  ein  König  There  was  {once  upon  a  time)  a  king,  or  if 
it  is  the  latter  construction  It  was  a  king.  The  difference  between  the  two  con- 
structions becomes  apparent  in  the  inverted  order,  as  the  grammatical  subject 
es  there  according  to  rule  (see  I.  2.  A  above)  drops  out,  while  the  es  in  the 
expression  of  identity  remains:  Einmal  war  ein  König  in  großer  Not  There  was 
once  a  king  in  great  need,  but  Ein  Konig  war  es  It  was  a  king. 

C.  The  impersonal  subject  es  is  sometimes  omitted.  See  219  and  1,4.  B.  a. 
Note,  and  5.  B.  a  thereunder. 

The  Predicate. 

The  Forms  and  Case  of  the  Predicate. 

252.     1.     The  predicate  can  be: 

a.  A  finite  verb  of  complete  predication:  Reichtum  vergeht.  Die  Vögel 
singen.  Die  Würmer  kriechen.  Marie  schreibt  schön.  Marie  schreibt 
schöne  Briefe.  Verbs  of  complete  predication  are  often  not  complete  of  them- 
selves and  need  some  other  word  or  words,  as  in  the  last  two  examples,  to  make 
the  meaning  complete,  but  the  term  "verb  of  complete  predication"  is  not  with- 
out inner  justification.  Such  verbs  stand  in  contrast  to  copulas  {h  and  2.  B.  a 
below),  which  in  a  mere  formal  way  perform  the  function  of  predication  and  do 
not  in  an  actual  sense  predicate.  Verbs  of  complete  predication,  on  the  other 
hand,  predicate,  say  something  of  the  subject,  they  present  a  general  line  of 
thought,  which  is  basal,  even  if  it  has  to  be  supplemented  often  by  details. 

Note  1.  The  verb  often  becomes  quite  an  unimportant  element  in  a  sentence,  and  by  reason  of  the  overtowering 
importance  of  some  other  part  of  the  predicate  loses  a  part  or  all  of  its  original  force  and  significance,  or  may  be  entirely 
or  in  part  omitted.  With  nouns  or  adverbs  which  express  a  goal,  destination,  direction,  the  idea  of  the  destination 
becomes  so  prominent  that  the  idea  of  the  manner  of  reaching  it,  which  is  contained  in  the  verb,  remains  in  the  back- 
ground and  receives  little  attention.  Thus  we  say:  Ich  gehe  morgen  nach  Berlin  I  am  going  to  Berlin  to-morrow, 
altho  in  fact  we  intend  to  go  on  the  cars  and  not  on  foot,  as  would  be  naturally  suggested  by  the  real  meaning  of 
the  verb  gehen.  We  thus  use  gehen  with  any  manner  of  locomotion,  as  we  do  not  stop  to  think  of  its  real  meaning, 
but  are  thinking  rather  of  the  destination.  Some  form  of  the  verb  is  often  suppressed:  (1)  In  compound  tenses  we 
may  retain  only  the  auxiliary  and  omit  entirely  the  verb  of  motion,  where  there  is  a  goal  or  destination  mentioned: 
Er  ist  nach  Haus  [gegangenl.  Ich  wollte  nach  Berlin  [gehen'.  Sie  sind  fort  [gegangen].  The  auxliary  here  per- 
forms the  verbal /H«f/;o»!,  and  the  adverb  or  prep,  phrase  contains  the  verbal  meaning.  .Also  in  other  cases  the  auxiliary 
is  alone  used  when  the  omission  can  easily  be  supplied  from  the  context:  Du  wirst  Papa  unterrichten,  nicht  wahr? 
Natürlich  werde  ich  [ihn  unterrichten].  (2)  The  verb  often  drops  out  even  when  there  is  no  auxiliary  to  perform  the 
verbal  function,  as  the  really  important  part  of  the  predicate  is  contained  in  some  modifier  of  the  verb,  and  the  verb 
itself  can  easily  be  supplied:  Das  Fenster  auf  und  die  Frühjahrsluft  (he)rein!  Ratsch!  riß  er  dem  Hansjörg  die  Pfeife 
aus  dem  Mund,  und  dann  im  gestreckten  Galopp  auf  imd  davon  (.Auerbach).  Achtung!  Vorsicht!  Schönen  Dank 
(sage  ich)!  I  thank  you!  Guten  Tag!  Wohin  (gehen  Sie)  des  Weges?  Where  are  you  going  to?  (To  the  ticket 
agent  at  the  railway  station)  Zwei  dritter  Berlin!  Two  third  class  tickets  for  Berlin!  Mir  auch  einen  Apfel!  Alle 
Mann  an  Bord!  but  with  quite  a  different  meaning  spoken  in  a  narrative  tone  in  reporting  a  fact:  Alle  Mann  [sind] 
an  Bord.  Hinaus  mit  ihm!  Hierher!  Zurück!  Herein!  (3)  The  auxiliary  often  drops  out  where  it  can  easily 
be  supplied:  (Hast  du)  Ausgeschlaien?  Have  you  had  your  sleep  out?  Likewise  in  the  passive:  Arbeiter  aufs  Land 
[warden]  dringend  verlangt!  (notice  posted  in  an  employment  bureau). 

Nole  2.  A  marked  feature  in  both  German  and  English  is  the  frequency  of  the  usage  which  prefers  to  clothe  the 
chief  idea  of  the  predicate  in  the  form  of  a  noun  rather  than  in  that  of  a  verb:  Es  wird  in  Erwägimg  gezogen  It  is 
under  consideration,  instead  of  Es  wird  erwogen  //  is  being  considered.  Es  gelangt  bald  zum  Druck  //  will  soon  be  in 
print.  Similarly:  etwas  zur  Entscheidung  bringen  to  bring  something  to  the  push,  etwas  ziu  Ausführung  bringen 
to  put  something  into  execution,  &c.  English  has  developed  much  farther  in  this  direction  than  German:  Shine, 
Sir?  Wollen  Sie  sich  nicht  die  Stiefel  putzen  lassen,  mein  Herr?  I  got  a  shave  Ich  ließ  mich  rasieren.  I  got  a  good 
shaking  up  Ich  wurde  schön  durchgeschüttelt.  Let  me  have  a  look  at  it  Laß  mich  mal  sehen!  Give  it  a  good  rub 
Reib's  mal  tüchtig!  Aftc  r  dimirr  we  had  a  quiet  smoke  Nach  dem  Essen  rauchten  wir  eine  gemütliche  Zigarre. 
Let  me  have  a  taste   Laß  mich  mal  kosten!     All  these  cases  indicate  a  reluctance  in  colloquial  speech  to  predicate  by 


252.  2.  A.  g. FORMS   OF   THE    PREDICATE 463 

means  of  a  full  verb  as  this  method  is  felt  as  too  formal,  too  scientific,  precise.  In  colloquial  language  there  is  always 
a  tendency  to  concreter  forms  of  expression,  hence  a  noun  is  nearer  popular  feeling  than  the  abstracter  verb.  The 
verbs  that  are  used  here  in  colloquial  speech,  tho  transitive,  are  all  otherwise  of  the  nature  of  the  intransitive  copulas 
described  in  b  and  in  the  Note  thereunder.  They  merely  serve  to  connect  the  predicate  noun,  the  real  predicate, 
w^ith  the  subject. 

b.  A  verb  of  incomplete  predication  in  connection  with  a  predicate  comple- 
ment, the  verb  assuming  in  a  mere  formal  way  the  function  of  predication,  the 
complement  serving  as  the  real  predicate:  Die  Walfische  sind  Säugetiere.  A 
verb  of  incomplete  predication  is  called  a  copula.  In  other  tenses  than  the 
present  the  copula  acquires  more  predicating  force  as  it,  like  a  verb  of  complete 
predication,  indicates  also  the  time  relations.  The  copulas  sein  and  werden 
often  enter  into  such  close  relations  to  a  predicate  participle  or  infinitive  that  the 
copula  and  predicate  complement  fuse  into  a  new  whole  and  become  a  verb  of 
complete  predication:  Er  ist  gekommen.  Er  ist  gefangen  worden.  Er  wird 
gehen. 

Altho  the  copula  is  usually  weakly  stressed  and  may  often  even  be  omitted 
it  is  strongly  accented  to  express  the  idea  of  actuality:  Gut  ist  er  doch!  Ein 
Schurke  ist  er  doch! 

Note.  Origin  of  the  Copula.  Next  to  the  introduction  of  the  verb  of  complete  predication  into  language  the 
introduction  of  the  copula  is  the  greatest  event  in  the  prehistoric  Indo-European  period.  Originally  the  predicate 
noun  or  adjective  was  an  attributive  element,  an  appositive  added  to  or  placed  before  the  subject  to  explain  it  more 
fully.  In  this  primitive  time  the  mere  placing  of  the  noun  or  adjective  alongside  the  subject  suggested  the  thought. 
This  older  usage  is  preserved  in  old-saws  and  is  still  the  favorite  form  of  expression  in  excited  language  and  in  exclama- 
tions of  all  kinds,  where  the  predicate  in  the  form  of  a  noun,  adjective,  adverb,  or  prepositional  phrase  is  placed  along- 
side the  subject  without  any  formal  sign  of  predication:  Bescheidenheit  [ist]  das  schönste  Kleid.  Ehestand  Wehe- 
stand! Er  mein  Freund?!  (spoken  with  rising  intonation  and  in  indignant  tone).  Unser  der  Sieg!  Eingang  links. 
Jedermann  zufrieden?  Niemand  hier?!  Alles  in  Ordnung.  Similarly  in  the  subordinate  clause:  Ich  tue  es  so 
gut  wie  [es]  möglich  [ist].  It  is  still  very  common  in  expressing  strong  feeling  to  employ  an  attributive  adjective 
instead  of  a  predicate  adjective  in  the  modern  form  of  tlie  sentence:  Der  gute  Gregor]  (words  uttered  by  the  pastor 
in  Halbe 's  "Jugend",  as  lie  looks  after  the  receding  chaplain.)  Ungereimtes  Zeug!  Undankbares  Kind!  Similarly 
in  terse  vigorous  expression  in  general:  Freies  Wort  jeder  Partei  (on  the  title  page  of  "Der  Tag")  The  columns  of  this 
newspaper  are  open  to  every  party.  The  old  attributive  appositional  type  of  sentence  with  the  predicate  after  the  sub- 
ject, as  in  the  first  examples  given  above,  is  still  regularly  used  in  the  objective  predicate  construction  in  262.  III.  2 
and  also  B  thereunder  and  in  the  objective  genitive  construction  in  2.  A.  c  (.3rd  par.)  below.  Compare  250.  a  (2nd 
par.)  and  269.  1.  b  (last  par.).  We  often  find  the  old  attributive  type  with  the  predicate  in  attributive  form  before 
the  subject  blended  with  the  modern  type  with  a  finite  verb:  Ein  ernstes  Spiel  wird  euch  vorübergehen  ("Prolog"  to 
Uhland's  "Herzog  Ernst").  In  the  deep  feeling  of  the  author  the  sentence  had  originally  assumed  the  old  attributive 
form:  Ein  ernstes  Spiel!  In  relating  this  impression  the  author  retained  the  original  form  of  expression  blending 
it  with  the  modern  type  instead  of   using  the  pure  modern   form:    Ernst  ist  das  Spiel,  das  euch  vorübergehen  wird. 

The  copula  sein,  originally  a  word  with  concrete  force  but  at  the  time  of  its  introduction  into  language  as  a  copula 
without  concrete  meaning,  was  introduced  as  a  mere  formal  sign  of  predication  in  order  to  mark  the  predicate  noun, 
adjective,  i&c.  formally  as  the  predicate  and  thus  conform  the  expression  to  the  normal  type  of  sentence  with  a  finite 
verb  as  predicate,  .'\ltho  the  copula  did  not  bring  any  concrete  meaning  with  it,  it  is  a  great  improvement  upon  the 
older  form  of  expression,  for  it  is  not  only  a  clear  formal  expression  of  predication,  but  it  also  indicates  the  time  and 
modal  relations  by  virtue  of  its  tense  and  mood  forms.  Moreover  it  distinguishes  the  predicate  noun,  adjective,  &c. 
from  an  attributive  appositive.  The  other  verbs  which  now  often  similarly  lose  their  originally  concrete  force  and 
are  used  as  copulas,  such  as  werden,  heißen,  bleiben,  stehen,  &c.,  introduce  like  sein  the  important  predicate  word 
but  by  virtue  of  their  differentiated  meanings  introduce  it  with  a  different  shade  of  thought,  thus  greatly  enriching 
the  language. 

c.  Predicate  Appositive.  The  predicate  may  be  a  verb  of  complete  predica- 
tion in  connection  with  a  predicate  complement,  usually  called  a  predicate  ap- 
positive: Er  kam  krank  an.  Er  bat  mich  weinend  or  in  Tränen.  Er  kam 
schweren  Herzens  (223.  III.  a)  zurück.  The  predicate  complement  often  not 
only  adds  a  remark  about  the  subject,  but  it  often  also  has  the  orce  of  an  ad- 
verbial clause  thus  sustaining  relations  to  both  the  subject  and  the  principal 
verb:  Jung  (=wenn  man  jung  ist)  ist  man  leichtsinnig.  Damit  stand  er  auf, 
den  um  den  Tisch  Sitzenden  den  Rücken  zuwendend  ( =  indem  er  den  um  den 
Tisch  Sitzenden  den  Rücken  zuwendete.)  Compare  104.  2.  A.  b,  C;  268.  4; 
273.  1.  c. 

2.     The  predicate  complement  may  be: 

A,     A  noun: 

a.  In  the  nominative  after  verbs  of  incomplete  predication,  i.e.  the  intransi- 
tives sein  to  be,  werden  to  become,  bleiben  to  remain,  heißen  to  be  called, 
named,  dünken  to  seem,  scheinen  to  seem,  erscheinen  to  appear,  and  the  passive 
forms  of  the  transitives  (see  262.  III.  2.  A.  a)  which  take  a  predicate  accusative 
in  the  active:  Sokrates  war  der  Sohn  eines  Bildhauers.  Ich  wurde  von  ihm 
ein  Feigling  gescholten. 

Note.  After  such  verbs  as  lassen  to  let,  heißen  to  hid,  command,  lehren  to  teach,  sehen,  &c.,  the  predicate  com- 
plement of  the  dependent  intrans.  of  incomplete  or  complete  predication  is  often  in  the  ace.  attracted  into  this  case 
by  the  preceding  ace,  which  is  the  object  of  the  principal  verb:  Laß  mich  deinen  Freund  sein  (Wildenbruch's  König 
Heinrich,  4,  5).  Lassen  Sie  mich  Ihren  Schüler  werden  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Kraffl,  II,  14,  p.  438).  Laß  deinen 
Vater  nicht  als  ehrlosen  Lumpen  in  die  Grube  sinken  (Boßhart's  Die  Barettlitochter,  p.  134).  Er  hieß  ihn  einen 
Tyrannen  werden  (D.  Sanders).  In  earlier  periods  of  the  language  the  ace.  here  was  more  common  than  the  nom., 
and  this  is,  perhaps,  still  the  case,  except  after  lehren,  but  at  present  the  nom.  seems  to  be  gaining  upon  the  ace: 


464 PREDICATE   NOUN 252.  2.  A.  a. 

Lieber  Gott,  laß  mich  kein  Liederdichter  werden  fHeer's  Joggeli,  p.  107).  Laß  mich  ein  solcher  Tor  sein  (Boßhart 's 
Dir  Hnrelllitochter.  p.  OSi.  Laß  den  wüsten  Kerl,  den  Grobitzsch,  meinetwegen  ihr  Komplice  sein  — deshalb  bleibt 
sie  doch  immer  die  Schuldige  (Hartlebcn's  Rosenmontag,  3,  2).  Mich  laß  ein  wilder  Jäger  durch  den  Nebel  fahren 
'Traeser).  Lassen  Sie  mich  in  Ihrem  Tempel  weilen  als  ein  frommer  Beter,  als  ein  ergebener  Verehrer  (Ring). 
Laß  mich  als  der  letzte,  ärmste  Eurer  Kinder  mit  bunten  Kieseln  spielen  auf  Euren  Straßen  (Paul  Keller's  Das  letzte 
\Iarchen.  p.  44).  Lehre  du  ihn  ein  Mensch  sein  (Meinhardt).  If,  however,  the  predicate  complement  has  no  modi- 
li?rs,  it  is  usually  in  the  nom.:  Laß  mich  Herr  sein.  When  the  object  and  the  unmodified  predicate  are  the  same 
vord,  the  latter  usually  stands  in  the  ace,  but  the  nom.  also  occurs  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule:  Laß  den 
Narren  Narren  sein.     Laß  dir  den  Menschen  Mensch  sein   (Grillparzer's   Ein  treuer  Diener,  5). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  predicate  complement  of  a  prepositional  infinitive  is  uniformly  in  the  nominative,  as  it 
is  felt  as  the  predicate  of  an  abridged  clause:  El  beauftragte  mich,  der  Bote  zu  sein.     Mich  verdroß,  der  letzte  zu  sein. 

b.  The  predicate  noun  is  in  certain  cases  introduced  by  als  or  the  prepositions 
für  (w.  ace.)  and  zu  (w.  dat): 

(1)  The  predicate  nom.  after  erscheinen  to  appear,  gehen  to  pass  (for),  and 
the  passive  forms  of  ansehen  to  look  at,  begrüßen  to  greet,  betrachten  to  consider, 
behandeki  to  treat,  and  all  others  (for  list  see  262.  III.  2.  A.  b)  which  in  the  active 
take  a  predicate  ace.  introduced  by  als,  also  predicate  appositives  after  intransi- 
tives of  complete  predication  and  after  passives,  are  introduced  by  als,  which 
here  denotes  identity,  oneness  ivith :  Dies  erschien  uns  als  der  einzige  Ausweg. 
Er  war  viel  zu  schön  für  einen  Mann  und  hätte  gut  als  Frau  gehen  können 
(Bernhard  Kellermann's  Y ester  und  Li,  chap.  XVI,  p.  249).  Er  wird  als  ein 
Taugenichts  betrachtet.  Er  wird  als  tapferer  Held  gepriesen.  Kommst  du 
zu  uns  als  unser  Feind  oder  unser  Retter?  Als  Tyrann  wurde  er  von  allen 
gehaßt. 

In  case  of  predicate  appositives  the  als  is  frequently  omitted  in  poetry:  Ein 
Feind  kommst  du  zurück  dem  Orden  (Schiller).  This  is  a  survival  of  early 
N.H.G.,  which  did  not  yet  require  here  the  als,  which  first  appeared  here  in  the 
present  period  and  has  gradually  come  into  wide  use,  growing  at  the  expense  of 
the  older  simple  nominative  and  the  für  construction.  Compare  262.  III.  2 
(2nd  par.).  In  certain  set  expressions  the  older  simple  nominative  construction 
is  still  preserved  in  prose,  and  has  even  become  productive,  so  that  new  expres- 
sions are  formed  after  the  analogy  of  the  old  ones:  Bote  (see  also  257.  2.  A) 
laufen  to  go  on  an  errand,  Gevatter  stehen  to  stand  godfather,  bei  einem  Kinde 
Pate  stehen  to  become  sponsor  for  a  child  at  baptism.  Braut  stehen  to  stand  as 
a  bride  before  the  altar,  be  married,  Modell  sitzen  or  stehen  to  serve  as  an 
artist's  model:  Nein,  es  ist  ein  Kunstwerk,  zu  dem  Sie  einfach  Modell  gesessen 
haben!  (Fulda's  Die  Wilde  Jagd,  3,  10).  In  case  of  Wache  stehen  to  stand  guard 
this  construction  has  replaced  an  older  prepositional  one:  ih  sihe  den  videlaere 
an  der  schiltwache  stan  {Nibelungenlied,  1778,  4).  Similarly  Wache  sitzen: 
Jetzo  sitze  ich  hier  Wache  (Raabe's  Meister  Autor,  chap,  xxiii).  Some  gram- 
marians feel  some  of  these  articleless  nouns  as  cognate  accusatives  (see  257.  2.  A), 
and  in  fact  a  clear  ace.  form  is  sometimes  found:  ,,Sie  waren  verreist?"  „Ja, 
bei  einer  Nichte  in  Oberschlesien  Paten  gestanden"  (Paul  Keller's  Waldiointer, 
IX).  On  the  other  hand,  the  nom.  sing,  is  sometimes  used  with  reference  to 
more  than  one,  which  shows  that  the  noun  has  lost  its  identity  and  has  entered 
into  relations  with  the  verb  to  form  a  compound:  Pate  stehen  sollten  Gottfried 
von  Geyer  und  Major  von  Schirrmacher  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  II). 

(2)  After  the  passive  forms  of  a  few  verbs  the  predicate  is  introduced  by  für 
(with  ace.)  which  does  not  positively  afihrm  complete  and  absolute  identity  as 
does  als,  but  only  equality,  and  hence  denotes  that  something  is  considered  or 
represented  as  able  or  worthy  to  pass  for  the  thing  expressed  by  the  predicate: 
Er  wird  für  einen  reichen  Mann  gehalten  He  is  regarded  as  a  rich  man.  Some- 
times after  the  active  form  gelten  and  certain  passive  forms  für  and  als  are  both 
used  with  the  same  verb,  either  with  the  same  or  with  a  different  shade  of  mean- 
ing: Er  gilt  für  einen  or  als  ein  Dichter  He  passes  for  a  poet.  Er  wird  als  ein 
Narr  or  für  einen  Narren  angesehen  He  is  looked  upon  as  a  fool.  Instead  of 
the  ace.  here  after  für  we  often  find  the  gen.  where  the  substantive  is  in  fact  a 
substitute  for  a  predicate  adjective  (see  253.  IV) :  Er  gilt  ärztlich  nicht  für  ersten 
Ranges  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap,  xxiii).  Tho  für  is  pretty  well  established  after 
a  few  verbs,  especially  halten  and  erklären,  als  is  in  general  the  favorite.  The 
passive  and  the  intransitive  active  constructions  with  für  and  als  are  not  so 
common  as  the  transitive  active  one,  and  hence  the  use  of  für  and  als  is  more 


252.  2.  A.  c. FORMS   OF   THE   PREDICATE 465 

fully  illustrated  in  the  active  construction  described  in  262.  III.  2.  A.  c  and 

Note  1. 

Note.  In  M.H.G.  für  was  more  widely  used  than  now  to  introduce  the  predicate.  It  could  stand  where  als  is  now 
used,  as  described  in  (1)  above:  Si  komen  alle  dar  für  kint,  |  die  nu  da  gro^e  liute  sint  {Parzival,  471.  1-2).  It  was 
at  first  a  preposition  governing  the  accusative,  but  from  such  sentences  as  the  one  just  given  where  kint  can  be  construed 
as  a  nominative,  a  predicate  appositive,  as  well  as  an  accusative  it  became  in  part  an  adverb  with  the  force  of  als 
used  to  introduce  an  appositive.  This  usage  has  become  establisiied  in  the  common  construction  was  für  ein.  See 
134.  2.  d.  Elsewhere  it  is  in  the  literary  language  regarded  as  a  preposition  governing  the  accusative.  Compare 
262.  III.  2  (2nd  par.). 

(3)  The  predicate  after  werden  to  become,  heranblühen  to  blossom  into, 
develop  into,  (heran )gedeihen  to  grow  up  to  become,  ripen  into,  and  with  similar 
intransitive  force  the  reflexive  verbs  sich  entwickeln,  sich  auswachsen  to  develop 
into,  is  introduced  by  zu  with  the  dat.  if  it  is  desired  to  show  an  actual  or  desired 
transformation  or  development  into  the  state  indicated  by  the  predicate:  Diese 
schönen  Hoffnungen  wurden  zu  Wasser  These  fine  hopes  ended  in  smoke.  Er 
wurde  zum  Bettler  He  became  a  beggar.  Der  Knabe  wird  zum  Mann.  Das 
Wasser  ist  durch  den  Frost  zu  Eis  geworden.  Mein  Leben  wird  mir  zur  Last 
My  life  is  becoming  a  burden  to  me.  Die  Ausnahme  darf  nicht  zur  Regel  werden 
The  exception  must  not  become  a  rule.  Dein  Vater  ist  zum  Schelm  an  mir 
geworden  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  3,  18)  Your  father  has  become  a  scoundrel 
thru  his  treatment  of  me.  Sie  war  zu  einer  kräftigen  Schönheit  herangeblüht. 
Du  bist  zum  Jüngling  gediehen.  Indem  nun  werden  in  allen  diesen  Sätzen 
zu  einem  bloßen  Verbindungswort  geworden  ist,  hat  es  sich  zu  einer  Kopula 
entwickelt.  Notice  here  the  common  use  of  the  generalizing  (59.  I.  C)  definite 
article  in  contracted  form,  zum  and  zur,  where  English  usually  requires  the 
indefinite  article.  In  earliest  N.H.G.  the  indefinite  article  was  the  rule  as  in 
English  and  as  can  be  seen  by  the  above  examples  is  still  sometimes  used,  but  it 
can  usually  be  replaced  by  the  definite  article  as  the  definite  article  is  now  more 
common  in  a  generalizing  sense.  In  case  of  a  mass  or  a  material  the  article  is 
here  dropped  in  German  and  English  as  illustrated  in  examples  given  above. 
Compare  262.  III.  2.  A.  d. 

If  it  is  the  finished  state  or  condition  reached  or  to  be  reached  rather  than 
the  process  of  development  that  is  before  the  mind  the  zu  drops  out:  Sie  wurde 
Schauspielerin.  Er  wird  Kaufmann  He  is  going  to  be  a  merchant.  Ein  Kron- 
prinz wird  König,  wenn  sein  Vater  stirbt.  Dieser  Mohammedaner  wird  Christ; 
wird  er  aber  auch  zum  Christen? 

The  use  of  zu  here  was  already  well  established  in  oldest  German.  Compare 
262.  III.  2  (2nd  par.). 

c.  Predicate  Genitive.  After  the  verb  sein  to  be,  more  rarely  after  werden 
to  become,  scheinen  to  seem,  a  predicate  genitive  is  used  to  express  several  ideas 
also  found  in  the  attributive  gen.,  namely,  quality,  origin,  and  in  choice  language 
possession,  or  the  first  two  of  these  ideas,  and  also  that  of  material,  and  sometimes 
the  partitive  idea  may  be  expressed  by  a  prep,  phrase  (see  253.  IV):  Darüber 
kann  man  verschiedener  Ansicht  sein.  Der  Gedankenaustausch  mit  Münch- 
nern ist  jetzt  geradezu  eine  Freude,  so  weh  es  in  solchen  Augenblicken  auch 
tut,  daß  wir  mit  ihnen  nur  eines  Sinnes,  nicht  auch  eines  Staates  sein  können 
( Neue  Freie  Presse,  Oct.  8,  1919).  Wir  sind  gleichen  Alters  We  are  of  the  same 
age.  Seien  Sie  guter  Dinge  Be  of  good  cheer.  Er  ist  andern  Sinnes  geworden 
He  has  changed  his  mind.  Also  du  bist  wirklich  des  Glaubens,  Michael  hätte 
keinen  sehnlicheren  Wunsch  gehabt,  als  seinen  Sitz  im  Reichstag  loszuwerden? 
(Sudermann's  Es  lebe  das  Leben,  p.  40).  So  konnte  Mommsen  glauben,  daß 
ich  mit  Unrecht  gegen  ihn  ankämpfe,  während  ich  natürlich  der  Überzeugung 
war  und  noch  heute  bin,  daß  ich  zum  Widerspruch  verpflichtet  war  (Otto 
Seeck's  Zur  Charakteristik  Mommsens,  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Jan.  1904).  Zu- 
weilen, wenn  er  schlechter  Laune  war,  behandelte  er  ihn  allerdings  wie  einen 
Lakaien  (Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan?,  viii).  Das  Verhältnis  war  nicht  derart, 
daß  es  Johanna  große  Verlegenheit  verursacht  hätte.  Ich  bin  willens,  es  zu 
tun  I  am  disposed,  intend  to  do  it.  Das  ist  mir  einerlei  (126.  1.  a)  That  is  all 
the  same  to  me.  Das  ist  so  Rechtens  That  is  according  to  law.  Sie  waren 
deutschen  Ursprungs.     So  gebet  dem  Keiser  |  was  des  Keisers  ist  |  vnd  Gotte| 


466 PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE  OR  PARTICIPLE       252.  2.  A.  c. 

was  Gottes  ist  (Matth.  xxii.  21),  Ich  tu',  was  ich  muß,  der  Ausgang  ist  Gottes 
(Hebbel's  Agnes  Bernauer,  4,  4).  Das  ist  meines  Amtes  (Suttner's  Im  Berg- 
hause, p.  54)  That  is  my  duty,  my  work.  Dringt  in  die  Häuser,  was  ihr  darin 
findet,  |  Frauen  und  Kinder,  Schätze,  Hab'  und  Gut,  |  ist  der  Soldaten  (Wilclen- 
bruch's  König  Laiirin,  5,  14).  Es  ist  nicht  dieses  Ortes  (it  is  not  the  province 
of  the  present  treatise),  festzustellen  usw.  (Jakob  Wackernagel's  Die  griechische 
Sprache,  p.  294).  Und  wessen  sind  die  schönen  Blumen,  die  Euch  gegenüber 
die  Fenster  schmücken?  (Herr's  Der  Kö)iig  der  Berniua,  \  ).  Wenn  er  uns 
damals  überfallen  hätte,  so  wären  wir  alle  des  Todes  gewesen  If  he  had  fallen 
upon  US  at  that  time  we  should  all  have  been  doomed.  Er  ist  von  Adel  He  is  of 
noble  birth.  Die  Sache  ist  von  großer  Wichtigkeit.  Seien  Sie  ohne  Furcht. 
Er  ist  von  schlechter  Herkunft.  Der  Tisch  ist  von  Holz.  Er  ist  von  denen 
(one  of  these  men),  die  ihr  Gelübde  halten  (Frey tag). 

We  often  find  this  genitive  in  the  predicate  appositive  relation:  Er  kam 
schweren  Herzens  zurück.     Compare  223.  III.  a. 

An  objective  predicate  genitive  of  quality  is  used  after  machen  to  7nake, 
zeigen  to  show,  sich  dünken  to  regard  one's  self,  &c.:  Jedenfalls  rechne  nicht 
darauf,  mich  anderen  Sinnes  zu  machen  (Fontane's  Fra^i  Jenny,  xii).  After 
some  verbs  the  objective  predicate  genitive  is  introduced  by  als  or  für.  For 
examples  see  262.  III.  2.  B.  a.  The  objective  predicate  genitive  here  as  the 
objective  predicate  accusative  in  262.  III.  2.  is  joined  to  its  subject,  the  object 
of  the  principal  verb,  without  the  aid  of  a  copula  as  the  statement  is  felt  to  be 
of  the  old  appositional  type  of  sentence  described  in  1.  h.  Note  above,  where  the 
predicate  is  placed  alongside  the  subject  like  an  appositive  without  the  aid  of  a 
finite  verb. 

The  gen.  is  quite  common  in  the  categories  mentioned  above  in  such  expres- 
sions as  those  given  in  the  illustrative  examples  and  other  similar  ones,  but  in 
general  it  cannot  be  freely  used.  In  poetry,  however,  it  is  often  employed  where 
in  plain  prose  it  would  be  replaced  by  von  with  the  dat. :  Elisabeth  ist  meines 
Stammes,  meines  Geschlechts  und  Rangs  (Schiller's  Maria  Stuart,  1.  2).  The 
possessive  gen.  is,  aside  from  certain  set  expressions,  found  only  in  rather  choice 
language,  and  is  replaced  in  colloquial  speech  by  gehören  with  dat. :  Das  Haus 
gehört  meinem  Freunde. 

B.     The  predicate  complement  may  be  an  adjective  or  participle: 

a.  In  the  nominative  after  verbs  of  incomplete  predication,  i.e.  intransitives 
which  have  lost  their  concrete  meaning  and  are  now  felt  as  copulas,  such  as 
sein,  werden,  scheinen  (185.  A.  I.  1.  h.  (3)),  erscheinen  (185.  A.  I.  1.  h.  (3)), 
dünken  (185.  A.  I.  1.  h.  (3)),  vorkommen,  bleiben,  heißen,  and  gehen,  kom- 
men, laufen,  stehen  in  certain  set  expressions,  also  the  passive  forms  of  the 
transitives  (262.  III.  2.  B)  which  in  the  active  take  a  noun  or  a  non-reflexive 
pronoun  as  direct  object  and  an  adjective  or  participle  as  objective  predicate, 
now  in  all  these  cases  usually  without  grammatical  forms  except  in  the  superla- 
tive (see  112.  1):  Sie  ist  schön.  Sie  scheint  betrübt.  Das  ist  rührend.  Karl 
ist  der  jüngste.  Sie  wurde  krank.  Das  kommt  mir  lächerlich  vor.  Man  ver- 
suchte das  ertrunkene  Kind  zu  beleben,  aber  es  blieb  tot.  Drei  tausend  bUe- 
ben  (i.e.  feil)  tot.  Das  heißt  ehrlich.  Er  geht  müßig  (is  idle,  does  nothing). 
Die  Vorstellung  geht  los  (begins).  Das  Wasser  geht  tot  (ceases  to  flow).  Das 
Sägeblatt  geht  tot  (ceases  to  cut).  Der  Schlüssel  geht  verloren.  Der  Ange- 
klagte ist  frei-  or  losgekommen.  Das  Faß  läuft  leer  (becomes  empty,  runs 
dry).  Das  Faß  läuft  voll.  Die  Wohnung  steht  leer.  Ein  Kranker  ist  gesund 
erklärt  worden,  ist  totgeglaubt  worden,  ist  totgesagt  worden.  Er  ist  nicht 
totzukriegen  Nothing  can  knock  him  out,  lit.  with  passive  force,  he  can't  be 
knocked  out.  Er  wurde  totgeschlagen.  Here  also  belongs  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple in  the  compound  tenses  of  intransitives  that  are  conjugated  with  sein: 
Er  ist  gekommen.     Compare  1.  b  above. 

A  noun  is  often  used  in  the  predicate  with  the  force  of  an  adjective,  indicating 
a  quality  or  characteristic  of  the  person  or  thing  which  it  represents:  Seine 
(Fulda's)  letzten  Stücke  heißen  „Jugendfreunde"  und  „Herostrat";   jenes  ist 


252.  2.  E. FORMS   OF   THE   PREDICATE 467 

trotz  guter  Erfindung  durchweg  Blumenthal-Kadelburg  (Bartels's  Die  deiitsche 
Dichtung  der  Gcgemvart,  p.  256).  Du  bist  doch  die  geborene  alte  Jungfer 
(Fontane's  EJfi,  chap.  1)  You  are  a  regular  old  maid. 

Note  1.  If  it  is  desired  not  simply  to  predicate  a  certain  quality  of  the  subject,  but  to  assign  it  to  a  definite  class 
of  objects  or  ideas,  the  predicate  adj.  is  preceded  by  ein  or  ncKativcIy  kein,  and  is  inrtected:  Diese  Kirsche  ist  sauer 
(sour),  but  eine  sauere  (a  sour  kind).  Das  Exemplar,  das  ich  bezogen  (procured)  habe,  war  ein  gebundenes.  Diese 
ganze  Frage  ist  eine  rein  ästhetische.  Der  Genuß  davon  ist  mehr  ein  sinnlicher,  kein  rein  geistiger.  Usage,  how- 
ever, goes  farther,  and  employs  this  construction  also  as  a  more  emphatic  form  of  predication  than  the  simple  unin- 
flected  adjective:  Die  Aufregung  war  bedeutend,  or  more  emphatically  eine  bedeutende.  Die  Stellung  des  neuen 
Direktors  war  eine  außerordentlich  schwierige.  In  the  pl.  ein  of  course  drops  out:  Die  Leistungen  waren  ganz  her- 
vorragende. This  favorite  construction  is  a  modern  form  of  the  old  attributive  type  of  sentence,  a  blending  of  the 
old  attributive  form  with  the  modern  form  with  a  finite  verb,  as  described  in  1.  6.  Note  above.  Thus  also  in  English 
we  often  prefer  He  is  a  kind-hearled  fellow  to  He  is  kind-hearted.  On  the  other  hand,  English  is  very  fond  of  a  predicate 
adjective  in  connection  with  a  complementary  prepositional  phrase  as  a  more  concrete  form  of  statement  than  a 
transitive  verb  with  an  accusative  object:  You  are  forgetful  of  the  fact  that,  &c.  Sie  vergessen  die  Tatsache,  daß 
usw.  I  was  ignorant  of  these  facts  Ich  wußte  diese  Dinge  nicht.  Here  as  in  182.  1.  B.  a  we  see  the  strong  tendency 
in  English  to  avoid  a  finite  verb  of  complete  predication.  To  be  sure  there  is  here  a  finite  verb,  but  it  is  always  the 
copula,  a  word  with  the  grammatical  function  of  predication  but  entirely  void  of  concrete  meaning,  so  that  the  old 
appositional  type  of  sentence  described  in  1.  b.Nole  above  is  preserved  in  spirit. 

Note  2.  Some  adjectives  are  principally  used  attributively  and  are  not  used  predicatively  at  all,  as  the  idea  of 
condition  or  state  which  lies  in  the  uninflected  predicate  adjective  ill  accords  with  the  meaning  of  the  subject,  but 
they  are  often  used  in  the  predicate  in  attributive  form,  which,  as  we  have  seen  in  Note  1,  is  a  favorite  type  of  predi- 
cation: (1)  Derivatives  in  -lieh  when  the  subject  contains  a  verbal  stem  and  regularly  adjectives  in  -er:  not  Die 
Zusammenkunft  war  nächthch,  but  eine  nächtliche  (Zusammenkunft  understood).  Berliner  Porzellan,  but  according 
to  245.  II.  10.  1.  6  Das  ist  Berlinisch.  (2)  Adjectives  in  -en,  -ern  made  from  names  of  materials:  golden  golden, 
hölzern  wooden.  In  elevated  diction  and  in  figurative  language,  however,  these  adjectives  are  also  used  in  the  predi- 
cate. See  245.  II.  3.  c.  (3)  Adjectives  in  -ig  derived  from  adverbs  of  time  and  place:  heutig  of  to-day,  from  heute; 
damalig  of  that  time,  from  damals;  dortig  of  that  place,  from  dort.  Not  Diese  Zeitung  ist  hiesig,  but  Dies  ist  die 
hiesige  Zeitung  This  is  the  newspaper  of  this  place.  (4)  All  relative  superlatives  and  the  comparatives  in  117.  2, 
all  of  which  are  used  only  attributively  and  require  an  article  before  them,  the  noun  being  expressed  or  understood: 
Not  Karl  ist  jüngst,  but  der  jüngste.  Die  vordem  Zimmer  the  front  rooms.  Dies  sind  die  vordem  Zimmer.  (5)  When 
the  subject  is  a  verbal  noun:  Die  Verbreitung  des  Buches  ist  eine  schnelle.  (6)  A  present  participle  can  only 
be  used  in  the  predicate  when  it  has  the  force  of  an  adjective.  See  182.  1.  A.  b.  It  cannot  now  as  formerly  be  used 
here  with  pure  verbal  force.  It  can,  however,  be  freely  used  in  the  predicate  as  elsewhere  in  attributive  form:  Das 
ganze  Verfahren  ist  ein  durchaus  den  Gesetzen  widersprechendes.  The  constructions  (5)  and  (6)  show  clearly 
that  the  old  attributive  type  of  sentence  described  in  1.  b.  Note  above  is  still  a  favorite  and  is  always  reappearing 
in  somewhat  altered  modern  form,  even  where,  as  here,  the  modern  type  with  a  finite  verb  of  complete  predication 
is  in  common  use:   Das  Buch  hat  sich  schnell  verbreitet.     Das  ganze  Verfahren  widerspricht  durchaus  den  Gesetzen. 

Note  3.     On  the  other  hand,  a  number  of  adjectives  can  only  be  used  as  a  predicate  complement.      See  111.  7.  c. 

b.  In  the  nom.  as  predicate  appositive.  See  1.  c  above  and  104.  2.  A.  b, 
C,  D. 

c.  Instead  of  the  simple  nom.  construction  the  predicate  is  in  certain  instances, 
as  in  case  of  nouns,  introduced  by  als  and  für:  Er  gilt  als  der  beste  von  allen.  Er 
wurde  für  unwürdig  erklärt  He  was  pronounced  unworthy.  Er  blieb  für  tot 
liegen  He  was  left  for  dead.  Er  gilt  für  tot.  The  predicate  appositive  is  often 
introduced  by  als :   Mein  Freund  hat  als  enterbt  keine  Mittel  mehr. 

C.  The  predicate  complement  may  be  a  pronoun  in  the  nom.:  Sein  Glück 
ist  meines.  Er  bleibt  derselbe.  Das  Pferd  ist  ein  Säugetier;  der  Walfisch  ist 
es  (129.  2.  C.  (4))  auch. 

a.  In  Swiss  dialect  the  personal  pronouns  are  frequently  in  the  ace.  when  used  as  predicate: 
Seid  Ihr  ihn  etwa  selbst?  (J.  Gotthelf's  Uli  der  Pächter,  76).  Seht,  da  ist  es  ihn  ja  selber  (Spit- 
teler's  Conrad,  p.  52).     Compare  with  popular  English:   It  is  me,  us. 

D.  An  infinitive: 

a.  Without  zu,  used  as  a  predicate  or  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  predi- 
cate after  the  verbs  enumerated  in  185.  B.  I.  1.  b:  Er  bleibt  stehen. 

b.  With  zu,  used  as  predicate: 

(1)  With  passive  and  modal  force  in  case  of  transitives,  as  described  in 
180.  A. 

(2)  Also  the  infinitive  of  intransitives  and  reflexives  is  used  in  the  predicate 
with  this  same  modal  meaning  but  with  active  force.     See  185.  A.  \.  1.  b  (2). 

(3)  After  certain  verbs  the  prepositional  infinitive  is  used  in  the  predicate 
without  modal  force.     See  185.  A.  I.  1.  6  (3)  and  (4). 

E.  An  adverb  or  prepositional  phrase:  Die  Schule  ist  aus.  Die  Tür  ist  zu. 
Gott  ist  überall.  Das  Fest  ist  heute.  Wann  ist  das  Schauspiel?  Die  Mühe 
war  umsonst.  Wie  ist  das  Bier?  Er  ist  hier.  Er  ist  zu  Hause.  Es  ist  alles 
in  Ordnung.  In  many  cases  the  verb  sein  here  has  concrete  force,  as  in  Das 
Fest  ist  heute  =  findet  heute  statt,  but  this  force  is  so  faint  that  the  form  is 
felt  as  a  mere  copula  and  like  the  copula  may  often  be  suppressed:  Alles  in 
Ordnung.     Niemand  hier? 

Also  the  predicate  appositive  often  appears  in  the  form  of  a  prepositional 
phrase:    Die  Feinde  zogen  sich  in  guter  Ordnung  zurück. 


468 AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  SUBJECT  &  VERB         252.  2.  F. 

F.     A  clause:    Du  bist  nicht  mehr,  der  du  warst.     Nicht  jeder  scheint,  was 
er  ist. 

Agreement  behceen  Subject  and  Predicate. 

253.  The  predicate  agrees  with  the  subject  in  number,  and  where  it  is  pos- 
sible in  person,  gender,  and  case. 

I.     Number. 

1.  If  the  subject  is  singular,  the  verb  is  also  sing.:  Das  kleinste  Haar  wirft 
seinen  Schatten. 

a.  Often  in  speaking  to  and  sometimes  also  of  persons  of  relatively  higher 
social  or  official  standing,  the  verb  is  in  the  pi.,  tho  the  subject  is  in  the  sing.: 
General  Manteuffel  schreibt  mir  eben,  daß  Seine  Majestät  der  König  die 
Gnade  gehabt  haben.  Dir  diese  Auszeichnung  zu  verleihen  (Moltke  an  den 
Neffen  Henry,  March  22,  18(34).  Seine  Majestät  der  Deutsche  Kaiser,  König 
von  Preußen,  haben  das  nachstehende  Handschreiben  vom  26.  Juni  dieses 
Jahres  allergnädigst  an  mich  zu  richten  geruht  (König  Ludwig  von  Bayern, 
July  ö,  101.")).  (zu  Edith)  Gnädiges  Fräulein  hatten  mir  doch  versprochen,  mir 
das  letzte  Bild  zu  zeigen,  das  Sie  gemalt  haben  (Fulda's  Das  verlorene  Paradies, 
1,  5).  Wollen  Herr  Kommerzienrat  wirklich  diese  Nacht  noch  zurückfahren? 
(Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  2.  3,  where  a  first  lieutenant  addresses  respectfully 
a  visiting  'Kommerzienrat').  An  Seine  Exzellenz  den  preußischen  Minister- 
präsidenten Hirsch:  Herr  Ministerpräsident  haben  die  Berliner  Studenten, 
die  Hindenburg  huldigten,  als  unreife  Burschen  bezeichnet  usw.  (telegram  of 
Hamburg  students  to  the  Prussian  minister  in  Nov.  1919).  Die  gnädige  Frau 
sind  ausgefahren  (language  of  a  servant)  My  mistress  has  gone  out  driving. 
It  is  difficult  to  define  usage  here  accurately.  Sturdy  independent  natures  resist 
this  servile  style,  while  others,  as  on  the  one  hand  servants,  and  on  the  other 
hand  persons  that  move  in  circles  dominated  by  official  or  social  formalities, 
employ  it  to  show  their  respect  and  deference  to  superiors,  or  use  it  in  general 
as  a  mere  mark  of  esteem  or  politeness.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  mock-respectful 
tone:  Herr  Doktor  wurden  da  katechisiert  (Goethe's  Faust,  1.  3523). 

b.  If  the  dies,  das,  jenes,  es,  or  welches  used  in  expressions  of  identity  is 
subject,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate.  See  128.  A.  a\  129.  2.  C.  (1)  and 
251.  1.3;  141.  9.  a;  148.  a. 

c.  The  grammatical  subject  es  has  no  influence  over  the  number,  the  verb 
agreeing  with  the  logical  subject:  Es  zogen  drei  Bursche (n)  wohl  über  den 
Rhein. 

d.  If  a  subject  in  the  sing,  is  associated,  by  means  of  the  preps,  mit  with, 
samt  together  with,  nebst  along  with,  auf  upon,  nach  after,  with  other  words 
which  logically  tho  not  formally  constitute  a  part  of  the  subject,  the  verb  is  in 
the  sing. :  Das  Schiff  samt  der  Ladung  und  Mannschaft  ging  zu  Grunde.  Moses 
nebst  seinem  Bruder  Aaron  stieg  auf  den  Berg  Sinai.  Schlag  auf  Schlag 
rolgte.  Ein  Tag  nach  dem  andern  verstrich.  The  pl.  is  also  sometimes  found 
after  the  first  three  of  these  prepositions  in  accordance  with  older  usage  as 
explained  in  229.  2,  under  nebst,  {b). 

e.  German  usage  often  differs  markedly  from  the  English  where  the  predi- 
cate consists  of  the  copula  sein  to  be  and  a  predicate  noun.  In  German  where 
the  subject  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  stands  at  or  near  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence the  copula  agrees  with  the  subject  in  number:  Das  einzige  Düstere  auf 
dem  ganzen  Gewässer  waren  die  schwarzen  Schwäne  auf  dem  See.  Der 
Hauptfluch  sind  Steuern.  In  these  examples  the  noun  in  the  nominative  that 
stands  after  the  copula  seems  to  be  the  subject,  while  the  nominative  before 

r«;^^^"'^  ^^-^'^^  ^'^'  ^^^  ^^^  predicate,  but  in  many  similar  sentences  it  is  often 
difficult  to  distinguish  subject  and  predicate,  sometimes  even  so  difficult  that 
thoroly  tranied  scholars  differ  in  their  decisions.  If  one  of  the  nominatives  is 
a  plural  it  becomes  necessary  to  decide  this  difficult  question.     In  German  the 


253.  I.  1.^^'.     AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  SUBJECT  &  VERB 469 

tendency  here  is  to  avoid  a  decision  on  this  perplexing  point  by  regulating  the 
number  of  the  copula  by  a  mere  formal  principle,  namely  as  the  nominative 
after  the  copula  is  often  the  subject  it  has  become  the  rule  to  place  the  copula 
in  accord  with  the  following  plural  nominative  whether  it  be  a  subject  or  a 
predicate:  Der  Hauptmangel  sind  Bücher  (subject)  The  chief  want  is  books. 
Alles,  was  du  anbringst,  sind  nur  leere  Entschuldigungen  (predicate)  All  the 
things  that  you  bring  forward  are  mere  empty  excuses.  As  can  be  seen  by  the 
English  translations  the  number  of  the  English  copula  is  also  regulated  by  a 
mere  formal  rule,  namely  the  nominative  before  the  copula  is  construed  as 
subject  whether  it  be  in  fact  the  subject  or  the  predicate,  and  the  copula  is 
accordingly  made  to  agree  with  it.  In  German  we  often  find  the  copula  in  the 
sing,  where  several  nouns  after  it  indicate  a  distinct  collective  idea  or  a  single 
noun  in  the  plural  is  felt  as  containing  the  idea  of  a  fixed  amount,  extent,  or 
mass:  Seine  speise  aber  war  Hewschrecken  und  wild  (now  wilder)  Honig 
(Matth.  III.  4)  His  meat  was  locusts  and  wild  honey.  Es  ist  (viewed  collec- 
tively) or  sind  (viewed  individually)  sechs  Jahre,  daß  ich  hier  wohne.  Eine 
Krone  ist  (or  sind)  zehn  Mark. 

If  the  nominative  after  the  copula  is  in  the  singular,  the  copula  more  com- 
monly agrees  with  the  nominative  before  it:  Gerötete  Augen  sind  ein  Zeichen 
innerer  Erregung. 

/.  If  the  subject  is  sing,  in  form  but  has  several  adjective  modifiers  which 
do  not  qualify  the  one  thing  but  each  a  different  thing,  the  verb  is  in  the  pi.: 
Die  nördliche  und  südliche  Hälfte  scheinen  unter  gleichen  Breitegraden  un- 
gefähr dieselbe  Erdkrümmung  darzubieten  The  northern  and  southern  hemi- 
spheres appear  to  have  about  the  same  curvature  on  the  same  parallels. 

g.  A  collective  noun  or  pronoun,  or  noun  of  multitude  in  the  sing,  now 
usually  requires  the  verb  in  the  sing:  Das  Heer  ist  versammelt.  Das  kleine 
Volk  lief  voraus.  Der  Rat  (council)  ist  in  seinen  Ansichten  geteilt.  Vieh 
grast  auf  den  Dünen.  Beides  ist  richtig  Both  (i.e.  botli  points,  both  views)  are 
correct,  but  Beide  haben  recht  Both  (i.e.  both  persons)  are  right.  Am  Sonnabend 
war  es  kaum  sieben  Uhr,  als  bereits  das  Ehepaar  Bennecke  erschien  (Wilden- 
bruch's  Schwester-Seele,  chap.  XV).  The  earlier  part  of  the  period  was  not  so 
completely  under  the  domination  of  grammatical  rule  as  the  present.  Luther 
frequently  uses  the  plural  here,  or  places  the  first  verb  in  the  sing,  and  all  fol- 
lowing ones  in  the  plural:  Aber  das  Volck  |  so  (153.  5)  jren  Gott  kennen  |  wer- 
den sich  ermannen  (Dan.  xi.  32).  Vnd  alles  Kriegsuolck  das  bey  jm  war  zoch 
hinauff  |  vnd  tratten  [h]erzu  |  vnd  kamen  gegen  die  Stad  (Josh.  viii.  11).  The 
plural  of  a  verb  still  occurs  here  in  the  classical  period,  but  much  more  rarely: 
Wie  eine  rasende  Menge  mit  Stäben,  Beilen,  Hämmern,  Leitern,  Stricken 
versehen,  von  wenig  Bewaffneten  begleitet,  erst  Kapellen,  Kirchen  und  Klöster 
anfallen,  die  Andächtigen  verjagen  (Goethe's  Egmont,  1,  2).  In  our  time  the 
plural  here  is  quite  rare  in  the  literary  language,  and  perhaps  only  found  in  a 
relative  clause  referring  back  to  a  collective  noun,  where  it  is  also  rare:  Endlich 
teilte  sich  das  Volk  in  eine  rauhere  Partei,  welche  .  .  .  gerne  nunmehr  nach- 
geholt hätten,  was,  wie  sie  meinten,  bei  der  Eroberung  des  Landes  versäumt 
worden  und  die  Italier  für  ihren  heimlichen  Haß  mit  offener  Gewalt  zu  strafen 
begehrten  (Felix  Dahn's  Ein  Kampf  um  Rom).  The  older  freedom  of  usage 
here  is  preserved  in  English :    The  Council  is  or  are  of  the  opinion  that,  &c. 

If,  however,  a  noun  in  the  gen.  pi.,  or  a  dat.  pi.  after  von,  or  an  appositive  in 
the  pi.  follows  the  collective  noun,  the  verb  may  be  in  the  pi.:  Dort  hatten  sich 
eine  Masse  chinesischer  Fruchtverkäufer  angesammelt.  Eine  Menge  Äpfel 
lagen  unter  dem  Baume.  The  plural  is  also  found  after  a  singular  noun  that 
follows  the  plural  deren:  In  einem  Aufsatze  bespricht  Gustav  A.  Erdmann 
diese  Frage  zwar  eingehend,  aber  doch  nur  von  einem  einzigen  Gesichtspunkte 
aus,  während  deren  eine  ganze  Reihe  sind  (v.  Duvernoy  in  Deutsche  Monats- 
schrift, April,  1906,  p.  105).  Also  the  singular  can  be  used  here,  and  in  general 
the  rule  can  be  laid  down  that  the  use  of  the  sing,  and  pi.  depends  upon  whether 
the  subject  presents  itself  to  the  mind  in  the  form  of  a  closed  mass  or  gToup, 


470 AGREEMENT    BETWEEN   SUBJECT   &  VERB       253.  I.  1.  g. 

or  as  individuals:  Ein  Schwann  Bienen  flog  auf,  but  Eine  Menge  Hasen  wurden 
geschossen  (one  at  a  time). 

If  a  plural  predicate  noun  follows  collective  was  the  principal  verb  is  in  the  plural. 
Früh  übt  sich,  was  ein  Meister  werden  will,  but  Was  ehrliche  Mörder  sind, 
werden  dich  unter  sich  nicht  dulden  (Lessing's  Emilia  Galotti,  3,  8j . 

Nole  1.  In  the  case  of  ein  Paar,  ein  Dutzend  there  is  a  difference  of  meaning  involved,  the  pi.  verb  denoting 
an  indefinite  number,  the  sing,  an  exact  number— too,  twelve:  Ein  paar  (a  few)  Häuser  sind  abgebrannt,  but  Draußen 
wartet  ein  Paar  auf  die  Trauung.  Es  kamen  uns  ein  Dutzend  (a  number)  Husaren  entgegen,  but  Das  Dutzend 
Zigarren  kostet  1  Mark. 

A'ote  2.  The  indefinite  numerals  viel,  wenig,  mehr,  and  genug  were  in  early  N.H.G.  used  as  sing,  neuter  sub- 
stantives, often  with  a  dependent  partitive  gen.,  and  accordingly  when  used  as  subject  could  have  a  sing,  verb  even 
tho  the  reference  was  to  a  number  of  persons  or  things,  while  later  usage  requires  here  quite  uniformly  a  plural  verb: 
Wenn  der  gerechten  viel  ist  I  frewet  sich  das  volck  (Proverbs  xxix,  2),  but  Aber  diesem  Rufe  folgten  heute  nur  wenig 
[see  139. 3.1,  Note]  (Fontanes  Quill,  chap.  0).  Luther  also  employed  the  plural  here:  Sintemal  sich'sviel  vnterwunden 
haben  (Luke  i.  1).     Denn  es  sind  viel  falscher  Propheten  ausgegangen  in  die  Welt  (I  John  iv.  1). 

Mehr  als  ein  +  a  sing,  subject  may  be  used  with  a  sing,  or  pi.  verb:  Mehr  als  ein  Fall  ist  bekannt,  or  Es  sind  mehr 
als  ein  Fall  bekannt.     The  sing,  is  more  common. 

The  plural  is  employed  after  the  subject  was  when  modified  by  a  plural  partitive  genitive  and  used  in  connection 
with  the  adverb  mehr  hcsiiles.  else:  zwei  Schultheißen,  vier  Venner  (formerly  an  ofiflcial  in  Swiss  cities)  und  was  der 
Würden  mehr  waren  (Boßhart's  Die  Barelllilochler,  p.  32). 

h.  Nichts  als  before  a  pi.  noun  is  always  found  with  a  pi.  verb  as  it  simply 
has  the  force  of  nur:  eine  Fabrik,  in  welcher  nichts  als  Nähnadeln  gemacht 
werden. 

2.  If  the  subject  is  pi.,  or  if  there  are  several  subjects,  the  verb  is  pi.:  Die 
Kinder  bedürfen  der  Aufsicht.  Gut  und  Ehre  vermögen  viel  über  die  Men- 
schen.    Der  Pastor  wie  der  Verwalter  eilten  zu  ihren  Berufsgeschäften. 

a.  If  there  are  several  sing,  subjects,  the  verb  may  agree  with  the  nearest 
one,  provided  it  does  not  thus  stand  after  them  all,  in  which  case  it  is  usually  pi. : 
Mein  Bruder  kommt  heute  und  meine  Schwester,  but  Mein  Bruder  und  meine 
Schwester  kommen  heute.  Nu  aber  bleibt  Glaube  |  Hoffnung  |  Liebe  |  diese 
drey  (1  Cor.  xiii.  13).  There  is  now  a  strong  tendency  here  to  use  the  plural 
in  accordance  with  strict  formal  principles:  Da  lagen  der  Taufschein,  der  Paß 
und  der  Totenschein  ihrer  Mutter  (Schubin's  Refiigiiim  peccatorum,  III).  The 
verb  must,  however,  be  in  the  sing.,  even  when  it  follows  the  different  subjects, 
if  for  any  reason  it  is  expressly  desired  to  associate  the  activity  implied  in  the 
verb  with  each  subject  separately,  as,  for  instance,  to  denote  consecutiveness, 
to  indicate  a  contrast,  or  to  present  the  subjects  as  individuals:  Da  hebet  sich's 
schwanenweiß,  |  und  ein  Arm  und  ein  glänzender  Nacken  wird  bloß  (Schiller's 
Der  Taucher)  There  out  of  the  water  something  white  as  a  swan  raises  itself 
and  an  arm  is  seen  and  then  a  glittering  neck.  Der  Thron,  zu  dessen  Rechten 
der  Raja,  ihm  gegenüber  meine  Wenigkeit  Platz  nahm  The  throne  at  the  right 
of  which  the  rajah  seated  himself  and  opposite  to  him  my  humble  self.  „Woher 
aber  dann  die  beiden  Kinder?"  „Ich  weiß  nur,  daß  es  ein  Knabe  und  ein 
Mädchen  ist  von  etwa  acht  und  zehn  Jahren"  (Ertl's  Der  Handschuh). 

b.  If  the  subjects  are  in  part  sing.,  in  part  pi.,  the  verb  if  pi.  should  be  so 
placed  that  it  will  not  follow  a  sing,  subject,  or  if  the  sing,  verb  be  preferred  it 
should  precede  a  sing,  subject:  Das  alte  Theben  (Thebes)  und  seine  Trümmer 
sind  tausendmal  beschrieben  worden.  Er  sagte  ihnen  zum  Trost,  daß  er  es 
ihnen  überließe,  unter  sich  auszumachen,  welcher  dableiben  und  welche  (pl.) 
wandern  sollten  (Gottfried  Keller's  Die  Leute  von  Seldiuyla,  I,  p.  239).  Wer 
weiß,  ob  nicht  morgen  schon  dein  innigstes  Sehnen  dahin  geht,  es  möge  Pech, 
Schwefel  und  Quadersteine  auf  die  Teünehmer,  die  Mitwirkenden  an  deiner 
großen  Feier  herabregnen  (Raahe's  Der  Drätimling,  XIII). 

c.  In  the  case  that  several  co-ordinate  singidar  subjects  are  felt  as  forming 
a  distinct  collective  idea,  a  close  union  or  oneness  of  idea,  the  sing,  verb  may 
be  used :  Haus  und  Hof  ist  verkauft.  Lob  und  Dank  sei  dem  Herrn.  Freude 
und  Jubel  schallt  uns  entgegen.  Arm  und  Reich  ist  (or  sind)  im  Tode  gleich, 
but  always  Die  Armen  und  die  Reichen  sind  im  Tode  gleich.  Es  kamen  Tage, 
an  denen  die  Arbeit,  die  Sorge  zu  viel  und  zu  groß  war  (R.  Voss's  Psyche,  chap. 
7).  Two  subjects  can  express  a  oneness  of  idea  if  they  are  opposites  or  comple- 
ments of  each  other,  and  thus  show  one  idea  in  all  its  range  of  meanings  from  the 
two  extremes :  Weil  ich  weiß,  was  ein  guter  Wandel  nicht  bloß  vor  Gott,  son- 
dern auch  vor  den  Menschen  bedeutet  und  daß  Glück  und  Unglück  daran 


253.  I.  2./.      AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  SUBJECT  &  VERB 471 

hängt  (Fontane's  Qiiitt,  chap.  7).  Of  course  the  verb  is  in  the  pi.  if  such  words 
are  considered  separately:  Denn  hier  sind  Recht  und  Unrecht  nah  verwandt 
(Goethe's  Tasso,  2,  4).  Gut  und  böse  streiten  wunderlich  in  dir  (Frenssen's 
Das  Heimatsfest,  3,  1). 

Opposed  to  the  usage  described  above  is  a  formal  principle  which  requires 
strict  grammatical  agreement:  Unauslöschlicher  Groll  und  Gram  erfüllten 
jeden  Winkel  ihrer  Seele  (Isolde  Kurz's  Das  Vermächtnis  der  Tante  Susanne). 

The  sing,  is  also  used  in  case  of  a  general  or  indefinite  reference:  Keiner  und 
keine  bleibe  daheim  (Rosegger).  Diesen  hier  mußte  wohl  jeder  und  jede 
schön  finden  (Spielhagen's  Freigeboren,  p.  148). 

d.  If  a  single  pi.  subject  or  several  sing,  or  pi.  subjects  are  felt  as  forming 
the  idea  of  a  firm  mass  or  fixed  amount,  the  verb  is  in  the  sing. :  Es  wurde  nur 
fünf  Prozent  (96.  4.  1)  der  Masse  gerettet.  10  Pfennig  (96.  4.  1)  ist  mehr  als 
5  Pfennig.  Ein  Kilo  und  327  Gramm  ist  (not  sind)  genug.  Zweimal  zwei  ist 
vier.  Zwei  Mark  und  noch  2  Mark  sind  or  ist  4  Mark.  Zwei  Taler  und  4 
Groschen  sind  or  ist  genug.  Drei  Viertel  des  Buches  ist  der  Insel  Java  ge- 
widmet, but  Drei  Viertel  der  Schiffbrüchigen  wurden  gerettet.  Here  the 
plural  of  the  verb  is  used  wherever  instead  of  the  conception  of  oneness  the 
idea  of  two  or  more  distinct  units  of  the  same  order  occur  to  the  mind,  but  not 
if  one  unit  of  one  order  and  a  number  of  a  lower  order  (as  in  the  third  example) 
are  used  and  the  reference  is  to  a  firm  mass.  There  is,  however,  a  distinct  ten- 
dency here  to  use  the  plural  on  mere  formal  grounds:  Sechs  Siebentel  des 
Buches  werden  von  einem  Wörterverzeichnis  eingenommen  (Jellinek's  Ge- 
schichte der  neuhochdeutschen  Grammatik,  1,  p.  167).  Contrary  to  English  usage 
the  German  says:  Es  waren  zehn  Grad  Kälte  It  was  ten  degrees  below  the 
freezing-point. 

Of  course,  the  verb  is  in  the  singular  if  the  plural  subject  does  not  indicate  a 
number  of  objects  but  is  a  mere  grammatical  form :  Stühle  ist  der  Plural  von  Stuhl. 

e.  In  case  several  subjects  are  followed  by  a  neut.  pronoun  which  refers  to 
the  previously  mentioned  subjects  collectively  or  distributively,  the  verb  is  in 
the  sing.:  Die  Öffnungen  der  Mauer,  die  soliden  Stellen  derselben,  die  Pfeiler, 
jedes  hatte  seinen  besonderen  Charakter.  Seine  fortgesetzte  Aufmerksam- 
keit, ohne  daß  er  zudringlich  gewesen  wäre ;  sein  treuer  Beistand  bei  verschie- 
denen unangenehmen  Zufällen;  sein  gegen  ihre  Eltern  zwar  ausgesprochenes, 
doch  ruhiges  und  nur  hoffnungsvolles  Werben,  da  sie  freilich  noch  sehr  jung 
war:   das  alles  nahm  sie  für  ihn  ein. 

/.  In  connection  with  the  conjunctions  oder  or,  entweder  —  oder  either  —  or, 
weder  —  noch  neither  —  nor,  sowohl  —  als  both  —  and,  as  ivell  —  as,  nicht  allein 
(or  bloß  or  nur)  —  sondern  auch  not  only  — -  but  also,  nicht  sowohl  —  als  viel- 
mehr ?iot  so  much  —  as,  desgleichen  likewise,  wie  auch  as  also,  and,  teils  —  teils 
partly  —  partly,  &c.,  the  different  subjects  are  usually  considered  singly  and 
hence  the  verb  agrees  with  one  of  them — the  next  one  to  it — and  is  understood 
with  the  others:  Werden  Ihr  Bruder  und  Ihre  Schwester  kommen?  Nein, 
beide  können  sie  nicht  kommen,  aber  jedenfalls  wird  mein  Bruder  oder  meine 
Schwester  kommen.  Sowohl  meine  Schwestern  wie  auch  mein  Bruder  wird 
kommen,  or  more  smoothly  Sowohl  meine  Schwestern  werden  kommen,  wie 
auch  mein  Bruder.  Nicht  allein  mein  Bruder,  sondern  auch  meine  Schwester 
wird  kommen.  Nicht  mein  Bruder  kommt,  sondern  meine  Schwester.  Nicht 
meine  Brüder,  sondern  meine  Schwester  kommt.  Nicht  meine  Schwester, 
sondern  meine  Brüder  kommen.  Nicht  sowohl  die  alten  Anschauungen  der 
Römer  in  Stadt  und  Land  als  vielmehr  das  Wohlergehen  der  außeritalischen 
Provinzen  war  für  die  Politik  der  römischen  Kaiser  maßgebend.  Zur  Reise 
fehlte  mir  teils  Zeit,  teils  Lust,  teils  Geld. 

After  all  these  conjunctions  except  such  as  oder,  entweder  —  oder,  nicht  — 
sondern,  which  positively  exclude  the  statement  in  the  one  proposition  or  the 
other,  the  verb  can  also  be  in  the  pi.,  as  that  which  is  predicated  of  one  subject 
applies  to  them  all:  Sowohl  meine  Schwester  als  auch  mein  Bruder  werden 
kommen.     Weder    meine    Schwester    noch    mein    Bruder    werden    kommen. 


472 AGREEMENT   BETWEEN   SUBJECT   AND         253.1.2./. 

Weder  der  Kaiser  noch  der  Kanzler  kann  (neither  of  them  alone)  or  können 
(both  of  them  together)  das  verhindern.  Even  after  oder,  the  pi.  of  the  verb 
may  be  used,  if  the  strict  exclusive  force  of  the  conjunction  disappears  and  it 
takes  on  the  meaning  of  und:  Wolf  oder  Bär  kommen  selten  davon,  wenn  ein 
Lappe  ihnen  aufs  Blatt  hält. 

g.  If  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is  the  name  of  a  book,  play,  newspaper,  or 
boat,  consisting  of  a  pi.  noun  or  several  nouns,  the  verb  is  sometimes  in  the  sing., 
more  commonly  in  the  pi.,  the  former,  however,  regularly  when  the  subject  is 
a  couple  of  proper  names  linked  by  und  and  not  preceded  by  a  pi.  article,  or 
when  the  predicate  is  a  noun  in  the  nom.  sing.,  even  tho  the  subject  is  preceded 
by  a  pi.  article:  Heute  wurden  Schillers  Räuber  aufgeführt.  „Die  Hamburger 
Nachrichten'*  erscheinen  täglich  dreimal,  but  the  names  of  English  newspapers 
are  sometimes  treated  as  singulars,  as  in  English,  as  illustrated  in  96.  1.  Die 
„Zwei  Gebrüder"  (name  of  boat)  hatten  die  Hohewegsbalje  bereits  erreicht 
(Hermann  Rückner's  Küstenfahrer,  I).  But:  In  der  Klasse  wird  Hermann 
und  Dorothea  gelesen.     Die  Räuber  ist  der  Titel  von  Schillers  erstem  Drama. 

h.  If  the  subject  is  accompanied  by  explanatory  words  in  the  appositional 
construction,  the  verb  may  agree  strictly  with  the  grammatical  subject  or  often 
agrees  with  the  appositive,  when  this  more  vividly  represents  the  idea  contained 
in  the  subject  than  the  subject  itself:  Viel  trägt  dazu  bei,  daß  alles,  was  zum 
Hause  gehört,  also  Eheleute  und  Ehehalten  (servants),  nun  für  einige  Monate 
zusammenbleiben  kann  (v.  Hörmann).  Meine  Kinderjahre,  die  schöne, 
unvergeßliche  Zeit,  verfloß  mir  als  Berliner  Schusterjungen  —  Rodenberg. 

i.  A  plural  subject  or  several  subjects  in  the  nominative  absolute  construc- 
tion found  in  subject  clauses  do  not  influence  the  number  of  the  verb,  which  is 
invariably  in  the  sing.,  as  the  reference  is  to  a  single  idea.  See  265.  B.  b.  (2), 
2nd  paragraph. 

j.  A  few  originally  pi.  nouns  are  now  often  felt  as  singular,  and  hence  the 
verb  is  often,  perhaps  more  commonly,  in  the  sing,  when  such  words  are  used 
as  subjects.     See  96.  1. 

k.  Notice  the  dift'erence  of  conception  between  German  and  English  in  the 
following  sentence:  Zwei  Tage  Aufenthalt  genügten,  ihn  erkennen  zu  lassen, 
daß  usw.  A  two  days'  stay  was  sufficient,  &c. 

3.  The  predicate  noun  agrees  with  the  subject  in  number:  Kleobis  und 
Biton  waren  Brüder. 

a.  The  predicate  noun  does  not  agree  with  the  subject  in  number  if  it  is 
a  name  of  a  material,  or  a  collective  or  abstract  noun:  Ihr  seid  das  Salz  der 
Erde.  Die  Franzosen  sind  ein  romanisches  Volk.  Gute  Kinder  sind  die 
Freude  ihrer  Eltern. 

In  a  number  of  cases  the  predicate  noun  may  be  in  the  sing,  or  pi.,  according 
as  it  is  desired  to  give  expression  to  the  abstract  idea  of  quality  or  the  concrete 
one  of  different  individuals:  Beide  Brüder  sind  Soldat  or  Soldaten.  Concrete 
nouns  often  assume  abstract  meaning  in  the  predicate  by  uniting  with  the  verb 
to  form  a  single  idea.     For  examples  see  94.  1.  e. 

b.  Also  the  interrogative  pronouns  wer  and  was  do  not  agree  with  the  sub- 
ject when  they  are  used  as  predicate,  but  remain  uniformly  in  the  sing.:  Wer 
waren  diese  Leute?     Was  sind  diese  Männer? 

c.  When  the  subject  is  the  polite  form  of  the  personal  pronoun,  which  is  really 
3rd  pers.  pi.  in  form,  tho  it  is  used  as  2nd  pers.  sing.,  the  predicate  stands  in  the 
sing,  if  the  reference  is  to  a  singular  sut)ject:  Sie,  mein  Herr,  waren  mein 
Retter. 

d.  The  predicate  does  not  agree  in  number  with  the  subjects  dies,  das, 
jenes,  es,  welches  used  in  expressions  of  identity.  See  128.  A.  a;  129.  2.  C.  (1) ; 
141.  9.  a;   148.  a. 

II.     Person. 

The  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person.  If  there  are  several  subjects  of 
different  persons  the  following  rules  are  usually  followed : 


253.  III.  2.     PREDICATE  IN  NUMBER,  PERSON,  GENDER 473 

1.  If  the  subjects  are  connected  by  und,  or  by  conjunctions  of  kindred  force 
as  sowohl  —  als  (or  wie)  both  —  and,  as  well  —  as,  wie  auch,  or  sowie  as  also, 
the  first  person  has  the  preference  over  the  second  and  third,  and  the  second 
person  the  preference  over  the  third,  and  often  a  pronoun  comprehending  the 
different  subjects  is  added:  Ich  und  du  haben  gleiche  Schicksale,  or  Ich  und 
du,  wir  haben  gleiche  Schicksale.  Du  und  dein  Bruder  seid  meine  Freunde, 
or  Du  und  dein  Bruder,  ihr  seid  meine  Freunde.  Ich  sowohl  wie  du  sind  das 
gewohnt.  Sowohl  ich  als  mein  Freund,  wir  sind  dafür  verantwortlich.  Ich 
fürchte,  er  wie  ich  sind  zu  lange  fortgeblieben.  Occasionally  the  third  person 
is  preferred:  Ich  weiß,  daß  du  und  mein  Vater  in  Krieg  verwickelt  sind 
(Börne). 

a.  If  sing,  subjects  are  connected  by  sowohl  —  als  (or  wie),  wie  auch, 
sowie,  it  is  also  common  for  the  verb  to  agree  with  the  first  subject  in  the  sing., 
even  tho  it  stands  after  both,  especially  if  the  emphasis  is  upon  the  first  subject: 
Ich  sowohl  wie  du  bin  (or  sind  or  wir  sind)  es  gewohnt.  Du  sowohl  wie  ich 
bist  (or  sind  or  wir  sind)  es  gewohnt,  but  usually  Du  und  ich  (wir)  sind  es 
gewohnt. 

b.  Sometimes  in  case  of  subjects  connected  by  und  the  verb  is  in  the  sing., 
agreeing  with  the  nearest  subject:  In  dieser  Sache  irrst  du  und  ich.  Ich  und 
alle  Welt  erkennt  das  an. 

2.  If  different  subjects  of  different  persons  are  opposed,  or  in  contrast  to 
each  other,  or  are  considered  separately,  the  verb  agrees  in  person  and  number 
with  the  nearest  subject:  Du  bist  es  gewohnt,  nicht  ich,  or  Du,  nicht  ich  bin  es 
gewohnt.  Weder  du  bist  es  gewohnt  noch  ich,  or  Weder  du  noch  ich  bin  es 
gewohnt,  or  Weder  du  noch  ich  sind  es  gewohnt.  Du  oder  ich  müßte  (ought) 
es  gewohnt  sein.  Ich  oder  du  müßtest  es  gewohnt  sein.  Nicht  nur  ich  sondern 
auch  du  bist  es  gewohnt.  Teils  unser  Freund,  teils  ich,  teils  du  bist  daran 
schuld.  Teils  unser  Freund,  teils  du,  teils  ich  bin  daran  schuld.  Sometimes 
the  verb  agrees  with  the  first  subject  if  the  statement  only  holds  good  for  it: 
Ein  alt  Gesetz,  nicht  ich,  gebietet  dir  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  5,  3).  It  also  agrees 
with  the  first  subject  if  the  following  subjects  are  regarded  as  only  explanatory: 
Keiner  von  uns,  weder  du  noch  ich,  ist  es  gewohnt  (D.  Sanders). 

3.  If  the  subject  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  and  the  predicate  a  personal  pro- 
noun, the  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  in  person  and  number:  Der  Mann, 
von  dem  Sie  sprechen,  bin  ich.  Ich  bin  es  It  is  I.  For  further  examples  see 
128.  A.  a;  129.  2.  C.  (1);  141.  9.  a  and  251.  I.  3;  148.  a.  See  also  151.  3.  B.  c, 
toward  the  close  of  the  article. 

4.  The  person  and  number  of  the  verb  in  relative  clauses  present  several 
idiomatic  peculiarities  that  are  considered  at  length  in  151.  3.  B.  a,  b,  c. 

III.     Gender. 

1.  The  predicate  noun  does  not  in  general  agree  with  the  subject  in  gender, 
as  it  has  its  own  gender:    Sein  Tun  ist  der  Ausdruck  seiner  Liebe. 

2.  The  predicate  noun  can  assume  a  grammatical  form  in  accordance  with 
the  natural  sex  of  the  person  represented  by  the  subject  in  only  one  case — when 
the  subject  represents  a  person  or  something  that  is  personified.  Then  the 
predicate  noun  may  take  a  masc.  form  if  the  subject  is  represented  as  a  male 
and  a  fem.  form  if  the  subject  is  represented  as  a  female,  provided,  however, 
such  forms  are  elsewhere  in  common  use  for  persons  (see  245.  I.  6.  2):  Gott  ist 
mein  Zeuge.  Hunger  ist  der  beste  Koch.  Das  Unglück  ist  der  beste  Lehr- 
meister. Das  Mädchen  wird  Erzieherin.  Das  ist  unsere  Freundin.  Sie  ist 
eine  gemeine  Diebin.  Die  Geschichte  ist  eine  Lehrerin  der  Menschheit 
(Herbart).  Die  Natur  war  die  erste  Erzieherin  des  Menschen.  Die  National- 
bank ist  Inhaberin  des  Wechsels.  In  the  fourth  sentence  the  natural  sex,  not 
the  grammatical  gender  of  the  subject,  has  influenced  the  gender  of  the  predi- 
cate, while  in  the  second  sentence  and  the  last  three  the  grammatical  gender  of 
the  subjects  has  suggested  the  form  of  the  predicate,  as  things  have  no  sex.     In 


474 ATTRIBUTIVE  ADJECTIVE  &  PARTICIPLE      253.  III.  2. 

the  third  sentence  the  subject  is  a  neuter  noun  which  cannot  suggest  sex  at  all, 
and  thus  the  mind  is  free  here  to  select  a  gender  according  to  fancy. 

a.  The  predicate  noun  does  not  assume  a  fern,  form  to  agree  with  a  fern,  subject  when  it  is 
the  abstract  idea  pure  and  simple,  devoid  of  all  reference  to  sex  and  its  attributes,  that  is  before 
the  mind:  (Maria  Stuart  speaking  to  Queen  Elizabeth)  Regierte  Recht,  so  läget  ihr  vor  mir  |  im 
Staube  jetzt,  demi  ich  bin  Euer  König  (Schiller).  O  die,  die  könnt'  General  sein  (Auerbach's 
Dorfgeschichten,  7,  p.  175).  Die  Frau  ist  hier  Herr  und  Meister  im  Hause,  Meine  Mutter 
konnte  ihres  Verdrusses  nicht  Herr  und  Meister  werden.  Die  Bibel  ist.unser  bester  Führer 
auf  unserm  Lebenswege.  Die  Eile  ist  ein  schlechter  Berater.  But  the  force  of  the  gender  of 
the  subject  often  asserts  itself  even  here,  especially  when  the  predicate  has  inflected  modifiers 
before  it :  Sie  wußte  ihre  Überraschung  zu  verbergen  und  war  die  unumschränkte  Herrin  ihrer 
Gebärden  (Raabe's  Im  alten  Eisen,  xiii).  Some  words,  however,  as  Gast,  Kerl,  Mensch,  have 
regularly  the  masc.  form  for  reference  to  females  as  well  as  males,  as  the  idea  of  sex  is  not  felt: 
Alles  in  allem,  sie  ist  ein  guter  Kerl  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  378).  Agnes,  mem'  Tochter, 
hör'  mal  zu  .  .  .  Du  bist  ein  vernünftiger  Mensch  (Sudermann's  Fritzchen,  2).  Professor,  Arzt, 
and  Doktor  may  retain  in  the  predicate  relation  the  masculine  form  with  reference  to  females, 
but  the  feminine  form  is  also  used:  Sie  ist  Doktor  der  Philosophie.  Sie  ist  der  beste  weibliche 
Arzt  or  die  beste  Ärztin  in  der  Stadt. 

If  an  adjective  or  pronoun  is  used  in  the  predicate  substantively  referring  to  the  abstract  idea 
contained  in  some  preceding  adjective  or  noun,  the  neuter  gender  is  used:  Mein  Bruder  ist  reich, 
was  ich  nicht  bin.  Es  ist  wahr,  Bräutigam  und  Deichhauptmann  sind  fast  incompatible;  aber 
wenn  ich  letzteres  nicht  wäre,  wüßte  ich  doch  gar  nicht,  wer  es  sein  sollte  (Bismarck  to  his  be- 
trothed, Feb.  23,  1847).  Er  (i.e.  Cäsar)  war  ein  großer  Redner,  Schriftsteller  und  Feldherr, 
aber  jedes  davon  ist  er  nur  geworden,  weil  er  ein  vollendeter  Staatsmann  war  (Mommsen's 
Römische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  xi). 

IV.     Case. 

The  predicate  word  agrees  with  the  subject  in  case,  and  thus  both  stand  in 
the  nominative:  Erst  wenn  ich  auf  die  Berge  komme,  da  werd'  ich  so  recht  ich 
selbst  (Wilbrandt's  Die  gute  Lorelei,  vi).  For  an  exceptional  usage  in  Switzer- 
land see  252.  2.  C.  a.  The  adjective  here  in  general  loses  its  inflection  except 
in  the  superlative.  In  an  earlier  period  the  predicate  adjective  agreed  with 
the  subject  in  gender  and  case  in  all  the  degrees  of  comparison.  Fossil  rem- 
nants of  this  former  usage  still  exist.  See  111.  8.  Sometimes  (see  252.  2.  A.  c) 
a  prep,  phrase  or  a  gen,  stands  in  the  relation  of  a  predicate  adjective,  just  as 
they  often  stand  in  the  relation  of  an  attributive  adjective:  Der  Ring  ist  von 
Gold  (instead  of  golden).  Er  ist  unsrer  Gesinnung  (instead  of  gesinnt  wie 
wir).     Er  gilt  ärztlich  nicht  für  ersten  Ranges  (Fontane's  Ejji,  chap,  xxiii). 

Subordinate  Elements  of  a  Sentence. 

254.  The  subordinate  elements  of  a  sentence  are  called  modifiers.  They 
are  divided  into  the  following  general  classes: 

1.  Attributive  adjective  modifiers,  which  modify  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

2.  Modifiers  of  the  verb,  adjective,  and  adverb,  which  fall  into  two  classes — 
objective  and  adverbial  modifiers. 

3.  Independent  elements,  which  are  not  related  grammatically  to  other 
parts  of  the  sentence. 

Attributive  Adjective  Modifiers. 

255.  Attributive  adjective  modifiers  are  treated  as  follows: 

I.     Attributive  Adjective  and  Participle. 

Attributive  adjectives  and  participles  modify  nouns  and  pronouns  and  agree 
with  them  in  gender,  number,  and  case,  except  when  used  without  an  article  or  other 
limiting  adjective  in  the  appositive  relation,  in  which  case  they  remain  uninflected : 
Der  fleißige  Knabe  lernt.  Der  blühende  Rosenstrauch  duftet.  Der  beleidigte 
Freund  verzeiht.  Ein  gutes  Buch  ist  eine  nützliche  Gesellschaft.  Appositive 
adjectives:  Durch  ein  Gebirge,  wüst  und  leer,  wie  die  Erde  beim  Be- 
ginn der  Schöpfung,  but  Friedrich  der  Große.  As  explained  more  fully  in  104. 
2.  B  the  appositive  form  is  not  so  common  in  German  as  in  English.     In  Ger- 


255.  I.  b.        NOUNS  NOT  USED  WITH  ADJECTIVE  FORCE 475 

man  the  adjective  or  participle  often  stands  before  the  noun  where  in  English 
it  must  follow  the  noun:  diese  mißlungene,  weil  überstürzte  Arbeit. 

a.  Repetition  of  Adjective  and  Article.  When  an  adjective  modifies  two  or  more  nouns  having 
different  genders  or  representing  different  persons  or  things,  the  strict  grammatical  rule  requires 
the  repetition  of  the  adjective  before  each  noun:  mit  solchem  Eifer  und  solcher  Beständigkeit, 
Wörterbuch  der  deutschen  und  der  französischen  Sprache.  This  rule  would  often  require  tire- 
some repetitions,  and  hence  is  in  familiar  conversation  and  even  in  serious  discourse  frequently 
disregarded  when  no  ambiguity  would  arise:  großer  Schmerz  und  Angst  insteadof  großer  Schmerz 
und  große  Angst;  mit  seiner  gewöhnlichen  Trockenheit  und  Ernst  (Goethe);  ein  geweihtes 
Barett  imd  Degen  (Becker) ;  den  ersten  besten  Knüppel  und  Holzscheit  (Raabe) ;  mit  einem 
verzerrten  Lächeln,  in  dem  geheimer  Grimm  und  Scham  sich  deutlich  genug  ausprägten 
(Marriot). 

The  simple  article  and  limiting  adjectives  are  not  in  such  cases  so  easily  suppressed  as  descrip- 
tive adjectives,  and  are  more  commonly  repeated,  even  in  familiar  style:  Der  König  und  die 
Kaiserin.  Eigenes  Haus  und  [descriptive  adjective  not  repeated]  Kindersegen  erschien  dem 
römischen  Bürger  als  das  Ziel  und  der  [article  repeated]  Kern  des  Lebens  (Mommsen's  Römische 
Geschichte,  I,  chap.  v).  Frequently,  however,  in  case  of  the  def.  art.  each  noun  may  drop  its 
article,  and  thus  the  awkward  repetition  may  be  avoided:  Eingang  zu  Garten  und  Kegelbahn 
instead  of  zu  dem  Garten  imd  zu  der  Kegelbahn;  zwischen  Weichsel  und  Bug  {Großes  Haupt- 
quartier, Aug.  7,  1915)  instead  of  zwischen  der  Weichsel  und  dem  Bug  (rivers);  zwischen  oberer 
Weichsel  und  Bug  (ib.,  Aug.  1,  1915).  This  is  especially  the  case,  as  in  the  preceding  e.xamples, 
when  the  nouns  are  connected  by  und.  The  article,  however,  cannot  be  suppressed  here  if  its 
demonstrative  force  becomes  prominent,  as  for  instance  where  it  points  to  a  following  restrictive 
relative  clause:  Möchte  das  schöne  Buch,  das  uns  Grimm  geschenkt,  überall  mit  der  Wärme 
und  dem  Ernst  aufgenommen  werden,  mit  denen  es  geschrieben  ist  (Wilhelm  Bölsche  in  Deutsche 
Rundschau,  December  1895,  p.  472).  The  simple  indefinite  article  is  rarely  omitted:  Er  kaufte 
eine  Taube,  eine  Gans  imd  einen  Hasen.  If  the  different  nouns  each  take  a  definite  article  or 
limiting  adjective  of  the  same  form,  it  is  usually,felt  as  necessary  to  use  it  but  once:  die  Gnade, 
Weisheit  und  Liebe  Gottes;  die  Dramen  des  Äschylus  imd  Sophokles,  des  Shakespeare  und 
Schiller;  das  Mündungsgebiet  der  Elbe,  Weser,  und  Jade;  ein  wahres  Musterbild  des  Friedens, 
der  Ordnung  und  Sauberkeit;  die  Lehrer  und  Schüler.  While  this  usage  is  the  rule  where  the 
persons  and  things  represented  by  the  different  nouns  stand  in  similar  relations  the  repetition 
of  the  article  or  limiting  adjective  is  usually  felt  as  necessary  when  the  persons  or  things  stand  in 
unlike  or  contrasting  relations:  Die  Griechen  und  Römer  hatten  besondere  Formen  für  den 
Ruffall  (Eduard  Engel's  Gutes  Deutsch,  p.  91)  had  especial  case  forms  for  direct  address,  but  die 
Griechen  und  die  Römer  haben  Kriege  miteinander  geführt  (ib.)  and  der  Fuchs  und  der  Hase 
leben  in  Feindschaft  miteinander  (ib.).  If  the  nouns  are  in  different  numbers  it  is  now  usual 
to  repeat  the  article  or  limiting  adjective:  die  Mutter  und  die  Schwestern;  die  Gesellschaft 
seiner  Mutter  und  semer  Schwestern;  die  Anordnung  seiner  Bibliothek  und  seiner  Gesellschaf ts- 
zünmer. 

If  the  article  modifies  two  nouns  both  representing  the  same  person  or  thing,  or  parts  of  a 
whole,  it  should  only  be  used  once,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  nouns  represent  different 
persons  or  things  which  it  is  desired  to  contrast  or  to  mark  especially  as  distinct  and  separate, 
the  article  should  be  repeated  before  each  noun:  Die  Schuld  trifft  allein  den  Pfarrer  und 
Ortsschulinspektor  N.  (one  person),  but  Leider  muß  der  Deutsche  Berlin  und  München  ein- 
ander noch  als  die  politische  und  die  künstlerische  Hauptstadt  des  Reiches  gegenüberstellen 
and  Der  Pfarrer  und  der  Schultheiß  (two  persons)  leben  öfters  miteinander  in  Uneinigkeit. 
Die  deutsche  und  die  englische  Sprache,  but  der  erste  und  zweite  Vers  des  Gedichts.  For 
more  detailed  account  of  usage  here  see  96.  11. 

Where  two  adjectives  modify  the  same  noun,  which  is,  however,  in  a  different  number  in  each 
instance,  the  noun  need  only  be  expressed  once,  as  the  modifying  adjectives  clearly  indicate  the 
number:    Dieser  und  ähnliche  Aufrufe. 

b.  Nouns  not  Used  with  Adjective  Force  in  German.  One  of  the  marked  features  in  English 
is  the  great  freedom  with  which  nouns,  adverbs,  phrases,  and  sentences  can  stand  before  a  noun 
in  adjective  function.  In  German  every  attributive  element  that  stands  before  a  noun  must 
assume  adjective  form  if  it  has  adjective  meaning  and  function.  Corresponding  to  many  of 
the  peculiar  English  adjectives  that  have  adjective  force  but  not  adjective  form  there  are  in 
German  adjectives  with  adjective  form.  In  many  other  cases  these  peculiar  English  adjectives 
must  be  rendered  by  attributive  elements  that  stand  after  the  governing  noun  in  the  form  of  a 
prepositional  phrase,  a  genitive,  an  adverb,  a  clause,  or  they  must  be  translated  by  compounds 
or  group-words  (247.  2).  The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  characteristic  differences 
between  English. and  German  expression  here:  a  baby  boy  ein  männlicher  Säugling,  a  boy  lover 
ein  jugendlicher  Liebhaber,  the  poet  philosopher  der  dichtende  Philosoph,  the  Schmidt  resi- 
dence die  Schmidtsche  Wohnung,  the  above  remarks  die  obigen  Bemerkungen,  a  clockwork  toy 
ein  Spielzeug  mit  Uhrwerk,  an  up-to-date  dictionary  ein  Wörterbuch  neuesten  Datums  or  ein 
Wörterbuch,  das  auf  der  Höhe  der  Zeit  steht,  my  next-door  neighbor  mein  nächster  Häus- 
nachbar or  mein  Nächbar  nebenan,  a  quarter  past  seven  train,  ein  Viertelächtzüg,  the  under- 
ground railroad  die  Untergrundbahn. 

In  all  the  English  groups  in  the  preceding  paragraph  the  chief  stress  rests  upon  the  last  mem- 
ber, i.e.  descriptive  stress  (50.  A.  6)  prevails.  Descriptive  stress  is  also  characteristic  of  the 
German  groups  except  in  case  of  the  group-words,  which  have  the  principal  stress  upon  the 


470 A'1TR1P>ITI\  K   (;i:\rri\F, ?55.  1./). 

first  member  and  hence  have  disthiKLiishing  or  classifying  stress  (50.  A.  ()},  altho  they  often 
have  pronounced  descriinive  force  as  the  corresponding  EngHsh  expressions.  In  these  German 
group-words  survives  a  bit  of  the  older  Hfe  of  both  EngHsh  and  German  when  group-words  with 
ihi  stress  upon  the  lirst  member  often  had  descriptive  force.  See  247.  2.  b.  To-day  in  both 
Hn;Hsh  and  German,  group-words  with  the  stress  upon  the  first  member  usually  have  distin- 
guishing or  classif>ing  force,  with  the  difference,  however,  that  in  English  this  is  always  true: 
well  water  Bruanenwässer,  schoolboy-  fervor  Schuljungeneifer,  a  three-day  trip  eine  Drei-Tage- 
T5ir.  Thus  in  English  we  to-day  in  contrast  to  oldest  English  and  to  oldest  and  modern  German 
mak2  a  sharp  difference  between  descriptive  and  classifying  groups.  In  descriptive  groups,  as 
those  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  we  stress  uniformly  the  second  member,  giving  the  first  member 
less  stress  as  we  now  regard  it  an  adjective.  In  classifying  groups  we  still  as  in  oldest  English 
stress  the  first  member  as  we  still  regard  it  the  first  component  of  a  compound  or  group-word. 

c.  Logical  Relations  of  the  Adjective  to  its  Goverm)ig  Siibstxintive.  Tlie  attributi^-e  adjectiNe 
has  the  force  of  a  predicat',',  i.e.  it  is  something  predicated  ot  the  governing  noun:  der  dumme 
Jung;,  der  verwundete  Soldat.  After  certain  words,  angeblich,  anscheinend,  scheinbar,  wahr- 
scheialich,  vermutlich,  «!vr.,  ihr  governing  noun  itself  is  felt  as  predicate,  as  something  jiredirated 
of  a  pronoun:  Der  angebliche  Chirurg  ist  eigentlich  ein  Barbier  =  Der,  der  als  ein  Chirurg 
angegeben  wird,  ist  eigentlich  ein  Barbier,  ürieinally  the  adjective  was  an  appositive,  a  word 
l)laced  alongside  another  word  to  explain  it.  Thus  when  it  was  used  as  an  appositi^-e  to  the 
subject  it  was  a  predicate  appositive.  Hence  the  attributive  adjective  even  to-day  often  has 
the  force  of  a  predicate  ai)positi\'c  and  like  other  predicate  appositives,  as  illustrated  in  252.  1.  c, 
is  (^cjual  to  an  ad\erliiai  clause,  thus  sustaining  relations  to  both  the  subject  and  the  ])rincii)al 
v<ri):  Der  grausame  Mann  achtete  nicht  auf  das  Flehen  des  Unglücklichen  =  Der  Mann 
achtete  nicht  auf  das  Flehen  des  Unglücklichen,  weil  er  grausam  war.  Diese  alte  Frau  putzt 
si:h  noch  gern  =  Diese  Frau  putzt  sich  noch  gern,  obgleich  sie  alt  ist. 

II.     Attributive  Genitive. 

1.     A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  genitive  may  modify  a  noun. 

In  tiie  oldest  period  the  genitive  usually  preceded  the  governing  noun.  Later 
in  accordance  with  the  general  trend  to  place  heavily  stressed  modifiers  after 
the  governing  word  the  genitiv^e  gradually  became  established  after  the  govern- 
ing noun,  just  as  the  strongly  stressed  modifiers  of  the  verb  became  established 
after  the  verb.  Thus  the  old  group  Feuers  Mächt  became  the  modern  group 
Jie  Mächt  des  Feuers.  Of  course  the  genitive  remained  before  the  governing 
n;)un  if  it  was  not  stressed:  Wilhelms  Hut.  This  is  quite  common  in  case  of 
proper  names  but  not  so  common  in  case  of  names  of  things,  but  it  occasionally 
occurs  as  also  the  genitive  of  things  is  sometimes  less  important  than  the  govern- 
ing noun  and  consequently  has  less  stress:  Nach  Osten  ergaben  sich  frühlichte 
Dachfenster  für  das  Gesinde,  und  des  Daches  andere  Hälfte  war  Bodenraum 
( R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Haindlkindcr,  p.  32).  Many  stressed  genitives,  however, 
even  names  of  things,  remained  before  the  governing  noun  just  as  many  stressed 
modifiers  of  the  verb  remained  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  before  the  verb. 
These  stressed  genitives  did  not  follow  the  other  stressed  genitives  to  their 
new  position  after  the  governing  noun  as  they  were  felt  as  having  a  little  dif- 
ferent force.  In  time  this  differentiation  became  clearly  defined.  The  stressed 
genitive  before  the  governing  noun  distinguishes  one  object  from  another  or 
chssifies  it;  the  stressed  genitive  after  the  noun  describes  one  object:  Es  ist 
Wuhelms  Hut,  nicht  meiner,  distinguishing  one  object  from  another,  but  with 
de-;criptive  force:  Schlag  auf  Schlag  wie  die  Bötschaften  Hiobs  waren  die 
Altworten  aus  Sturzens  (name)  Munde  gekommen  (Ertl's  Freiheit,  p.  552). 
Feiersmächt  classifies  the  power  distinguishing  it  from  other  powers,  but  die 
Mächt  des  Feaers  merely  describes.  The  old  uninflected  genitive  is  still  widely 
used,  especially  in  classifying:  Wasserkraft,  Dämpfkräft,  etc.  Compare  247.  2.  a 
and  b  and  50.  A.  6.  /. 

If  there  are  two  genitive  modifiers  of  a  noun,  one  genitive  should  stand  on  each 
side  of  the  noun,  the  genitive  of  origin  preceding:  Schwabs  Leben  Schillers 
Schwab's  'Life  of  Schiller,'  Rankes  Geschichte  der  römischen  Päpste.  The 
dependent  gen.  should  not  be  cut  off  from  the  noun  upon  which  it  depends: 
Die  Anhänglichkeit  sämtlicher  Angestellten  an  mich  (not  die  AnhängUchkeit 
an  mich  sämtlicher  Angestellten)  the  attachment  of  all  the  employees  to  me. 
A  gen.  dependent  upon  a  gen.  usually  follows  it,  except  that  a  dependent  gen. 
of  a  noun  denoting  a  person  can  precede  a  governing  genitive:   die  Geschichte 


255.  II.l.B.       GENITIVE   OF   ORIGIN    AND    POSSESSION 477 

der  Erbauung  der  Stadt,  trotz  des  Verbotes  des  Doktors,  während  der  Krank- 
heit meines  Freundes,  or  während  meines  Freundes  Krankheit.  So  lang's 
daran  nicht  mangelt  und  an  frischem  Mut,  lach'  ich  der  Fürsten  Herrschsucht 
und  Ränke  (Goethe's  Götz  1,  2).  Trotz  Veltens  naseweisen,  unverschämten 
Einredens,  trotz  der  Frau  Amalie  abwehrenden  Kopfschütteins  und  Lächelns 
(Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  41),  während  Hainhofers  (name)  Auf- 
enthaltes in  Stettin  (A.  Haas  in  Archiv  für  Kulturgeschichte,  1905,  p.  46). 

The  governing  noun  is  usually  omitted  in  such  expressions  as  bei  Müllers. 
See  93.  La. 

The  attributive  genitive  expresses  different  classes  of  ideas  briefly  described 
in  the  following  articles.  These  categories  are  not  all  peculiar  to  the  attributive 
use,  but  several  of  them  are  found  in  the  genitive  which  is  used  in  connection 
with  verbs,  adjectives,  and  participles,  and  probably  originated  in  the  use  of 
the  genitive  with  verbs.  This  seems  quite  clear  in  the  categories  described  in 
D  and  H.  a  (2nd  par.)  below,  and  in  260.  The  common  genitive  of  origin  and 
possession  described  in  A  and  B  and  the  genitive  of  quality  and  characteristic 
described  in  F.  (1)  are  not  only  used  as  attributive  forms  but  are  also  employed 
as  the  predicate  complement  of  the  verb  sein.  In  a  few  cases  the  attributive 
genitive  is  evidently  derived  from  the  use  of  the  genitive  with  verbs.  In  these 
instances  the  peculiar  genitive  which  is  employed  in  connection  with  certain 
verbs  is  also  used  with  nouns  derived  from  these  verbs,  as  explained  in  I  below. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  quite  probable  that  some  of  these  categories  have 
not  sprung  directly  from  the  genitive  used  with  verbs,  but  have  developed  out 
of  other  attributive  categories,  as  indicated  in  the  different  categories  discussed 
below. 

A.  Genitive  of  Origin,  representing  a  person  or  thing  as  associated  with  another 
person  or  thing  in  the  relation  of  source,  cause,  authorship:  Der  Sohn  des 
Fürsten,  die  Kinder  dieser  Frau,  die  Nachkommen  Abrahams,  die  Taten  des 
Herkules,  die  Verwüstungen  zweier  Kriegsjahre,  Goethes  Faust,  Schillers 
Werke.  This  same  idea  is  found  in  the  genitive  used  in  the  predicate  with  the 
verbs  in  252.  2.  A.  c. 

a.  This  one  use  of  this  case  form  has  given  to  it  the  name  of  genitive  (from  Latin  genitivus 
pertainino  to  generation  or  birth),  which  has  become  a  fixed  name  not  only  for  this  use,  but  also 
for  all  the  following  relations  expressed  by  the  same  case  form. 

b.  If  two  names  connected  by  und  represent  persons  that  are  joined  together  in  authorship 
or  business  the  second  name  alone  assumes  the  gen.  ending:  Die  Deutsche  Geschichte  Gutsche 
und  Schultzes  or  Gutsche-Schultzes,  or  Gutsche  und  Schultzes  Deutsche  Geschichte  or 
Gutsche-Schultzes  Deutsche  Geschichte,  or  die  Gutsche-Schultzesche  Deutsche  Geschichte. 

c.  In  case  of  proper  names  this  genitive  is  often  replaced  by  an  attributive  adjective  in  -isch. 
See  245.  II.  10.  1. 

B.  Possessive  Genitive,  denoting  possession,  inherence,  a  belonging  to,  as- 
sociation with,  or  relation  to,  ideas  that  may  be  developed  out  of  the  general 
idea  of  "sphere,"  as  explained  in  260:  Das  Haus  meines  Bruders  the  house  in 
the  sphere  of  my  brother,  i.e.  owned  by  my  brother,  die  Weisheit  des  Sokrates, 
der  Mut  des  Hilden,  die  Blätter  des  Baumes,  die  Straßen  der  Stadt,  die  Kühle 
des  Abends,  der  Schnee  der  Alpen,  die  Kämeraden  des  Soldaten,  das  Haupt 
des  Stammes,  der  Herr  des  Hundes  the  master  of  the  dog,  i.e.  the  master  in  the 
sphere  of  the  dog,  with  reference  to  the  dog,  not  the  master  owned  hy  the  dog,  der 
Bürgermeister  der  Stadt,  der  Väter  des  Kindes.  This  is  a  very  productive 
category  from  which  have  probably  sprung  A,  C,  F,  G.  The  same  idea  is  found 
in  the  genitive  used  in  the  predicate  with  the  group  of  verbs  in  252.  2.  A.  c. 

The  possessive  genitive  so  common  in  both  German  and  English  in  nouns 
denoting  time  has  in  English  spread  from  here  to  adverbs  of  time,  where,  however, 
in  German  we  must  use  an  adjective  in  -ig:  Die  Post  dieser  Woche  this  week's 
mail;   to-day's  mail  die  heutige  Post.     See  245.  II.  9.  2.  B. 

In  this  category  normal  or  descriptive  group-stress  (50.  A.  6)  with  the  accent 
upon  the  second  member  usually  prevails,  but  to  distinguish  objects  we  often 
find  distinguishing  stress  (50.  A.  6):  Wühelms  Pferd  ist  das  beste  William.'s 
hörse  is  the  best,  or  sometimes  William's  is  the  best  horse. 


478 SUBJECTIVE,    OBJECTIVE   GENITIVE      255.  II.  1.  B.  a. 

a.  In  English  we  here  sometimes  use  the  dative  after  the  prep,  to,  where  in  German  the 
gen.  should  be  employed:  Sie  ist  eine  Schwester  meiner  ersten  Frau  She  is  a  sister  to  my  first 
wife.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  in  German  to  use  either  gen.  or  dat.  with  a  slight  shade  of  dif- 
ference: ein  Vater  der  Armen,  or  more  impressively  den  Armen  ein  Vater  a  father  to  the  poor. 
Sometimes  in  both  German  and  English  there  is  a  marked  difference  of  meaning  between  the 
dat.  and  gen.:  dem  Verfolgten  ein  Freund  a  friend  to  the  persecuted  man,  but  ein  Freund  des 
Verfolgten  a  friend  of  the  persecuted  man.  When  the  modifying  word  is  a  pronoun  the  gen. 
must  in  all  these  cases  be  replaced  by  the  prepositional  construction  with  von  or  zu.  See  229. 
2,  zu,  II.  1.  B.  b. 

b.  The  gen.  must  be  replaced  by  the  dat.  with  von  in  case  of  names  of  places  ending  in  a  sibilant. 
See  86.  2.  e.  There  is  elsewhere  sometimes  a  difference  between  the  genitive  and  the  construc- 
tion with  von:  der  Kaiser  von  Deutschland  (a  mere  title),  but  in  warm  poetic  language  Deutsch- 
lands alter  Kaiser  (i.e.,  Wilhelm  I.,  indicating  pride  in  ownership). 

c.  In  case  of  proper  names  the  genitive  is  often  replaced  in  certain  categories  by  other  con- 
structions: (1)  by  an  appositivc,  as  explained  in  94.  3.  A.  c;  (2)  by  an  attributive  adjective  in 
-sch,  as  illustrated  in  245.  II.  10.  1.  Elsewhere  it  is  often  replaced  by  an  adjective  in  -lieh,  as 
illustrated  in  245.  II.  11.  2.  A.  b. 

d.  If  a  dependent  genitive  which  precedes  its  governing  noun  is  itself  modified  by  other 
attributive  elements  containing  nouns,  each  element  maintains  its  own  syntactical  force  and  its 
own  proper  inflection,  while  in  English  the  different  elements  are  considered  as  forming  a  com- 
pound, and  hence  the  s  is  added  at  the  end  of  the  compound,  even  tho  the  last  component  to 
which  the  s  is  added  is  in  fact  in  the  objective  case  after  the  prep,  of:  Dieser  eine  war  Till  Eulen- 
spiegel,  des  Herzogs  von  Braunschweig  Hofnarr  (Lienhard's  Till  Eulenspiegel,  Der  Fremde) 
This  one  was  the  Duke  of  Brunswick's  court-fool. 

e.  Instead  of  a  simple  genitive  we  often  find  in  colloquial  language  a  genitive  or  a  dative  in 
connection  with  a  possessive.     See  138.  2.  c. 

f.  If  two  names  connected  by  und  represent  persons  that  are  joined  together  in  possession 
the  second  name  alone  assumes  the  genitive  ending:  Karl  und  Wilhelms  Zimmer,  Vater  und 
Mutters  Zimmer,  as  the  two  common  nouns  are  felt  as  names. 

g.  The  word  for  house  or  place  of  business  is  often  omitted  after  the  name  of  a  person:  Geh 
zu  Schmidts  or  zum  Schmidt  Go  to  Schmidt's  (house  or  place  of  business  according  to  the  con- 
nection). Ich  kaufte  es  bei  Schmidts  or  beim  Schmidt.  VVe  must  use  the  second  of  these  two 
constructions,  i.e.  the  dative  preceded  by  a  preposition  and  article  when  the  reference  is  to 
a  person  engaged  in  an  occupation  or  trade  and  there  is  no  mention  of  the  name:  Geh  zum  Bäcker 
Go  to  the  baker's.  As  can  be  seen  by  the  English  translation  of  the  last  German  example  the 
elliptical  genitive  construction  is  more  common  in  English  than  in  German.  In  English  also  the 
words  church,  hospital,  park,  castle,  theater  can  be  suppressed  after  a  name:  St.  Paul's  [Cathedral], 
St.  Bartholomew's  [Hospital],  &c.  Except  in  case  of  English  names  of  churches,  &'C.,  German 
requires  here  the  expression  of  the  common  noun  after  the  name:  die  St.  'Michaelskirche,  das  St. 
Hedwigs-Krankenhaus,  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  German  often  omits  Tag  after  names  of  church 
festivals,  after  the  analogy  of  the  Latin  usage  of  dropping  dies  here,  while  in  English  Day  is 
usually  expressed:  Heute  ist  Allerheiligen  (gen.  pi.),  Allerseelen  (gen.  pl.)  This  is  All  Saints'  Day 
(Nov.  1),  All  Souls'  Day  (Nov.  2).  's  ist  heut'  Simons  und  Judä  (Latin  gen.  of  Judas)  (Schiller's 
Tell,  1.  146)  This  is  St.  Simon's  and  St.  Jude's  Day  (Oct.  28).  These  forms,  however,  are  not  now 
felt  as  genitives  but  are  used  for  any  case:  Micha'elis  (Latin  gen.  felt  as  nom.)  fällt  auf  den 
Donnerstag.     Ich  komme  zu  Michaelis.     Compare  88.  2. 

C.  Subjective  Genitive,  which  represents  a  living  being  as  associated  with  an  action 
in  the  relation  of  author:  die  Rüge  des  Lehrers  the  reproof  of  the  teacher,  die 
Liebe  einer  Mutter,  der  Gesang  der  Vögel.  A  personal  pronoun  rarely  stands 
in  the  subjective  genitive:  Meine  Mutter  hatte  meine  Abwesenheit  beim  Tee 
durch  ein  frühzeitiges  Ausgehen  meiner  zu  beschönigen  gesucht  (Goethe's 
D.  u.  W.,  Erster  Teil,  Fünftes  Buch). 

D.  Objective  Genitive,  which  denotes  the  object  toward  which  the  activity 
is  directed:  die  Erziehung  der  Kinder  the  education  of  the  children,  die  Erbau- 
ung des  Hauses.  This  genitive  is  a  development  out  of  the  adverbial  genitive 
of  s[)ecirication  (260.  4th  par.):  Johannes  vollzog  die  Taufe  Christi  (adverbial 
genitive  of  specification,  i.e.  with  reference  to  Christ.) 

As  possessive  adjectives  are  derived  from  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns 
they  still  often  have  various  meanings  of  the  genitive,  hence  also  sometimes  the 
force  of  an  objective  genitive:  mein  (=  a  gen.  of  origin)  Sohn,  mein  (=  a  pos- 
sessive gen.)  Buch,  meine  (=  a  subject  gen.)  Liebe  zu  Gott,  meine  (=  an 
objective  gen.)  Verhaftung. 

a.  This  objective  gen.  is  limited  in  general  to  those  substantives  that  contain  a  verbal  stem 
which  has  a  pronounced  transitive  force:  die  Erfüllung  (from  erfüllen  to  fulfil)  der  Pflicht. 
Earlier  in  the  period  verbal  nouns  in  general,  even  tho  they  did  not  have  pronounced  transitive 
force,  could  take  an  objective  gen.,  while  to-day  in  many  cases  a  prepositional  object  is  either 
required  or  is  much  more  common,  even  in  case  of  nouns  formed  from  transitive  verbs,  except  in 


255.  II.  1.  D.d. OBJECTIVE   GENITIVE 479 

poetry,  where  older  usage  still  lingers:  Aber  ich  kenne  euch  |  das  jr  nicht  Gottes  liebe  [now  in 
prose  Liebe  zu  Gott]  in  euch  habt  (John  v.  42).  und  überall  ....  fand  ich  den  gleichen  Haß 
der  [in  piain  prose  gegen  die]  Tyrannei  (Schiller's  Tell,  2,  2).  Ich  stritt  aus  Haß  der  Städte 
und  nicht  um  euren  Dank  (Uhland's  Die  Döffinger  Schlacht).  We  now  usually  say:  Die  Furcht 
vor  Gott,  aus  Haß  gegen  die  Städte,  der  Angriff  auf  die  Stadt,  &c.  Older  usage,  however,  is  still 
the  rule  in  group- words  (247.  2.  b)  and  compounds:  Menschenliebe,  Menschenhaß,  Gottes- 
furcht, &c. 

A  verbal  noun  formed  from  a  verb  governing  a  gen.  or  dat.  cannot  take  an  objective  gen.,  but 
where  such  verbs  are  also  used  with  an  ace.  and  hence  are  also  felt  as  transitive  verbs  the  objective 
gen.  can  of  course  be  used:  der  Genuß  (from  genießen  with  gen.  or  ace.)  des  Weines,  der  Miß- 
brauch amtlicher  Stellung. 

Thruout  the  period  attempts  have  been  repeatedly  made  to  extend  this  usage  to  verbal  nouns 
made  from  verbs  which  govern  the  dative,  which  practice  is  quite  generally  condemned  by  gram- 
marians: Daß  er  mich  mit  Entsagung  seiner  eignen  Glückseligkeit  glücklich  gemacht  habe 
(Lessing,  2,  40).  Von  jener  erstaunenswürdigen  Entsagung  der  Krone  (Schiller,  4,  93).  Very 
commonly  in  case  of  Dienst:  der  Dienst  Gottes  (Goethe),  Gottesdienst.  Also  often  in  the 
language  of  our  time:  zur  Abhilfe  der  dringendsten  Bedürfnisse,  zur  Steuerung  des  Unfugs, 
die  Beiwohnung  des  Manövers,  diesen  (i.e.  den  gewohnheitsmäßigen  Spielern)  Unterkunft  zur 
Fröhnung  ihres  Lasters  zu  gewähren  (leader  in  Hamburger  Nachrichien,  June  27,  1905),  &c. 
Some  of  these  expressions  are  difficult  to  avoid,  but  grammarians  recommend  a  change  of  word 
or  recourse  to  a  prep,  phrase :  zur  Befriedigung  der  dringendsten  Bedürfnisse  instead  of  zur  Abhilfe 
der  usw.  Er  zürnt  mir,  but  sein  Zorn  auf  mich.  Sie  widerstanden  den  Römern,  but  ihr  Wider- 
stand gegen  die  Römer.  Er  entsagt  dem  Throne,  but  die  Entsagung  auf  Ansprüche,  also  in  the 
form  of  an  old  group-word,  as  in  Thronentsagung.  The  genitive  after  Entsagung,  as  in  the 
example  given  above,  may  be  explained  in  another  way,  namely,  according  to  I  below,  as  the 
reflexive  construction  is  also  sometimes  used:  Entsagen  Sie  sich  im  guten  aller  Ansprüche 
(Lessing's  Die  glückHche  Erbin,  1,  2). 

Verbal  nouns  made  from  verbs  requiring  a  prep,  object  usually  retain  the  same  prep,  construc- 
tion: Er  spottet  über  den  Armen  and  der  Spott  über  den  Armen.     See  also  IV.  1  below. 

b.  The  use  of  a  possessive  before  a  governing  noun  instead  of  the  subjective  gen.  or  of  some 
appropriate  preposition  instead  of  the  objective  genitive  will  usually  distinguish  the  objective 
gen.  from  the  subjective:  Seine  Verachtung  der  Menschen  his  contempt  for  men,  die  Liebe  zu 
Gott  love  to  God,  der  Haß  gegen  den  Tyrannen.  The  subjective  gen.  can  be  distinguished  by 
placing  it  before  the  noun  that  is  to  be  modified,  except  in  case  of  relative  pronouns,  which  must 
always  precede  even  when  used  as  object:  Gottes  Liebe  love  that  comes  from  God;  but  also  Dieses 
Vorurteil,  dessen  (objective  gen.)  Bekämpfung  uns  schon  viel  Mühe  gekostet  hat  This  prejudice, 
the  combating  of  which  has  already  cost  us  a  good  deal  of  trouble.  If  there  are  two  genitives,  one 
a  subjective,  the  other  an  objective  gen.,  the  latter  is  often  replaced  by  a  prep,  phrase,  or  enters 
into  a  group-word  with  the  governing  noun:  Die  Verachtung  der  Christen  gegen  den  Tod,  or 
very  frequently  die  Todesverachtung  der  Christen  the  contempt  of  the  Christians  for  death. 
The  thought  can  often  be  made  clear  by  the  use  of  the  preposition  von  selten  or  durch  instead  of 
a  subjective  genitive:  die  Begnadigung  von  selten  des  Königs  or  durch  den  König  the  king's 
pardon,  die  Eroberung  des  Landes  durch  den  General,  das  Lob  des  Schülers  von  selten  des 
Lehrers. 

c.  A  personal  pronoun  rarely  stands  in  the  objective  gen.:  Die  unglückliche  Nachricht  der 
Arretierung  Deiner  (Johann  G.  Reuter  in  a  letter  to  his  son  Fritz,  Nov.  4,  1S33).  The  objective 
genitive  as  the  second  member  of  the  group  in  which  it  stands  takes  the  group-stress.  Hence  the 
natural  unconscious  feeling  for  the  melody  of  the  sentence  leads  one  to  avoid  placing  a  light 
pronominal  in  this  important  position.  A  possessive  adjective  can  often  be  used  here  and  as  it 
stands  in  the  unimportant  place  before  the  governing  noun  its  stress  conforms  to  the  sentence 
rhythm:  Die  unglückliche  Nachricht  deiner  Arretierung.  The  objective  genitive  of  a  personal 
pronoun  may  stand  after  a  governing  noun  if  an  accented  word  follows  which  can  bring  the  ex- 
pression into  harmony  with  the  sentence  melody:  Beherrschung  deiner  selbst,  &c.  If  there  is 
no  following  accented  word,  as  in  this  example,  or  if  by  reason  of  a  lack  of  clearness  the  possessive 
adjective  cannot  be  used,  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  place  the  genitive  of  the  personal 
pronoun  after  the  governing  noun,  altho  the  stress  does  not  conform  to  the  usual  rhythm  of  the 
sentence:  Doch  entstand  wohl  nur  aus  einem  Übersehen  ihrer  (i.e.  der  Verständniszusammen- 
hänge) die  prinzipielle  Skepsis  in  den  einzelnen  klassischen  und  modernen  Philologien  gegen- 
über der  sprachwissenschaftlichen  Methode  (Gustav  Hübner  in  Anglia,  191.5,  p.  27S).  The 
strong  transitive  force  of  the  governing  noun  here  demands  an  objective  genitive,  but  elsewhere 
a  prepositional  object  can  often  be  used,  which  by  reason  of  its  heavier  weight  conforms  more  to 
the  rhythm  of  the  sentence:   die  Liebe  zu  ihm  or  gegen  ihn,  die  Verachtung  gegen  ihn,  &c. 

Also  nouns  rarely  stand  in  the  objective  gen.  in  those  cases  where  they  are  without  an  article, 
such  as  abstract  nouns  denoting  materials  when  used  in  an  indefinite  partitive  sense,  or  plurals 
of  concrete  nouns,  when  the  reference  is  to  an  indefinite  number.  The  gen.  is  here  replaced  by 
von  with  dat.:  Menschenbedürfnis  konnte  zumeist  ohne  viel  Bitten  auf  ein  Vorsetzen  von 
Speise  und  Trunk  rechnen  (Jensen's  Z)a5  Bild  im  Wasser,  chap.  i).  Auch  die  Japaner  sind  mit 
dem  Aufwerfen  von  Verschanzungen  beschäftigt  (Hamb.   Nachr.,  Oct.  25,  1904). 

d.  Nouns  formed  from  verbs  which  take  a  dative  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  an  accusative 
of  the  noun,  as  sich  (dat.)  das  Trinken  abgewöhnen,  drop  according  to  249.  II.  2.  G  the  reflexi\e 
pronoun.  Corresponding  to  the  accusative  of  the  verbal  construction  is  the  genitive  of  the  sub- 
stantive form  of  expression:    Sie  (i.e.  diese  große  Leistimg)  verlangt  Anpassung  an  fremdes 


480 CxEN.  OF  MATERIAL,  CHARACTERISTIC       255.  II.  1.  D.d. 

Klima,  Aufgabe  vieler  lieimischer  Gewohnheiten,  Abgewöhnung  des  Alkohols  (Kolonialdircktor 
Dernbur^  in  Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Jan.  22,  1907). 

E.  Genitive  of  Material  or  Composition  denoting  that  of  which  something 
consists:  ein  Schmuck  des  feinsten  Goldes,  der  Strom  seiner  Gedanken,  ein 
Dach  schattender  Buchen  a  roof  of  shady  beeches,  der  Zweige  laubiges  Gitter 
the  leafv  trellis- work  of  the  branches.  Ungern  vermiss'  ich  ihn  doch,  den  alten 
kattunenen  Schlafrock  echt  ostindischen  Stoffs  (Goethe's  H.  u.  D.,  l,  33-4). 
Eine  Kette  aufsteigender  Rebhühner,  eine  Reihe  blühender  Kinder.  Die 
Sonne  versinkt  hinter  einer  Wehr  weißer  Berge  im  Westen  (Ernst  Zahn's  Wie 
dem  Kaplan  Longin  us  die  Welt  aufging).     This  category  is  closely  related  to  H. 

a.  The  gen.  here  is  not  common  in  plain  prose,  and  is  now  largely  confined  to  figurative  or 
poetic  language.     In  prose  the  gen.  is  usually  replaced  by  von.     See  in  229.  2,  the  prep.  von,/. 

F.  Descriptive  Genitive.  This  genitive  is  closely  related  to  the  possessive 
genitive.     There  are  two  groups : 

(1)  Genitive  of  Quality  oj  Characteristic:  Waren  erster  Güte  goods  of  the 
best  quality,  Dinge  dieser  Art  things  of  this  sort,  einer  seines  Schlags  one  of 
his  stamp,  stripe,  eine  Droschke  zweiter  Klasse,  ein  Pferd  arabischer  Rasse, 
ein  Gästhof  ersten  Ranges,  ein  Mann  vornehmen  Standes,  der  Gott  der  Liebe, 
der  Geist  der  Lüge,  ein  Mann  der  Tat.  Es  handelt  sich  leider  um  Dinge  des 
bittersten  Ernstes.  Gerüchte  sind  in  Umlauf  gesetzt  worden  des  Inhalts, 
daß,  &c.  Reports  have  been  set  in  circulation  to  the  effect  that,  &c.  This 
same  idea  is  found  in  the  genitive  used  in  the  predicate  with  the  verbs  in  252. 
2.  A.  c. 

If  this  group  has  classifying  force  we  usually  find  it  in  group-word  (247.  2) 
form:  Kindersprache  a  child's  language,  Kinderschuh  a  child's  shoe,  Herren- 
stiefel  a  gentleman's  shoe,  Damenstiefel  a  lady's  shoe,  Fräuenhänd  a  woman's 
hand,  Wespennest  a  wasp's  nest.  Er  starb  den  Heldentod  He  died  a  hero's 
death. 

a.  The  gen.  is  here  often  replaced  by  the  dat.  with  von:  Waren  von  verschiedener  Güte, 
ein  Weib  von  schöner  Gestalt,  eine  Mehrheit  von  sechs  gegen  eins  a  six  to  one  majority,  eine 
Untersuchung  von  Haus  zu  Haus  a  house  to  house  investigation,  &c. 

b.  The  simple  genitive  of  a  personal  pronoun  assumes  the  force  of  a  genitive  of  quality  when 
placed  before  a  numeral:  unsereiner  one  of  our  kind,  class,  seiner  vier  four  of  his  kind,  four 
like  him. 

(2)  Quite  similar  is  the  Genitive  of  Measure:  Die  Arbeit  eines  ganzen  Jah- 
res, auf  die  Dauer  eines  Tages  (but  von  zwei,  drei  Tagen).  This  genitive  is 
usually  replaced  by  von  with  the  dat.  or  an  adjectix'e  in  -ig:  ein  Krieg  von 
dreißig  Jähren  or  ein  dreißigjähriger  Krieg,  eine  Verzögerung  von  drei  Stünden 
or  eine  dreistündige  Verzögerung.  English  preserves  the  genitive  better  here 
as  it  has  become  fixed  in  modern  group-words  and  compounds  (247.  2.  c):  a 
thirty  years'  ivdr,  a  three  hours'  delay.  In  both  English  and  German  these  groups 
have  descriptive  stress  (50.  A.  6),  i.e.  accent  upon  the  second  member.  A 
classifying  genitive  with  classifying  stress  (50.  A.  6)  is  used  in  units  of  measure- 
ment, but  this  form  is  a  possessive  or  an  objective  genitive:  eine  Schiffslänge 
a  boat's  length,  more  commonly  in  old  group-word  form  (247.  2.  a)  in  German: 
eine  Kopflänge  a  head's  length,  ein  Steinwürf  a  stone's  throiv,  &c. 

G.  Appositive  Genitive,  explaining  the  preceding  governing  word:  der  Fehler 
des  Argwohns  the  fault  of  always  entertaining  mistrust,  das  Laster  der  Trunk- 
sucht the  vice  of  intemperance,  die  Zeit  der  Kreuzzüge,  die  Strafe  der  Verban- 
nung, die  Gabe  des  Gesanges,  der  Beiname  des  Großen,  der  Titel  eines 
Geheimrats,  &c.  The  possessive  genitive  was  the  starting  point  of  this  genitive 
construction,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  such  examples  as  der  Segen  einer  guten 
Erziehung,  &c.,  where  the  genitive  can  be  construed  either  as  a  possessive  or 
an  appositive  genitive. 

When  the  appositive  is  not  thus  added  to  a  noun  to  define  its  meaning  more 
accurately  but  to  indicate  a  class  to  which  a  thing  or  a  person  belongs  who  has 
just  been  characterized  as  an  individual  by  the  governing  noun,  von  with  the 
dative  is  used  instead  of  the  genitive  construction:   Der   Schurke   von   (einem) 


255.  II.  1.  H.  a.      APPOSITIVE,  PARTITIVE  GENITIVE 481 

Wirt  the  rascal  of  a  landlord.  Other  examples  in  94.  2  and  229.  2  under  von  (i). 
This  construction  is  not  known  in  M.H.G.  and  oldest  English.  It  has  prob- 
ably come  into  both  languages  from  the  French.  Originally  it  came  from  the 
Latin  appositive  genitive,  which  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  possessive  genitive, 
as  in  scelus  viri  rascal  of  a  man,  i.e.  the  rascal  is  a  man,  belongs  to  the  class 
represented  by  man,  monstrum  mulieris  monster  of  a  woman,  i.e.  the  monster 
is  a  woman,  belongs  to  womankind.  All  feeling  for  the  origin  of  this  construc- 
tion has  been  lost,  for  the  common  class  noun  after  von  can  now  be  replaced 
by  a  proper  name:  Wo  ist  das  Vieh  von  (einem)  Fingal?  (Krüger's  Vermischte 
Beiträge  zur  Syntax,  p.  118)  =  Wo  ist  das  Vieh,  der  Fingal?  Where  is  that  beast 
of  a  Fingal?  =  Where  is  that  beast  Fingal?  Thus  the  word  after  von  is  now 
felt  as  an  ordinary  appositive  to  the  preceding  noun.  In  German,  things  can- 
not be  personified  here  as  in  English:  It  was  a  perfect  beast  of  a  night  Es  war 
eine  reine  Hundenacht. 

a.  Also  the  appositional  construction  can  be  used  in  case  of  the  category  described  in  III. 
1.  B,  the  appositive  agreeing  with  the  preceding  word  in  case  or  standing  in  the  nom.,  cut  off 
by  quotation  marks:  der  Begriff  Schön  or  der  Begriff  des  Schönen.  Er  erhielt  den  Titel  eines 
kaiserlichen  Rates  or  den  Titel  ,, Kaiserlicher  Rat."  Other  examples  of  appositives  in  94.  1.  J 
and  in  III.  1.  B  below.  The  appositional  construction  is  the  rule  with  proper  names:  die  Stadt 
Berlin  the  city  of  Berlin,  die  Universität  Berlin  the  University  of  Berlin,  die  Bergfeste  Ehren- 
breitstein,  the  rocky  fortress  of  Ehrenbreitstein,  das  Königreich  England  the  kingdom  of  England, 
der  Monat  Mai,  or  simply  der  Mai  the  month  of  May,  or  simply  May,  die  Insel  Sardinien,  das 
Kap  Horn,  &c.  In  case  of  riv^ers,  lakes,  bays,  straits,  mountains,  valleys,  passes,  tunnels,  and 
waterfalls  the  appositive  and  governing  noun  are  written  together  in  the  form  of  an  old  or  younger 
group-word  (247.  2.  a  and  b),  the  modifying  word,  i.e.  the  appositive,  preceding  the  governing 
noun  in  accordance  with  oldest  Germanic  usage,  which  required  the  modifying  word  to  precede 
the  governing  noun:  der  Rheinström  the  Rhine,  der  Michigansee  Lake  Michigan,  die  Bering- 
sträße  Bering  Strait,  das  Riesengebirge,  das  Rheintal  the  Rhine  valley,  der  St.  Gotthardtünnel 
the  Saint  Gothard  tunnel,  die  Niagarafalle  Niagara  Falls,  &c.  The  name  sometimes  assumes 
adjective  form:   der  ßiskäyische  Meerbusen  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

The  appositive  genitive  and  the  appositive  in  the  strict  appositional  construction  often  pre- 
ceded the  governing  noun  in  oldest  English  and  German.  That  the  appositive  now  in  contrast 
to  oldest  Germanic  usually  follows  the  governing  word  is  explained  by  its  stronger  stress  and  its 
descriptive  force:  Das  Laster  der  Trunksucht,  die  Stadt  Berlin.  The  law  for  modern  descrip- 
tive group-stress  (50.  A.  6)  requires  the  more  heavily  stressed  member  of  a  group  of  two  words 
to  stand  last.  The  words  for  rivers,  lakes,  &c.,  as  der  Rheinstrom,  &c.,  resisted  this  develop- 
ment as  they  had  become  compounds  and  the  form  had  thus  become  fixed.  Under  the  influence 
of  analogy  other  words  have  assumed  this  old  form:  Hüdsonbäi,  &c.  In  many  English  words, 
as  Hudson  Bay  (older  type  Hudson  Bay,  corresponding  to  German  Hüdsonbäi),  &c.,  the  old 
word-order  so  common  in  Old  English  has  been  retained,  but  the  accent  has  been  conformed  to 
modern  descriptive  group-stress  by  simply  transferring  the  chief  stress  to  the  second  member, 
which  is  impossible  in  German  but  easy  in  English,  as  the  first  member  is  now  construed  as  an 
adjective  according  to  I.  b  above,  something  quite  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  German.  In  German 
according  to  I.  b  above  adjective  function  requires  adjective  form  with  the  suffix  -isch,  as  in 
der  Biskäyische  Meerbusen  given  above,  which  of  course  conforms  to  modern  group-stress. 

b.  This  gen.  is  often  replaced  by  an  infin.  with  zu:  Die  Kunst  zu  schreiben  war  den  Ägyptern 
(Egyptians)  bekannt. 

H.  Partitive  Genitive,  denoting  the  whole,  of  which  only  a  part  is  taken : 
die  Hälfte  meines  Vermögens,  der  erste  Vers  des  Liedes,  eine  Flasche  des 
besten  Weins,  einer  meiner  Kameraden.  Unter  der  Pelzmütze  zeigt  sich  ein 
kleiner  Teil  eines  gutmütigen,  gebräunten  Gesichts.  The  same  idea  is  found 
in  the  genitive  used  with  the  verbs  in  260.     See  also  c  below. 

Notice  the  following  difference  of  idiom  between  German  and  English:  einer 
der  Freunde  meines  Vaters  a  friend  of  my  father's,  with  a  double  expression  of 
the  gen.,  once  with  of,  once  with  -s;  einer  meiner  Freunde  a  friend  of  mine.  The 
double  English  gen.  is  not  always  partitive:   that  wife  of  yours  Ihre  Frau. 

The  genitive  of  gradation  is  only  a  variety  of  the  partitive  genitive:  der 
König  der  Könige  the  king  of  kings,  das  Buch  der  Bücher,  die  Frau  der  Frauen. 

a.  Appositional  Construction  instead  of  the  Partitive  Genitive.  In  case  of  common  nouns 
after  indefinite  pronouns  and  nouns  denoting  weight,  measure,  extent,  or  quantity,  also  in  case 
of  certain  proper  names,  this  gen.  has  in  the  language  of  every  day  usually  gone  over  into  the 
appositional  construction.  This  important  construction  is  treated  at  length  in  145  (read  carefully 
the  Notes  there  under  b.  c,  e,  f,  »)  and  94.  3.  A,  and  b  thereunder. 

Attention  is  called  here  to  the  peculiar  word-order  often  found  in  this  appositional  construc- 
tion when  the  word  indicating  the  part  is  a  noun  denoting  an  indefinite  amount,  or  more  com- 


482  PARTITIVE   GENITIVE 255.  II.  1.  H.  a. 

nionly  an  indefinite  limiting  adjective  used  substantively.  The  word  denoting  the  whole  may 
precede  the  word  denoting  the  part,  and  often  introduces  the  proposition:  Es  ist  Wein  die  Menge 
da.  Solche  Fehler  können  die  Menge  im  Plinius  sein  (Lessing).  Harmonisches  Getön  war 
wenig  dabei  (Raalx-'s  Horn  vov  Wanza,  xvi).  Das  (i.e.  Ach,  du  bist  ja  ein  dummer  Junge) 
sagt  er  auch  immer,  und  Antwort  ist's  doch  keine  (Maria  Janitschek's  Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  xviii). 
Gäste  waren  wenige  da  (Krtl's  Walpurga).  Gefahr  ist  nicht  die  Spur  (Paul,  Keller's  Waldwinter, 
xiv).  Sorgen  braucht  er  sich  keine  zu  machen  (Ertl's  Auswanderer).  Ähnliche  Geschichten 
gibt  es  unzählige  (H.  Seidel's  Hundegeschichten) .  The  word-order  in  a  number  of  these  sentences 
indicates  clearly  that  the  word  denoting  the  whole  is  not  now  felt  as  belonging  to  the  substantive 
in  an  attributive  relation,  but  that  it  is  felt  as  the  subject  or  object  of  the  verb.  As  the  subject  it 
regulates  the  number  of  the  verb,  as  in  the  sentence  from  Lessing.  As  an  emphatic  object  it  may 
introduce  the  proposition  causing  inversion,  as  in  the  last  two  sentences.  The  freedom  of  po- 
sition in  case  of  the  word  denoting  the  whole  in  all  these  instances  indicates  that  it  was  originally 
not  an  attributive  genitive  modifying  the  noun  denoting  the  part  or  quantity  but  was  an  adverljial 
genitive  of  specification  (260j :  Des  bearbeiteten  Stoffs  liegt  eine  große  Menge  bereit  (Goethe), 
lit.  With  regard  to  the  material  already  worked  upon  a  good  deal  lies  ready.     Brots  hat  er  die  Fülle 

(Luther),  lit.  With  regard  to  bread  he  has  a  plenty.  Early  the  gen.  here  was  felt  as  a  partitive 
gen.  subject  (see  c  below),  as  in  the  former  e.xample,  or  as  a  partitive  gen.  object  (see  c  below), 
as  in  the  latter  example,  and  the  word  denoting  the  part  or  quantity  was  construed  as  a  pred- 
icate appositive,  adding  an  explanatory  remark  about  the  preceding  subject  or  object.  This 
appositional  construction  is  still  in  wide  use,  but  in  its  present  modern  form  the  partitive  genitive 
subject  is  usually  replaced  by  a  nominative  subject  and  the  partitive  genitive  object  by  an  ac- 
cusative object,  as  in  the  examples  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  paragraph.  The  old  partitive 
gen.  subject  or  object,  however,  is  still  often  found  when  the  reference  is  to  a  number  of  individuals, 
as  in  Aber  der  wirklichen  und  scheinbaren  Ausnahmen  sind  nicht  wenige  (Krüger's  Schwierig- 
keiten des  Englischen,  II,  p.  683),  but  w-here  the  reference  is  to  a  mass  it  is  now  replaced  by  the 
modern  partitive  construction  of  von  with  the  dative  or  by  the  modern  appositional  construction: 
Von  seinem  Vermögen  verlor  er  die  Hälfte.  Geld  (acc.  object)  hat  er  genug  or  keins  (pred.  ap- 
positive). The  old  gen.  construction,  however,  has  become  fixed  in  a  few  expressions:  Er  tut 
des  Guten  zu  viel.  Des  Neuen  wird  hier  wenig  geboten  (W.  Franz  in  Cer7nani seh- Romanische 
Monatsschrift,  1910,  p.  653).  On  the  other  hand,  the  original  gen.  of  specification  was  often  felt 
as  an  attributive  gen.  and  this  double  conception  of  the  gen.  as  a  partitive  subject  or  object  or  as 
an  attributive  element  explains  the  twofold  development  found  here.  When  felt  as  an  attribu- 
tive element  the  gen.  here  as  elsewhere  often  followed  the  governing  noun:  die  Fülle  Brots  in- 
stead of  Brots  die  Fülle.  Altho  the  attributive  gen.  was  well  established  in  O.H.G.  and  AI.H.G. 
it  has  been  largely  replaced  in  the  last  centuries  by  the  attributive  appositional  construction: 
ein  Glas  Milch  (gen.,  but  on  account  of  the  lack  of  an  ending  now  felt  as  an  attributive  appositive) ; 
ein  Glas  Wasser  (an  attributive  appositive  after  the  analogy  of  Milch  in  the  preceding  example). 
Similarly  in  the  old  gen.  appositional  construction  the  lack  of  distinctive  endings  facilitated  the 
change  from  a  gen.  subject  or  object  to  a  nom.  subject  and  an  acc.  object:  Worte  (originally  a 
gen.  pi.  subject,  now  felt  as  a  nom.  subject)  sind  genug  (pred.  appos.)  gewechselt.  Schmerz 
(acc.  object  instead  of  the  older  gen.  object  des  Schmerzes)  empfand  ich  keinen  (pred.  appos.). 
But  here  the  idea  that  the  nom.  is  the  proper  form  for  the  subject  and  the  acc.  for  the  object  is 
a  strong  factor  in  the  development. 

A  pronoun  dependent  upon  these  groups  of  words,  however,  less  commonly  takes  the  appo- 
sitional construction.  It  is  either  placed  in  the  dat.  after  von  (see  b  below),  or  it  may  still 
follow  the  old  usage  and  stand  in  the  gen.,  especially  when  it  precedes  the  governing  word:  Es 
waren  ihrer  mehr  als  hundert  There  were  more  than  a  hundred  of  them.  Ihrer  sind  mehr  als 
unser  There  are  more  of  them  than  there  are  of  us.  Wie  viel  sind  unserer?  (Schiller's  Räuber, 
2,  3).  But  also  the  appositional  construction  occurs  here:  Je  mehr  wir  sind,  desto  besser  the 
more  of  us  there  are,  the  better.  Es  wäre  zu  wünschen,  daß  es  mehr  Gieshübler  (name)  gäbe: 
es  gibt  aber  mehr  andere  (Fontane's  Effi,  XXIX).  Wir  sind  ja  nur  noch  so  wenige  beisammen! 
(Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  li9).  Wir  sind  zehn.  Wie  viele  sind  wir  denn?  (Storm's 
Der  Herr  Etatsrat,  p.  216).  Jeder  meiner  Freunde,  jeder  von  uns  (the  gen.  not  now  used  in 
case  of  personal  pronouns),  or  with  the  appositional  construction:  Wenn  wir  jeder  uns  geben, 
wie  wir  sind,  und  tun,  was  unser  Gewissen  uns  vorschreibt,  wird's  ja  wohl  das  Rechte  sein 
(Telmann's  Wahrheit,  XXIV).  The  genitive  and  appositional  constructions  are  sometimes 
combined:  Sie  waren  ihrer  elf  Geschwister,  zwischen  vierundzwanzig  und  zwei  Jahren 
(Kölnische  Zeitung).  So  wären  wir  unser  zehn  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  II,  chap.  15). 
The  possessive  is  often  in  colloquial  language  used  in  connection  with  the  appositional 
construction:  Vor  alien  Dingen  waxen  sie  ihre  zwanzig  (Sudermann's  Der  Sturmgeselle  Sakrales, 
l.  9). 

_  In  general  after  measures  the  gen.  of  nouns  is  much  more  common  in  the  pi.  than  in  the  sing.: 
eine  Menge  kleinerer  Fahrzeuge.  The  gen.  sing,  of  a  noun  modified  by  an  adjective  is  still 
in  choice  language  not  altogether  infrequent  here,  in  recent  usage  seems  even  to  be  on  the  in- 
crease again,  but  the  gen.  of  an  unmodified  noun  is  now  rather  uncommon  in  prose:  Er  aß  fast 
nichts  und  trank  zwei  Gläser  schweren  Weins  (Maria  Janitschek's  Liebeswiinder,  viii),  but  now 
usually  ein  Glas  Wein,  ein  Schluck  Bier,  occasionally,  however,  the  genitive:  drei  Stückchen 
Zuckers  (Julius  von  Ludassy  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  Oct.  1906,  p.  255),  drei 
Stunden  Weges  (still  common).  Bei  den  weiten  Strecken  Ackerlandes,  über  die  der  einzelne 
Mensch  [in  Norddeutschland]  verfügt,  hat  er  nicht  nötig,  den  Boden  zu  parzellieren  (O.  Weise's 
Die  deutschen  Volksstämme,  p.  4). 


255.  IL  1.  H.  c.      PARTITIVE  GEN.  AS  SUBJECT,  OBJECT 483 

In  a  choice  style  the  gen.  still  occurs  after  limiting  adjectives,  expressing  the  idea  of  number, 
and  used  substantively,  as  described  in  139.  3.  i.  Note,  but  very  rarely  after  indefinite  pronouns 
expressing  the  idea  of  amount,  which  now  usually  require  the  appositional  construction,  altho 
the  gen.  was  much  used  earlier  in  the  period,  and  survives  in  a  few  set  expressions.  See  145.  /. 
Note  1  and  g.  Note  1. 

If  the  noun  dependent  upon  a  limiting  adjective,  or  any  measure,  or  weight  is  modified  by  an 
article  or  pronominal  adj.,  it  must  usually  stand  in  the  partitive  gen.  or  in  the  dat.  after  the 
prep,  von  or  unter:  Die  obere  Hälfte  des  Berges,  viele  dieser  Bücher,  or  von  diesen 
Büchern,  or  unter  diesen  Büchern;  ein  Pfund  dieser  Kirschen,  or  von  diesen 
Kirschen.  For  an  exception  see  94.  3.  A,  last  par.  The  partitive  gen.  is  also  still  much  used 
after  comparatives,  superlatives,  and  ordinals:  die  bessern  meiner  Schüler,  die  besten  meiner 
Schüler;  der  erste,  der  zweite,  der  letzte  der  Klasse. 

Note.  Observe  that  in  case  of  the  relative  pronoun,  resembling  the  Latin  and  differing  from  the  English,  the  par- 
titive construction  is  replaced  by  the  appositional,  when  all  are  embraced  in  the  statement:  qui  omnes  =  die  (or 
welche)  alle  =  all  of  whom.     For  further  examples  see  139.  1.  d.  Notes  1  and  2  (1)  and  /  (last  example  in  1st  par.). 

b.  The  gen.  is  here  often  replaced  by  the  prep,  construction  of  von  w.  dat.,  which  emphasizes 
more  sharply  the  partitive  idea.     See  last  of  a  above,  and  also  the  prep,  von,  j  in  229.  2. 

c.  Genitive  or  Von  +  Dative  as  Subject,  Predicate,  or  Object.  A  partitive  gen.  or  much  more 
frequently  a  dat.  after  the  prep,  von  is  sometimes  used  independently  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  as 
the  apparent  subject,  predicate,  or  object  of  the  verb,  to  indicate  that  the  thing  or  things  in 
question  should  be  considered  as  a  part  of  a  whole,  or  as  individuals  of  a  species.  The  genitive 
construction  was  not  infrequent  in  older  periods.  The  dative  construction  after  von  in  part 
replaces  the  older  genitive  construction,  in  part  is  of  French  origin.  Under  French  influence  it 
was  quite  common  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  is  not  infrequent  in  the  colloquial  speech  of 
our  own  time,  but  it  is  now  in  general  avoided  in  choice  language. 

As  subject:  Aus  Aristophanes  lassen  sich  ihrer  nachweisen  (J.  Grimm)  Some  (monologues) 
can  be  found  in  Aristophanes.  Dort  zeigte  sich,  selbst  wo  sie  von  Eichenholz  war,  die  Belattung 
und  Verschalung  gänzlich  morsch;  und  solcher  Stellen  waren  überall  (Ludwig's  Zwischen 
Himmel  und  Erde,  III).  So  viele  Hände,  als  ihrer  zur  Stelle  waren,  griffen  nach  dem  ausge- 
worfenen Tau  (H.  E.  Wallsee  in  Ham.  Nachr.,  June  11,  1905).  The  dative  after  von  instead 
of  the  partitive  genitive:  Gestern,  denkt,  gingen  von  seinen  Leuten  vorbei  (Goethe's  Egmont, 
1,  3)  Just  think,  yesterday  some  of  his  men  went  by.  Es  war  von  Luthers  Geist  und  Mannheit 
auf  ihn  übergegangen  (Alexis).  Dann  steht  da  wohl  auch  von  (somethiug  about)  den  Ulrichs 
(family)  drin  (i.e.  in  dem  Buch)?  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  13).  Notice  that  the  verb  is  in  the  singu- 
lar or  plural  according  as  the  reference  is  to  an  indefinite  quantity  or  an  indefinite  number.  In 
Otfrid's  "Brast  in  thar  thes  wines"  (II.  8.  11)  the  genitive  was  often  felt  as  an  adverbial  genitive 
of  specification  (260)  and  is  now  usually  replaced  by  an  adverbial  phrase:  Es  gebrach  or  fehlte 
ihnen  an  Wein,  but  with  these  impersonal  verbs  it  was  also  often  construed  as  a  partitive  genitive 
subject  and  was  later  often  replaced  by  a  nominative  subject:  Es  gebrach  (once  common  here) 
or  now  more  commonly  fehlte  ihnen  Wein  (nom.).  With  some  verbs  (262.  II.  A.  c)  the  idea  of 
a  subject  prevailed,  so  that  later  the  old  partitive  genitive  subject  was  replaced  by  a  nominative 
subject:  Sein  Benehmen  (nom.)  verdrießt  mich,  where  we  now  no  longer  feel  that  the  genitive 
was  once  used  here. 

As  predicate:  Thu  bist  judiisger  man,  |  inti  ich  bin  thesses  thietes  (Otfrid,  II.  XIV.  17),  now 
Du  bist  Jude  und  ich  bin  aus  or  von  diesem  Volke  hier.  Das  sind  einmal  wieder  von  euern 
Streichen  (Kotzebue). 

As  object.  The  gen.  is  not  infrequent  here  in  poetic  language:  Weil  ich  deines  Weins  ver- 
schmähte (Kleist 's  Käthchen,  1,  1)  Also  in  prose  in  case  of  pronominal  objects:  Aber  es  gab 
ihrer,  und  gar  nicht  wenige  (Raabe's  Horn  von  Wanza,  chap.  9)  But  there  were  such  people  a^id, 
&c.  Sometimes  incase  of  substantival  objects:  Der  Typen  und  Originale  gab  es  überall  (Bern- 
hardine Schulze-Smidt's  Mein  Rückblick).  More  common  than  the  gen.  is  von  +  dat.:  Sei- 
ner dafür  so  dankbaren  Witwe  schreib'  ich  alle  Jahre  noch  einmal,  schicke  ihr  auch  von  meinen 
Sachen  (T.  Storm  an  G.  Keller,  3.  Jan.  1882).  Der  Pfarrer  soll  von  unserm  Wein  probieren 
(Hauptmann's    Versunkene  Glocke,  Act  3). 

The  partitive  gen.  occurs  frequently  thruout  the  period  as  subject  or  as  object  in  connection 
with  the  negative  nicht,  where  originally  nicht  was  a  substantive  and  was  the  real  subject  or 
object  and  the  gen.  a  partitive  gen.  depending  upon  it  (see  145.  g.  Note  2):  Wenn  ich  mit  Men- 
schen- und  mit  Engelzungen  redete  und  hätte  der  Liebe  nicht  (1  Cor.  xiii.  1,  revised  ed.).  Some- 
times similarly  after  the  negative  kaum:  Schließlich  ist  vielleicht  auch  kaiun  des  Neimens- 
werten  an  der  ganzen  Affäre  (Lauff's  Pittje  Pittjewitt,  p.  20).  As  the  original  force  of  the  nega- 
tive is  not  now  felt,  the  gen.  is  now  retained  as  object  or  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  positive  form 
of  statement  in  a  few  expressions:  Jetzt,  da  ich  der  Liebe  (after  the  analogy  of  the  language  in 
1  Cor.  xiii.  1)  habe,  ohne  die  wir  ein  tönendes  Erz  und  eine  klingende  Schelle  sind  —  es  ist 
seltsam,  wie  ganz  ich  jetzt  ein  anderer  geworden  bin!  (Otto  Ernst's  Aus  verborgenen  Tiefen,  p. 
39).  Was  wir  wissen,  ist  allein,  daß  unsres  Wandels  (after  the  analogy  of  the  negative  form  of 
statement  in  Hier  ist  meines  Bleibens  nicht;  see  145.  g.  Note  2)  auf  Erden  ist  (Telmann's  Wahr- 
heit, XII).  As  explained  in  139.  3.  i.  Note,  the  partitive  gen.  after  kein  is  in  certain  set  expres- 
sions now  construed  as  a  nominative  or  an  accusative,  i.e.  as  the  subject  or  the  object  of  the 
verb:  Auch  ist  hier  kein  Besinnens  (Goethe)  There  is  also  here  no  time  for  reflection,  but  also: 
Da  gilt  auch  kein  langes  Besinnen  (id.).  Es  war  kein  Haltens  mehr  There  was  no  stopping  them, 
but  also  with  the  correct  nom.  form.  Es  war  eben  kein  Halten  mehr  (P.  Heyse,  8.  345).  Also 
in  questions  with  negative  force:   Wie  wäre  da  Haltens  gewesen!  (Immermann,  12,  53).     Also 


484 ATTRIBUTIVE   GENITIVE  255.  II.  1.  H.  c. 

the  partitive  ^t-n.  Federlesens,  which  was  originally  dependent  upon  viel,  and  is  still  frequently 
so  used,  as  in  ohne  viel  Federlesens  (Ertl's  Walpurga)  without  much  ceremony,  making  short  work 
of  it,  is  no  longer  vividly  felt  as  a  genitive,  and  can  be  used  without  viel  as  an  accusative:  Kein 
Hufschmied  brächte  je  sein  Eisen  rund,  macht'  er  mit  solchen  Bübchen  Federlesens  (Haupt- 
mann's  Die  versunkene  Glocke,  4).  Except  in  the  cases  mentioned  above  and  the  few  exceptions 
given  in  145.  g.  Note  2  this  gen.  is  now  rare,  aside  from  the  words  Dings  and  Zeugs  (see  83), 
which  were  originally  in  the  gen.  depending  upon  some  word  as  viel,  nicht,  was,  but  are  no  longer 
felt  as  genitives. 

Often  an  w.  dat.  is  used  as  a  partitive  object:  Ein  langer  Vokal  oder  eine  starke  Konsonanten- 
häufung in  der  Nähe  einer  betonten  Silbe  erfordert  zu  ihrer  Aussprache  eine  größere  Kraft  als 
eine  ganz  kurze  Silbe;  und  sie  entzieht  daher  dem  Akzent  der  betonten  Silbe  an  Kraft  (Minor's 
Metrik,  p.  59,  1st  ed.).     Allmählich  verloren  die  Sterne  an  ihrem  Glanz  (Jensen's  Heimkunft,  I). 

I.  Attributive  Genitive  Corresponding  to  the  Genitive  with  Reflexive  Verbs. 
Nouns  formed  from  reflexive  verbs  which  take  a  genitive  object,  as  sich  einer 
Sache  bemächtigen,  may  also  take  a  genitive  object,  but  may  drop,  according 
to  249.  II.  2.  G,  the  reflexive  pronoun:  durch  Bemächtigung  eines  Stromes 
(Lohenstein's  Arminius,  1,  3),  corresponding  to  Er  bemächtigte  sich  eines 
Stromes;  freiwillige  Begebung  aller  Freuden  und  Bequemlichkeiten  dieses 
Lebens  (John.  Mart.  Miller's  Siegwart,  1,  30),  corresponding  to  Er  begab  sich 
aller  Freuden  dieses  Lebens;  diese  fast  gänzliche  Entäußerung  der  Leiden- 
schaft (Goethe),  corresponding  to  Er  entäußerte  sich  der  Leidenschaft;  diese 
Enthaltung  aller  geistigen  Getränke,  corresponding  to  Er  enthielt  sich  aller 
geistigen  Getränke,  in  compounds  often  with  the  old  uninflected  gen.:  Der 
Reichstag  nahm  mit  230  gegen  132  Stimmen  bei  9  Stimmenthaltungen  (  =  9  ent- 
hielten sich  der  Abstimmung)  den  Antrag  an  {Berliner  Tageblatt,  Oct.  27,  1921). 
Diese  Entschädigungen  ....  sind  dürftige  Entledigungen  der  Verbindlichkeit 
der  Gesellschaft  gegen  sie  (Fichte,  6,  33).  Durch  sein  Hirn  zuckte  die 
Erinnerung  der  Zeit  (Spielhagen's  Faustulus,  p.  1),  and  likewise  in  compounds: 
Das  gleichfalls  1881  geschriebene  Kapitel  seiner  (i.e.  Auerbachs)  Kindheitserin- 
nerungen (Anton  Bettelheim  in  Beilage  zur  Allg.  Zeit.,  Sept.  20,  1905,  p.  549). 
Es  kommt  bei  seiner  Arbeit  sehr  auf  eine  Befleißigung  größerer  Kürze  an  (Georg 
Edward),  and  likewise  in  compounds,  as  Rechtsbeflissener.  There  is  a  tendency 
to  use  a  prep,  construction  with  the  verbs  of  this  group  instead  of  a  gen.,  and 
this  tendency  is  still  more  pronounced  with  the  derivative  nouns:  diese  Enthal- 
tung von  allen  geistigen  Getränken ;  die  Erinnerung  an  die  Zeit ;  die  Entwöhnung 
von  der  Gesellschaft,  vom  Wein,  &c. 

Instead  of  dropping  the  reflexive  as  in  the  examples  given  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  the  reflexive  is  often  retained,  especially  in  case  of  infinitive  substan- 
tives: Ich  will  nicht  einmal  dagegen  einwenden,  daß  diese  unsere  Schwäche 
ein  freiwilliges  Sichbegeben  der  Stärke  sein  dürfte  (Boy-Ed's  Die  säende 
Hand,  p.  178). 

Nouns  formed  from  verbs  which  take  an  ace.  of  the  person  and  a  gen.  of  the 
thing  now  require  the  gen.  of  the  person  and  a  prep,  construction  with  the  thing: 
die  Entsetzung  des  Beamten  von  Amt  und  Stelle,  die  Entkleidung  des  Gedankens 
von  allem  Zierat.  The  gen.  here  is  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  that 
the  gen.  object  with  nouns  corresponds  to  the  ace.  object  with  verbs.  The 
employment  of  the  prep,  construction  with  the  thing  is  in  accordance  with  the 
tendency  among  derivatives  from  the  reflexive  group  described  above.  The 
gen.  of  the  thing  is  found  here  earlier  in  the  period:  excommunicatio,  das  heißet 
Entsetzung  derselben  Gemeinschaft  (Luther).  Also  still  in  a  few  expressions: 
unter  der  Beschuldigung  des  Diebstahls,  die  Beraubung  der  Ehrenrechte; 
also  in  a  few  compounds,  as  Amtsentlassung,  Amtsentsetzung,  Eidesentbindung, 
&c.  The  old  gen.  may  survive  in  diese  Versicherung  seiner  Teilnahme,  but 
it  may  also  be  construed  as  the  attributive  gen.  corresponding  to  the  ace.  object 
after  the  verb,  for  we  can  say  Er  versicherte  mir  seine  Teilnahme,  or  Er  ver- 
sicherte mich  seiner  Teilnahme.  The  force  of  the  verbal  noun  is  sometimes 
passive  and  the  genitive  corresponds  then  to  the  genitive  after  a  passive  verb: 
seine  gegenwärtige  gänzliche  Geschäftsentlastung  (Raabe's  Kloster  Lngati, 
p.  4). 


255.  III.  I.A. APPOSITION 485 

2.  Instead  of  the  genitive  in  all  the  above  relations  von  with  a  dative  is  now 
often  used,  as  discussed  in  229.  2,  under  the  prep,  von,/,  g,j,  k,  except  in  certain 
cases  mentioned  in  H.  c  and  I. 

III.     Apposition. 

1.  A  noun  which  explains  or  characterizes  another  noun  is  placed  alongside 
of  it,  and  from  its  position  is  accordingly  called  an  appositive  (placed  alongside 
of):  mein  Bruder,  der  Kaufmann;  die  Lerche,  die  muntere  Sängerin;  meine 
Vettern  Rambergs  (Hartleben)  my  cousins  the  Rambergs;  die  Massai,  ein 
kriegerisches  Volk  (not  able  here  to  agree  in  gender  or  number  with  the  noun 
it  explains)  Ostafrikas;  diese  Bücher,  mein  Stolz  und  meine  Freude  (agreeing 
neither  in  gender  nor  number);  diese  Frau,  ein  Muster  von  Sanftmut;  Friedrich 
der  Zweite.  The  relations  of  the  gen.  to  its  governing  noun  are,  as  unfolded 
above,  varied,  but  the  relation  of  an  appositive  to  its  noun  is  very  simple,_as  it 
was  originally  equivalent  to  a  loose  explanatory  clause  or  sentence,  of  w^hich  it 
is  the  predicate,  and  is  still  ver>'  often  so  used,  as  in  Kairo,  [welches]  die  jetzige 
Hauptstadt  Ägyptens  [ist],  ist  zugleich  auch  die  vornehmste  arabische  Stadt 
unsrer  Zeit.  In  a  formal  sense  an  appositive  is  an  attributive  element  as  it  is 
attached  to  its  governing  noun  in  much  the  same  way  as  an  attributive  adjective. 
Hence  grammarians  now  demand  that  the  appositive  agree  strictly  according  to 
the  Latin  rule  with  its  governing  noun,  but  in  accordance  with  its  real  nature  as 
a  predicate  noun  we  sometimes  find,  as  noted  in  the  following  articles,  the 
nominative,  irrespective  of  the  case  of  the  governing  noun.  In  252.  1.  b.  Note 
we  have  seen  that  the  predicate  noun  and  adjective  after  sein  have  actually 
developed  from  the  attributive  appositive  construction. _  On  the  other  hand, 
in  many  cases,  as  in  B  below,  governing  word  and  appositive  have  in  course  of 
time  come  into  such  close  relations  with  each  other  that  they  now  together  form 
one  group  with  one  principal  stress. 

The  idea  of  apposition  is  also  expressed  by  the  appositive  genitive,  so  that 
here  apposition  and  the  genitive  compete  with  each  other,_as  illustrated  in  II,  1. 
G.  a  above.  Another  common  appositional  category  is  that  of  a  sentence 
explaining  a  preceding  word,  now  divided  into  two  distinct  groups  called  sub- 
stantive  clause  and  adjective  clause,  described  in  271.  I  and  II.  As  these  two 
clauses  are  not  now  vividly  felt  as  appositives  they  are  not  discussed  here. 
Adjectives  and  participles  standing  in  the  predicate  but  referring  to  the  subject 
— predicate  appositives — are  now  felt  as  also  having  relations  to  the  principal 
verb  and  hence  as  performing  the  function  of  an  adverb  or  rather  an  adverbial 
clause,  as  described  in  252.  1.  c  and  268.  4.  There  is  still  another  common 
appositional  category,  the  prepositional  infinitive,  which  competes  with  the 
appositional  genitive,  as  in  die  Kunst  des  Schreibens  or  die  Kunst  zu  schreiben, 
and  also  with  the  substantive  clause,  as  described  in  271.  I.  c. 

Attributive  appositives  form  two  groups: 

A.  The  appositive  follows  the  governing  word  in  a  loose  gramrnatical  rela- 
tion with  the  force  of  an  explanatory  relative  clause,  as  explained  in  1  above, 
and  is  in  the  same  case  and  if  possible  also  gender  and  number:  Dido,  die 
Gründerin  Kar'thagos,  soil  um  das  Jahr  814  v.  Chr.  gelebt  haben.  Die  Athener 
verurteilten  den  Sokrates,  einen  der  berühmtesten  Weisen  Griechenlands. 
Friedrich  den  Großen  hat  teils  sein  Genie,  teils  die  Eifersüchteleien  seiner 
Gegner  gerettet.  O,  ich  Unglücklicher!  In  some  of  these  examples  as  in  the 
last  one  the  governing  word  and  the  appositive  seem  to  come  close  together, 
but  there  is  even  here  a  slight   pause  between  them. 

If  the  appositive  is  not  modified  by  an  article  or  adjective,  it  is  often  unin- 
flected,  but  perhaps  more  commonly  inflected:  Das  Werk  des  berühmten  und 
hochgestellten  Verfassers,  MitgHed  (or  more  commonly  Mitgliedes,  or  eines 
MitgHedes)  der  meisten  gelehrten  Gesellschaften;  unter  F.  Piquets,  Professors 
an  der  Universität  Lille,  sachkundiger  Leitung  {Zeitschrift  für  Deutschkunde, 
1920,  p.  448).     If  the  appositive  is  in  the  wk.  declension  it  inclines  here  more 


486 LOOSE   APPOSITION 255.  III.  I.A. 

readily  to  intkciion:  Die  Expedition  des  Gouverneurs  von  Deutsch-Ostafrika 
Obersten  v.  Scheie.  It",  howexer,  the  noun  is  an  adjective  substantive,  or  is 
modilk'd  by  an  adiecti\c,  it  must  be  declined:  von  Baron  von  W.,  Gesandtem 
des  Deutschen  Reichs,  or  deutschem  Gesandten. 

For  details  concerning  the  inflection  of  adjectives  and  adjective-substantives 
used  in  the  appositional  relation  see  111.  4.  b,  5.  a,  h. 

a.  A  noun  which  is  in  apposition  with  a  whole  sentence  stands  in  the  nom. :  Er  will  aufbrechen, 
ein  Entschluß,  der  ihm  sehr  schwer  geworden  ist. 

h.  Whin  the  appositive  stands  in  direct  address  it  is  in  the  nom. :  Dir  möchte  ich  diese  Lieder 
weihen,  geliebtes  deutsches  Vaterland! 

c.  linder  the  inlluence  of  lively  or  excited  feeling  an  appositive  in  the  nom.  may  often  pre- 
cede the  pronoun  which  it  explains  or  characterizes,  altho  the  pronoun  may  be  in  some  other  case: 
Der  armselige  Ehekrüppel  (feeble  old  man),  den  soli  ein  frisches  Mädchen  heiraten! 

d.  Remarks  and  explanations  that  are  made  in  passing  or  parenthetically,  and  do  not  have 
as  vital  a  connection  with  the  word  explained  as  a  regular  appositive,  are  usually  placed  in  the 
nom.:  Das  Grab  war  gut  unterhalten,  mit  Reseda  und  Monatsrosen,  die  Lieblingsblumen  der 
Verstorbenen.  There  is  a  tendency  in  recent  literature  here  as  elsewhere  toward  strict  gram- 
matical concordance:  Mit  Recht  wurde  der  Kunsthalle  die  dreifache  Darstellung  der  Frau 
Marie  Zacharias  von  Kalckreuths  Meisterhand  einverleibt,  einer  Frau,  die  dabei  durchaus 
hamburgisch  in  ihrem  Wesen,  doch  in  dieser  Hinsicht  eine  Ausnahme  darstellte  (Heinrich 
Spiero  in  Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  1911,  p.  44). 

e.  An  appositive  which  refers  collectively  or  distributively  to  two  or  more  nouns,  or  to  a 
noun  in  the  plural,  usually  stands  in  the  nom.:  Ich  war  mit  weißen,  weitfaltigen  Beinkleidern 
und  langem  Kaftan,  beides  aus  dem  leichtesten  Zeuge,  bekleidet  (Junker).  Sie  sahen  zwei 
junge  Herren  mit  hohen  Hüten  daherkommen,  jeder  mit  einer  hübschen,  jungen  Dame  am 
Arme  fG.  Keller).  Da  war  auch  der  Thronerbe  mit  drei  seiner  Vettern,  sämtlich  allerliebste 
Bürschlein  von  7-9  Jahren. 

/.  Explanatory  appositives  are  often  introduced  by  conjunctions  as  illustrated  in  233.  C. 
Especially  frequent  is  the  use  of  wie  and  als  with  appositives,  and  it  requires  care  to  distinguish 
here  the  true  appositive  relation  from  other  constructions  which  are  associated  with  wie  and 
als :  Bei  manchen  Tieren,  wie  dem  Biber,  der  Spinne,  zeigt  sich  ein  hervorragender  Kunstsinn, 
but  in  einem  Augenblicke  wie  der  gegenwärtige  [ist].  In  the  first  example  wie  connects  an 
apijositive  with  the  noun  it  explains,  and  hence  both  words  are  in  the  same  case.  In  the  sec- 
ond example  wie  is  a  subordinate  conjunction  and  introduces  a  clause,  and  hence  the  following 
word  is  in  the  nom.,  as  it  is  the  subject  of  the  clause.  There  is,  however,  in  recent  literature  a 
strong  tendency  here  toward  the  appositional  construction:  in  einer  Zeit  wie  der  unsrigen, 
instead  of  wie  die  unsrige  [ist]. 

Care  must  be  exercised  to  distinguish  between  the  case  where  als  joins  to  a  noun  another 
noun  which  explains  it,  and  the  case  where  als  introduces  a  noun  as  the  predicate  complement 
of  a  verb  which  lies  concealed  in  the  form  of  some  preceding  noun:  Ich  verrate  es  nur  dir  als 
meinem  besten  Freunde,  but  Der  Rektor  sprach  über  das  Wirken  Sybels  als 
akademischer  Lehrer  (=Sybel  wirkte  als  akademischer  Lehrer).  In  the  first 
sentence  als  connects  two  words  in  the  same  case,  of  which  the  second  is  a  true  appositive  to  the 
first.  In  the  second  sentence  the  noun  following  als  is  a  predicate  appositive  after  the  verb, 
which  lies  concealed  in  the  form  of  the  noun  Wirken.  The  verb  that  is  concealed  in  the  pre- 
ceding noun  is  not  always  literally  contained  in  the  stem  of  the  noun,  but  it  is  always  naturally 
suggested  by  the  idea  that  it  is  implied  in  the  stem:  Man  hatte  ihm  die  Stelle  als  Legationsrat 
( =  er  sollte  Legationsrat  werden)  angeboten. 

This  distinction  is  not  by  any  means  always  followed.  At  this  point  considerable  confusion 
prevails,  some  mechanically  conforming  the  noun  after  als  in  case  to  the  preceding  noun,  some 
distinguishing  between  the  constructions  as  above  described. 

g.  If  the  appositive  is  a  title  of  a  work  or  the  name  of  something,  it  usually  remains  In  the 
nom.,  whatever  be  the  case  of  the  noun  it  explains:  Wir  lesen  einen  Auftritt  aus  „Nathan  der 
Weise  We  are  reading  a  scene  out  of  (Lessing's)  "Nathan  the  Wise."  An  Bord  des  „Kaiser 
Wilhehn  der  Große"  (Heyking's  Briefe,  die  ihn  nicht  erreichten,  p.  174).  Grammatical  feeling 
however,  often  prompts  the  writer  or  speaker  to  give  the  title  a  case  form  in  accordance  with  the 
structure  of  the  sentence:  Bei  keinem  früheren  Werke  ist  mir  diese  visionäre  Entstehungsweise 
so  deut  ich  bewußt  geworden  wie  bei  „Wieland  dem  Schmied"  (Fritz  Lienhard's  Wieland  der 
Schmied,  p.  vii). 

h.  A  noun  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  possessive  adjective  is  usually  in  the  gen.  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  natural  conception  that  the  idea  of  possession  lies  in  the  gen.:  Du  wirst  doch 
wenigstens  meine,  deines  Freundes  Hilfe  annehmen!  In  prose,  as  in  the  preceding  sentence, 
the  appositive  stands  between  the  possessive  and  the  noun  that  it  modifies,  but  in  poetry  the 
appositive  rnay  follow  the  noun,  as  in  the  following  sentence  from  Schiller's  Piccolomini,  where 
1  helda  speaks  of  herself  and  her  father,  the  great  Wallenstein:  Ich  hatte  keine  Wünsche,  kannte 
mich    als  seine  Tochter  nur,  des  Mächtigen. 

/rhe  appositive  usually  follows  the  noun  when  introduced  by  als:  Sie  (i.e.  die  Griechen) 
smd  unsere  geistigen  Ureltem.  Ihre  Würde  als  s  o  1  c  h  e  r  ist  anerkannt  (Hermann  Grimm 
in  Ueutsclw  Riunlsclum,  Mai  1896,  p.  244).  Atrer  als  the  appositive  is  more  commonly  in  the 
nom.  construed  as  predicate  as  in  /  above:  Sein  Beruf  als  Richter  (=  der  Beruf,  den  er  a  1  s 
K  1  0  n  t  e  r  hat)  verpfhchtete  ihn  zur  strengsten  UnparteiUchkeit.     Meine  Pfüchten  als  König 


255.  IV.  1. CLOSE  APPOSITION 487 

von  Preußen  und  als  deutscher  Fürst  gestatten  mir  nicht,  den  Entwurf  als  die  Grundlage  einer 
neuen  Bundesverfassung  anzunehmen  (Wilhelm  1.  in  Frankfurt). 

■/.  An  exact  date,  which  follows  a  more  general  one,  usually  stands  in  the  ace.  in  accordance 
with  the  general  rule  for  exact  time  (see  223.  II.  1),  altho  the  noun  it  explains  may  be  in  some 
other  case:  Die  Wahl  fand  Samstag  or  am  Samstag  den  28.  April  statt.  Here 
den  28.  April  is  not  a  real  appositive  to  am  Samstag,  but  both  expressions  are  adverbial  modi- 
fiers of  the  same  verb,  and  take  the  case  required  by  their  respective  relations  to  the  governing 
verb,  Samstag  dat.  after  the  prep,  an,  den  28.  April  ace.  of  time.  The  appositional  construction, 
however,  is  also  used  here:  am  Samstag,  dem  28.  April. 

j.  Learned  men  often  allow  the  appositive  to  stand  in  the  nom.  in  titles  of  their  books,  and 
hence  cannot  justly  complain  that  people  generally  follow  this  practice  in  the  titles  they  use  in 
addressing  letters  to  them:  Geschichte  der  holländischen  Baukunst,  v.  Dr.  G.  Galland,  Privat- 
dozent (instead  of  the  more  correct  Privatdocentenj ;  An  Herrn  N,,  ordentlicher  (instead  of  the 
correct  ordentlichen)  Professor  (address  on  a  letter). 

k.  To  complete  the  confusion  that  is  so  prevalent  with  respect  to  the  proper  case  of  the 
appositive  noun  the  dat.  is  used  by  various  authors,  especially  in  Austria,  uniformly  without 
regard  to  the  case  of  the  preceding  noun:  Wegen  Hagens,  diesem  jungen  Laster!  (Ebner-Eschen- 
bach's  Bertram  Vogelweid,  p.  203).     See  also  94.  3.  A.  a.   (2nd  par.). 

B.  The  appositive  may  be  a  proper  name  and  enter  into  such  close  relations 
with  the  preceding  governing  word  that  it  forms  with  it  a  group  with  the  stress 
upon  the  last  member,  i.e.  the  appositive:  der  Kaiser  Wilhelm,  das  Größherzog- 
tum Baden,  die  Universität  Berlin,  &c.  For  full  rules  for  inflection  see  92. 
For  an  explanation  of  the  stress  and  the  position  of  the  appositive  see  II.  1.  G. 
a  above. 

In  many  cases  the  appositive  is  not  a  proper  name  but  a  noun  with  a  similar 
force,  namely  a  word  or  expression  representing  a  thing  as  an  individual,  not  as 
a  member  of  a  class:  der  Schnitter  Tod,  König  Erfolg,  der  Dämon  Alkohol,  das 
Gespenst  Reaktion,  das  Wort  vor,  die  Vorsilbe  ge-,  der  Begriff  Schon,  &c. 
The  close  relations  here  between  the  appositive  and  its  governing  word  cannot 
always  be  indicated  by  the  stress,  as  the  appositive  is  often  not  a  single  word, 
but  a  thought  as  a  whole  which  may  expand  into  an  entire  clause  or  sentence: 
Unter  dem  Namen  ,, Allgemeine  Forstgesellschaft*'  ist  eine  neue  Gesellschaft 
gegründet  worden.  Auf  ihrem  Grabsteine  stehen  nur  drei  Worte :  ,,Ehre  dem 
Herrn."  Eins  weiß  ich:  es  geschieht  nie  wieder.  For  inflection  see  94.  1.  d, 
also  a  below. 

a.  If  the  appositive  is  the  title  of  a  work,  the  name  of  something,  or  a  technical  phrase  it 
usually  remains  in  the  nominative,  whatever  be  the  case  of  the  noun  it  explains:  Wir  lesen 
einen  Teil  des  Gedichtes  ,,die  Glocke."  Und  gerade  hier  wurde  immer  die  Fahrt  schon  ver- 
langsamt wegen  der  Nähe  des  Bahnhofs  „Zoologischer  Garten."  An  Bord  des  , .Kaiser  Wil- 
helm der  Große"  (Hey king's  Briefe,  d-ie  ■ihn  nicht  erreichten,  p.  174).  Wir  planten,  mit  meinem 
gegenwärtig  im  Bankhause  Schmitt  &  Söhne  liegenden  Vermögen  ein  Gut  zu  kaufen.  Von 
seiner  Verwendung  im  Heldengedicht  hat  er  (der  Hexameter)  den  Namen  „heroischer  Vers." 
See  also  II.  1.  G.  a  above. 

2.  The  employment  of  the  appositional  construction  instead  of  the  gen.  of 
earlier  periods  is  explained  in  II.  1.  H.  a  above,  and  94.  3.  A.  (also  c  thereunder). 

IV.     A  Prepositional  Phrase  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  modified  by  a  prepositional  phrase,  which  usually 
follows  it.     The  following  groups  occur: 

1.  Nouns  denoting  an  action  or  a  quality  can  by  virtue  of  their  verbal  or 
adjective  nature  be  modified  by  a  prep,  phrase,  which  is  usually  identical  in 
construction  with  the  phrase  that  modifies  the  verb  or  adjective  of  the  same 
origin:  Die  Trauer  um  den  Vater,  die  Freude  über  den  Sieg,  for  we  say  Man 
trauert  um  den  Vater  and  Man  freut  sich  über  den  Sieg;  Beliebtheit  beim 
Volke,  Zufriedenheit  mit  seiner  Lage,  for  we  say  Er  ist  beim  Volke  beliebt 
and  Er  ist  mit  seiner  Lage  zufrieden.  The  idea  of  agent,  however,  is  regularly 
expressed  here  by  durch,  while  with  passive  verbs  it  is  regularly  expressed  by 
von:  Die  Ermordung  Rizzios  durch  Darnley.  The  prepositional  phrase  after 
nouns  not  only  corresponds  to  the  similar  use  of  the  phrase  after  a  verb,  but  it 
is  often  employed  where  the  corresponding  verb  governs  the  accusative  or 
dative.     See  II.  1.  D.  a  (1st  and  3rd  par.). 


488 ATTRIBUTIVE  PREPOSITIONAL  PHRASE  255.  IV.  1. 

Abstract  verbal  nouns,  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  often  take  such  modifiers 
as  they  have  almost  pure  verbal  force,  but  verbal  nouns  which  represent  per- 
sons are  not  in  German  thus  freely  modified:  ein  Streiter  für  Wahrheit  und 
Recht  and  many  similar  expressions,  but  in  many  others  the  construction  is 
unusual,  as  in  die  Verschwörer  gegen  meinen  Frieden,  where  it  is  usual  to 
employ  a  pure  verbal  form,  as  in  diejenigen,  die  sich  gegen  meinen  Frieden 
verschworen  haben.  Only  in  such  substantives  as  have  a  verbal  form,  as  in 
case  of  participles,  is  this  construction  freely  used:  ein  an  Schlaflosigkeit  Lei- 
dender a  sufferer  from  insomnia,  ein  zum  Mormonismus  Übergetretener  a  con- 
vert to  Mormonism,  &c. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  construction  is  often  used  in  German  where  there  is 
no  closely  corresponding  expression  in  English,  namely  with  group-words 
(247.  2).  There  are  two  different  cases.  In  the  first  one  the  phrase  modifies 
the  second  component:  Luftangriffe  auf  Monastir  {Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Jan.  25, 
1910).  In  the  other  case  the  phrase  modifies  the  first  component:  das  schwe- 
dische Ausfuhrverbot  von  Zellstoff  (ib.,  Jan.  2ö,  1910),  die  feindlichen  Angriffs- 
versuche auf  Torbole  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Dec.  31,  1915).  The  context 
here  alone  determines  whether  the  phrase  modifies  the  first  component  or  the 
second.  Both  constructions  have  been  found  very  convenient  and  are  widely 
used,  altho  frequently  opposed  by  grammarians. 

2.  It  is  common  to  modify  many  other  nouns  by  a  prepositional  phrase: 
der  Schreiber  beim  Rechtsanwalt  the  copyist  at  the  lawyer's.  Sometimes  in 
descriptive  language  the  prepositional  phrase  precedes  the  governing  noun: 
Auf  dem  Sims  zunächst  bei  mir  eine  kleine  Katze  hat  auch  die  Augen  zuge- 
drückt (Mörike's  Maler  Noiten,  150). 

a.  Attributive  Prepositional  Infinitive  Clause  of  Purpose.  To  2  above  belongs  the  common 
prepositional  construction  with  zu  which  expresses  the  ideas  of  a  goal,  end,  purpose:  der  Weg 
zur  Kirche,  zur  Armut,  ein  Ofen  zum  Brotbacken,  ein  Zimmer  zum  Musizieren,  ein  Raum 
zum  Holzspalten.  In  the  last  example  Holz,  the  object  of  the  activity  expressed  in  the  verbal 
stem,  is  written  as  one  word  with  the  substantive  infinitive.  In  more  involved  expressions  it 
is  necessar>'  to  replace  the  substantive  infinitive  by  the  prepositional  infinitive:  eine  Gelegen- 
heit, viel  Gutes  zu  tun.  When  the  governing  noun  is  a  verbal  noun  we  often,  perhaps  more 
commonly,  find  um  zu  instead  of  simple  zu  after  the  analogy  of  usage  with  verbs  in  purpose 
clauses,  just  as  in  238.  2.  d.  Note  we  often  find  als  ob  in  attributive  clauses  after  a  verbal  noun 
after  the  analogy  of  usage  with  verbs  in  clauses  of  manner:  Dieser  war  mir  ohnehin  höchst 
günstig,  weil  ich  mir  seinen  ,, Messias"  so  zu  eigen  gemacht  hatte,  daß  ich  ihm  bei  meinen 
öftem  Besuchen,  um  Siegelabdrücke  für  meine  Wappensammlung  zu  holen,  große  Stellen 
davon  vortragen  konnte  (Goethe's  D.  u.  W.,  Teil  I,  Buch  IV).  After  the  analogy  of  the  use  of 
um  zu  here  to  express  purpose  it  has  become  quite  common  to  employ  um  zu  instead  of  older 
simple  zu  also  after  nouns  denoting  concrete  things  wherever  the  prepositional  infinitive  clause 
indicates  the  purpose  for  which  the  thing  in  question  is  designed:  Der  Mensch  braucht  nur 
wenige  Erdschollen,  imi  drauf  zu  genießen,  weniger,  um  drunter  zu  ruhen  (Goethe's  Wertlier, 
am  9.  Mai).  Es  darf  nicht  sein,  solange  diese  Heuchler  \  noch  Öfen  haben,  um  sich  Brot  zu 
backen,  |  und  Brunnen,  lun  zu  trinken  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  II,  IV,  2).  Gefütterte  Steppdecke 
über  das  Bett,  um  darauf  oder  darimter  zu  liegen  (Lexer's  MittelhocMeutsches  Taschenu'örterbuch, 
explaining  the  M.H.G.  word  kulter).  Die  Literatur  also  ist  der  mächtige  Hebel,  um  jene  Ma- 
terialien empor  zu  schaffen,  die  usw.  (Friedrich  Kluge's  Unser  Deutsch).  Eines  von  den  Mitteln, 
um  dahin  zu  gelangen,  ist  aber  dieses  usw.  (O.  Weißenfels  in  Zeitschrift  für  das  Gymnasialwesen, 
Feb.-March,  1906,  p.  101).  Grammarians  are  wont  to  censure  this  usage  in  both  of  the  cases 
described  above  and  recommend  the  employment  of  simple  zu,  but  as  literary  writers  and  scholars 
alike  feel  the  graphic  force  of  this  new  attributive  clause  form  with  a  distinctive  conjunction 
which  gives  clear  expression  to  the  idea  of  purpose  it  has  come  into  wide  use  just  as  the  correspond- 
ing new  adverbial  clause  of  purpose  described  in  281.  b.  Note  (2nd  par.).  Compare  185.  A.  I. 
2.  a.  (3).  The  establishment  of  urn  with  the  prepositional  infinitive  to  indicate  purpose  naturally 
led  to  its  employment  to  express  the  closely  related  idea  of  result,  at  first  in  adverbial  clauses,  as 
illustrated  in  276.  I),  b  and  277.  2.  b  and  then  in  the  attributixe  relation:  Das  war  der  Mann, 
vun  Freda  zu  verstehen;  und  Freda  war  das  Weib,  um  diesen  da  zu  würdigen  (Wildenbruch's 
Schwester-Seele,  cha.p.  XI).  ' 

V.     An  Infinitive  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  modified  by  an  infin.  with  zu:  Das  Bestreben  sich 
auszubilden  ist  lobenswert.  Ich  habe  heute  rechte  Lust  zu  studieren  I  ftel 
like  studying  to-day.  For  fuller  treatment  of  present  usage  see  185.  A.  I,  2.  a. 
(2),  (3),  b;  271.  I.  c,  also  IV.  2.  a  above. 


257. ACCUSATIVE   OBJECT 489 

VI.  An  Adverb  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun. 

An  adverb  may  modify  a  noun  in  the  same  way  as  a  phrase  (see  IV.  2  above) 
may  do:   Der  Mensch  da,  das  Buch  da,  der  Felsen  dort. 

The  adverb  often  in  descriptive  language  precedes  the  governing  noun:  Links 
das  niedliche  Gehöft  gehört  einem  Schwaben  (Viebig's  Das  schlafende  Heer, 
30).  Drüben  die  Villen  jenseits  der  Straße  machten  den  Eindruck,  als  schlum- 
merten sie  (Ompteda's  Maria  du  Caza,  286). 

VII.  A  Clause  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun. 

A  clause  may  modify  a  noun:  die  Hoffnung,  daß  wir  ihm  helfen  werden, 
verleiht  ihm  Mut.     Die  Tat,  welche  der  Verzeihung  bedarf,  ist  nicht  gut. 

a.  Logical  Relations  of  the  Attributive  Clause  to  its  Governing  Noun.  An  attributive  clause, 
tho  formally  connected  only  with  its  governing  noun,  often  has  logical  relations  to  the  principal 
verb:  das  Kind,  das  ja  noch  zu  jung  ist  (with  the  force  of  an  adverbial  clause  of  cause),  hat 
einen  Vormund  erhalten.  Ein  Bettler,  der  etwa  kommt  (with  the  force  of  a  conditional  clause), 
wird  abgewiesen. 

A  Noun  and  its  Modifier  replaced  by  a  Group-word  or  Compound. 

256.  All  the  above  kinds  of  adj.  modifiers,  except  the  last  two,  can  some- 
times be  replaced  by  terser  forms  of  expression  by  converting  them  into  the 
modifying  component  of  a  group-word  (247.  2)  or  compound:  (1)  ein  leichter 
Sinn  =  Leichtsinn,  (2)  ein  Tropfen  Wassers  =  ein  Wassertropfen,  (3)  dieser 
Mann,  ein  Ritter  =  dieser  Rittersmann,  (4)  ein  Aufenthalt  für  den  Sommer  = 
ein  Sommeraufenthalt,  (5)  die  Begierde  zu  herrschen  =  die  Herrschbegierde. 

Objective    Modifiers. 
Accusative  Object. 

257.  The  original  concrete  meaning  of  the  accusative  is  unknown.  Its 
Latin  name  accusativus,  i.e.  the  accusing  case,  throws  no  light  on  its  history, 
altho  it  in  part  aptly  characterizes  it  by  calling  attention  to  one  of  its  chief 
meanings,  namely  that  of  indicating  a  person  or  thing  toward  which  an  activity 
is  directed.  In  Old  Saxon  the  accusative  was  sometimes  used  with  intransi- 
tive verbs  of  motion  to  indicate  the  concrete  goal:  He  scolde  gifaren  his  fader 
odil  (Heliand  4495-7)  He  was  to  go  to  his  father's  house.  In  an  abstract  sense 
it  is  still  in  modern  German  employed  with  a  simple  infinitive,  originally  the 
accusative  of  a  verbal  noun,  to  indicate  the  goal,  i.e.  the  end,  purpose  of  the 
action:  Er  geht  baden.  This  old  meaning  explains  the  commoner  one  of  indi- 
cating an  object  toward  which  an  acti\ity  is  directed,  which  within  the  historic 
period  has  quite  overshadowed  the  older  idea  of  a  literal  goal  after  verbs  of 
motion:  einen  Vogel  im  Fluge  schießen,  einen  Wagen  waschen,  ein  Haus 
(the  goal,  i.e.  the  result  of  the  activity)  bauen.  Certain  prepositions,  such  as 
auf,  an,  vor,  hinter,  &c.,  have  become  associated  with  the  accusative  when  they 
indicate  movement  toward  a  definite  goal.  The  older  idea  of  goal  also  explains 
the  common  use  of  the  accusative  to  indicate  an  object  as  the  goal,  the  passive 
recipient  of  an  action  in  contrast  to  the  nominative  which  indicates  the  author 
of  the  act:  Der  Knabe  schlägt  den  Hund.  The  original  idea  of  goal  also  ex- 
plains the  common  use  of  the  accusative  to  indicate  the  limit,  extent  of  the 
action  in  space  and  time:  Ef  ging  einen  langen  Weg.  Er  lebte  viele  Jahre. 
Out  of  the  idea  of  the  accusative  as  an  object  has  come  the  more  abstract  con- 
ception that  the  accusative  is  the  proper  case  form  of  a  noun  employed  to  com- 
plete the  meaning  of  the  verb,  a  potent  modern  force  whicn  is  deeply  affecting 
the  language,  as  illustrated  in  2.  A  below  and  in  260.  The  present  abstract 
force  of  the  accusative  clearly  shows  that  the  older  concrete  meaning  which 
we  have  here  tried  to  trace  theoretically  has  become  very  dim  or  has  been  lost 
altogether. 


490 ACCUSATIVE  OBJECT 257. 

The  use  of  the  accusative  as  object  appears  in  the  following  groups: 

1.  All  transitive  verbs  require  an  accusative  object  to  complete  their  meaning. 
This  ace.  represents  a  thing  either  as  affected  by  an  action,  or  as  the  result  of  it: 
Der  Knabe  schlägt  den  Hund  (thing  affected).  Er  hat  einen  Brief  (result  of 
the  action)  geschrieben.  The  accusative  often  represents  somebody  or  some- 
thing as  in  a  new  place  or  a  new  condition  as  the  result  of  the  action:  einen  in 
eine  Falle  locken,  sich  (dat.)  die  Schwindsucht  an  den  Hals  ärgern,  Butter  aufs 
Brot  streichen,  einen  tot  schlagen,  sich  arm  schenken  to  make  one's  self  poor 
by  giving. 

In  changing  such  a  sentence  from  the  active  to  the  passive,  the  ace,  except 
the  ace.  of  a  reflexive  pronoun,  becomes  nom.  and  the  nom.  is  put  into  the  dat. 
after  the  prep,  von:  Der  Hund  wird  von  dem  Knaben  geschlagen  The  dog  is 
being  beaten  by  the  boy.  The  nom.  subject  of  a  passive  verb  denotes  the  same 
thing  as  the  ace.  object  of  a  trans,  verb,  but  from  a  different  point  of  view. 
The  ace.  denotes  the  person  or  thing  toward  which  another  person  or  thing  is 
directing  an  activity,  and  thus  emphasizes  the  idea  of  an  active  agent  at  work. 
The  nom.  subject  of  a  passive  verb  represents  an  object  as  receiving  an  activity 
and  thus  emphasizes  the  idea  of  a  passive  recipient. 

a.  Omission  of  Object.  Many  transitives  which  usually  require  an  object  are  used  without 
one  when  the  activity  they  express  is  represented  only  in  a  general  way  without  reference  to  an 
effect  upon  a  particular  object,  a  construction  found  also  in  English,  but  not  so  wide-spread  as 
in  German:  Der  Mensch  denkt,  Gott  lenkt  Man  proposes,  God  disposes.  Er  gibt  gerne  He 
likes  to  give.  Ich  habe  ihn  (i.e.  den  Ausdruck  „es  erübrigt  sich")  kürzlich  immer  häufiger 
gelesen,  und  stehe  jetzt  nicht  an — Gewöhnung  versöhnt  [einen]  ja — die  Wendung  als  Berei- 
cherung unserer  Sprache  anzuerkennen  (J.  Rrnst  VJixl^ng  m  Zeit,  für  den  deutschen  Unterricht, 
1899,  p.  139).  Die  Kenntnis  dessen,  um  was  man  [einen]  neidet  (Felix  Stahl  in  Preußische 
Jahrbücher,  1915,  p.  29S).  Sometimes  also  with  reference  to  a  definite  object,  which  is  so  clearly 
indicated  by  the  context  that  it  is  not  formally  expressed:  Entschuldigen  Sie  [mich]!  Excuse  me!, 
I  beg  your  pardon.  Schlagen  Sie  [Ihre  Hand  in  meine]  ein!  Give  me  your  hand  on  that!  Com- 
pare 258.  1  (third  from  the  last  par.). 

b.  A  number  of  verbs  (163.  2.  a.)  are  trans,  or  intrans.  according  to  the  idea  to  be  conveyed — 
trans,  when  the  subject  is  represented  as  acting  on  an  object,  intrans.  when  the  subject  is  repre- 
sented as  moving  toward  a  certain  goal  or  as  passing  over,  of  its  own  initiative,  into  the  state 
caused  by  the  action  of  the  verb:  Das  Pferd  zieht  (trans.)  den  Wagen,  but  we  also  say  intransi- 
tively Er  ist  nach  Berlin  gezogen  He  has  moved  to  Berlin.  Ich  habe  das  Ei  gebrochen,  but  we 
also  say  of  the  egg  when  it  seems  to  break  of  itself  without  our  intending  or  wishing  it  Das  Ei  ist 
gebrochen  The  egg  broke.  Thus  also  Die  Saite  ist  gerissen  The  violin  string  broke.  Here  the 
German  by  means  of  the  intrans.  auxiliary  sein  shows  more  distinctly  than  the  English  that 
these  verbs  are  considered  intrans. 

c.  In  transposing  a  sentence  into  the  passive  voice  only  the  object  of  the  principal  verb  of 
the  active  construction  should  in  the  passive  be  put  into  the  nom.,  never  properly  the  object  of 
a  dependent  infinitive.  However,  in  actual  usage  the  object  of  an  infinitive  depending  upon 
anfangen,  beginnen,  suchen,  versuchen,  vergönnen,  wünschen,  often  appears  in  the  nom.  in 
the  passive:  Man  sucht  einen  Hühnerhund  zu  kaufen  becomes  Ein  Hühnerhund  wird  zu  kaufen 
gesucht.     A  more  correct  passive  form  would  be:  Es  wird  gesucht,  einen  Hühnerhund  zu  kaufen. 

d.  The  object  is  often  expressed  in  German  when  it  is  omitted  in  English.     See  251.  II.  A.  d. 

e.  In  English  the  accusative  is  used  in  some  groups  of  ideas  where  prepositional  constructions 
are  more  commonly  employed  in  German.  It  is  usual  to  explain  such  differences  by  saying 
that  the  idiomatic  structure  of  the  two  languages  is  different.  While  matters  of  idiom  are  often 
very  subtle,  some  of  these  things  can  be  explained.  For  instance,  the  German  has  in  a  number 
of  cases  preserved  the  old  idea  of  instrument  better  than  English.  Originally  there  was  a  special 
case  form  for  this  idea.  Later  the  dative  assumed  besides  its  own  functions  also  those  of  the 
instrumental.  Still  later  prepositional  constructions  replaced  the  simple  dat.  Thus  to-day  we 
say  in  English:  The  dog  is  wagging  his  tail,  He  shook  his  head.  He  is  winking  his  eyes,  He  threw 
stones  at  him,  while  the  German  says:  Der  Hund  wedelt  mit  dem  Schwänze,  Er  schüttelte  mit 
dem  Kopfe,  Er  winkt  mit  den  Augen,  Er  warf  üin  (or  nach  ihm)  mit  Steinen.  Compare  also 
mit  den  Augen  blinzeln  to  wink  one's  eyes,  mit  der  Peitsche  knallen  to  crack  one's  whip,  mit 
den  Zähnen  knirschen  to  gnash  one's  teeth,  mit  dem  Kopfe  nicken  to  nod  one's  head,  mit  den 
Flügeln  schlagen  to  flap  its  wings,  mit  den  Lippen  schmatzen  to  smack  one's  lips,  mit  dem  Fuße 
stampfen  to  stamp  one's  feet,  mit  den  Händen  winken  to  wave  one's  hands,  mit  den  Schultern 
zucken  to  shrug  one's  shoulders.  While  the  accusative  is  also  in  German  sometimes  used  here, 
the  native  German  in  speaking  English  often  provokes  a  smile  from  English-speaking  people 
by  a  too  liberal  use  of  the  prepositional  construction  here. 

/.  The  object  may  assume  the  form  of  the  infinitive  with  or  without  zu  (see  185.  A.  I.  2.  c,  3, 
B.  I.  2.  a,  b,  c,  d)  or  the  form  of  a  clause  (272.  C). 

2.  Intransitives  Used  Transitively  with  Objects.  The  following  classes  of  intran- 
sitives often  take  an  object  in  the  ace: 


257.  2.  A. COGNATE  ACCUSATIVE 491 

A.  A  cognate  accusative,  that  is,  an  object  of  a  meaning  cognate  or  similar 
to  that  of  the  verb,  may  repeat  and  also  explain  more  fully  the  idea  expressed 
by  the  verb:  Er  schlief  den  Schlaf  des  Gerechten.  Er  starb  den  Tod  fürs 
Vaterland.  Er  lebt  ein  elendes  Leben.  Die  Sache  geht  ihren  ruhigen  Gang. 
Sie  singt  ein  Lied. 

This  construction  has  become  very  productive,  so  that  now  an  ace.  can  be 
quite  freely  added  to  an  intransitive  to  complete  its  meaning.     This  productive 
construction  stands  in  close  relations  to  the  common   tendency  to  form  old 
group-words   (247.  2),  so  often  found  elsewhere,  i.e.  to  form  a  compound  out 
of  a  group  of  words  with  a  certain  oneness  of  meaning,  not  however  by  expressing 
the  grammatical  relations  between  them  as  in  a  modern  group  of  words  but  by 
merely  putting  the  words  side  by  side  without  a  preposition  or  the  case  ending 
required  to  express  the  grammatical  relations,  as  in  the  old  group-words  that  have 
come  down  to  us  from  the  prehistoric  period.     Thus  in  case  of  many  of  these 
so-called  cognate  accusatives  the  form  is  in  fact  not  an  accusative  at  all  but 
a  prepositional  construction  in  which  the  preposition  is  suppressed  as  in  group- 
words  (249.  II.  1.  C).     Thus  instead  of  saying  mit  der  Eisenbahn  fahren  we  can 
say  Eisenbahn  fahren.     Thus  in  fact  this  is  an  adverbial  construction.     In  a 
number  of  cases  where  the  preposition  is  not  now  used  we  find  the  preposition 
in  earlier  usage.     The  dropping  of  the  preposition  usually  leaves  a  case  form 
of  the  noun  that  is  identical  with  the  accusative  and  often  leads  to  the  complete 
confounding  of  the  prepositional  construction  with  that  of  the  cognate  accusa- 
tive, so  that  the  accusative  is  used  even  where  the  prepositional  idea  is  promi- 
nent:  Schon  damals  bin  ich  für  mein  Leben  gern  Elektrische  gefahren  (Frank- 
furter Zeit.,  Aug.  31,  1913).     In  the  example  quoted  below  from  Hauptmann's 
"Der  arme  Heinrich"  it  can  be  seen  that  the  accusative  also  sometimes  replaces 
an    older    articleless    nominative.     The    verb    spielen    formerly    governed    the 
genitive  as  is  illustrated  in  260.  2.  A.     Even  an  imperative  sentence  may  thus 
complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb:   Die  vier  Schützen  standen  habacht  (E.  von 
Handel-Mazzetti's  Stephana  Sclnvertner,  II.  chap.  II)  =  standen  in  strammer 
militärischer  Positur.     The  meaning  of  the  verb  is  similarly  completed  by  the 
two  nouns  Knall  und  Fall,  which  tersely  represent  the  thought  of  the  sentence 
Der  Knall  des  Gewehrs  und  der  Fall  des  Erschossenen  war  eins:    Er  entließ 
ihn  Knall  und  Fall  He  dismissed  him  very  suddenly,  or  He  gave  him  the  grand 
bounce.     Thus  this  productive  construction  is  growing  at  the  expense  of  several 
constructions.     It  seems  quite  clear  that  all  these  formations  are  now  felt  as 
group-words  in  which  the  accusative  or  an  uninflected  form  which  can  be  con- 
strued as  an  accusative  is  felt  as  the  proper  form  for  the  first  component  just 
as  in  substantive,  adjective,  and  participial  compounds  and  group-words  the 
genitive  is  now  often  felt  as  the  proper  form  of  the  first  component,  even  tho 
the  genitive  does   not  fit  the  grammatical  relations  at  all,   as  illustrated   in 
249.   II.    1.    B.  b.  ff   (last  par.).     Examples:    Er  läuft  Schlittschuh,  Spießruten 
He  is  skating,  is  running  the  gauntlet.     Er  fährt  Eisenbahn,  Pferdebahn,  Omni- 
bus, Kahn,   Rad,    Nichtraucher,  Karussell.      Ich   verstehe   jetzt,   warum   wir 
dritte    (also  gen.;    see  223.   III.  a)  Klasse  fahren  mußten   (Spielhagen's  Frei 
geboren,  p.  43).     Ich  fahre  nur  Arbeiterzug  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen, 
2).     Er  reitet  Galopp,  Schritt,  Trab,  Karriere  (post  haste),  Post  (post  haste), 
Patrouille,  gestreckten  Galopp    (at  full  speed).     Ein  ausgezeichneter  Reiter, 
der  zum  Leid  meiner  Mutter  Rennen  ritt    (Ompteda's   Frieden,   I).     Wobei 
japanische    Husaren   eine   brillante   Attacke   ritten    {Hamburger    Nachrichten, 
Oct.  17,  1904).     Eines  Nachts,  vor  besetztem  Dorfe,  zögerte  er,  Erkundung 
zu  gehen  (Fritz  von  Unruh's  Opfergang,  p.  12).     Er  raucht  Pfeife.     Sie  spielten 
Karten,  Schach,  Domino,  Blindekuh,  Haschen,  Verstecken,  Räuber  usw.     Er 
schläft   Mittagsstunde.     Dann   redeten   wir   Bismarck,   Kulturkampf,    soziale 
Frage  und  was  sonst  dazu  gehört,  um  einen  Abschiedsabend  unter  guten  Freun- 
den hinzubringen,  ohne  zu  sehr  zu  merken,  wie  die  Zeit  läuft  (Raabe's  Pfitzers 
Mühle,  xx).     Wenn  ich  nur  den  Verdacht  los  würde,  daß  Sie  hier  Pose  stehen 
(Sudermann's    Heimat,   2,   9).     Ich    soll   nun   für   drei   Batzen   Boten   gehen 


492 ACCUSATIXE  AFTER  (QIM  POUND  VERBS 257.  2.  A. 

(go  on  an  errand)  ( Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  3),  or  Ich  will  euch  [als] 
Bote  laufen  (Freytag).  Sie  sollen  mir  Rede  [earlier  in  ihe  period  zur  Rede] 
stehen  (id.,  Soll,!.  118).  Über  das,  was  die  Jungmannschaft  von  St.  Moritz 
in  Gemeindeangelegenheiten  getan,  stehen  wir  gerne  Rechenschaft  (Heer's 
Der  Köiiiii  der  Bernina,  xv).  Gefahr  laufen  to  rn)i  the  risk,  but  earlier  in  the 
period  with  or  without  in:  Der  Witz  läuft  schon  bei  seinem  Ursprünge  in 
Gefahr  zu  witzeln  ( Goethe K  Man  müßte  also  diese  Gefahr  laufen  (Schiller). 
Lauf  Sturm  wider  die  Ringmauer  (id.,  Räuber,  ö,  1).  Auf  Posten  stehen,  now 
also  Von  elf  bis  eins  stand  Vogt  zum  letzten  Male  an  diesem  Wachttage  Posten 
(Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan^,  W).  Er  steht  Wache  (either  nom.  or  acc.)  or 
auf  Wache.  Wir  Bauern  lassen  doch  unsere  Jungens  nicht  Pastor  studieren 
(K.  V.  d.  Eider's  Meemmschliint^en,  l\  also  auf  (see  auf,  2.  C.  c  under  231.  II) 
den  Pastor  studieren.  Usualh'  am  Pranger  stehen,  but  now  also  without  the 
preposition:  Die  Gottesbraut  mußte  gleich  einer  Metze  Pranger  stehen  (E.  von 
Handel-Mazzetti's  Stephana  Schivertner ,  II,  chap.  IX).  In  case  of  an  unmodi- 
fied weak  noun  the  acc.  ending  is  not  always  expressed  as  in  the  sentence  from 
Hauptmann,  but  in  accordance  with  usage  elsewhere  the  noun  may  remain 
uninflected  :  Und  wenn  der  Graf  bei  ihnen  hier  Herr  spielen  wolle  —  sie  wollten 
es  ihm  schon  verleiden  (Spielhagen's  Sturmflut,  vi,  15),  but  Er  will  den  großen 
Herrn  spielen.  Sie  spielen  Soldat  or  with  pi.  form  Soldaten.  It  would,  per- 
haps, be  more  in  accord  with  actual  feeling  here  to  regard  Soldat  in  the  last 
example  or  Herr  in  the  sentence  from  Spielhagen  as  a  simple  stem,  the  modi- 
fying component  of  a  compound  or  group-word,  of  which  spielen  is  the  basal 
element.  Of  course,  a  plural  form  can  also  be  used  here,  as  in  case  of  Soldaten 
in  the  last  example,  for  the  plural  is  often  used  in  group-words,  as  in  Völkerbund 
league  of  nations. 

a.  Here  also  belongs  the  acc.  after  verbs  of  motion  which  denotes  the  ground  over  which 
the  motion  passes:  Er  geht  ruhig  seinen  Weg  He  goes  quietly  on  his  way.  Der  Wein  läuft  die 
Kehle  hinunter.     Er  kommt  die  Treppe  herauf.     See  also  260.  2.  A.  a. 

b.  Instead  of  a  cognate  acc.  of  a  noun,  the  acc.  neut.  of  a  pronoun,  such  as  eins,  es,  etwas, 
is  much  used:  Er  hat  wieder  eins  gelogen  He  has  lied  again.  Sing  eins,  daß  die  Zeit  vergeht! 
Laß  uns  eins  plaudern  Let  us  have  a  little  chat.  Ich  wollte,  du  lachtest  eins  mit  I  wish  you  would 
join  us  in  laughing.  Der  junge  Biu-sche  schob  den  Hut  aus  der  Stirn,  pfiff  sich  eins,  und  schritt 
weiter  (Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan?,  l).  Wir  wollen  uns  eins  gemütlich  rauchen!  Die  Eifer- 
sucht über  Spanien  gewann  es  (won  the  victor^^)  über  diese  politische  Sympathie.  Er  hat  mir 
oft  etwas  vorgesungen. 

c.  The  cognate  acc.  construction  cannot  usually  be  transferred  to  the  passive,  but  like  other 
intrans.  constructions  can  form  the  impersonal  passive  (219.  .5.  B),  where  the  cognate  acc.  remains 
acc.  as  in  the  active,  as  it  has  entered  into  such  close  relations  with  the  verb  that  it  has  formed 
with  it  a  compound  and  thus  does  not  change  its  form:  Es  wurde  Karten  (acc.  pi.)  gespielt 
There  was  playing  at  cards  going  on.  In  some  cases  the  cognate  acc.  approaches  the  usual 
force  of  the  acc,  and  hence  becomes  nom.  in  the  passive:  Er  singt  ein  Lied  becomes  in  the  passive 
Ein  Lied  wird  von  ihm  gesungen.  Damit  würde  also  derselbe  Weg  beschritten  werden,  der 
im  Jahre  1897  gegangen  wurde  {Hamb.   Nachr.,  Nov.  1,  1904). 

B.  Intransitives  sometimes  take  on  the  trans,  idea  of  causing,  producing, 
showing  that  which  results  from  or  accompanies  their  action,  or  represent  some- 
body or  something  as  in  a  new  place  or  a  new  condition  as  the  result  of  the 
action :  Tränen  weinen,  Zorn  blicken,  Liebe  lächeln,  Wut  schnauben  to  breathe 
rage,  that  is,  to  show  rage  in  breathing.  Er  hat  mich  wach  geschrien.  Er  hat 
mich  halbtot  geschwatzt.  Er  geht  sich  (dat.)  Blasen  unter  die  Füße  He  walks 
until  blisters  form  on  the  soles  of  his  feet.  Er  hat  sich  (dat.)  ein  Loch  in  den 
Kopf  gefallen.  Er  hofft,  sich  in  den  Himmel  zu  beten.  Er  hat  sich  mit  Liebes- 
reden fest  an  ihr  Herz  gelogen.  Er  redete  sich  um  den  Kopf.  Er  räsonnierte 
sein  Herz  um  jede  gute  Empfindung.  Sie  können  dich  doch  nicht  um  dein 
Ansehen  lachen.     Er  lachte  sich  krank,  halb  krank,  tot,  zu  Tode,  bucklig,  froh. 

C.  Accusative  after  Compounds.  When  simple  verbs  enter  into  compounds 
many  intransitives  become  transitive,  while  transitives  remain  transitive, 
either  with  the  same  force  of  the  verbal  element  as  found  in  the  simple  verb  or 
with  a  different  kind  of  an  object.     The  following  groups  are  common: 

a.  The  accusative  after  many  compound  verbs  is  in  fact  the  object  of  the  preposition  com- 
pounded with  the  verb:   einen  anreden  to  address  (lit.  to  speak  to)  someone.     This  construction 


258.  1. DATIVE   OBJECT 493 

is  treated  more  at  length  in  215.  II.  3.  A.  a,  h,  c;   246.  II.  1.  a,  b,  d,  c;   223.  I.  '.).  B.  1.  e,  2;   258. 

I.  B.  a;  262.  I.  b  (2nd  par.).  In  many  of  these  compounds  the  preposi^tion  has  lost  its  old  con- 
crete force,  so  that,  as  in  case  of  ver-  (246.  II.  5.  B.  /;),  the  original  construction  is  no  longer 
distinctly  felt:  die  Wahrheit  verfechten  to  defend  the  truth,  lit.  to  go  fighting  before  the  truth 
to  defend  it. 

b.  In  a  large  number  of  compounds  the  ace.  is  the  object  of  the  verbal  element  of  the  com- 
pound:   einem  einen  Stein  nachwerfen,  dem  Käufer  Waren  vorlegen,  &c. 

e.  In  case  of  many  compounds  the  accusativ^e  is  not  the  object  of  either  of  the  two  compo- 
nents but  the  object  of  the  compound  or  group-word  (247.  2)  as  a  whole.  Here  as  after  simple 
verbs  the  accusative  often  represents  something  as  the  result  of  the  action,  or  represents  some- 
bofiy  or  something  as  in  a  new  place  or  a  new  condition  as  the  result  of  the  action:  den  Gipfel 
ersteigen  to  reach  the  summit,  lit.  to  climb  until  it  results  in  reaching  the  summit,  seine  Woh- 
nung erfragen  to  ascertain  his  residence,  lit.  to  ask  questions  until  it  results  in  finding  out  his 
residence;  die  Leute  zusammentrommeln,  sich  durchkämpfen  to  fight  one's  way  thru,  einen 
hereinwinken,  einem  etwas  abbetteln,  sein  Geld  verspielen,  sich  (dat.)  die  Augen  ausgucken, 
sich  (acc.)  in  die  Höhe  arbeiten,  sich  (acc.)  herausreden  to  talk  one's  self  out  of  a  difticulty. 
The  object  is  here  often  mctonymic,  i.e.  indicating  not  the  real  object  but  something  which 
stands  in  close  association  with  it:  Er  wischt  den  Staub  (real  object)  vom  Tische  ab  and  Er 
wischt  den  Tisch  (metonymic  object)  ab.  The  prefixes  ab,  auf,  &c.,  indicating  a  change  of 
place  are  potent  forces  in  the  language.  The  simple  verb  schmeicheln  governs  the  dative,  but 
abschmeicheln  to  coax  by  flattering  takes  an  accusative  object:  Er  hat  seinem  Vater  Geld  abge- 
schmeichelt. In  early  N.H.G.  abdanken  to  discharge  troops,  lit.  to  send  off  with  thanks  took  a 
dative  like  simple  danken  but  later  under  the  influence  of  its  prefix  ab-  required  an  accusative. 
For  another  apt  illustration  see  aufbieten  in  258.  1.  A.  e.  But  we  usually  say  einem  heraus- 
helfen and  einem  zu  einer  guten  Stellung  verhelfen,  as  the  influence  of  the  simple  verb  now  in 
contrast  to  older  usage  is  stronger  than  that  of  the  prefix. 

In  case  of  many  other  compounds  the  accusative  represents  the  person  or  thing  afi"ected:  sich 
überarbeiten,  den  Wagen  überladen,  &c. 

The  prefix  ab-  is  often  used  to  indicate  a  goal,  end:  eine  Gelegenheit  abwarten,  eine  Strafe 
absitzen,  sich  abarbeiten. 

The  prefixes  er-  and  ver-  sometimes  merely  convert  intransitives  into  transitives.     See  246. 

II.  .3.  b  (2nd  par.),  5.  E. 

3.  Accusative  after  Adjectives.  Some  adjectives  and  adjective  participles 
take  an  accusative  object  to  complete  their  meaning.     See  260.  3. 

Dative  Object. 

258.  The  connection  of  the  dative  with  a  verb  or  adjective  is  of  every  degree 
of  closeness,  from  constituting  their  necessary  complement  to  forming  an  almost 
or  entirely  independent  element  which  expresses  an  emotional  interest  in  the 
statement  of  fact  as  a  whole:  Das  Kind  ähnelt  der  Mutter  The  child  resembles 
the  mother.  Ich  lobe  mir  mein  Dörfchen  hier  I  for  my  part  have  always  a  word 
of  praise  for  our  village.  In  the  first  sentence  the  dat.  is  necessary  to  complete 
the  thought  contained  in  the  verb,  while  in  the  second  it  is  a  lively  rhetorical 
means  to  show  the  interest  of  the  speaker  in  the  statement,  but  it  qualifies  the 
thought  as  a  whole  rather  than  the  verb  alone. 

1.  Some  intransitives  take  a  dat.  object  to  complete  their  meaning:  Der 
Spott  galt  mir  The  ridicule  was  aimed  at  me.  The  dative  seems  originally  to 
have  denoted  in  a  literal  sense  direction  toward,  which  can  still  be  often  felt, 
as  here,  after  certain  verbs,  also  often  after  the  preposition  zu  to,  tozvard.  Thus 
originally  both  the  accusative  and  the  dative  indicated  a  goal  or  an  object 
toward  which  an  activity  is  directed.  Even  in  oldest  German,  however,  we  find 
the  two  forms  in  general  differentiated  in  meaning  as  we  know  them  to-day, 
so  that  the  accusative  often  indicates  that  a  person  or  thing  is  affected  in  a  literal, 
exterior  sense,  while  the  dative  indicates  that  a  person  or  thing  is  affected  in 
an  inner  sense,  or  that  a  person  is  involved  in  an  act  or  statement  as  his  material 
or  higher  interests  are  connected  with  the  act  or  statement:  Er  kitzelt  mich, 
but  Er  dankt,  flucht,  schmeichelt,  hilft,  antwortet  mir.  Er  schlug  mich  and 
Das  Feuer  hat  das  Dach  beschädigt,  but  Die  Arznei  schadet  dem  Kranken 
and  Ein  wenig  Geiz  schadet  dem  Weibe  nichts,  so  übel  sie  die  Verschwendung 
kleidet  (Goethe).  Ich  habe  mich  an  der  Hand  beschädigt,  but  Das  Gerede 
schadet  ihrem  Rufe.  Die  Nachricht  ist  meinem  Vater  (person  interested  in 
a  statement)  wichtig.  This  distinction,  tho  often  observed,  is  in  many  verbs 
entirely  disregarded  as  in  the  course  of  the  development  of  the  language  this 


494 DATIVE   OBJECT 258.  1. 

principle  of  clear  discrimination  has  been  steadily  opposed  by  the  simpler  prin- 
ciple of  placing,  without  regard  to  meaning,  the  object  in  the  accusative,  the 
case  form  most  commonly  employed  for  the  object,  so  that  with  a  number  of 
verbs  the  dative  has  been  replaced  by  an  accusative.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
idea  of  a  person  affected  inwardly  or  interested  or  involved  in  an  act  has  in  many 
words  proved  so  strong  that  an  original  accusative  has  been  replaced  by  a  dative. 
This  difference  in  meaning  between  dative  and  accusative  appears  again  in  the 
passive,  for  in  changing  such  active  constructions  into  the  passive  the  ace. 
becomes  nom.,  but  the  dat.  remains  a  dative,  instead  of  becoming  nom.,  and  the 
sentence  is  thus  without  a  subject,  or  in  order  to  conform  to  the  now  prevailing 
grammatical  pattern  is  introduced  by  es,  which  serves  as  a  formal  subject 
(219.  5.  B.  a):  Ich  wurde  geschlagen,  but  Mir  wurde,  or  Es  wurde  mir  von 
ihm  nicht  gedankt  I  was  not  thanked  by  him.  Likewise  in  case  of  the  predicate 
mo:lal  verl)al  (180.  A) :  not  Der  ist  nicht  zu  helfen,  but  Dem  ist  nicht  zu  helfen. 
However,  not  all  intransitives  which  take  a  dat.  object  can  form  this  passive. 
This  construction  is  limited  to  such  verbs  as  represent  an  activity  as  proceeding 
from  a  person.  Thus  Er  gefällt  mir  He  pleases  me  cannot  be  transferred  to  the 
passive,  as  the  verb  gefällt  indicates  a  quality  of  the  person  denoted  by  the 
subject  and  not  an  activity  which  proceeds  from  him.  The  main  characteristic 
of  this  impersonal  passive  is  that  it  emphasizes  an  activity,  and  hence  the  com- 
monest form  of  the  construction  has  no  subject  at  all,  or  at  least  no  definite 
subject,  nor  any  reference  to  an  agent,  placing  the  sole  stress  upon  the  activity: 
Mir  wurde  hart  begegnet,  or  Es  wurde  mir  hart  begegnet  They  treated  me 
harshly.  It  is  often  desirable,  however,  to  represent  some  person  or  thing  as 
acted  upon,  even  with  these  verbs  which  govern  the  dat.,  and  hence  under 
French  and  English  influence  and  in  still  greater  measure  under  the  pressure 
of  natural  feeling  this  impersonal  passive  is  often,  even  in  good  authors,  tho 
severely  condemned  by  grammarians,  replaced  by  the  personal  passive:  Sei 
(du  understood)  dafür  herzlich  gedankt,  instead  of  Dir  sei  dafür  herzlich  ge- 
dankt. Wenn  vollends  die  hochtonige  Stammsilbe  von  einer  tieftonigen 
Nebensilbe  gefolgt  ist  (Bernhard  Maydorn  in  Wissenschaftliche  Beihefte  des  All- 
gemeinen Deutschen  Sprachvereins,  Fünfte  Reihe,  Heft  34,  p.  128).  This  con- 
tested construction  is  especially  common  in  the  form  of  an  appositional  participle, 
where  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  limited  by  the  participle  is  the  real  subject 
of  the  verbal  idea  in  the  participle:  Er  ging  hinab,  gefolgt  von  Peters  (Spiel- 
hagen's  Herrin,  p.  194).  The  passive  is  often  used  in  the  expression  Ich  fühle 
mich  geschmeichelt.  It  is  also  common  to  say:  Er  ist  in  dem  Porträt  ge- 
schmeichelt and  Das  Bild  ist  geschmeichelt. 

The  dative  is  often  omitted  when  the  activity  is  represented  only  in  a  general 
way  without  reference  to  a  definite  object:  Scheiden  tut  [einem]  weh.  Höf- 
lichkeit schadet  [einem]  nie.  Sometimes  also  with  reference  to  a  definite 
object,  which  is  so  clearly  indicated  by  the  context  that  it  is  not  formally  ex- 
pressed: Verzeihen  Sie  [mir]!  Pardon  me!  I  beg  your  pardon!  Compare 
257.  1.  a. 

There  is  another  dative  of  quite  a  different  origin  and  force  which  is  used 
with  both  transitives  and  intransitives.  It  gives  expression  to  the  ideas  of 
place,  position,  separation,  point  of  departure,  source,  association.  For  ex- 
amples see  B  below.  As  explained  in  226  the  dative  here  represents  the  old 
locative,  ablative,  and  instrumental  (association  and  instrument)  cases,  which 
aside  from  a  few  traces  of  the  instrumental  had  disappeared  before  the  O.H.G. 
period.  The  dative  after  the  prepositions  zu  (when  it  denotes  rest  in  a  place), 
an,  auf,  bei,  hinter,  &c.,  corresponds  to  the  old  locative,  after  von  and  aus  to 
the  old  ablative,  after  mit  to  the  old  instrumental. 

The  dative  object  is  found  after  the  following  groups  of  intransitives,  some 
of  which  pass  for  transitives  in  English: 

A.     Dative  after  Simple  or  Derivative    Verbs.     Those  which  signify: 

o.  Inclination  or  aversion,  a  pleasing  or  displeasing,  a  serving  or  resisting:  behagen  to  please, 
suit,  afford  comfort  to,  mißbehagen  (opposite  of  behagen),  belieben  (used  in  a  number  of  set 


258.  1.  A.  b. VERBS   WITH    DATIVE   OBJECT 495 

expressions;  see  also  259.  8)  and  geliehen  (earlier  in  the  period;  see  2  Peter  ii.  15)  to  please, 
danken  (ahdanken  to  discharge  troops,  &c.  in  early  N.H.G.  also  with  dat.,  but  later  with  ace; 
see  257.  2.  C.  c)  to  thank,  dienen  to  serve,  dominieren  (dat.,  with  more  force  über  with  ace; 
with  the  ace.  in  the  second  meaning)  to  domineer  over,  command  (i.e.  overlook,  as  from  a  superior 
position),  drohen  to  threaten,  essen  (early  N.H.G.  and  biblical;  see  Rom.  xiv.  6)  to  eat  unto, 
fluchen  (but  verfluchen  with  ace.)  to  curse,  fronen  to  toil  or  slave  for,  frönen  to  be  a  slave  to 
(passion,  &c.),  be  addicted  to,  truckle  to,  indulge  (passions,  &c.),  gefallen  to  please,  mißfallen 
to  displease,  gnaden  to  have  mercy  upon,  gratulieren  to  congratulate,  grollen  to  bear  ill-will 
against,  hofieren  to  pay  court  to,  huldigen  to  pay  homage  to,  swear  allegiance  to,  einem  jauchzen 
or  more  commonly  zujauchzen  to  hail  someone  with  shouts  of  joy,  kondolieren  to  condole  with, 
konvenieren  to  suit,  lächeln  to  smile  upon  (lit.  as  in  Lächle  deinen  Gästen — Wildenbruch's 
König  Laurin,  4,  2 — or  fig.  Das  Glück  lächelt  mir),  lachen  to  smile  upon  (lit.  and  especially  fig., 
as  in  Das  Glück  lacht  ihm),  favor  (as  in  Die  Gelegenheit  lacht  ihm),  leben  to  live  entirely 
given  up  to  or  devoted  to,  live  up  to,  leuchten  to  light  the  way  for  (someone),  munden  to 
taste  well  to,  pochen  (rare)  to  defy,  schmecken  to  taste  (well,  &c.)  to,  schmeicheln  and 
flattieren  (both  occasionally  with  ace.  earlier  in  the  period)  to  flatter,  schmollen  to  be  sulky 
toward,  schwören  to  swear  (the  oath  of  allegiance)  to,  trotzen  to  defy,  tun  to  do  unto,  treat, 
widern  (sometimes  with  the  ace.)  to  be  repugnant  to,  willfahren  to  gratify,  indulge,  grant, 
zürnen  to  be  angry  at  (somebody),  &c.:  Nehmen  Sie,  was  Ihnen  beliebt  Take  your  choice. 
Was  beliebt  Ihnen?  What's  your  pleasure?  What  can  I  do  for  you?  Wie  es  Ihnen  beliebt 
as  you  like.  Nur  die  Vorstellung  der  Möglichkeit,  es  könnte  ihr  jemand  über  den  Kopf 
wachsen,  ihr  dominieren  .  .  .  bringt  sie  außer  sich  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  238),  but  auf  einer 
den  Hafen  dominierenden  Höhe  (Nat.-Z.,  LS,  41.3).  Und  wer  die  Ruhe  stört,  Gott  mög'  ihm 
gnaden  (P.  Heyse,  3,  140).  Wollte  die  Weisheit  dem  Herrgott  gefallen,  dann  gnad'  er  dir, 
Herrin,  und  gnad'  uns  allen  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reilierfcdern,  3,  4).  Bis  dahin  lebte  er 
seinen  einsamen  Studien,  seinen  Schriften  und  der  Gesellschaft.  Diesem  allem  (up  to  all  this) 
hatte  Riekchen  seitdem  gelebt  (Fontane's  StecJilin,  chap.  xii).  Bitte,  leuchten  Sie  dem  Herrn 
(id.,  Cecile,  chap.  xxi).  Daim,  wie  mit  Zauberinnen  man  verfährt,  so  wollten  sie  ihr  tun  (Wil- 
denbruch's König  Laurin,  2,  3).  O,  muß  meine  Seele  immer  :  von  dieser  Speise  essen,  die 
ihr  widert!  (H.  von  Hofmannsthal's  Elektra,  p.  20).  Man  hat  ihm  in  diesem  Punkte  gewillfahrt. 
Sie  sah  seine  bittenden  Augen  auf  sich  gerichtet  imd  willfahrte  seinem  Wunsche  (Ompteda's 
Sylvester  von  Geyer,   XV). 

Note.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  dat.  object  is  found  only  when  it  is  desired  to  indicate  the  person  interested 
or  involved  in  the  action,  or  sometimes  to  indicate  a  thing  whicli  by  way  of  personification  is  conceived  as  having 
interests  like  any  person.  When  a  person  is  not  involved  in  the  action,  or  if  it  is  desired  to  indicate  a  result,  an  ace. 
or  prep,  phrase  may  sometimes  be  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  even  after  verbs  which  usually  govern 
the  dat.:  Der  Feind  droht  der  Stadt  mit  einer  Belagerung,  but  Die  Verhandlungen  mit  Frankreich  zogen  sich  lange 
hin,  drohten  mehrmals  sogar  den  gänzhchen  Abbruch.  Er  antwortete  see  e)  mir  He  answered  me,  but  Er  antwortete 
keine  Silbe  He  ans:i'ered  not  a  syllable  and  Er  antwortete  auf  meine  Frage  He  answered  my  question.  Er  schmeichelte 
mir,  but  Er  schmeichelte  es  aus  mir  heraus  and  Er  schmeichelte  sie  beiseite  He  coaxed  her  to  one  side.  This  is  in 
general  true  of  all  verbs  which  govern  the  dat.,  and  hence  applies  to  the  verbs  in  b,  c,  d.  e,  B,  C,  D  below. 

In  order  to  denote  that  the  activity  of  the  verb  is  directed  toward  some  thing  be-  is  placed  before  several  of  these 
verbs,  which  tlien  govern  the  ace:  Er  antwortete  fsee  e)  mir  and  Unsern  Rufen  ("personified)  antwortete  niemand 
(Raabe's  Finkenrode.  xi,1,  but  Er  beantwortete  den  Brief.  Erfolgte  (see  d)  mir,  seinen  Lüsten  (personified),  but 
Er  befolgte  meinen  Rat  He  followed  (heeded)  my  advice.  The  prefix  be-  is  also  used  before  a  few  of  these  verbs  to 
denote  that  an  activity  is  directed  against  a  person.  In  this  case  the  derivative  verb  with  be-  governs  the  ace.  and 
usually  has  a  different  shade  of  meaning  from  the  simple  verb,  which  governs  the  dat.:  einem  dienen  to  serve,  be  of 
use  to  one,  einen  bedienen  to  wait  upon  (at  the  table,  &c.).  In  the  same  way  a  shade  of  meaning  arises  between  these 
simple  verbs,  which  govern  the  dat.,  and  their  derivatives  with  other  prefixes  which  govern  the  ace:  einem  folgen 
to  follow  one,  einen  verfolgen  to  pursue,  persecute  one;  einem  schmeicheln  to  fialler  one,  einen  um'schmeicheln  to  caress; 
nächtlichem  Gesänge  lauschen  to  listen  to  nightly  music,  etwas  face.)  erlauschen  to  get  or  learn  by  listening.  In  all 
these  cases,  as  also  elsewhere,  the  dat.  brings  to  the  front  the  idea  of  a  person  or  a  thing  with  personal  attributes  that 
is  in  one  way  or  another  interested  or  involved  in  the  action,  while  the  ace.  emphasizes  the  idea  of  the  immediate  object 
of  the  activity,  and  implies  that  the  object  is  thoroly  affected,  or  (as  in  the  last  example)  that  the  action  results  in 
the  attainment  of  a  definite  goal  or  end. 

The  action  may  be  directed  not  only  toward  an  object,  but  also  for  or  against  the  interests  of  someone.  In  this  case 
the  ace.  of  the  thing  expresses  the  first  idea,  and  the  dat.  (see  3  below)  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  the  second:  Er  be- 
schädigt mir  den  Baum. 

b.  Benefit  or  injury,  fullness  or  lack:  bekommen  to  agree  with,  bescheren  to  give  a  present 
to,  entstehen  or  erwachsen  to  accrue  to,  result,  come  to,  entstehen  (Lessing's  Minna,  4,  8;  now 
little  used)  to  fail,  be  lacking  to,  erstehen  to  arise,  fehlen  to  be  lacking  to,  frommen  to  avail, 
benefit,  profit,  fruchten  to  avail,  gebrechen  to  be  lacking  to,  gedeihen  to  succeed,  gelten  to  be 
of  value  to,  be  intended  for,  genügen  to  suffice,  satisfy,  geschehen  or  passieren  to  happen 
to,  serve  (see  ex.),  glücken,  geraten,  gelingen  (219.  4.  A.  b.)  to  succeed,  mißglücken,  miß- 
raten, mißlingen,  helfen  (259.  17)  to  help,  kümmern  (rarely  with  dat.,  see  262.  II.  A.  c  and  B.  d) 
to  concern,  matter  to,  mangeln  (see  also  260.  2.  A)  to  be  lacking  to,  nutzen  or  nützen  (earlier 
in  the  period  also  with  ace;  in  the  meaning  to  make  use  of,  both  are  trans,  with  ace,  either  in 
the  simple  form  or  more  commonly  in  the  form  benutzen  or  benützen)  to  be  useful  to,  be  of 
service  to,  aid,  remedieren  to  remedy,  schaden  to  injure,  sekundieren  (also  trans,  with  ace.)  to 
second,  aid,  sein  to  ail,  einem  stimmen  (Swiss  for  für  einen  stimmen)  to  vote  for,  streuen  to 
make  a  bed  for  (cattle),  stunden  to  grant  time  to  someone  for  payment,  taugen  (also  für  with 
ace.)  to  be  good  for,  be  useful  to,  be  adapted  to,  vergeben  (see  259.  34),  versagen  to  fail,  ver- 
zeihen (259.  34),  wachen  (in  the  Southwest  sometimes  einem  Kranken  wachen,  usually  bei 
einem  Kranken  wachen)  to  watch  by  the  bedside  of,  Zinsen  to  pay  tribute  to:  Die  Speise  be- 
kommt mir  nicht.  Unten  an  dem  Christbaum  bescherte  ich  meinen  Leuten :  den  beiden  Mägden, 
dem  Kutscher,  dem  Forstläufer,  dem  Jägerburschen  (Spielhagen's  Selbstgerecht,  p.  158).  Was 
fehlt  Ihnen?  What  is  the  matter  with  you?  Alle  Mühe  fruchtet  Ihnen  nichts.  Es  gebricht  dem 
Armen  am  Gelde.     Alles  gedeiht  ihm.     Das  gilt  mir  gleich  It  is  all  the  same  to  me.     Der  Spott 


496 VERBS  WITH    DATIVE   OBJECT 258.  1.  A.  b. 

galt  mir  iIk-  ritlicule  was  intended  for  inc.  Es  geschieht  dir  recht  It  ser\-es  you  right.  Was 
kann's  dem  Monde  kümmern,  |  wenn  ihn  der  Hund  anbellt  (Körner's  Zriny,  3,  4).  Es  nutzt 
dem  Lügner  nichts.  Was  würde  es  Ihnen  nutzen?  Es  nützt  seiner  Verdauung  (H.  von  Hof- 
mannsthal's  Elektra,  p.  14).  Der  kann  mir  nicht  schaden.  Was  ist  Ihnen?  What  ails  you? 
Er  streut  dem  Vieh.  Zwei  Schülern  habe  ich  stunden  müssen  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer). 
Es  taugt  dir  (or  für  dich)  nicht.  Die  Füße  versagten  mir.  The  verb  may  be  understood,  or 
may  be  unnccessar%-:  Drum  rett'  erst  ihn,  zum  zweiten  dieses  Kind,  )  die  dritte  Fahrt  der 
Schwester  und  der  Mutter    (Grillparzcr's   Ein  treuer  Diener,  4). 

c.  Fitness,  a  belonging  to,  believing,  trusting,  obeying,  listening:  anstehen  to  look  well  on, 
become,  be  fittinc;,  please,  suit,  bleiben  to  remain  to,  eignen  to  belong  to,  be  characteristic  of, 
folgen  to  follow,  obey,  gebühren  to  be  due  to,  belong  to,  be  becoming  to,  gehören  (sometimes 
with  a  possessive  instead  of  a  dat.:  Das  gehört  mein,  a  blending  of  Das  gehört  mir  and  Das  ist 
mein)  to  belong  to,  gehorchen,  or  now  less  commonly  gehorsamen,  in  colloquial  language  also 
pa'rieren,  to  obey,  glauben  (see  259.  1.5),  haften  (poetic  for  anhaften)  to  adhere  to,  stick  to, 
horchen  (259.  IS),  hören  (now  no  longer  common  with  the  dat.  in  the  first  three  meanings,  now 
usually  here  auf  einen,  auf  etwas  hören)  to  mind,  pay  attention  to,  answer  to  (a  name),  listen  to 
(in  this  meaning  still  with  dat.  in  elevated  diction,  but  replaced  in  plain  prose  by  zuhören  with 
dat.),  lassen  to  become,  look  pretty  on,  lauschen  (perhaps  more  commonly  auf  with  ace.)  to 
listen  to,  liegen  to  be  adapted  to,  pa'rieren  (see  gehorchen),  passen  to  fit,  suit,  be  agreeable  to, 
sein  (poet.)  to  be  accorded  to  (see  ex.),  sitzen  to  fit,  stehen  to  become,  look  well  on,  trauen  to 
trust,  mißtrauen  to  distrust,  vertrauen  to  confide  in,  werden  (in  choice  language)  to  come  into 
one's  possession,  fall  to  one's  lot,  ziemen  or  geziemen  (or  es  ziemt  or  geziemt  sich  für)  to  befit, 
be  befitting  for:  Das  Haus  eignet  mir.  Nur  der  Körper  eignet  jenen  Mächten,  die  das  dunkle 
Schicksal  flechten.  Den  Löwen  eignet  es,  einsam  zu  lagern.  Und  doch  bin  ich  der  einzige, 
dem  er  (der  Pudel)  hört  fLessing's  Minna,  1,  S).     Ich  höre  staunend  Euren  Worten  (Gutzkow's 

Uriel  A  cost  a,  1,  1).  Selbst  der  Zorn  läßt  ihr  schön.  Gehen  wir  schließlich  zu  dem  unseres 
Wissens  ersten  Versuch  der  auf  belletristischem  Gebiet  beliebten  Frau  Ilse  Frapan-Akunian 
über,  so  will  mich  bedünken,  daß  auch  dieser  talentvollen  Dame  das  dramatische  Genre  nicht 
liegt  (Stöckhardt  in  Die  schöne  Literatur,  Beilage  zum  Literarischen  Zentralblatt,  Nr.  24,  3.  Jahrg.). 
Der  Rache  sei  ihr  Recht,  dem  Recht  sei  Rache!  (Grillparzer's  Ein  treuer  Diester,  4).  Dieser 
Rock  sitzt  Ihnen  wie  angegossen  This  coat  fits  you  to  perfection.  Ehre  ward  euch  und  Sieg 
(Schiller).  Ein  grandioserer  Anblick  ist  mir  nie  geworden  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen,  Anno 
1870).     Dergleichen  ziemt  mir  nicht. 

The  verb  may  be  understood:  Der  Wahrheit  die  Ehre!  May  honor  be  accorded  to  truth. 
Dem  gemeinsamen  Vaterlande  alle  Wünsche,  alle  Gedanken,  alle  Kräfte!  (Admiral  von  Knorr, 
Aug.  5,  1914). 

Earlier  in  the  period  sein  was  used  with  a  dative  of  possession:  Wem  ist  das  Haus  da  drüben? 
(Goethe's  Stella,  1).  Occasionally  still:  Der  Graben  war  uns!  (Generalleutnant  z.  D.  Schott  in 
Kriegs- Chronik  des  Daheim,  Band  III,  p.  32).  This  construction  probably  rests  upon  Latin 
and  French  usage  and  has  never  taken  deep  root  in  German. 

d.  Approach,  restraining,  yielding,  similarity,  dissimilarity:  ähneln  or  less  commonly'  ahnen 
to  bear  some  resemblance  to,  ahnden  (earlier  in  the  period),  now  entirely  replaced  by  ahnen 
(now  with  non-personal  subject  when  the  dat.  is  employed,  earlier  in  the  period  some- 
times also  when  the  ace.  was  used;  also  with  a  personal  subject  and  an  ace.  object)  to  have  a 
presentiment  of,  begegnen  (earlier  in  the  period,  not  infrequently  with  the  ace,  and  still  occa- 
sionally -so)  to  meet,  treat,  sich  beugen  (with  simple  dat.  or  vor  with  dat.)  to  bow  to,  submit  to, 
erliegen  to  succumb  to,  erscheinen  to  appear  to,  folgen  to  follow,  sich  einem  or  more  commonly 
zu  einem  gesellen  to  join  (go  to)  someone,  gleichen  to  resemble,  be  like,  kommen  to  come  to 
(in  a  figurative  sense),  attack,  treat,  speak  to,  (sich)  nahen  or  more  commonly  sich  nähern  to 
approach,  to  come  very  close  to,  i.e.  to  be  almost  equal  to  (in  this  sense  always  sich  nähern: 
Seine  Aufregung  nähert  sich  der  Raserei),  earlier  in  the  period  both  verbs  also  with  zu  with 
the  dat.  instead  of  the  simple  dat.),  pa'rieren  to  parry  one's  thrust,  meet  one's  arguments,  schwa- 
nen to  have  a  presentiment  of,  steuern  to  check,  träumen  (see  also  219.  4.  A.  b)  to  appear  to  in 
a  dream,  dream  of,  verfallen  to  meet  with  (a  sad  fate,  &c.),  become  a  prey  to,  wehren  to  hinder, 
restrain,  check,  weichen  to  yield  to:  Der  Sohn  ähnelt  oft  dem  Vater.  Und  ahn'  ich  so  dem 
Tiere  mehr  —  |  wohlan!  so  häuf  ich  mich  vielleicht  einmal,  |  und  es  entpuppt,  wie's  ja  zuweilen 
schon  I  geschehen  ist,  sich  aus  dem  Tier  der  Heilige  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  2,  6). 
Es  ahnt  (formerly  also  ahndet)  mir  (formerly  also  mich)  nichts  Gutes.  Ich  ahnte  nichts  davon. 
Ich  bin  ihm  auf  der  Straße  begegnet.  Da  begegneten  wir  Wunderlich,  den  Assessor,  auf  der 
Treppe  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Sept.  26,  1850).  Er  begegnete  auf  der  Straße  die  Lehrer  vom 
Gymnasium  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  voji  Geyer,  xxii).  Nicht  deine  Jahre  zählte  das  Volk,  nur 
deine  Taten  ....  Greise  beugten  sich  willig  deiner  Jugend  (Sudermann's  Teja,  3).  Beuge 
dich  vor  dem  Alter!  Sich  diesen  zu  gesellen,  fiel  Opitz  aber  nicht  ein  (Fontane's  Quitt,  chap, 
iii).  Er  gleicht  seinem  Vater,  wie  ein  Ei  dem  anderen.  Diese  Einsicht  kommt  Ihnen  spät. 
Kommen  Ihnen  da  keine  Gedanken,  Ohm  Reinhold?  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  11).  Wir  kommen 
ihm  eben,  wie  man  so  einem  kommen  muß.  Langsam,  vorsichtig.  Schritt  um  Schritt!  (ib.,  p. 
55)  We  shall  attack  it  (the  river,  in  attempting  to  regulate  its  course),  &c.  Laß  dir  nicht  so 
kommen!  Don't  put  up  with  such  treatment!  Komm  mir  nicht  so!  Don't  speak  to  me  in  that 
way!  Wagte  sie  einmal,  ihren  Mann  nach  Heinz  zu  fragen,  so  blieb  er  entweder  ganz  die 
Antwort  schuldig  oder  hieß  sie  ihm  mit  dem  Jungen  ein  für  alle  Mal  nicht  mehr  zu  kommen 
(Storm's  Hans  und  Heinz  Kirch).  Ich  habe  das  Gefühl,  daß  alles  halbwegs  Gescheite,  das 
ich  im  Hirn  hatte,  verausgabt  ist,  um  Ihnen  zu  parieren  (Suttner's  Im  Berghause,  p.  33),  but 


258.  1.  B. DATIVE  AFTER   COMPOUND   VERBS 497 

Ich  parierte  den  Schlag  mit  einem  Stock.  Mir  schwant  nichts  Gutes.  Mir  schwant  nichts 
von  Gefahr.  Mir  schwant,  daß  usw.  Heute  kommt  er  gewiß ;  es  schwant  mir  so.  Er  steuert 
der  Unordnung.  Als  sie  endlich  schlief,  träumten  ihr  häßliche  Dinge  (H.  Böhlau's  Adam  und 
Eva,  chap.  i).  Er  verfiel  einem  traurigen  Schicksal.  Ich  verfiel  den  Ideen,  die  du  kennst 
(Otto  Ernst's  Jugend  von  heute,  4,  7).     Man  muß  dem  Bösen  wehren  mit  harter  Strafe. 

After  transitive  verbs  of  removal  the  dative  is  much  used  to  indicate  the  person  from  whom 
the  thing  in  the  ace.  is  taken:  Er  nahm  mir  meine  Brieftasche  weg  He  took  my  pocket-book  away 
from  me.  Er  stahl  mir  meine  goldene  Uhr.  Der  Wolf  raubt  dem  Hirten  Schafe.  This  dat.  is 
thus  often  rendered  in  English  by  from,  but  in  German  it  does  not  in  fact  express  separation, 
but  is  a  dative  of  interest  (see  3.  B  below)  denoting  the  person  that  is  benefited  or  injured  by  the 
action. 

e.  A  declaration,  response,  announcement,  signaling,  advice,  thus  in  general  in  accordance 
with  the  original  meaning  of  the  dative  indicating  the  direction  of  an  activity  toward  a  goal, 
now  usually  a  person:  antworten  (see  a,  Note)  to  answer,  aufbieten  (earlier  in  the  period  einer 
Armee,  allen  seinen  Kräften,  allem  aufbieten,  now  with  the  ace,  alle  seine  Kräfte,  alles  auf- 
bieten, as  the  idea  of  a  change  of  place  here  as  in  257.  2.  C.  c  has  suggested  the  use  of  the  ace.) 
lit.  to  send  word  to  (an  army,  one's  physical  or  intellectual  forces,  &c.)  to  rise,  now  felt  as  meaning 
to  call  out,  summon,  often  fig.  to  do  one's  utmost,  beten  (with  dat.  only  in  elevated  style,  usually 
with  zu  +  dat.)  to  pray  to,  blinken  or  blinzeln  to  wink  at,  bürgen  (einem  für  etwas  bürgen)  to 
answer,  vouch,  be  responsible  to  someone  for,  guarantee,  entgegnen  to  reply  to,  erwidern  to 
reply  to,  flehen  (dat.  common  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  with  zu  +  dat.)  to  pray  to,  implore,  klagen 
to  complain  to  (in  this  meaning  usually  in  connection  with  an  object:  einem  sein  Leid  klagen), 
mourn  for  (earlier  in  the  period  with  dat.,  now  with  ace.  in  poetic  style,  and  in  plain  prose  replaced 
by  beklagen),  klingeln,  schellen,  or  läuten  to  ring  the  bell  for,  kündigen  to  give  notice  to  leave 
(a  dwelling,  position,  &c.),  lügen  to  tell  a  lie  to  (in  early  N.H.G.;  see  Judges  xvi.  10;  now  re- 
placed by  einen  belügen),  lie  to  or  deceive  (still  in  poetic  language),  pfeifen  (see  259.  26),  predi- 
gen to  preach  to,  raten  advise,  einem  rufen  (see  259.  26),  einem  or  an  einen  schreiben,  telegra- 
phieren, depeschieren,  drahten,  telephonieren  to  write,  telegraph,  telephone,  to  someone, 
schreien  (see  259.  26),  winken  (259.  26):  Antworte  mir  auf  die  Frage!  Er  erwiderte  mir  nichts 
auf  diesen  Vorwurf.  Der  Herr  klingelt  dem  Bedienten.  Von  fünf  zu  fünf  Minuten  hat  er  dem 
Kellner  geläutet  (Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alten  Doktors,  p.  270).  Mir  ist  gekündigt  I  have  received 
notice  to  leave  (my  position  or  dwelling,  according  to  the  connection).  Denn  alles  log  mir,  was 
ich  hochgeachtet  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  2,  7).  Wem  nicht  zu  raten  ist,  dem  ist  auch  nicht 
zu  helfen.     Er  predigt  tauben  Ohren. 

/.  Poetry  prefers  the  dat.  in  a  large  number  of  cases  where  in  prose  some  other  construction, 
especially  a  prep,  phrase,  is  used:  Seinen  [=  vor  seinen]  Blicken,  seinem  Winken  |  möcht'  ich 
in  die  Knie  sinken  (Goethe's  Faust,  1.  6630);  schmunzeln  (ib.,  1.  6100),  rümpfen  (1.  .5272),  &c. 
Das  macht  mich  dem  Tod  erblassen  (Grillparzer's  Ahnfrau,  2).  Ich  will  lachen  seinem  Wüten 
(ib.).  Nie  hab'  ich  dem  Tod  gezittert  (ib.).  Dumpf "  ertönte  die  Gegend  dem  [=  von  dem] 
Sturze  (id.,  Die  Argonauten,  2).  Many  other  verbs  might  be  added  to  these.  Compare  3.  A.  b 
below. 

g.  In  early  N.H.G.  other  verbs  not  included  in  the  above  lists  governed  the  dat.,  such  as 
bescheiden  (Matth.  xxviii.  16),  lieben  (Ecclus.  vii.  28;  the  dat.  still  surviving  after  the  derivatives 
belieben  and  geliehen;  see  a  above)  in  early  N.H.G.  to  be  dear  to,  betten  (see  259.  9),  schonen 
or  verschonen  (1  Sam.  xv.  15),  schweigen  (Job  xi.  3;  now  zu  with  dat.),  seg(e)nen  (2  Sam.  xxi._3), 
sorgen  (1  Cor.  vii.  21),  verhindern,  &c.  The  fine  shade  expressed  in  the  dat.  is  not  felt  so  vividly 
as  in  earlier  periods,  and  thus  the  dat.  is  gradually  losing  ground,  yielding  to  the  ace.  Poetry 
still  preserves  here  occasionally  in  case  of  betten  and  schweigen  older  usage. 

B.  Dative  after  Verbs  Compounded  with  Prefixes.  The  dative  object  stands  after  the  fol- 
lowing prefixes:  ab,  an,  auf,  aus,  bei,  be'vor,  ein,  ent-,  ent'gegen,  fern,  gegen'über,  gleich, 
inne,  nach,  nahe,  ob,  unter,  vor,  vo'rauf,  vo'raus,  vor'bei  (see  259.  36),  vor'her,  wider,  zu,  zu'vor, 
and  in  a  few  cases  über  and  um.  Exs.:  Sein  Betragen  fiel  mir  auf  His  conduct  attracted  my 
attention.  Der  Name  fällt  mir  nicht  gleich  wieder  ein,  but  in  Sie  heizt  ihm  ein  She  is  making  it 
warm  for  him,  is  pitching  into  him  the  dative  is  not  governed  by  ein  but  belongs  to  the  whole 
sentence  and  hence  is  a  dative  of  interest  (see  3.  B  below).  Der  Jäger  stellt  dem  Wilde  nach 
The  hunter  is  on  the  watch  for  the  game.  Es  kam  mir  sonderbar  vor.  Er  eilte  mir  voran  He 
hurried  on  ahead  of  me.  Mir  ist  großes  Unrecht  widerfahren.  Mir  ist  viel  Gutes  von  ihnen 
widerfahren.  Wider'sprich  mir  nicht.  Er  setzte  mir  mit  Bitten  stark  zu.  Er  kam  mir  zuvor. 
For  exceptions  see  262.  I.  b,  2nd  par. 

In  M.H.G.  mit  belonged  to  this  list,  and  survives  in  the  transitive  mitteilen  (einem  etwas 
mitteilen)  to  communicate  to,  lit.  to  share  with  and  in  the  intransitive  mitspielen  to  treat  or  use  ill 
or  roughly,  play  a  nasty  trick  on  {someone),  lit.  to  tilt  with:  Wie  kaimst  du  mir  so  mitspielen? 

The  idea  of  personal  interest  is  prominent  in  many  of  these  datives,  but  the  ideas  of  a  goal, 
place,  position,  separation,  point  of  departure,  source,  are  also  common:  Er  geht  seinem  Schick- 
sale mit  Ruhe  entgegen.  Das  Schiff  steuerte  dem  Lande  zu.  Er  lebte  seinem  Vorbilde  nach. 
Es  ist  merkwürdig,  daß  manchem  Namen  etwas  wie  eine  mystische  Macht  innewohnt  (Fontane' s 
Poggenpnhls,  chap.  xi).  Ein  Makel  klebt  ihm  an,  l)ut  where  the  oliject  is  a  thing,  the  prepo- 
sitional construction  is  used,  or  the  object  is  suppressed:  Das  Pflaster  klebt  an  dem  Finger  and 
Das  Pflaster  klebt  an.  Mir  liegt  eine  schwere  VerpfUchtung  auf,  but  Die  Zeitungen  liegen  auf 
dem  Tische  and  Zeitungen  liegen  auf.  Mir  lag  diese  Pflicht  ob  This  duty  devolved  upon  me, 
lit.  lay  upon,  over  me.  Compare  223.  I.  9.  B.  1.  a.  Neuere  Nachrichten  lassen  es  als  ziemlich 
sicher  erscheinen,  daß  Hendrik  Witboi  der  aufständischen  Bewegung  nicht  fernsteht  {Hamb. 


498 DATIVE   AFTER   COMPOUND   VERBS  258.  1.  B. 

Nachr.,  Oct.  15,  1904).  Die  Sprache  steht  den  reichsten  nahe,  wenn  nicht  gleich  oder  über 
(Archiv  für  das  Studium  der  ucHcrcn  Sprachen,  &o,  197).  Im  Neuhochdeutschen  kann  sich  dieser 
mechanische  Trieb  dem  logischen  Bedürfnis  überordnen  (Andreas  Heusler  in  Anzeiger  für 
deutsches  Altertum,  1902,  p.  328).  Er  sagt  ihm  ab  (early  N.H.G.)  He  sends  him  a  challenge, 
breaks  with  him,  lit.  announces  that  he  has  separated  himself /ro;«  him.  Er  schwört  seinem  Gott 
ab,  or  Er  schwört  dem  Kaiser  ab  He  renounces  his  god,  or  the  emperor,  lit.  swears  that  he  has 
separated  himself  from  his  god,  or  from  the  emperor,  but  the  ace.  often  occurs  here  indicating 
a  different  point  of  view:  seinen  Gott,  seinen  Glauben,  seine  Farben  abschwören  to  swear  that 
one  has  given  up  (lit.  put  away)  his  god,  his  former  faith,  his  colors.  Ich  habe  allem  Glück 
entsagt  I  have  renounced  (lit.  separated  myself  from)  all  happiness.  Er  weicht  mir,  dem  Wagen 
aus.  Du  bist  meinem  Einflüsse  entwachsen.  Er  ist  der  Gefahr  entflohen.  Das  Wort  ist 
meinem  Munde  nur  im  Zorn  entfahren.     Er  entstammt  einem  alten  patrizischen  Geschlecht. 

o.  Transitives  having  these  prefixes  take  a  direct  object  of  the  person  or  thing  in  the  ace. 
and  an  object  of  the  person  or  thing  in  the  dat.,  denoting  the  individual  to  whose  advantage  or 
disadvantage  the  action  accrues,  or  indicating  a  goal,  place,  association  (see  262.  I.  b,  3rd  par.), 
separation,  source:  Er  sagte,  schrieb,  telegraphierte,  telephonierte  ihm  den  Besuch  ab  He 
canceled  his  promised  visit  by  spoken  word,  by  letter,  by  wire,  by  phone,  or  often  the  ace.  is 
suppressed:  Er  sagte,  schrieb  usw.  ihm  ab.  Er  trocknete  ihm  den  Schweiß  ab.  In  poetic 
language  Er  trocknete  der  Stime  den  Schweiß,  das  Blut  ab,  but  in  piain  prose  von  usually  replaces 
the  dative  of  the  thing:  Er  trocknete  den  Schweiß  von  der  Stime  ab,  also  the  dat.  of  the  person 
after  abwenden:  Er  wandte  sich  von  mir  ab.  Er  drängte  ihm  seine  Ansichten  auf,  or  with 
the  omission  of  the  dat.,  where  it  refers  to  the  subject:  Er  setzte  [sich]  den  Hut  auf,  but  where 
the  prepositional  object  is  a  thing  the  prepositional  construction  is  usually  employed  or  the 
object  is  suppressed:  Man  setzt  das  Essen  auf  den  Tisch,  or  Man  setzt  das  Essen  auf.  Er  legt 
meinen  Worten  einen  andern  Sinn  unter  He  puts  another  meaning  into  my  words.  Sie  singt 
uns  heute  abend  das  Lied  vor  She  is  going  to  sing  the  song  to  us  this  evening.  Er  sagt  mir  Böses 
nach  He  speaks  ill  of  me.  Er  bot  mir  seinen  Beistand  an.  Er  widersetzte  sich  der  Obrigkeit. 
Du  hast  den  Jüngling  dem  Verderben  zugeführt.  Er  legt  dem  Pferde  den  Zaum  an.  Er  setzte 
dem  Pferde  einen  Sattel  auf.  Er  setzte  dem  Buche  eine  Vorrede  vor.  Er  legte  dem  Huhne 
Eier  zum  Brüten  unter.  Binde  dir  das  Tuch  um!  Du  hast  mich  allem  Leiden  entrückt.  Er 
hat  das  Beste  in  seinen  Werken  (von)  den  Alten  entlehnt.  In  the  passive  the  accusative  be- 
comes nominative,  the  dative  remains:   Eier  wurden  dem  Huhne  ztim  Brüten  untergelegt. 

At  the  first  glance  it  might  seem  that  the  dative  in  many  of  these  compounds  depends  upon 
the  preposition  contained  in  the  compound.  A  closer  inspection,  however,  will  show  conclusively 
that  the  dative  is  used  with  an,  auf,  unter,  vor  even  with  verbs  of  motion,  where  according  to 
usage  elsewhere  the  ace.  should  be  used.  Contrary  to  older  usage  (see  262.  I.  b,  2nd  par.)  the 
dative  is  now  used  with  these  prefixes  without  regard  to  the  idea  of  rest  or  motion.  Different 
factors  have  brought  about  this  uniformity.  In  many  of  the  compounds  the  idea  of  reference 
(3.  A  below)  or  personal  interest  is  stronger  than  the  usual  force  of  the  preposition,  and  thus 
leads  to  the  use  of  the  dative.  The  words  often  have  a  figurative  or  altered  meaning,  so  that 
the  usual  force  of  the  preposition  is  not  vividly  felt.  The  use  of  the  dative  with  the  transitives 
here  is  made  easy  by  the  fact  that  the  construction  is  thus  conformed  to  one  of  the  commonest 
types  in  the  language,  namely,  the  use  of  the  dative  in  connection  with  an  accusative.  For 
additional  treatment  of  this  common  type  see  262.  I.  b. 

The  employment  of  the  dative  with  wider  here  while  it  elsewhere  only  governs  the  accusative 
is  explained  by  older  usage,  according  to  which  it  took  either  dative  or  accusative.  To-day 
we  find  the  dative  after  wider'fahren  to  happen  to,  befall,  wider'stehen  to  be  repugnant  to, 
wider'streben  to  strive  or  struggle  against,  be  opposed  to,  wider'sprechen  or  wider'reden  to  con- 
tradict, wider'streiten  to  clash  with,  militate  against,  sich  wider'setzen  to  resist:  Es  widerstrebt 
meinem  Gefühl,  Das  widerstreitet  unseren  Freiheitsbriefen.  Er  widersetzte  sich  dem  Schutz- 
mann. The  accusative  is  used  with  wider'raten  to  speak  'against,  advise  someone  against, 
widerlegen  to  refute:  Das  sind  Erscheinungen,  welche  die  Verordnung  eines  Heilmittels  wider- 
raten. Ich  hatte  es  (object  of  wider)  ihm  widerraten.  A  little  earlier  in  the  period  also  wider- 
'sprechen was  often  used  with  an  accusative.  This  older  usage  survives  in  unwider'sprechlich 
incontrovertible,  which  presupposes  a  transitive  wider'sprechen:  wiewohl  Notizen  dieser  Art 
gehen  unwidersprochen  in  die  Welt  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Jan.  1,  1907).  Of  course,  such 
words  as  wider'rufen  to  retract,  repeal,  lit.  to  call  back,  wider'hallen  (trans.;  see  215.  U.S.A.e), 
&c.  take  the  ace.  as  the  noun  is  the  object  of  the  verb,  the  prefix  being  an  adverb. 

b.  Also  a  foreign  prefix  can  take  a  dat.  ol)ject  if  it  has  the  force  of  a  German  prefix:  Wir 
meiden  den  Bezirk,  welcher  dem  schwedischen  Kriegsvolk  kontribuiert  ( =  beisteuert)  (Frey- 
tag's  Rittmeister,  chap.  i\).  Wie  können  Sie  mir  dergleichen  imputieren,  was  mir  doch  nicht 
eimnal  im  Traume  einfallen  würde!  (Spielhagen's  Sturmflut,  I.  9).  Mit  dem  Adjektiv  hat  das 
Partizipium  gemem,  daß  es  einem  Substantivum  des  Satzes  attribuiert  ist  (Brugmann's  Kurze 
Vergleichende  Grammatik,  p.  606).  Wo  em  Relativsatz  einem  emfachen  Attribut  koordiniert 
ist  (Anzeiger  für  deutsches  Altertum  und  deutsche  Literatur,  xxix,  3.  Januar  1904,  p.  173).  Ja 
sehen  Sie,  wenn  man  den  Frauen  opponiert  (entgegentritt),  so  nennen  sie  das  immer  Grobheit 
(Otto  Frnst's  Jugend  von  heute,  1,  10).  Thus  also  adhärieren  to  adhere  to,  aggregieren  to  attach 
(an  officer)  to,  akklamieren  to  acclaim,  applaud,  applaudieren  (sometimes  also  with  ace.)  to 
applaud,  em  Wort  einem  anderen  apponieren  to  place  one  word  in  apposition  with  another, 
assentieren  to  agree  with,  assistieren  to  help,  be  present  at,  attachieren  to  attach  to  the  suite  of 
(as  m  Er  ist  der  [or  bei  der]  Gesandtschaft  attachiert),  einem  seine  Ankunft  avisieren,  or  einen 
von  semer  Ankunft  avisieren  to  notify  someone  of,  &c.,  imponieren  to  impress  forcibly,  awe, 


258.  2.  A. DATIVE   AFTER   ADJECTIVES 499 

präsidieren  (sometimes  with  ace.)  to  preside  over,  einem  etwas  proponieren  to  propose  something 
to  someone,  einer  Sache  eine  andere  substituieren  or  eine  Sache  statt  der  anderen  substituieren 
to  substitute  one  thing  for  another,  suggerieren  to  suggest  to,  sukzedieren  to  follow,  succeed. 

C.  Dative  after  Loosely  Compounded  Verbs.  The  dative  object  also  stands  after  a  number 
of  verbs  loosely  compounded  with  an  adjective,  noun,  adverb,  or  prep,  phrase:  sich  Bahn  brechen 
to  break  a  path  for  one's  self,  anheimfallen  to  fall  to  (one's  lot),  devolve  upon,  escheat  to,  fall  a 
prey  to,  es  fällt  mir  leicht  it  is,  comes  easy  to  me,  es  geht  mir  gut  I  am  (doing)  well,  mit  Rat 
und  Hilfe  zur  Hand  gehen  to  assist  by  word  or  deed,  zu  Leibe  gehen  to  attack,  zum  Ruhme 
gereichen  to  redound  to  (one's)  glory,  standhalten  to  hold  one's  own  against,  worthalten  to  keep 
one's  promise  with,  zugute  kommen  to  be  to  one's  benefit,  heimkommen  to  come  home  to  (in  a 
fig.  sense),  zu  Hilfe  kommen  to  come  to  one's  aid,  zustatten  kommen  to  come  in  handy  to,  be  of 
use  to,  zu  stehen  kommen  (see  259.  29)  to  cost,  come  to,  einem  (or  now  often  also  incorrectly 
einen)  zur  Ader  [Blut  understood]  lassen  to  bleed  (draw  blood  from)  someone,  heimleuchten 
to  make  short  work  with  (someone),  give  (someone)  a  piece  of  one's  mind,  turn  (someone)  off, 
einem  or  einen  (the  dat.  to  be  construed  as  the  indirect  object  of  the  verb  and  angst  as  a  noun 
used  as  direct  object;  the  ace.  to  be  construed  as  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  and  angst  as  an 
objective  predicate  adjective)  angst  machen  to  frighten,  alarm  one,  einem  or  einen  bange  (to  be 
construed  as  an  adverb  with  dat.,  or  as  an  objective  predicate  adj.)  machen  to  make  one  afraid, 
einem  gruselig  machen  to  make  one  feel  creepy,  einem  or  einen  heiß  machen  to  make  one  angry, 
excited,  einem  warm  machen  to  make  it  hot  for  someone,  einem  mit  alten  Erinnerungen  warm 
machen  to  warm  someone  up  or  thaw  him  out  by  arousing  old  memories  in  him,  einer  Dame 
den  Hof  machen  to  court,  pay  one's  addresses  to  a  lady,  einem  dreinreden  to  put  in  words  and 
thus  interrupt  someone,  das  Wort  reden  to  defend,  einem  für  etwas  gutsagen  to  stand  respon- 
sible to  someone  for  something,  lobsingen  to  sing  praises  to,  hohnsprechen  (sep.)  to  scoff  at, 
einem  zur  Vernunft  sprechen  to  urge  one  to  come  to  reason,  be  reasonable,  Rede  stehen  to  answer 
one,  account  to  someone  for  something,  zu  Diensten  stehen  to  be  at  one's  service,  einer  Sache 
(den  Umständen  usw.)  Rechnung  tragen  to  take  into  account,  make  allowance  for,  genugtun 
to  satisfy,  guttun  to  do  good  to,  benefit,  leid  tun  to  fill  one  with  pity  (see  ex.),  not  sein  or  not  tun 
to  be  needed  (by  someone),  be  lacking  to,  be  necessary  for,  wehtun  to  hurt,  grieve,  sauer  werden 
to  become  troublesome  to,  cause  difiiculty  to,  zuteil  werden  to  fall  to  (one's)  lot.,  einem  Dank 
für  etwas  wissen  to  be  thankful  to  someone  for  something,  wohlwollen  to  be  kindly  disposed 
toward,  heimzahlen  to  pay  (someone)  back  (fig.),  and  many  others  of  like  formation.  Exs.: 
Das  gereicht  ihm  zum  Ruhme  That  redounds  to  his  glory.  Das  kommt  ihm  zugute  He  gets  the 
benefit  of  it.  Die  Erfahrung  kommt  ihm  zustatten  Experience  stands  him  in  good  stead.  Das 
soil  ihm  teuer  zu  stehen  kommen  He  shall  pay  dearly  for  that.  Er  hatte  offenbar  die  löbliche 
Absicht  gehabt,  mir  ein  bißchen  gruselig  zu  machen  (Paul  Keller's  Waldivinter,  IV).  Das  Kind 
sprach  der  Mutter  zur  Vernunft  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Alten  und  die  Jungen).  Selbst  mir,  seinem 
besten  Freunde,  hat  er  nicht  darüber  Rede  gestanden,  was  aus  einer  projektierten  oder  wirk- 
lich vollzogenen  Heirat  geworden  ist,  von  der  vor  etwa  sechs  Jahren  ein  Gerücht  erging  (Heyse's 
Im  Paradiese,  I,  chap.  vii).  Die  Arznei  wird  Ihnen  guttun.  Sie  tun  mir  leid  I  feci  quite  sorry 
for  you.  Mut  ist  uns  not  und  ein  gefaßter  Geist  (Schiller).  Lenke  deine  Seele  jetzt  auf  andere 
meinetwegen  irdische  Dinge,  es  tut  dir  not  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  4).  Das  ist,  was 
uns  not  tut. 

We  often  find  this  favorite  dative  construction  where  in  English  we  have  a  prepositional 
object.  In  German  both  of  these  constructions  are  used  with  a  slight  shade  of  meaning.  The 
preposition  points  to  a  person  toward  whom  the  activity  is  directed,  while  the  simple  dative 
represents  the  person  as  involved  in  the  action  in  an  emotional  way  or  thru  personal  interests: 
Es  war  der  erste  bleibende  Eindruck,  den  ein  weibliches  Wesen  auf  mich  gemacht  hatte  (Goethe's 
Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  I,  5).  Welchen  Eindruck  hat  sie  Ihnen  gemacht?  (Suttner's  Im  Berg- 
hause, p.  42). 

Such  compounds  occur  often  in  connection  with  a  dat.  of  the  person  or  thing,  and  an  ace.  of  the 
person  or  thing,  or  a  clause :  Eines  Tages  stieg  auch  er  langsam  und  gewichtig  die  drei  Treppen  zu 
Susannes  Wohnung  hinauf,  um  sich  der  Tante  in  Erinnerung  zu  bringen  (Isolde  Kurz's  Das 
Vermächtnis  der  Tante  Susanne).  Ich  führte  ihm  zu  Gemüte,  daß  usw.  I  impressed  upon  his 
mind  that,  &c.  Er  gab  seine  Familie  dem  Elende  preis.  Ich  hielt  es  seiner  Unwissenheit  zu- 
gute I  put  it  down  to  his  ignorance.  Aber  man  wußte,  daß  der  alte  Herr  seiner  Zeit  in  Polchow 
nicht  angenommen  worden  war,  und  hielt  ihm  deshalb  seinen  Zorn  zugute  (Spielhagen 's  Herrin, 
p.  208)  made  allowance  for  his  anger.  Man  kaim  ihm  nichts  zu  Dank  machen  One  can  never 
please  him.  Niemand  kann  es  ihm  recht  machen  No  one  can  satisfy,  please  him.  Mach'  mir 
nichts  weis  Tell  me  no  fibs.     Er  täte  keiner  Fliege  was  zuleide. 

D.  A  number  of  impersonal  verbs  take  a  dat.  object.  These  verbs  are  enumerated  in  219. 
4.  A.  b. 

2.  Dative  after  Adjectives,  Participles,  Adverbs,  Nouns.  Also  adjectives,  par- 
ticiples, adverbs,  and  nouns,  take  a  dative  object  to  denote  that  (usually  a  person) 
toward  which  the  given  quality  or  activity  is  directed,  often  preserving  faith- 
fully the  original  dative  idea  of  direction  toiuard,  which  in  English  must  be  ex- 
pressed by  a  preposition:  Er  ist  mir,  den  Lügen  feind  He  is  an  enemy  to  me, 
to  lies. 

A.  The  following  are  the  principal  adjectives,  participles,  and  adverbs  which 
are  used  with  the  dative: 


500 SENTENCE    DATIVE 258.  2.  A.  a. 

a.  Those  signifying  inclination,  attitude  (harshness,  kindness,  favorableness,  &c.),  gratifi- 
cation, comfort,  service,  benefit,  a  sufificiency,  a  belonging  to,  being  peculiar  to,  fidelity,  obedience, 
fitness,  nearness,  association,  similarity,  conformity,  superiority,  and  their  opposites,  all  of 
which  conform  in  general  meaning  to  the  verbs  in  1.  A  above:  Er  ist  mir  gram  He  has  conceived 
a  dislike  toward  me.     Er  ist  mir  böse  (angry  at).     Sie  ist  mir,  meinem  Plane  nicht  hold.     Ihr 

Besuch  ist  mir  stets  angenehm.     Weil weil's  nicht  wahr  ist ;  und  weil  mir  nichts  zuwiderer 

ist  als  die  Unwahrheit  (W'ildhrandt's  Die  gute  Lorelei,  vii).  Sein  Vergehen  ist  ihm  leid  He  is 
sorry  for  his  fault.  Laß  dir  das  nicht  leid  sein!  Don't  be  uneasy  about  that!  Das  Unternehmen 
wurde  ihm  leid  He  began  to  reixnit  of  his  enterprise.  Diese  Speise  ist  dem  Kranken  nicht  zu- 
träglich or  bekömmlich.  Die  Maikäfer  sind  den  Bäumen  schädlich.  Die  mir  gehörigen  Bücher 
the  books  which  bilong  to  me.  Naschen  ist  den  Kindern  eigen.  Das  Mädchen  ist  ihm  treu. 
Er  ist  seinen  Idealen  abtrünnig  geworden.  Er  wohnt  uns  am  nächsten.  Meinem  Hause 
benachbart  liegt  das  Haus  eines  jüdischen  Mannes  (Heyse's  Maria  von  Magdala,  1,  5).  Der 
Knabe  ist  dem  Vater  sehr  ähnlich.  Die  Kamele  lagern  Felsblöcken  gleich  im  Sande.  Die 
Richtung  des  Stromes,  der  Stromstrich,  läuft  hier  dem  Ufer  nicht  parallel.  Er  ist  mir  darin 
über  He  is  superior  to  me  iu  that,  but  when  the  subject  is  a  thing  über  has  developed  a  meaning 
somewhat  difTerent  in  its  ai^plication:  Das  Leben,  das  sie  jetzt  führte,  war  ihr  ohnehin  über 
geworden  (Telmann's  Walirheit,  IX)  She  had  besides  become  sick  of  the  life,  &c. 

Note.  The  dative  after  adjectives,  participles,  and  verbs  is  often  replaced  by  a  prep,  construction.  Except  in 
figurative  language,  or  in  case  of  personification  where  things  are  represented  as  having  interests,  as  in  the  tenth 
sentence,  the  prep,  construction  is  tlie  rule  for  nouns  representing  things,  and  is  also  common  for  persons,  as  the  various 
prepositions  can  express  so  man\-  appropriate  shades  of  meaning:  Er  ist  mir  geneigt  lie  is  favorably  inclined  toward 
me.  but  Der  Mensch  ist  zum  Bösen  geneigt  Man  is  inclined  lo  evil.  Die  Schuhe  passen  mir  The  shoes  fit  me.  but 
Der  Deckel  paßt  auf  den  Topf  The  lid  fits  on  the  kettle.  Die  beiden  Leute  passen  recht  zu  einander  The  two  form 
a  good  match.  Das  Haus  gehört  (belongs)  mir.  Er  gehört  in  das  Haus  The  hnuse  is  the  place  for  liim.  Er  gehört 
unter  meine  besten  Freunde  He  is  one  of  my  best  friends.  Er  gehört  zu  unsrer  Freundschaft  He  belongs  to  our  circle 
of  friends.  Dieser  Schuh  gehört  auf  den  linken  Fuß.  Die  Anmerkung  gehört  nicht  hierher,  sondern  an  eine  andere 
Stelle. 

b.  The  dat.  also  stands  after  adjectives  in  many  set  expressions  in  connection  with  a  verb, 
especially  an  impersonal  verb:  Mir  ist  wirr  im  Kopf  My  head  is  confused.  Mir  ist  gar  nicht 
lächerlich  zu  Mute  I  am  by  no  means  in  a  laughing  mood.  Mir  wird  von  alledem  so  dimim, 
als  ging'  mir  ein  Mühlrad  im  Kopf  herum.     Mir  ist  übel  I  feel  sick  at  my  stomach. 

B.  Dative  after  Nouns.  The  dative  is  sometimes  found  with  nouns  which 
have  meanings  and  form  corresponding  to  verbs  in  1  and  adjectives  in  A  above: 
Vergebens  war  es,  daß  der  Bürgermeister  Gehorsam  dem  Gesetze  forderte  (Im- 
mermann's  Münchhansen,  6,  11).  Diese  Kunstwerke  sind  bloß  seit  1816  nach 
ihrer  Einverleibung  dem  britischen  Museum  in  die  allgemeine  Kenntnis  über- 
gegangen (Springer's  Kiinsthistorischc  Briefe,  p.  197).  Ich  schwöre  Treue  der 
Verfassung,  Gehorsam  den  Gesetzen  usw.  (ofilicial  oath  prescribed  Aug.  14, 
1919).  Altho  this  dative  has  ioeen  attempted  by  different  authors,  it  has  not 
become  estabHshed,  and  is  usually  replaced  by  a  prep,  construction:  Daß  sich 
für  die  Jugend  Gehorsam  unter  das  Gesetz  zieme  (Gutzkow).  Der  Gehorsam 
der  Untertanen  gegen  die  Obrigkeit.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  dative  is 
seemingly  connected  with  a  noun,  where  in  reality  it  belongs  to  the  sentence  as 
a  whole,  i.e.  it  is  in  fact  a  sentence  dative  as  described  in  3,  A,  B,  C  below: 
Er  war  mir  ein  Vater.  Er  ist  .  .  .  ein  Muster  Bürgern  und  Bauern  (Goethe's 
H.  lind  D.,  III,  53).  Das  war  euch  eine  Freude  That  was  a  joy,  I  can  tell  you. 

3.  The  Sentence  Dative.  The  dative  in  the  preceding  articles  is  more  or  less 
connected  with  a  single  verb,  verbal  expression,  or  an  adjective  whose  meaning 
it  completes,  but  the  dative  of  the  person  (or  far  less  commonly  of  the  thing) 
interested  in  the  statement  is  often  used  to  qualify  the  whole  sentence,  and  thus 
is  not  limited  to  a  definite  group  of  verbs  or  adjectives.  This  dative  shows  the 
following  shades  of  use: 

A.  The  Dative  of  Reference.  The  dative  often  denotes  the  person  to  whom 
the  statement  seems  true,  or  with  reference  to  whom  it  holds  good :  Wir  heißen 
ihm  nur  Kinder  We  are  to  him  only  children.  Sie  ist  mir  schön  To  me  she  is 
pretty.  Das  ist  mir  ein  Rätsel  That  is  a  riddle  to  me.  Das  bleibt  mir  ein 
großer  Trost.  Das  Kleid  ist  mir  zu  lang  The  dre.ss  is  too  long  for  me.  Der 
Rock  ist  ihm  nicht  weit  genug.  Das  ist  mir  nicht  ganz  klar.  Es  klang  dem 
peinlich  gespannten  Ohr  wie  fernher  rauschendes  Wasser.  Bin  ich  derselbe 
denn  nicht  mehr,  dem  hier  sonst  alle  Türen  sprangen?  Am  I  not  any  more  the 
same  man,  to  whom  once  all  doors  stood  open?  Mir  (upon  me,  as  far  as  I  am 
concerned)  hinterUeß  seine  Rede  einen  tiefen  Eindruck.  Das  ist  mir  nicht 
erinnerlich  I  do  not  remenil)cr  that.  Er  machte  "es  mir  leicht  He  made  it  easy 
for  me.     Er  machte  es  mir  möglich  zu  reisen.     Dem  Zornigen  wallt  das  Blut, 


258.  3.  B.  DATIVE   OF   REFERENCE   &   INTEREST 501 

schwellen  die  Muskeln;  dem  Ärgerlichen  läuft  die  Galle  über.  „Willst  du  sein 
Werben  eine  Drohung  nennen?"     „Es  ist  die  schrecklichste  von  allen  mir" 

(Goethe's  Iphigenie,  1,  2).  Mir  war  zuweilen,  als  sei  ich  von  unserm  lieben 
Gott  geschieden  (Frey tag's  Rittmeister,  ix).  Ich  möchte  dir  was  sein  können 
(Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  2).  So  (because  he  was  supposed  to  be 
unacquainted  with  the  German  language)  konnte  er  sich  kleine  Frechheiten  er- 
lauben, die  einem  anderen  nicht  durchgegangen  wären  (Beyerlein 's  Jena  oder 
Sedan?,  iv).  This  dative  is  often  found  in  the  old  verbless  attributive  type  of 
sentence  described  in  252.  1.  b.  Note:  Freies  Wort  jeder  Partei  (on  the  title  page 
of  Der  Tag)  The  columns  of  this  newspaper  are  open  to  every  party.  The  noun 
Wort  is  here  the  logical  subject  and  the  attributive  adjective  freies  is  the  logical 
predicate.  The  dative  is  also  often  used  here  where  the  attributive  adjective  is 
the  logical  objective  predicate:  Freie  Bahn  dem  Tüchtigen!  Let  us  keep  the  road 
(to  employment,  promotion  in  public  service,  &c.)  open  to  able  me?i.  Freie  is 
here  the  logical  objective  predicate  to  Bahn,  which  is  the  object  of  some  verb 
understood.  Compare  262.  III.  2.  B.  Similarly  the  dative  is  found  in  verbless 
subordinate  clauses  of  the  old  appositional  type:  So  sprich  von  Szylla,  leiblich 
dir  Geschwisterkind   (Goethe's  Faust,  1.  8813). 

A  preposition  can  often  replace  the  dative  here,  usually,  however,  with  a 
shade  of  meaning:  Die  Nachricht  war  meinem  Vater  wichtig  The  news  was  im- 
portant to  my  father,  i.e.  he  felt  it  as  such,  but  Die  Nachricht  war  für  meinen 
Vater  wichtig  The  news  was  of  importance  for  my  father,  i.e.  in  and  of  itself, 
whether  he  was  conscious  of  it  or  not.  Er  ist  den  Armen  ein  Vater  He  is  a 
father  to  the  poor  (and  they  feel  the  results  of  this  relation),  but  Der  nicht  jung 
war  mit  unsern  Jünglingen,  \  dem  unsre  Worte  nicht  zum  Herzen  tönen,  |  kann 
er  ein  Vater  sein  zu  seinen  Söhnen?  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  Prolog,  3),  because  the 
poet  calls  attention  to  the  attitude  rather  than  its  resultant  effects  upon  the 
persons. 

a.  Dative  of  Agent.  After  the  predicate  modal  verbal  (180.  A)  and  after  verbal  adjectives 
in  -bar,  -lieh,  and  -sam,  this  dat.  has  the  force  of  a  dative  of  agent,  as  the  natural  inference  is  that 
the  person  in  the  dat.,  with  reference  to  whom  the  statement  of  the  necessity  or  possibility  of 
performing  the  action  holds  good,  is  also  the  one  who  actually  performs  it:  Eine  Last  hab'  ich 
getragen —  [es  ist]  keinem  Sterblichen  zu  fassen!  (Lienhard's  König  Arthur,  5,  p.  103).  In 
the  expression  Das  macht  mir  zu  schaffen  (185.  B.  I.  2.  d,  toward  end)  the  dative  is  the  usual 
expression.  In  connection  with  the  modal  verbal,  von  is,  in  general,  more  common  in  plain  prose 
and  often  necessary  to  make  the  thought  clear:'  Von  diesem  bin  ich  zu  retten.  In  connection 
with  -bar,  -lieh,  and  -sam,  the  dat.  is  usual:  Das  weimarische  Theater  war  auf  seinem  höchsten 
ihm  erreichbaren  Punkt  (Goethe)  The  theater  at  Weimar  was  at  the  highest  point  of  perfec- 
tion that  could  be  attained  by  it.  Alles  dem  Auge  Erreichbare  (id.).  SteU  ist  der  Fels,  die 
Burg  ganz  unbezwinglich  |  und  keinem,  der  nicht  Flügel  hat,  erschwinglich  (Gries)  The  precipice 
is  steep,  the  fortress  is  impregnable  and  cannot  be  reached  by  one  who  has  not  wings.  Wollt 
ihr  nun  mein  als  einer  Frau  gedenken,  |  lenksam  dem  Zaum,  so  daß  kein  Stachel  not,  wiU  freudig 
ich  usw.  (Grillparzer's  Libussa,  1).  The  prepositional  construction  with  für  is  often  in  plain 
prose  more  common  here:  Er  (i.e.  dieser  Versuch)  macht  jedoch  keineswegs  den  Anspruch 
eine  erschöpfende,  grammatische  Analyse  der  Sprache  Shakespeares  bieten  zu  wollen;  eine 
solche  ist  für  den  Augenblick  weder  praktisch,  noch  war  sie  für  mich  zur  Zeit  ausführbar  (Franz's 
Shakespeare-Grammatik,  Vorwort).  The  für  here  gives  the  statement  more  objective  force, 
while  the  simple  dative  would  impart  a  subjective  meaning  representing  the  thought  as  the 
personal  view  of  the  speaker.  Also  when  lassen  has  a  reflexive  object  and  a  dependent  infinitive 
with  passiv^e  force,  the  agent  can  be  in  the  dat.:  Drauf  läßt  er  sich  dem  (or  more  commonly  von 
dem)  Volke  sehen  (Geliert).  Other  examples  are  given  in  262.  III.  2.  C.  c.  In  poetic  style  this 
dative  is  also  found  with  a  passive  perfect  participle:  keinem  Zeugen  behorcht  (Klopstock)  = 
von  keinem  Zeugen  behorcht. 

b.  Poetic  Dative  of  Cause.  In  poetic  language  the  dative  is  very  common  to  denote  a  person 
or  thing  involved  in  the  action  in  the  relation  of  a  cause:  Sieh,  ich  bebte  nicht  dir  (in  prose  vor 
dir),  ich  bebte  der  furchtbaren  Göttin  (Bürger).  Dem  (in  prose  von  dem)  Stoß  des  Widders 
bebt  der  morsche  Stein  (Platen's  Treue,  2).  The  list  of  verbs  given  in  1.  A.  /  might  also  be 
classed  here.     In  prose  the  dative  is  usually  replaced  by  a  prep,  construction. 

B.  The  Dative  of  Interest.  The  dat.  often  denotes  the  person  to  whose  ad- 
vantage or  disadvantage  the  action  results:  Sein  Herz  schlug  der  ganzen 
Menschheit  His  heart  beat  for  all  humanity.  Dir  (for  you)  blüht  gewiß  das 
schönste  Glück  der  Erde.  Irre  ich  |  so  jrre  ich  mir  (Job  xix.  4).  Das  Pferd 
lief  ihm  fort  The  horse  ran  away  from  him,  lit.  ran  away  to  his  discomfiture. 


502 ETHICAL    DATIVE 258.  3.  B. 

This  dative,  tho  not  infrequent  with  intransitives,  is  much  more  common 
with  transitives,  where  it  is  often  used  even  when  from  an  EngHsh  standpoint 
there  seems  to  be  no  need  of  it:  Schreiben  Sie  mir  diese  Aufgabe  ab  Copy  this 
exercise  for  me.  Komm'  auch,  sieh'  dir's  an  Come  too  and  look  at  it  for  your- 
self. Er  kauft  seinem  Sohne  ein  Pferd.  Kämmerer:  Sie  stirbt.  Ute:  Ich 
könnt'  ihr  (for  her  sake)  wünschen,  es  wäre  so!  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  II,  vi,  5). 
Keinem  anderen  wollte  sie  den  Karren  ziehen,  aber  ihm  (Carl  Busse's  Die 
schöne  Andrea).  So  nahm  ich  mir  (not  translated  into  English)  zu  Hause  nur 
Zeit,  mich  anzuziehen  (dress)  und  zu  frühstücken,  und  fuhr  sofort  wieder  nach 
Siebenschloß  (name  of  a  castle). 

This  dative  is  much  used  in  prose,  but  very  much  more  so  in  poetry:  Wohl 
wittert  jedes  Wesen  seinen  Feind;  |  drum  hegt  auch  dir  (in  prose  gegen  dich) 
der  Kaiser  wildern  Haß  |  und  unversöhnlicheren,  als  mir  ( =  gegen  mich)  selbst 
(Uhland). 

a.  This  dat.  is  used  with  unusual  frequency  instead  of  a  possessive  or  a  genitive:  Der  Kopf 
brummt  mir  My  head  is  just  roaring.  Mir  juckt  der  ganze  Leib.  Sie  putzt  sich  die  Zähne  She 
is  brushing  her  teeth.  Mir  (or  Dem  Wilhelm)  scheint  die  Sorme  ins  Gesicht  The  sun  shines  in 
my  (or  WiUiam's)  face.  Mere,  as  in  EngHsh,  the  possessive  or  gen.  might  also  be  used:  Die 
Sonne  scheint  in  mein  Gesicht  (or  in  Wilhelms  Gesicht).  These  two  constructions  are  not, 
however,  exactly  equivalent  in  force:  Dem  Pferde  sitzt  eine  Wespe  auf  dem  Rücken,  but  Dies 
Bild  zeigt  ein  schönes  Pferd,  auf  dessen  Rücken  ein  kleiner  Knabe  sitzt.  Compare  with:  "She 
looked  me  tenderly  in  the  eyes"  as  contrasted  with  "The  doctor  looked  in  my  eyes"  (to  examine 
them).  The  dat.  makes  more  prominent  the  person  to  whose  advantage  or  disadvantage  the 
action  accrues.  Thus  the  possessive,  not  the  dative,  is  used  in  Da  zerriß  der  Hohepriester  seinen 
Rock  (Mark  xiv.  63),  as  the  high  priest  had  no  desire  of  injuring  himself  in  tearing  his  coat,  but 
the  dative  is  in  place  where  it  is  desired  to  show  that  an  injur>'  or  loss  ensues:  Der  Junge  zerriß 
sich  beim  Fallen  den  Rock.  Sometimes  both  dat.  and  possessive  are  used:  Es  gibt  böse  Gei- 
ster, I  die  in  des  Menschen  unverwahrter  Brust  |  sich  augenblicklich  ihren  Wohnsitz  nehmen 
(Schiller).  This  double  construction  is  in  our  own  time  a  characteristic  of  popular  speech: 
Wenn  ich  an  den  Arend  (name)  jetzt  denke  und  an  Sie,  Herr  Kunemund,  und  an  die  Gertrud 
und  die  Hunde  und  das  übrige  Vieh  und  das  ganze  gute  alte  Leben,  so  könnte  ich  mir  mein 
Hemde  in  meinen  Tränen  waschen  (Raabe's  Meister  Autor,  chap.  17).     See  also  138.  3. 

In  all  these  examples  the  dative  can  still  be  construed  as  a  sentence  modifier,  a  dative  of  in- 
terest, but  there  has  long  been  a  tendency  here,  as  in  the  last  example,  to  bring  the  dative  into 
relation  to  some  noun  in  the  sentence  with  which  it  is  associated  in  thought.  This  tendency 
often,  as  in  138.  2.  c,  goes  so  far  that  the  dative  ceases  to  be  a  sentence  modifier  and  becomes  a 
modifier  of  the  noun. 

C.  Ethical  Dative.  The  dat.  is  not  only,  as  in  the  preceding  article,  used  to 
denote  the  person  who  has  a  material  interest  in  the  action,  but  is  also  often 
employed  to  denote  the  person  who  has  or  is  expected  to  have  an  emotional 
interest  in  the  statement,  especially  a  dat.  of  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  1st 
or  2nd  person  which  is  frequently  in  conversation  inserted  here  and  there,  in 
some  particular  proposition,  to  indicate  that  that  particular  point  seems  im- 
portant to  the  speaker  or  should  be  noted  by  the  person  addressed:  Sieh  mir 
nicht  so  finster  aus  Pray,  don't  look  so  sullen.  Das  war  euch  eine  Freude  That 
was  a  joy,  I  can  tell  you.  Seid  mir  recht  artig,  ihr  Kinder  Come,  children,  I 
do  want  you  to  be  real  good.  Daß  mir  keiner  aufs  Eis  geht!  I  don't  want  one 
of  you  to  go  upon  the  ice.  Rede  mir  doch  nur!  Come,  don't  be  bashful,  speak 
right  out,  for  I  am  anxious  to  hear  it.  Sprich  dem  Vater  (not  an  indirect  object 
here,  but  an  ethical  dat.)  lieber  nicht  erst  von  diesem  Vorhaben  Don't  say 
anything  to  father  about  this  plan  now,  for  you  can  expect  from  him  no  interest 
in  it,  but  rather  opposition.  Krümmt  mir  kein  Haar  auf  dem  Haupt  eures 
Herrn!  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Jakob  Szela,  p.  117)  I  warn  you,  don't  you  harm 
a  hair  on  the  head  of  your  master.  Immer  wußte  sie  etwas  Neues,  und  so  giftig 
kam  Ihnen  bei  ihr  alles  heraus  She  always  had  something  new  to  relate,  and  I 
tell  you,  she  had  a  mean  way  of  telling  it.  This  dat.  cannot  easily  be  rendered 
into  modern  English,  tho  the  same  construction  is  common  in  Shakespeare: 
Whip  me  such  honest  knaves  {Othello,  I,  1.  47). 

4.  In  the  eighteenth  century  and  even  later  a  dat.  is  found  with  fühlen,  kennen,  wissen,  and 
wollen,  begehren,  fordern,  where  a  prep,  phrase  is  now  used:  Ich  fühle  mir  (now  in  mir)  Hoff- 
nung, Mut  und  Kraft  ((ioethe).  Ich  hatte  eine  größere  Heiterkeit  des  Geistes  gewonnen,  als 
^h  mir  (an  mir)  lange  nicht  gekannt  (Goethe).  Und  hätt'  ich  dir  (bei  dir)  ein  so  versöhnlich 
Herz  gewußt  (Schiller).     Weiß  ich,  was  Saladin  mir  (von  mir)  will?  (Lessing).     Was  sie  ihm 


259.  7. VERBS   WITH    DATIVE   OR   ACCUSATIVE 503 

wolle  (Freytag's  Bild,  1,  200).     Was  mir  (von  mir)  die  Göttliche  begehrt,  das  weiß  ich  (H.  v. 
Kleist).     Ein  andrer  Kaiser  fordert  Euch  (von  Euch)  dasselbe  (Grillparzer's  Ottokar,  3). 

5.  It  is  a  marked  peculiarity  of  the  uneducated  in  the  North  that  they  use  an  accusative 
often  where  a  dative  is  in  place,  and  on  the  other  hand  a  dative  where  an  accusative  should  be 
employed:  Laß  mir  in  Ruh!  Ich  hab'  nichts  mit  dich  zu  schaffen!  (May  in  Halbe's  Das  tausend- 
jährige Reich,  p.  128).  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  Low  Cierman  the  personal  pronouns  do  not 
have  a  different  form  for  dat.  and  ace:   ml  =  H.G.  mir  and  mich;  dl  =  H.G.  dir  and  dich. 

Either  Dative  or  Accusative  according  to  Meaning  or  from 
Unsettled  Usage. 

259.  Some  verbs  take  the  dat.  or  ace.  according  to  the  meaning  involved, 
while  others,  on  account  of  fluctuation  of  usage,  admit  of  both  cases  without 
a  difference  of  meaning.  The  difference  of  construction  with  the  same  verb 
usually  results  from  analogy,  the  verb  breaking  away  from  its  original  construc- 
tion to  follow  that  of  another  verb  of  the  same  meaning. 

1.  ANGEHEN  to  concern,  usually  with  ace,  but  occasionally  also  with  dat.  in  accordance 
with  the  nature  of  the  dat.  to  express  a  relation  which  concerns  inner  or  material  interests  (see 
258.  1):  Was  gehen  dem  Christen  dieses  Maimes  Beweise  an?  (Lessing,  10,  10).  Hier  sieht's 
doch  aus,  als  ob  dem,  der  hier  wohnt,  die  ganze  Sache  draußen  gar  nichts  anging  (Otto  Erler's 
Struensee,  p.  2),  but  more  commonly  Das  geht  mich  nichts  an. 

2.  ANKOMMEN:  {\)  to  depend  or  hinge  upon,  \\it\\  da.t.  oi  interest:  Es  kommt  mir  auf  ein 
paar  Taler  nicht  an  I  do  not  mind  giving  a  few  talers  more,  (b)  To  get  at,  with  dat.:  Man  kann 
dem  Verbrecher  nicht  ankommen,  (c)  To  come  (hard,  easy,  (Sic.)  for,  with  ace.  early  in  the 
period,  but  later  also  with  dat.,  the  fluctuation  continuing  without  a  marked  preponderance  of 
either  form,  the  dat.,  however,  gaining  ground:  Vnd  es  kam  sie  hart  an  vber  der  geburt  (Genesis 
XXXV.  17).  Es  ist  mir  schwer  angekommen  (Schiller).  Und  das  hinzunehmen,  wäre  mir  hart 
angekommen  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  xvi).  Sauer  ist's  mich  genug  angekommen  (Anzengru- 
ber's  Schandfleck,  Vll).  Es  kam  mich  hart  an,  mich  zu  verstellen  (Marriot).  Sie  fühlte,  daß 
sie  den  größten  Verlust  erlitt,  daß  es  für  die  anderen,  so  schwer  es  sie  ankam,  doch  nicht  das 
bedeutete,  wie  für  sie  (G.  Ompteda).  (d)  To  befall,  come  upon,  with  ace.  in  early  N.H.G.,  later 
also  frequently  with  dat.,  now  perhaps  more  commonly  with  ace:  Furcht  vnd  zittern  ist  mich 
ankörnen  (Psalm  Iv.  6).  Nicht  einen  Augenblick  ist  mir  eine  Furcht  vor  der  Hölle  angekommen 
(Goethe).  Der  verstorbene  Schickedanz  hatte,  wie  der  Tod  ihn  ankam,  ein  Leben  hinter  sich, 
das  sich  in  zwei  sehr  verschiedene  Hälften  teilte  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  xü).  Daneben  hatten  es 
ihre  Briefe  an  sich,  daß  etwas  wie  leichte  Bergluft  daraus  hervorzuquellen  schien,  so  daß  mir 
Neid  und  Weh  ankam  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  XXV).  Mich  kam  ein  gewaltiges  Erschrecken 
an  (ib.).  (e)  To  appear  (to  the  senses,  imagination),  seem,  with  dat.:  Die  Kaffeetassen  klap- 
perten so  heimlich  auf  den  Untersetzern,  daß  es  ihr  ankam,  als  habe  sie  schon  jetzt  einen  Vor- 
geschmack der  paradiesischen  Freuden  (Lauff's  Frau  Aleit,  p.  76). 

3.  ANLIEGEN  to  entreat,  usually  with  dat.,  tho  occasionally  the  ace.  after  the  analogy  of 
angehen  to  entreat  is  found:  Ich  lag  der  Mutter  an,  und  diese  suchte  den  Vater  zu  bereden. 
Hier  lag  Antonio  den  König  sehr  an,  ihm  beizuspringen  (Lessing,  6,  163). 

4.  ANWANDELN  to  befall,  come  over,  usually  with  ace,  occasionally  also  intransitively 
with  dat.:  Furcht  wandelt  mich  nicht  an.  Was  ist  dir  angewandelt?  (Tieck).  Und  sollte  es 
einem  mal  so  anwandeln,  daß  man  von  einem  anderen  denkt  usw.  (Boy-Ed's  Das  ABC  des 
Lebens,  p.  140). 

5.  AUSBIETEN  to  give  notice  to  leave  the  house,  city,  &c.,  with  dat.  or  ace,  now  replaced  by 
ausweisen  with  ace:  Ich  biete  dem  Junker  aus  (Schiller)  I'll  give  the  young  gent  notice  to  keep 
off  the  premises.  In  Wien  hat  man  alle  Fremden  ausgeboten  (Goethe)  In  Vienna  all  strangers 
have  been  given  notice  to  leave. 

6.  BEDEUTEN  to  instruct,  inform,  give  a  sign  to  somebody  that  or  to  (with  dependent  clause 
or  infin.),  to  give  somebody  to  understand,  to  order,  except  in  the  first  two  meanings  usually  with 
dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace  of  the  thing,  or  instead  of  the  ace  a  clause  or  infinitive:  Man 
bedeutet  ihm  zu  schweigen  (Otto  Ernst's  Flachsniann  als  Erzieher,  3,  8).  The  ace  of  the  person 
is  the  rule  for  the  first  two  meanings  and  is  also  not  infrequently  found  in  the  other  meanings: 
Therese  bedeutete  den  Verwalter  in  allem  (Goethe).  Da  sie  ziemlich  laut  sprach,  kam  der 
Pfarrer  ans  Fenster  und  fragte,  was  es  gebe.  Sie  bedeutete  ihn  (id.,  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit, 
II,  10).  Die  Frau,  die  ihn  stehend  empfangen  hatte,  bedeutete  ihn  mit  einem  Winke  der  Hand, 
Platz  zu  nehmen  (W'ildenbruch's  Vice-Mama).  Mattes  Ehmreich  .  .  .  bedeutete  sie  durch 
Gebärden,  daß  er  das  Geld  bei  sich  habe  (Schönherr's  Sonnwendtag,  p.  71).  Earlier  in  the 
period  sometimes  with  the  ace  of  the  person  and  the  gen.  of  the  thing:  (er)  bedeute  ihn  seiner 
Pflicht  (Goethe's  Briefe,  vol.  27,  p.  187)  Let  him  instruct  him  as  to  his  duty.  The  ace  of  the 
fserson  in  these  constructions  explains  the  frequent  passive  construction  here:  Schnell  werden 
wir  bedeutet,  hier  sei  von  einer  Mehrheit  die  Rede  (Goethe).  Er  will  sich  nicht  bedeuten  lassen 
He  will  not  listen  to  reason.  Laß  dich  bedeuten.  Sometimes  the  dative  here:  Laß  dir  bedeuten, 
Artur  (Kleist's   Homburg,  2,  2). 

7.  BEFEHLEN,  BEFEHLIGEN,  GEBIETEN:  (a)  befehlen  to  commend,  commit,  with  ace 
of  the  thing,  now  limited  to  elevated  diction:  Vater  |  Ich  befelh  meinen  Geist  in  deine  Hende 
(Luke  xxiii.  46).     Befelh  dem  HERRN  deine  wege  (Psalm  xxxvii.  5).     (b)  Befehlen  to  command, 


504 VERBS  WITH    DATIVE   OR  ACCUSATIVE 259.  7. 

to  give  a  command  to,  with  dat.  of  person:  Er  befahl  mir  hinzugehen,  (c)  Befehlen  to  order  to 
appear  at,  summons,  invite  (used  in  circles  where  the  invitation  is  equal  to  a  command  as  in  case 
of  an  invitation  or  request  from  a  prince,  king),  with  ace.  of  the  person:  Der  Fürst  befahl  ihn 
zur  Tafel  The  prince  invited  him  to  dinner.  In  the  meanings  to  desire,  order  to  bring  or  pass 
(a  thing)  with  ace:  Befiehlst  du  deme  Pfeife,  Papa?  (Sudermann's  Heimat,  1,  6).  Be- 
fehlen Sie  noch  etwas  Suppe?  May  I  help  you  to  some  more  soup?  (d)  Befehligen  usually  used 
in  the  sense  of  to  have  command  of  (in  a  military  sense),  with  ace.  of  the  thing:  Er  befehligt  das 
Heer,  den  linken  Flügel  des  Heeres,  (e)  Gebieten  with  a  simple  acc.  of  the  thing,  to  enjo-i>i, 
impose,  require:  Er  gebietet  Stillschweigen.  Die  Freundschaft  gebietet  es.  With  the  simple 
dative  of  the  person  or  personified  thing,  to  govern,  rule,  curb,  bridle:  So  vielen  gebietest  du! 
(Schiller's  Walleusteins  Tod,  2,  3).  Er  gebietet  seinen  Leidenschaften.  With  dat.  of  person 
and  acc.  of  thing:   Er  gebietet  ihnen  Stillschweigen. 

8.  BELIEBEN:  (a)  to  choose,  please,  like,  with  dat.  when  the  subject  is  a  thing,  when  it  is 
a  person,  with  ace.  Es  beliebte  ihm  nicht  zu  antworten  He  did  not  choose  to  answer.  Nehmen 
Sie,  was  Ihnen  beliebt  (pleases).  Belieben  Sie  (would  you  like  to  have)  roten  Wein?  (b)  To 
inspire  love  in  somebody  for  something,  with  dat.  of  person  and  acc.  of  thing,  a  Swiss  idiom:  [Er] 
wandte  sich  an  die  Regierung,  indem  er  ihr  die  Erhaltung  einzelner  schöner  Bäume  als  einen 
allgemeinen  Grundsatz  belieben  wollte   (Keller's  Seldw.,  2,  262). 

9.  BETTEN:  (a)  to  make  the  bed{s),  always  intrans.:  Das  Mädchen  hat  noch  nicht  gebettet. 
Also  a  dat.  of  interest  can  be  associated  with  the  verb,  to  prepare  a  couch  for,  to  bed  (horses,  &c.): 
■Wem  (for  whom)  die  Liebe  bettet,  ruhet  gut  (Chamisso).  Er  bettet  dem  Vieh,  (b)  In  the 
sense  to  lay  one's  self  or  someone  dow)i  to  repose  hetten  was  used  earlier  in  the  period  intransitively 
with  a  dat.  of  interest,  while  present  usage  employs  it  transitively  with  a  direct  ol)ject  after  the 
analogy  of  sich  hinlegen,  or  einen  ins  Bett  legen:  Bettet  ich  mir  in  die  Helle  |  Sihe  |  so  bistu 
auch  da  (Psahn  cxxxix.  8).  Noch  versuch'  ich's,  sie  zu  retten,  |  wo  nicht,  auf  ihrem  Sarge  mir 
zu  betten  (Schiller's  Alaria,  3,  8).  Ich  bettete  mich  auf  weiches  Moos.  Die  Mutter  bettete 
das  Eönd  in  die  Kammer.     The  dative  still  survives  in  poetic  style. 

10.  BEZAHLEN  to  pay,  with  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  acc.  of  the  thing  when  there  are  two 
objects,  but  with  the  acc.  of  the  person  if  the  thing  stands  after  a  prep,  or  is  omitted  altogether: 
Ich  habe  dem  Schneider  die  Rechnung  bezahlt.  Ich  habe  den  Rock  or  für  den  Rock  bezahlt. 
Ich  habe  die  Rechnung  bezahlt.  Ich  habe  den  Schneider  für  den  Rock  bezahlt.  Ich  habe  den 
Schneider  bezahlt.  Sometimes,  however,  the  dat.  in  the  latter  case,  especially  in  a  figurative 
sense:  Das  Mädchen  selbst ....  mit  deren  Hoffnung  |  er  gern  mir  zu  bezahlen  schiene  (Lessing's 
Nathan,  4,  4).  Ich  will  ihnen  (more  commonly  sie)  mit  ihrer  Münze  bezahlen  (Freytag's  Der 
Rittmeister^  von  Alt-Rosen,  chap.  VII). 

11.  DÜNKEN  (and  the  rare  form  dunkeln)  and  the  less  common  form  BEDÜNKEN  (and 
the  rare  form  bedünkeln)  to  seem  took  in  early  N.H.G.  the  acc.  almost  regularly,  but  now,  after 
the  analogy  of  vorkommen  and  scheinen  to  seem,  take  also  the  dat.:  Es  dünkt  mich  or  mir,  daß 
usw.     Compare  185.  A.  I.  1.  b.   (3). 

12.  GELTEN:  (.\)  to  be  aimed  at,  be  intended  for,  with  dat.:  Der  Anschlag  galt  nicht  seinem 
Leben,  sondern  seinem  Geld.  Wem  gilt  diese  Bemerkung?  (b)  To  concern,  be  valued  at,  be 
worth,  with  adverbial  acc,  sometimes  also  with  dat.  of  interest  in  addition  to  the  acc:  Es  gilt 
sein  Leben  It  concerns  his  life,  or  His  life  is  at  stake.  Das  Buch  gilt  einen  Taler.  Das  Ge- 
mälde gilt  mir  zehnmal  mehr  (acc.)  als  es  mir  kostet. 

13.  GELÜSTEN  to  covet,  long  for,  lust  after,  with  acc.  of  the  person  and  gen.  of  the  thing,  or 
more  commonly  the  thing  is  in  the  dat.  after  the  prep,  nach:  Las  dich  nicht  gelüsten  deines 
Nehesten  Weibs  (Exodus  xx.  17).  Es  gelüstet  das  Kind  nach  dem  Obst.  Also  the  dat.  of  the 
person  is  here  sometimes  used,  after  the  analogy  of  the  dat.  with  other  verbs  of  kindred  meaning 
as  belieben,  gefallen:  Es  gelüstete  ihnen  nach  einer  Zyane  (blue-bottle)  (von  Hörmann).  See 
also  262.  II.  B.  d,  2nd  par. 

14.  GETRAUEN,  TRAUEN:  (a)  The  simple  verb  trauen  in  the  meaning  to  trust  in,  rely 
lipon,  takes  the  dat.  or  a  prep,  phrase:  Ich  traue  ihm  or  auf  (261.  A)  ihn.  Ich  traue  ihm  nicht 
über  die  Gasse  I  would  not  trust  him  across  the  street,  (b)  Trauen  or  now  more  commonly 
getrauen  to  dare,  venture,  with  acc,  rarely  with  dat.,  if  there  is  no  dependent  infinitive:  Ich 
(ge)traute  mich  nicht  dorthin  I  did  not  venture  to  go  there.  Ich  (ge)traue  mich  nicht  zu 
ihm  (to  go  to  this  house),  (c)  Trauen  or  now  more  commonly  getrauen  to  trust  one's  self,  or 
have  confidence  in  one's  self,  or  be  bold  enough  to  undertake  something,  to  dare,  with  acc.  or  dat., 
if  there  is  a  dependent  infinitive:  Ich  (ge)traue  mich  or  mir,  es  zu  tun.  If  there  are  two  inflected 
objects,  one  of  the  person  and  one  of  the  thing,  the  person  is  in  the  dat.  and  the  thing  in  the  acc: 
Ich  getraue  mir  den  Sprung  nicht  1  haven't  the  courage  to  make  the  leap.  Earlier  in  the  period, 
the  acc.  of  the  person  and  the  gen.  of  the  thing  was  common  here,  and  still  occurs  in  poetic  language: 
Ich  getraue  mich  dessen  I  have  the  courage  to  attempt  it.  In  such  sentences  as  Er  (ge)traut 
sich's  we  have  the  M.H.G.  construction,  altho  it  is  not  now  felt.  The  es,  which  is  in  reality  a 
gen.  (see  140.  c),  is  now  taken  for  an  acc,  and  the  sich  is  correctly  construed  as  a  dat.,  and  thus 
arose  the  now  common  construction  of  the  dative  of  the  person  and  the  acc.  of  the  thing.  This 
change  of  construction  was  quite  easy,  as  the  dative  and  accusative  type  is  now  a  favorite  con- 
struction, (d)  Trauen  to  unite  in  wedlock,  always  with  the  acc:  Der  Prediger  wird  meine 
Schwester  trauen. 

15.  GLAUBEN:  (a)  to  believe  in  the  sense  of  having  confidence  in  the  veracity  of  somebody, 
or  the  reliability  of  something,  with  the  dat. :  Ich  glaube  ihm.  Ich  glaubte  meinen  Augen  kaum, 
als  ich  ihn  sah.  (b)  To  believe  to  be  true,  with  the  acc:  Diese  Geschichte  glaube  ich  nicht. 
The  dat.  of  the  person  represented  as  the  authority  for  the  statement  can  also  accompany  the 


259.24.  VERBS  WITH    DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE 505 

ace.  of  the  thing:  Kein  Mensch  glaubte  ihm  das  No  one  beHeved  him  when  he  said  that.  Only 
rarely  the  genitive  of  the  thing  in  accordance  with  older  usage:  Meine  erste  Bestürzung  .  .  . 
hatte  mich  des  glauben  gemacht  (Schiller's  Werke,  4,  75).  (c)  To  have  a  firm  belief  that  some- 
thing exists,  or  that  the  claims,  teachings  of  soi"nebody  are  worthy  of  implicit  confidence,  usually 
with  the  ace.  after  the  prep,  an,  but  sometimes  with  the  simple  ace:  Er  glaubt  an  Gott,  an 
Christum,  an  Geister,  an  die  Wahrheiten  der  Religion,  an  die  Auferstehung  der  Toten.  Goethe : 
(Gretchen  asks:)  Glaubst  du  an  Gott?  (Faust  replies:)  Wer  darf  ihn  nennen?  |  Und  wer  beken- 
nen: I  ich  glaub'  ihn  (  =  an  ihn}?  |  Wer  empfinden  |  und  sich  unterwinden  |  zu  sagen:  ich  glaub' 
ihn  ( =  an  ihn)  nicht?  Schaff  ihnen  Brot,  damit  sie  Gott  glauben  (Voegtlin's  Das  neue  Gewissen, 
p.  32).  Mußte  ich  aber  Gott  damals  leugnen,  und  muß  ich  Ihn  heute  glauben,  so  ist  usw.  (Ernst 
Heilborn's  Die  Krone  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  June  1905,  p.  366). 

16.  GRAUEN,  GRAUSEN,  GRAUSELN,  GRUSELN,  &c.  For  fluctuations  of  usage 
among  impersonal  verbs,  see  219.  4. 

17.  HELFEN:  (.\)  to  help,  now  usually  with  the  dat.  Rarely  with  the  ace:  Lieber  Pappe 
[Papa],  ich  helfe  dich  (Goethe's  Des  Künstlers  Erdenwallen,  1)  (probably  used  here  in  imitation 
of  the  language  of  a  child.)  In  the  collocjuial  language  of  the  North  we  sometimes  find  an  ace. 
of  the  thing,  a  construction  well  known  in  English  and  Low  German:  Jan:  „Och,  Kaptein, — 
ick  kunn  dat  doch  nich  helpen!" — und  die  kleine  Frau  Doktorin  lächelte  den  Gestrengen 
äußerst  reizend  an  und  meinte:  „Wirklich  —  er  konnte  es  nicht  helfen  (usually  ändern),  Herr 
Kapitän"  (Schulze-Smidt's  O  Tannehatim,  III).  This  accusative  also  occurs  in  the  Swiss  writer 
Ernst  Zahn:  Ohne  daß  sie  es  helfen  konnte  usw.  {Das  Leben  der  Salome  Zeller,  near  end).  This 
es,  earlier  in  the  period  more  common,  is  now  felt  as  an  ace.  but  in  fact  it  is  a  gen.  of  specifica- 
tion (260) :  Ich  kann  es  nicht  helfen  I  can't  offer,  suggest  any  help,  remedy  with  regard  to  the 
matter,  (b)  to  avail  or  profit,  with  dat.,  or  earlier  in  the  period  also  quite  frequently  the  ace. 
of  the  person:  Was  hiilff's  den  Menschen  [ace.  sing.]  |  wenn  er  die  gantze  Welt  gewünne  |  vnd 
neme  an  seiner  Seelen  schaden  (Mark  viii.  36).  Was  hilft  dich's,  der  beste  zu  sein?  (Goethe's 
Rein.,  F.,  8).  Es  hilft  ihn  nichts  (Uhland).  Occasionally  still:  Was  half  ihn  die  wachsende 
Habe,  wenn  nirgends  eine  Ruhe  und  ein  Behagen  war?  (Anna  Schieber's  Alle  guten  Geister,  p. 
328). 

18.  HORCHEN  to  hearken,  listen,  usually  w.  dat.  or  more  commonly  a  prep,  phrase,  some- 
times w.  ace.  in  elevated  discourse:  Er  horcht  dem  Gesänge  der  Vögel.  Du  siehst,  ich  horche 
deinen  Worten  (Goethe's  I phi  genie,  5,  4).  Er  horcht  auf  die  Musik.  Man  darf  vor  dem  Knaben 
nicht  reden,  er  horcht  auf  jedes  Wort.  Horche  auf  meinen  Wunsch.  So  sangen  die  Parzen;  [  es 
horcht  der  Verbannte  !  in  nächtlichen  Höhlen  |  der  Alte  [auf]  die  Lieder,  |  denkt  [an]  Kinder 
und  Enkel  (Goethe's  Iphi genie,  4,  5).     The  prep.  inclosed  in  brackets  would  be  required  in  prose. 

19.  KLEIDEN  to  clothe,  always  w.  ace.,  but  in  the  meaning  to  become,  look  well  upon,  w. 
either  the  ace.  or  dat.  (not  rare  as  stated  by  grammarians) :    Die  weiße  Binde  kleidet  dich  nicht 

(Goethe).  Die  Possen  kleiden,  wie  üppige  Kränze  nur  braune  Locken  (C.  F.  Meyer's  Plautus). 
Manchem  kleidet  es  zu  sprechen,  und  manchem  kleidet  es  zu  schweigen  (Fontane's  Stechlin, 
XV,  p.  197). 

20.  KOSEN  to  caress,  make  love  to,  w.  ace.,  rarely  w.  dat.:  Ist's  möglich,  daß  ich,  Liebchen, 
dich  kose?  (Goethe's  Div.,  8,  7).  Dir  mit  Wohlgeruch  zu  kosen  (ib.,  7,  2).  Now  more  com- 
monly mit  einem  kosen. 

21.  KOSTEN:  (a)  to  taste,  always  w.  ace.  when  used  transitively,  (b)  To  cost,  w.  dat.  or 
now  perhaps  less  commonly  ace.:  Diese  Arbeit  hat  mir  or  mich  viel  Mühe  gekostet.  The  aec. 
here  leads  kommen/o  cost  to  take  sometimes  the  ace.  instead  of  the  correct  dat.:  Das  käme  Sie 
sehr  kostspielig  {Über  Land  und  Meer).     See  also  29  below. 

22.  LIEBKOSEN  to  caress,  formerly  with  the  dat.,  and  in  choice  language  still  with  that 
case:  Ich  liebkoste  dir  (Heyse's  Meleager,  I).  Now  quite  commonly  with  the  ace.  after  the 
analogy  of  küssen  and  herzen:   Die  Mutter  liebkost  üir  Kind. 

23.  LOHNEN  to  reiuard,  w.  dat.  of  the  person  and  ace.  of  the  thing  when  there  are  two  ob- 
jects: Er  lohnt  mir  meine  Mühe  or  für  meine  Mühe  He  pays  me  for  my  trouble.  When  there 
is  only  one  object,  and  that  is  a  thing,  it  is  now  occasionally  in  the  genitive  in  accordance  with 
older  usage  (as  in  Lessing's  Minna,  5,  9),  more  commonly,  however,  in  the  accusative  and  some- 
times in  the  dative:  Es  or  Der  Gewinn  lohnt  der  Mühe  (genitive  now  usually  confined  to  this 
word)  or  less  commonly  die  Mühe  nicht.  Man  sehe  zu,  daß  ein  Schritt  geschehe,  der  der  Mühe 
und  Unannehmlichkeiten  auf  die  Dauer  lohnt  (Dr.  August  Schmits  in  Zeitschrift  des  Allgemeinen 
Sprachvereins,  1920,  p.  71),  but  in  case  of  other  nouns  than  Mühe  more  commonly  the  ace: 
Der  neue  Fund  lohnt  die  angestrengtesten  Forschungen.  Sometimes  the  dat.:  Solchen  gott- 
seligen Taten  kann  nur  Gott  lohnen  (Goethe).  Lebhafter  Beifall  lohnte  auch  dieser  Rede  wie 
allen  vorhergegangenen  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap.  27).  If  the  single  object 
is  a  person  it  may  be  in  the  dative  or  accusative,  the  dative  emphasizing  the  idea  of  inner  gratifi- 
cation, the  accusative  that  of  financial  compensation:  Lebhafter  Beifall  lohnte  dem  Redner. 
Du  hast  ihm  mit  Undank  gelohnt.  Das  Handwerk  lohnt  seinen  Mann.  Der  Weinbau  lohnt 
hierzulande  nicht.  Dort  lohnt  man  die  Arbeit  besser.  Er  lohnt  (/'.s'  paying,  paying  off,  now  often 
replaced  here  by  löhnen,  ablohnen,  ablöhnen,  entlohnen)  die  Arbeiter.  This  distinction  is 
not  strictly  observed:  Rauschender  Beifall  und  ein  mächtiger  Lorbeerkranz  mit  wallender 
Schleife  lohnten  den  Künstler  für  seinen  trefflichen  Vortrag  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Oct.  29, 
1904).  Ist  es  nicht  wahr,  daß  es  der  Gesang  ist,  der  den  braven  Mann  lohnt?  (Hans  Delbrück 
in  Preußische  Jahrbücher,  Oct.  1919,  p.  85). 

24.  NACHAHMEN  imitate,  NACHAFFEN  to  ape,  imitate,  NACHMACHEN  to  copy,  imi- 
tate:   (a)  The  person  is  in  the  dat.  and  the  thing  in  the  ace.  if  there  are  two  objects:   Er  macht 


506 VERBS   WITH    DATIVE   OR   ACCUSATIVE  259.  24. 

mir  das  Kunststück  nach  He  is  copying  this  trick  from  me.  „Ich  verachte  dich  serr,"  äffte  ich 
ihr  nach  und  betonte  das  „serr"  noch  schärfer  als  sie  (Carl  Busse's  Z)/gga).  (b)  If  there  is  only 
one  object  and  that  the  name  of  a  thing  or  a  person  whose  name  is  used  instead  of  his  works, 
it  is  now  usually  in  the  ace:  Er  ahmt  den  Gang  und  die  Gebärden  seines  Bruders  nach.  Wie 
ich  als  Knabe  den  Terenz  nachzuahmen  wagte  (Goethe),  (c)  If  there  is  only  one  object  and  that 
a  noun  representing  a  person  or  a  thing  which  is  endowed  with  personal  attributes,  it  is  in  the 
dat.  when  the  verb  has  the  meaning  of  striving  in  a  laudable  way  to  imitate  somebody,  but  the 
ace.  when  the  verb  is  used  in  the  sense  of  mechanical  copying:  Ahme  deinem  Vater  in  der  Tugend 
nach.  Der  Schauspieler  ahmt  (imitates  in  the  role  that  he  is  playing  all  the  external  character- 
istics of)  einen  Franzosen  nach. 

25.  RATEN:  (a)  to  advise,  w.  dat.  of  the  person,  or  if  there  are  two  objects  w.  the  dat.  of 
the  person  and  ace.  of  the  thing:  Sie  rieten  mir  dazu  You  advised  me  to  do  it.  Er  riet  mir 
Gutes  He  gave  me  good  advice,      (b)  To  guess,  w.  ace.  of  the  thing:   Man  rät  ein  Rätsel. 

•T)  RUFEN  to  call,  SCHREIEN  to  cr\  out  to,  PFEIFEN  to  ivhistle  for,  LOCKEN,  KÖRNEN, 
KÖDERN  to  decoy,  KLINGELN,  LÄUTEN,  SCHELLEN  to  ring,  WINKEN  to  mal^e  a  sign  to, 
FLEHEN  to  implore,  take  a  dat.  to  denote  the  person  toward  whom  the  action  is  directed,  and 
with  the  exception  of  schreien,  schellen,  läuten,  and  klingeln,  may  with  a  slight  shade  of  mean- 
ing take  the  ace.  to  represent  the  person  as  the  direct  object  of  the  action:  Sie  wird  bei  Susen 
sein;  ruft  ihr  doch!  She  is  probably  w^ith  Susan;  call  out  to  her!  Wer  ruft  mir?  (Otto  Ernst's 
Die  Gerechtigkeit,  2,  1),  but  Rufe  sie!  Call  her!  Altho  the  simple  dative  was  not  infrequent 
earlier  in  the  period  as  a  survival  of  the  original  dative  meaning  of  direction  toward  (258.  1)  and 
surs-ives  in  part  still,  present  usage  inclines  toward  other  constructions  in  case  of  some  of  these 
words.  Rufen,  locken,  körnen,  and  ködern  usually  take  the  ace,  schreien  and  flehen  require 
zu  +  dat.,  while  winken  may  still  take  a  simple  dat.  and  klingeln,  läuten,  and  schellen  either' 
a  simple  dat.  or  a  prepositional  construction:  Als  sie  Berta  Witt  sah,  winkte  sie  ihr  (Frenssen's 
Die  drei  Getreuen,  II,  5),  or  more  commonly  winkte  sie  ihr  zu.  Der  Herr  klingelt  dem  Bedienten 
or  nach  dem  Bedienten.  Klingeln,  läuten,  and  schellen  may  also  take  an  accusative  in  con- 
nection with  a  prep,  phrase:  Bald  war  ich  auch  am  Doktorhause  und  klingelte  den  alten  Doktor 
Snittger  aus  den  Federn  (Storm's  John  Riew').  Rufen,  schreien,  and  winken  can  still  be  used 
with  a  dat.  of  the  person  in  connection  with  a  direct  object  of  the  thing,  an  infinitive,  or  clause: 
Bald  rief  mir  meine  Mutter  (or  more  commonly  Bald  rief  mir  meine  Mutter  zu) :  „Komm,"  or 
zu  kommen,  or  daß  ich  kommen  sollte.  Man  winkte  ihm  Aufmunterung  (zu).  Rufen  is  used 
with  the  simple  dat.  in  a  few  expressions  and  pfeifen  quite  commonly  so,  and  pfeifen,  rufen,  and 
winken  can  also  take  the  ace.  of  the  person  in  connection  with  a  prep,  phrase:  Er  rief  seinem 
braunen  Hühnerhund  (zu),  der  in  einem  Winkel  gelegen  hatte  (T.  Storm).  Dem  Männchen 
rufen  or  more  commonly  zurufen  to  call  the  male.  Er  pfeift  seinem  Hunde  or  sometimes 
pfeift  seinem  Hunde  zu.  Er  pfiff  den  Hund  zu  sich  hin.  In  Switzerland  rufen  with  dat.  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  to  call  for:  Die  Beschaffenheit  der  Schullokalitäten  ruft  dringend  einer  Reparatur 
(Blümner's  Ziim  schweizerischen  Schriftdeutsch,  p.  47).  Dies  ruft  einer  neuen  Definition  des 
Urteils  (Bernhard  Fehr  in  Archiv  für  das  Studium  der  neueren  Sprachen,  1919,  p.  102). 

27.  SAGEN  to  say,  tell,  w.  a  dat.  of  the  person  and  an  ace.  of  the  thing,  when  there  are  two 
objects:  Er  sagte  mir  die  Wahrheit.  However,  the  simple  dat.  is  replaced  by  zu  w.  dat.  when 
the  exact  words  of  direct  discourse  are  reported:  Die  Kinder  sagen  meist  zu  ihren  Eltern  Papa 
und  Mama.  Er  sagte  zu  mir:  „Ich  komme  morgen  wieder,"  but  indirectly:  Er  sagte  mir,  er 
komme  morgen  wieder.  Dialectic  and  French  influences  often  affect  the  construction  here  and 
cause  the  dropping  of  the  zu  in  direct  discourse:  „Ich  habe,"  sagte  sie  ihm  (for  zu  ihm)  mit 
bewegter  Stimme,  „deine  Gegenwart  gewünscht." 

28.  SPRECHEN,  REDEN:  (a)  to  speak,  usually  require  some  prep,  as  mit,  zu,  an  before 
the  case  of  the  person:  Ich  sprach  einige  Worte  zu  ihm.  Ich  sprach  mit  ihm.  Ich  rede  mit 
ihm.  \\'e  sometimes  find  an  acc.  of  the  thing  and  the  dat.  of  the  person:  Solch  ein  vernünftiges 
Wort  hast  du  mir  selten  gesprochen  (Goethe's  H.  und  D.,  II,  106).  When  a  prep,  phrase  modi- 
fies the  verb  in  connection  with  a  personal  object,  we  not  infrequently  find  the  simple  dat.  of 
the  person  instead  of  a  prepositional  construction:  Niemand  spricht  gem  einem  andern  von 
seiner  Liebe  (Zschokke).  O  mein  Bruder!  sprich  mir  nicht  von  der  Ehe!  (Ebers).  The  simple 
dat.  here  is  usually  a  gallicism  which  is  not  especially  to  be  recommended,  but  it  is  sometimes  a 
good  German  dative  of  interest  or  an  ethical  dative,  as  in  the  last  sentence,  (b)  Sprechen  (not 
reden)  to  talk  (consult)  7vith,  w.  acc.  of  the  person  when  there  is  no  object  of  the  thing:  Ich  möchte 
Sie  auf  einige  Augenblicke  allein  sprechen. 

29.  STEHEN:  (a)  To  become,  look  well,  w.  dat.:  Das  blaue  Kleid  steht  ihr  ausgezeichnet, 
(li)  To  take  one's  stand  against,  w.  dat.:  Ich  stehe  selbst  in  meinen  Jahren  noch  dem  Feinde. 
Also  in  the  milder  sense  to  face:  dem  Stxu^n,  seinem  Schicksal  stehen,  (c)  To  be  equal  to,  to  he 
a  match  for,  w.  acc:  Er  steht  seinen  Mann  He  is  a  match  for  any  fellow.  Der  Mann  steht 
{comes  up  to)  seinen  Ruhm  (Lessing),  (ü)  zu  stehen  kommen  to  cost,  usually  with  the  dat.: 
Etwas  kommt  einem  teuer  zu  stehen.  After  the  analogy  of  kosten  to  cost  the  acc.  is  also  used: 
Das  kommt  dich  billiger  zu  stehen  (Spitteler's  Conrad,  p.  158).  Sometimes  simple  kommen 
is  still  used  here.     See  21  above. 

30.  STEUERN:  {.\)  to  steer,  trans,  w.  acc:  Der  Schiffer  steuert  sein  Schiff,  (b)  To  check, 
prevent,  w.  dat.:    Der  Lehrer  steuert  dem  Zuspätkommen  der  Schüler. 

31.  TRAUEN,  see  GETRAUEN,  above. 

32.  ÜBER'KÖMMEN:  (a)  to  come  over,  seize,  usually  with  acc.  but  occasionally  with  dat.: 
Eine  tiefe  igeistige]  Lähmung  überkam  ihm  (Lewald).  Sie  wandten  der  oben  Nachschauenden 
den  Rücken,  und  sonderbar,  wie  mit  einer  Augentäuschung  überkam  es  dem  Blick  Sibylle 


260. QRIGTNAL   MEANING    OF   THE   GENITIVE 507 

Lundhorsts  (Jensen's  Jenseits  des  Wassers,  ix),  (b)  Regularly  w.  the  dat.  in  intrans.  use  with 
the  meaning  to  be  transmitted  to,  be  delivered  to:  Der  Name  ist  mir  überkoimnen  und  so  kann  es 
mir  persönlich  nur  obliegen,  ihm,  nach  dem  bescheidenen  Maße  meiner  Fähigkeiten,  Ehre  zu 
machen  (Fontane's  Cecile,  chap.  13).     Ein  Brief  ist  mir  überkommen. 

33.  ÜBER'WIEGEN  to  outioei^h,  \v.  acc,  rarely  \v.  dat.:   Der  Tadel  überwog  das  Lob. 

34.  VERGEBEN  and  VERZEIHEN:  (a)  vergeben  to  forgive,  w.  simple  dat.  of  the  person, 
or  if  there  are  two  objects  w.  dat.  of  the  person  and  acc.  of  the  thing:  Vnd  vergib  vns  unsere 
Schulde  (now  Schulden)  |  wie  wir  unsem  Schuldigem  vergeben  (Matth.  vi.  12).  Ich  vergebe 
dir  die  Beleidigung,  (b)  Vergeben  to  poiso7i,  correctly  with  the  dat.,  but  after  the  analog^^  of 
vergiften  also  with  the  acc,  now  rather  uncommon  in  this  meaning,  (c)  Verzeihen  to  pardon, 
condone,  with  the  same  construction  as  vergeben  in  (a)  :  Verzeih  mir.  Verzeih  mein  Unrecht. 
Verzeih  mir  mein  Unrecht. 

35.  VERSICHERN:  (a)  to  assure,  w.  dat.  of  the  person  and  acc.  of  the  thing,  or  the  acc. 
of  the  person  and  gen.  of  the  thing.:  Ich  versichere  Ihnen  dies,  or  now  less  commonly  Ich  ver- 
sichere Sie  dessen  I  assure  you  of  this.  The  acc.  of  the  person  is  often  incorrectly  used  with 
acc.  of  the  thing.  See  262.  11.  B.  b.  The  thing  is  usually  expressed  by  a  clause  and  then  either 
the  dat.  or  now  less  commonly  the  acc.  of  the  person  is  used:  Ich  versichere  Ihnen  (or  Sie), 
daß  ich  dies  tun  werde,  (b)  To  insure  (one's  house,  &c.),  always  w.  acc:  Ich  werde  mein  Haus 
gegen  Feuersgefahr  versichern  lassen. 

36.  VOR'BEI,  VO'RÜBER  past,  in  composition  with  verjDs  of  motion  take  a  prepositional 
phrase  as  a  complement,  or  a  little  earlier  in  the  period  the  accusative  (the  original  construction) 
or  the  dative:  Er  ging  an  mir  vorbei,  ohne  mir  guten  Tag  zu  sagen.  Bei  einem  einzeln  stehen- 
den Hause  ziehen  wir  vorbei  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen).  Du  gehst  dein  Schloß  vorüber 
(Uhland).     Kaum  ein  Wagen  ging  mir  vorbei  (Wildenbruch's  Die  heilige  Frau,  p.  122). 

The  verb  of  motion  is  often  omitted  in  these  constructions:  Bald  war  der  Oberst  dieser  Truppe, 
nur  von  einem  Trompeter  begleitet,  bei  mir  vorüber  [geritten]  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen). 

37.  Accusative  or  Dative  of  the  Person  Affected.  Usage  often  makes  a  fine  distinction  between 
the  dat.  and  acc.  after  such  verbs  as  to  beat,  strike,  hit,  bite,  seize,  &c.,  when  the  activity  of  the 
verb  is  represented  as  afTecting  a  person.  If  the  person  alone  is  mentioned  without  indication 
of  the  particular  part  of  the  body  affected,  the  acc.  is  used:  Die  Mutter  schlägt  das  Kind  mit 
der  Rute.  If  the  part  of  the  body  affected  is  mentioned,  the  acc.  of  the  person  or  personified 
thing  is  used,  when  the  person  is  represented  as  the  objective  point  of  the  activity  in  a  literal, 
exterior  sense,  but  the  dat.  is  employed  when  he  is  represented  as  more  or  less  interested  or  in- 
volved in  the  action,  either  as  to  his  material  interests,  comfort,  or  his  inner  feelings,  or  as  affected 
by  an  accident  or  the  operations  of  a  natural  law:  Der  Mörder  hatte  ihn  mitten  ins  Herz  ge- 
stochen, but  Am  Schaufenster  stach  mir  ein  schöner  Brillant  ins  Auge  and  Deine  Klagen 
schneiden  mir  ins  Herz.  Er  hat  mich  auf  den  Kopf  geschlagen,  but  Der  herabfallende  Ziegel 
schlug  mir  gerade  auf  den  Kopf. 

Genitive  Object. 

260.  The  original  function  of  the  genitive  is  not  known.  In  oldest  German 
it  is  used  with  verbs,  nouns,  and  a  few  adjectives.  Its  free  use  with  verbs  and 
a  few  verbal  adjectives  in  the  oldest  period  seems  to  suggest  the  possibility 
that  it  was  originally  employed  with  verbs  in  an  adverbial  relation  or  as  an 
object  and  later  with  its  acquired  meanings  was  attached  to  nouns  in  attribu- 
tive function  and  still  later  to  a  large  number  of  adjectives.  Altho  we  can 
trace  step  by  step  a  theoretical  development  of  the  attributive  genitive  from 
the  use  of  the  genitive  with  verbs  it  seems  more  probable  in  a  number  of  cases, 
as  indicated  in  255.  II.  1,  that  certain  categories  of  the  attributive  genitive 
developed  out  of  other  attributive  categories. 

The  original  meanmg  of  the  genitive  is  also  unknown,  but  a  study  of  the  older 
periods  where  the  genitive  was  much  more  used  than  now  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  central  idea  of  this  case  is  in  a  sphere:  Das  ist  meines  Amtes  That  is 
in  the  sphere  of  my  duty.  Wer  dis  wassers  trinket  |  Den  wird  wider  dürsten 
(John  iv.  13)  Whoever  drinks  of  this  water,  &c.,  literally  ivithin  the  sphere,  extent 
of  this  water,  something  belonging  to  this  water,  i.e.  not  all  of  it  but  only  a  part 
of  it.  Nu  aber  mus  ich  dursts  sterben  (Judges  xv.  18)  But  now  I  mtist  die  of 
thirst,  literally  in  the  sphere  of  thirst,  hence  on  account  of  thirst.  To  this  idea 
of  sphere  can  be  traced  theoretically  either  directly  or  indirectly  the  genitives 
found  in  the  predicate,  as  described  in  252.  2.  A.  c,  the  possessive,  partitive,  and 
other  attributive  genitives  described  in  255.  II,  and  the  adverbial  genitives 
described  in  223.  I.  10.  a,  h,  II.  2,  3,  4,  III.  a,  IV.  2.  A,  B.  a,  C.  _  The  many  shades 
of  meaning  which  were  developed  in  older  German  resulted  in  much  confusion, 
as  it  was  often  not  clear  which  shade  was  intended.  After  the  verb  alone  in 
its  relation  as  object  the  genitive  expressed  nine  ideas,  sphere,  a  part,  goal, 


508 MEANING   OF   THE   GExNlTlVE   OBJECT 260. 

specification,  cause,  means,  deprivation,  removal,  separation,  all  of  which 
survive,  altho  the  genitive  under  the  impulse  for  clearer  expression  has  in  large 
measure  been  replaced  by  other  constructions. 

There  is  now  no  strongly  marked  shade  of  meaning  in  the  gen.  object  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  ace.  object,  and  hence  those  verbs  which  have  a  force  similar, 
to  that  of  transitives  have  in  common  prose  become  transitive,  and  now  take  an 
ace,  while  those  that  have  pronounced  intransitive  nature  take  a  prep,  object. 
In  the  latter  construction  by  the  choice  of  an  appropriate  preposition  the  various 
meanings  can  be  rendered  with  accuracy.  In  choice  language,  however,  a  num- 
ber of  verbs  still  prefer  the  gen.  object  to  the  ace.  or  prep,  object,  and  in  certain 
cases  the  old  and  new  constructions  are  both  used  with  the  same  verb  with  a 
fine  and  beautiful  shade  of  meaning.  The  ace.  here  represents  the  object  as 
thoroly  affected  by  the  action,  while  the  gen.  sometimes  represents  the  activity 
as  not' affecting  the  whole  object  but  only  a  part  of  it,  i.e.  as  merely  operating 
somewhere  within  the  sphere  of  it:  Die  Spitzbuben  haben  mir  alles  genommen, 
but  Vnd  der  Priester  sol  des  bluts  nemen  vom  Schuldopffer  (Leviticus  xiv.  14) 
And  the  priest  shall  take  some  of  the  blood  of  the  trespass  offering.  The  partitive 
gen.  is  treated  more  fully  in  1  below.  Similar  to  this  partitive  gen.  is  the  gen. 
of  the  goal  or  sphere,  which  represents  the  activity  as  operating  within  the 
sphere  of  an  object,  i.e.  as  missing,  desiring,  coveting,  forgetting  within  the 
sphere  of  or  with  regard  to  the  object,  in  modern  speech  missing,  desiring, 
coveting  the  object,  as  we  to-day  put  the  word  that  completes  the  meaning  of 
the  verb  in  the  accusative:  Mit  diesem  zweiten  Pfeil  durchschoß  ich  —  Euch, 
wenn  ich  mein  Uebes  Kind  getroffen  hätte,  |  und  Eurer  —  wahrlich,  hätt' 
ich  nicht  gefehlt  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  3).  Wer  ein  Weib  ansihet  jr  (140.  b)  zu 
begeren  (Matth.  v.  28).  The  gen.  of  goal  is  now  usually  replaced  by  the  ace. 
in  plain  prose.  Sometimes  a  prep,  construction  is  now  used  instead  of  the  gen. 
of  the  goal.  See  next  paragraph.  Sometimes  the  ace.  expresses  a  material 
or  superficial  relation,  while  in  choice  language  the  gen.  may  denote  a  deep, 
inner  relation,  or  be  used  in  figurative  or  changed  meaning:  Die  Kugel  ver- 
fehlte ihr  Ziel,  but  Die  Rede  verfehlte  der  Wirkung.  Das  ist  einen  Taler 
wert,  but  Dein  Vater  ist  eines  Thrones  wert  (worthy  of).  Other  shades  may 
arise.  The  gen.  may  be  used  with  vergessen  when  the  activity  proceeds  from 
an  act  of  the  will,  while  the  ace.  is  employed  when  the  act  of  forgetfulness  is 
an  unconscious  and  thoro  one:  Und  taten  übel  vor  dem  Herrn  und  vergaßen 
des  Herrn,  ihres  Gottes,  und  dienten  Baalim  und  den  Hainen  (Judges  iii,  7, 
rev.  ed.).  Und  vor  dem  Einschlafen  ....  faltete  er  die  Hände  und  betete  zu 
ihr,  der  Verklärten:  daß  sie  in  ihrer  himmlischen  Seligkeit  ihres  einzigen 
Sohnes  auf  Erden  nicht  vergessen  und  nicht  zugeben  möge,  er  tue  etwas,  das 
ihrer  unwürdig  sei  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  178).  But  Ich  habe  das  Wort 
vergessen.  When  the  forgetting  is  represented  as  only  temporary,  and  conse- 
fiuently  the  act  as  only  imperfect,  the  old  partitive  gen.  is  still  quite  frequent: 
Lehnert  aber,  der  all  die  Zeit  über  mit  besonderem  Fleiße  gearbeitet  hatte, 
hatte  seines  in  die  Hobelspäne  gestellten  Kaffees  ganz  vergessen  (Fontane's 
Quitt,  chap.  ix).  [In  spite  of  the  word  ganz  here  the  forgetting  was  only  tempo- 
rary, for  his  mind  soon  returned  to  the  thought  of  his  coffee.]  Und  wenn  er 
eine  Minute  lang  seiner  Trauer  vergaß,  so  war  ihm  das  bei  Gott  nicht  zu  ver- 
denken (Ganghofer's  Der  Dorfapostel,  I).  With  verbs  denoting  a  lacking  the 
genitix'e  indicates  the  sphere  where  the  lacking  occurs,  so  that  it  is  here  a  genitive 
of  specification:  Es  bedarf  der  Verbesserung  It  needs  improvement,  lit.  There 
is  need,  a  lack  in  the  sphere  of,  in  the  matter  of  improvement. 

Instead  of  the  genitive  we  now  often  find  a  prepositional  object.  The  old 
genitive  of  sphere  is  still  used,  as  in  Walte  deines  Amtes  Attend  to  your  duties, 
but  the  prepositional  construction  is  more  common  here:  Ein  Gott  waltet  über 
dich.  The  genitive  of  sphere  is  still  found  in  a  few  set  expressions  after  leben: 
Der  Gerechte  wird  seines  Glaubens  leben  (Rom.  I.  17).  Wer  das  glaubt, 
der  lebt  des  kindlichen  Glaubens,  daß  die  tief  im  Boden  der  eigenen  Interessen 
wurzelnden  Bedingungen  und  Notwendigkeiten  des  Völkerlebens  durch  höfi- 


260.  2.  A. GENITIVE   AFTER    INTRANSITIVES 509 

sches  Wollen  einfach  zur  Seite  geschoben  und  ausgelöscht  werden  können 
{Hamburger  Nachrichten,  June  6,  1906).  Ich  lebe  der  (or  in  derj  Hoffnung, 
daß  usw.  /  live  in  hopes  that  &c.  From  the  idea  of  sphere  arise  other  shades 
of  meaning:  Specification:  Es  mangelt  mir  des  nötigen  Kleingeldes,  or  with 
a  preposition  an  dem  nötigen  Kleingeld.  Cause:  Nu  aber  mus  ich  dursts 
sterben  (Judges  xv.  18;  compare  the  gen.  and  acc.  with  sterben  in  223.  III.  a 
and  257.  2.  A).  Er  ist  des  Todes  verbuchen  He  died,  lit.  turned  pale  in  death. 
But  usually  with  a  preposition:  Er  starb  an  der  Schwindsucht.  Sphere  or 
goal:  Er  wartet  nur  eines  Winkes,  um  loszubrechen  (Häusser's  Deutsche  Ge- 
schichte, 3,  187)  He  is  icaiting  in  the  sphere  of  a  sign,  i.e.  waiting  for  a  sign,  &c., 
but  more  commonly:  Er  wartet  auf  einen  Wink,  um  loszubrechen.  The  prepo- 
sition here  often  calls  attention  to  the  outward  direction  of  the  activity,  while 
the  genitive  rnay  emphasize  an  inner  causal  relation  between  the  activity  and 
the  object:  Über  wen  lacht  man?  Über  Wilhelm.  Aber  du  HERR  wirst 
jrer  lachen  |  Vnd  aller  Heiden  spotten  (Psalm  lix.  9).  Er  lacht  der  Gefahren 
(Felix  Hollaender's  Der  Weg  des  Thomas  Truck,  II,  p.  412). 

In  case  of  several  compound  verbs  the  gen.  is  in  fact  an  attributive  objective 
gen.,  as  it  modifies  the  noun  element  in  the  compound:  Nimm  der  günstigen 
Gelegenheit  wahr!  (M.H.G.  war  observation,  notice),  or  now  more  commonly 
in  plain  prose:  Nimm  die  günstige  Gelegenheit  wahr!,  as  the  two  elements  of 
the  compound  enter  into  such  close  relations  that  the  noun  loses  its  identity, 
and  the  compound  is  felt  as  an  old  compound  verb  and  takes  an  acc.  object. 

Sometimes  in  case  of  adjectives  and  some  verbs  the  acc.  has  arisen  from  a 
misapprehension.  The  old  gen,  es  (see  140.  c),  which  is  still  often  used  here, 
is  mistaken  for  an  acc.  This  leads  to  the  use  of  the  acc.  in  case  of  other  pro- 
nouns, and  even  in  case  of  nouns.  For  examples  of  this  acc.  see  walten  (2)  in 
2.  A  and  also  the  last  example  in  3.  b  below. 

The  gen.  object  is  now  found  in  the  following  groups,  which  are  fairly  com- 
plete for  the  present  period,  but  were  still  fuller  in  early  N.H.G. 

1.  Partitive  Genitive  Object.  This  object  is  used  in  elevated  diction  with 
a  few  verbs  of  pronounced  transitive  nature,  much  as  of  is  used  in  English 
with  the  corresponding  group  of  words.  The  most  common  of  these  German 
verbs  are  bringen  to  bring,  essen  to  eat,  geben  to  give,  gießen  to  pour,  pour 
out,  haben  to  have,  naschen  to  nibble  at,  sip  of,  nehmen  to  take,  senden  to 
send,  schenken  to  pour  out,  spenden  to  bestow,  be  lavish  with,  trinken  to 
drink.  Exs.:  Wer  dis  wassers  trincket  |  Den  wird  wider  dürsten.  Wer  aber 
des  Wassers  trincken  wird  |  das  ich  jm  gebe  |  den  wird  ewigHch  nicht  dürsten 
(John  iv.  13-14).  Sorgsam  brachte  die  Mutter  des  klaren  herrhchen  Weines 
(Goethe's  H.  u.  D.,  1,  160).  Es  schenkte  der  Böhme  des  perlenden  Weins 
(Schiller's  Graf  v.  Habsburg).  Kaum  mag  ich  des  Weines  naschen  (Scheft'el's 
Trompeter,  Werner's  Lieder  aus  Welschland,  xi).  See  also  255.  II.  1.  H.  c. 
Compare:    She  gave  him  of  that  fair  enticing  fruit  (Milton). 

Such  verbs,  except  in  a  few  expressions,  now  usually  take  in  plain  prose 
the  acc.  without  the  article,  or,  to  make  prominent  the  partitive  idea,  von 
with  the  dative  becomes  object,  or  the  real  object  is  placed  in  apposition  with 
etwas:  Er  nahm  Brot,  or  von  dem  Brot,  or  etwas  Brot.  The  partitive  gen. 
objects,  dessen,  deren,  are,  however,  still  quite  common.     See  255.  II.  1.  H.  c. 

The  partitive  idea  appears  also  in  the  gen.  object  of  a  number  of  the  verbs 
enumerated  in  2.  A  below. 

2.  A.  Genitive  Object  after  Intransitives.  The  gen.  object  is  used  with  the 
following  intransitives,  or  verbs  originally  intransitive,  especially  in  elevated 
diction,  but  other  constructions,  as  indicated  after  each  verb,  are  also  found, 
especially  in  certain  meanings  of  the  same  word,  and  are  often  more  common 
in  ordinary  prose: 

abgehen  to  des-ist  from,  give  up,  with  the  gen.  only  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  with  von  with  the  dat.: 
Will  er  der  Sach  dann  nit  abgan  (15th  century).     Er  geht  vom  Gesagten  nicht  ab. 

abkommen  to  get  aiuay  from,  escape,  now  with  von  with  the  dat.:  Er  wird  nicht  von  der  Strafe, 
vom  Stricke  (rope,  i.e.  hanging)  abkommen. 


510 INTRANSITIVES   WITH    GENITIVE 260.  2.  A. 

abstehen  to  desist  from,  ^ive  up,  with  the  gen.  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  rarely  so,  usually  with  von 
with  the  dat.:  Der  Morgenstern  hat  ihn  mit  Trost  durchleuchtet,  daß  er  noch  seines  ganzen 
verdorbenen  Lebens  wird  abstehen  können  (Wilhelm  F"ischer's  Sonnenopfer,  III).  Er  steht 
von  seiner  Forderung  ab. 

abwarten  to  attend  to,  take  good  care  of,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  gen.  or  the  dat.,  now  with 
the  ace. 

achten  (1)  to  heed,  pay  attention  to,  care  for,  still  with  the  gen.  in  choice  language,  usually,  how- 
ever, with  auf  with  the  ace,  sometimes  with  the  simple  ace:  Drinnen  aber  in  seinem  Ge- 
schäifts-  und  Arbeitszimmer  saß  der  Gestrenge  selbst  .  .  .  nicht  achtend  des  heiteren  Glanzes, 
der  durch  die  Fenster  zu  ihm  hereinströmte  (Storm's  Waldivinkel).  Achte  nicht  des  Vor- 
teils, der  Ehre.  Auch  ihrer  Gesundheit  hatte  man  geachtet  und  ihr  ein  Ausruhen  gewährt, 
wenn  sie  müde  geworden  (Johanna  Wolff's  Das  Hanneken,  p.  236).  Ich  achte  nicht  auf 
dich  und  deinen  Zorn.  Großmutter  steht  ihm  bei;  |  die,  weißt  du,  achtet  nicht  dein  Zorn- 
geschrei (I  lauptmann.'s  Versunkene  Glocke,  3).  (2)  to  take  notice  of,  in  this  meaning  now  usually 
in  the  form  beachten  with  the  ace.  (3)  to  respect,  with  the  ace. :  Ich  achte  ihn,  aber  ich  kann 
ihn  nicht  lieben. 

achthaben  to  heed,  pay  attention  to,  or  in  negative  form  gar  keine  Acht  haben,  quite  commonly 
with  the  gen.  in  a  few  expressions  as  es  (see  140.  c)  achthaben,  also  elsewhere,  but  more  com- 
monly with  auf  with  the  ace,  sometimes  with  the  simple  ace:  So,  in  mich  hineinbrütend, 
hatte  ich  Jettchens  Gegenwart  und  ihres  Spiels  gar  keine  Acht  mehr  gehabt  (Spielhagen's 
Was  will  das  -werden?,  VII). 

aufhören  to  stop,  cease,  now  with  mit  with  the  dat.:  Aufgehört  mit  dem  Spielen! 

aufkommen  to  arise  from,  get  up  from,  recover  from  (sickness),  now  with  von  with  the  dat.:  Er 
wird  vom  Lager,  von  seinen  Wunden  nicht  wieder  aufkonmien. 

bedürfen  (or  earlier  in  the  period  dürfen)  to  7ieed,  require,  usually  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  with 
the  ace,  especially  in  case  of  the  interrog.  ace.  was,  as  illustrated  in  147.  1.  A:  Er  bedarf 
des  Trostes,  des  Arztes,  der  Schonung.     Es  bedarf  nur  eines  Wortes  von  dir. 

begehren  (1)  to  desire,  long  for,  covet,  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  the  ace,  or  with  nach 
with  the  dat.:  Begehre  nicht  des  Reichtums  (or  den  Reichtum,  or  nach  dem  Reichtum). 
Man  sieht  sie  an,  ohne  ihrer  zu  begehren  (Herman  Hesse's  Diesseits,  p.  284).  (2)  In  the 
meaning  to  demand  with  the  ace:   Ich  begehre  die  Arbeit  fehlerfrei. 

benötigen  to  have  need  of,  more  commonly  with  the  ace,  sometimes  with  the  gen.,  both  con- 
structions of  recent  date,  employed  instead  of  the  older  and  still  common  benötigt  sein  (see 
3  below) :  Er  war  es,  der  dem  Alpenbund  die  Geldmittel  lieferte,  deren  dieser  zur  Insur- 
gierung  Tirols  benötigte  (E.  Wertheim  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  July  1904,  p.  92). 

brauchen  to  need,  be  in  need  of,  with  the  gen.,  especially  in  figurative  language,  more  commonly 
with  the  ace:    Das  or  impersonally  es  braucht  keines  Beweises  mehr.     Er  braucht  mich. 

danken  to  thank  for,  always  with  the  dat.  of  the  person,  sometimes  with  the  gen.  or  the  ace  of 
the  thing,  or  more  commonly  with  für  with  the  ace.  except  that  the  gen.  is  still  common  in  a 
few  expressions  such  as  Gott  sei  es  (old  gen.;  see  140.  c)  gedankt:  [Ich]  danke  der  gütigen 
Nachfrage  (Raabe's  Frühling,  VIII),  or  more  commonly  Ich  danke  für  die  gütige  Nachfrage. 
Ihr  dank'  es  (old  gen.  now  felt  as  an  ace;  see  140.  c)  .  .  .  ihr  danke  Reich  und  Leben  (Fulda's 
Talisman,  4,  7). 

darben  to  be  luithout,  also  with  the  ace  or  an  with  the  dat.,  now  only  in  choice  language,  freely 
used,  however,  where  there  is  no  object  in  the  meaning  to  suffer  need;  where  there  is  an  object 
now  usually  replaced  by  entbehren:  die  jedes  Schmuckes  darbenden  armseligen  Hütten 
(Dahn's  Erinnerungen,  IV,  p.  60). 

denkeii  to  remember,  now  especially  to  think  of,  now  more  commonly  with  an  with  the  ace,  in 
poetic  language  also  with  the  simple  ace:  Denke  meiner  (or  more  commonly  an  mich).  Was 
kamst  du  her,  nichts  denkend  als  dich  selbst?  (Grillparzer's  D.  AI.  u.  d.  L.  W.,  3). 

entbehren  to  be  without,  dispense  with,  miss,  still  often  with  the  gen.  in  poetic  style  and  in  a  few 
set  expressions  also  in  plain  prose,  now  usually  with  the  ace:  Mein  Haus  entbehrt  des  Vaters. 
Diese  Gerüchte  entbehren  jeder  Unterlage.     Ich  kann  ihn  leicht  entbehren. 

entgehen  to  escape,  now  with  the  dat. 

entgelten  to  pay  {atone)  for,  only  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  with  the  ace:  Vnser  Veter  haben  ge- 
sündigt .  .  .  vnd  wir  müssen  jrer  missethat  entgelten  (Lamentations,  v.  7).  Laß  mich  sei- 
nen Fehler  nicht  entgelten. 

antraten  to  get  along  without,  dispense  with,  sometimes  also  with  the  ace,  little  used  except  in  the 
infinitive:   Ich  kann  deines  Beistandes  nicht  antraten. 

entsagen  to  renounce,  give  up,  now  usually  according  to  258.  1.  B.:  Er  hat  sie  auf  dem  Ge- 
wissen, daß  er  des  Mets  nicht  entsagte,  da  es  Zeit  war  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  II.  9.) 

entwohnen  to  become  disaccustomed  to,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  gen.  or  ace,  now  except  in 
the  perfect  participle  (see  entwöhnt  in  3  below)  usually  replaced  by  sich  entwöhnen  (262. 
II.  A.  b). 

erharren  to  await  with  patience,  now  with  the  ace 

ermangeln  see  mangeln  below. 

ermüden  to  become  weary  from,  usually  with  von  with  the  dat. :  Zwei  Ruderer  ermüdeten  der 
Fahrt  (Grillparzer's  D.  M.  u.  d.  L.  W.,  3). 

erröten  lo  blush  at,  now  usually  with  über  with  the  ace:  Immer  erröte  ich  dessen  (Börne,  2, 
4S5).     See  also  261.  A. 

erschrecken  to  take  fright  at,  now  with  über  with  the  ace  [formerly  also  the  dat.],  or  vor  with 
the  dat.:   Ich  war  über  den  Mord,  vor  dem  Räuber  erschrocken. 


260.  2.  A. INTRANSITIVES   WITH    GENITIVE 511 

erstaunen  to  be  astonished  at,  formerly  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  in  poetic  language  with  ob  with 
the  dat.,  sometimes  with  the  simple  dat.   (258.  I.  A.  /),  usually  with  über  with  the  ace. 

erwähnen  or  Erwähnung  tun  to  mention,  make  mention  of,  the  former  with  gen.  or  ace,  the  latter 
usually  with  the  gen.,  but  often  with  von  with  the  dat.  when  the  statement  is  negative,  or 
instead  of  both  forms  often  Erwähnung  (nom.)  geschieht  mention  is  made  of,  with  the  gen.: 
Sie  erwähnten  gewisser  Opfer,  die  Sie  bringen  mußten  (Baumbach's  Der  Schwiegersohn,  X). 
Sie  tat  dieses  Falles,  üirer  Freundin  Erwähnung,  or  keine  Erwähnung.  Es  geschah  ihrer 
Erwähnung,  or  keine  Erwähnung.  Von  der  Gefährdung  pekuniärer  Interessen  tat  ich  keine 
Erwähnung. 

erwarten,  see  warten  below. 

fehlen  or  more  commonly  verfehlen  to  miss  (a  mark,  road,  &c.),  fail  of,  with  the  gen.  in  choice 
language,  more  commonly  the  ace:  Der  Schnee,  der  lag,  gab  gerade  Licht  genug,  um  des 
Weges  nicht  zu  fehlen  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  IV,  19j.  Ich  hatte  den  richtigen  Weg 
verfehlt.     See  also  260,  3rd  par. 

fluchen  to  swear  at,  earlier  in  the  period  sometimes  with  the  gen.  of  the  cause,  now  über  etwas, 
über  einen  fluchen. 

frohlocken  to  exult  at,  more  commonly  with  über  with  the  ace. 

fürchten  (1)  to  fear,  now  always  with  the  ace.  (2)  to  fear  for,  with  the  gen.  in  the  biblical  expres- 
sion unsers  Lebens  fürchten  (Josh.  ix.  24),  now  usually  für  unser  Leben  fürchten. 

gebrauchen  to  tise,  mißbrauchen  to  misuse,  both  now  with  the  ace. 

gedenken  (1)  to  mention,  earlier  in  the  period  also  with  von  with  the  dat.  in  this  meaning:  Er 
gedachte  meiner  mit  keinem  Worte.  Noch  einer  anderen  Unregelmäßigkeit  in  der  Flexion 
ist  hier  zu  gedenken  (H.  Gürtler  in  Paul  and  Braune's  Beiträge,  1911,  p.  508).  (2)  to  think  of, 
earlier  in  the  period  also  with  an  with  the  ace,  in  this  meaning  now  usually  replaced  by  denken 
with  an  with  the  ace.  (3)  to  remember,  usually  with  the  gen.  in  this  meaning,  to  remember 
(with  the  intention  to  avenge),  with  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing:  Gedenke 
deines  Versprechens.    Ich  werde  dir  diese  Beleidigtmg  gedenken. 

gelten,  see  185.  A.  I.  6.  Note  2. 

genesen  (1)  to  recover  from,  with  the  gen.  or  with  von  with  the  dat.:  Daß  sie  ihres  Fiebers  völlig 
genesen  (Niebuhr),  more  commonly  von  dem  Fieber  genesen.  (2)  to  be  delivered  of  (a  child 
in  child-birth),  with  the  gen.:    Sie  genas  eines  gesunden  Knaben. 

genießen  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  nießen)  to  enjoy,  in  choice  language  not  infrequently  with  the 
gen.,  in  colloquial  language  more  commonly  with  the  ace:  Abend  für  Abend  genoß  ich  so 
eines  eigensten  Schauspiels  (J.  J.  David  in  Die  neue  Rundschau,  July  1906,  p.  876).  Die 
einzelnen  Tiere  genossen  bei  den  Kadetten  eines  besonderen  Rufes,  je  nach  ihren  vermeint- 
lich guten  oder  bösen  Eigenschaften  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XXXIX).  Er  hat 
eine  gute  Erziehung  genossen.  Er  genoß  das  Leben  der  Hauptstadt  in  vollen  Zügen.  (2)  to 
partake  of,  eat,  formerly  with  the  gen.,  now  with  the  ace:  Er  hat  das  heilige  Abendmahl  ge- 
nossen.    Ich  habe  unterwegs  nichts  genossen. 

geschweigen,  see  schweigen. 

gestehen  (1)  to  acknowledge  the  validity,  force,  legitimacy  of,  now  no  longer  in  use  here:  [Sie] 
wollten  mir  keines  Texts  gestehen  (Luther)  =  Sie  wollten  sich  durch  keinen  Text  für  über- 
wunden bekennen.     (2)  to  admit,  acknowledge,  with  the  ace:   Ich  gestehe  dir  mein  Unrecht. 

gesunden  to  recover  from,  now  with  von  with  the  dat. 

gewahren  or  gewahr  werden  to  perceive,  the  former  now  usually  with  the  ace,  the  latter  either 
with  the  gen.  or  ace:  Sie  stirbt  vor  Ekel,  wenn  sie  mein  (usually  mich)  gewahrt  (Haupt- 
mann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  2,  6).  Ich  wurde  meines  Irrtums  (or  meinen  Irrtum)  bald  ge- 
wahr. 

gewarten,  see  warten  below. 

gewärtigen  to  expect,  sometimes  with  the  gen.,  more  commonly  with  the  ace  of  the  reflexive 
and  the  genitive  of  the  noun,  or  with  the  dative  of  the  reflexive  and  the  accusative  of  the 
noun:  Melanie  gewärtigte  keines  Rigorismus  (Fontane's  L'Adultera,  XIX),  or  more  com- 
monly M.  gewärtigte  sich  keines  Rigorismus,  or  gewärtigte  sich  (dat.)  keinen  Rigorismus. 

gewohnen  or  gewöhnen  to  become  accustomed  to,  the  former  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  gen. 
or  the  ace,  the  latter  still  occasionally  with  the  ace,  now  except  in  the  perfect  participle  (see 
gewohnt  in  3  below)  usually  replaced  by  sich  gewöhnen  an  (with  ace):  bis  sie  (die  Mensch- 
heit) hellem  Wahrheitstag  gewöhne  (Lessing's  Nathan,  4,  4).  Und  das  sollte  man  gewöh- 
nen! (Hebbel's  Agnes  Bernauer,  1,  15).  „Man  gewöhnt's!"  —  das  ist  eine  ständige  Redens- 
art unter  den  Soldaten  (aus  dem  Feldpostbrief  eines  Wiener  Kadetten,  1914).  Man  gewöhnt 
sich  an  alles, 
glauben,  see  259.  15.  B. 

harren  to  wait  patiently  for,  await,  be  in  store  for,  with  the  gen.  or  auf  with  the  ace,  sometimes 
with  the  simple  dat.:  Pfarrer  Franz  Krupnik  hatte  eine  Fahrkarte  nach  Klaj  gelöst,  wo  seiner 
ein  Wagen  harrte  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Oct.  29,  1904).  Gewaltige  Aufgaben  harren 
unser  (Dr.  David  at  Weimar,  Feb.  7,  1919).  Ich  harre  schon  lange  auf  dich,  auf  eine  Ant- 
wort. Wie  so  oft  in  Peking,  war  mir  an  jenem  Tage,  als  sei  die  ganze  Welt  erstarrt  in  Angst, 
als  harre  sie  atemlos  Unbekanntem,  Unheimlichem  (Heyking's  Briefe,  die  ihn  nicht  erreichten, 
New  York,  Jan.  1901). 
herrschen  to  ride  over,  usually  with  über  with  the  ace,  sometimes  with  the  simple  dat.  or  ace, 

with  the  simple  gen.  only  in  early  N.H.G. 
hoffen  to  hope  for,  expect,  trust,  usually  with  auf  with  the  ace,  with  the  simple  gen.  now  only 
in  case  of  es,  which,  however,  is  felt  as  an  ace  and  has  led  to  the  use  of  the  ace  elsewhere: 


512 INTRANSITIVES   WITH    GENITIVE   260.  2.  A. 

Ich  hoffe  auf  die  Hilfe  Gottes.  Mein  Gott,  ich  hoffe  auff  dich  (Psalms,  xxv.  2).  The  acc. 
is  used  in  poetic  style  of  something  which  one  hopes  to  receive  or  realize:  Ich  hoffe  ein  ewig 
Leben  (Geliert,  2,  iOl).  It  is  also  found  in  a  few  common  expressions:  Er  darf  es  (old  gen., 
now  felt  as  an  acc.)  kaum  hoffen.  Das  will  ich  nicht  hoffen  /  hope  not.  Ich  hoffe  das  Beste 
von  seinem  Einflüsse.  Von  Ihrem  edlen  Herzen  hoffe  ich  Verschwiegenheit  (Benedix's 
Vetter,  1,  -1).      Hence  the  passive:    die  bald  zu  hoffende  Ankunft. 

hbhnen  to  sroff  at,  also  with  the  acc,  or  with  über  with  the  acc,  only  rarely  with  the  dat.:  Er 
höhnte  meiner,  or  more  commonly  mich  or  über  mich. 

hohnlachen  to  laugh  at  in  scorn,  also  with  über  with  the  ace:  Denn  jetzt  hohnlach'  ich  deiner 
(Wildenhruch's  /)■/>  Quitzoivs,  3,  14).     Er  hohnlachte  über  die  Warnung. 

hören  to  hear  formerly  sometimes  with  the  gen.,  usually  with  the  ace,  listen  to  (i.e.  lend  ear  to, 
heed),  sometimes  with  the  dat.  as  illustrated  in  258.  1.  A.  c,  usually  with  auf  with  the  acc. 

hüten  to  guard,  tend  (sheep,  &c.),  usually  with  the  acc,  only  in  early  N.H.G.  with  the  gen.:  Ich 
wil  lieber  der  Thür  hüten  in  meines  Gottes  hause  |  denn  lange  wonen  in  der  Gottlosen  Hütten 
(Psalms  Ixxxiv.  II). 

kosten  to  taste  {of},  formerly  with  the  gen.,  now  with  the  acc,  or  sometimes  with  von  with  the 
dat. 

lächeln  to  smile  at,  more  commonly  with  über  with  the  acc. 

lachen  (1)  to  laugh  at,  with  über  with  the  acc:  Er  lachte  über  meine  Bemerkung.  (2)  to  laugh 
scornfully  at,  make  light  of,  with  the  gen.:  Er  höhnte  mir  mein  Amulett,  |  hielt  nichts  von 
Mitteln,  lachte  aller  Sprüche!  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  3,  1).  See  also  260,  4th  par. 
The  derivative  verlachen  to  deride  is  transitive  and  takes  the  acc. 

lauem  to  He  in  wait  for,  more  commonly  with  auf  with  the  acc:  Dort  im  Sommer,  wenn  der 
große  I  Meerlachs  seine  Rheinfahrt  macht,  |  lauerte  mit  scharfem  Spieße  |  sein  der  alle- 
mannische  Fischer  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Drittes  Stück). 

lauschen  to  listen  to,  gen.  rare,  usually  dat.  or  auf  with  the  acc.  (see  258.  I.  A.  c):  Der  Sturm- 
wind fuhr  ums  Haus,  ich  lauschte  sein,  und  wie  ich  lauschte,  wurde  sein  Brausen  zum  Wie- 
genlied (Glauben  und  Wissen,  No.  1,  p.  1). 

leben,  see  260,  4th  par. 

leugnen  to  deny,  usually  with  the  acc,  with  the  gen.  in  early  N.H.G. 

lohnen,  see  259.  23. 

mangeln  or  ermangeln  to  be  without,  lack,  the  latter  usually  with  the  gen.,  the  former  with  the 
gen.  and  in  early  N.H.G.  also  the  acc,  now  more  commonly  impersonal  with  an  with  the 
dat.,  or  with  the  thing  lacking  as  subject:  Du  ermangelst  gänzlich  des  Fleißes.  Es  mangelt 
ihm  der  nötigen  Energie  or  more  commonly  an  der  nötigen  Energie,  or  Ihm  mangelt  die 
nötige  Energie. 

mißbrauchen,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  gen.,  now  with  the  acc. 

missen  to  miss  (goal,  way;  now  obsolete  in  this  meaning),  miss  {notice  or  feel  the  absence  of; 
see  1  Kings  xx.  39),  be  without,  with  the  gen.  in  early  N.H.Cr.,  now  with  the  acc. 

niederkommen,  early  N.H.G.  eines  Kindes  niederkommen  to  be  delivered  of  a  child,  now  mit 
einem  Kinde  niederkommen,  early  N.H.G.  eines  Fiebers  niederkommen,  now  an  einem 
Fieber  erkranken. 

pflegen  (1)  to  attend  to,  take  care  of,  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  the  acc:  Du  pflegtest  deiner 
Wunden  (Kleist's  Penthesilea,  9).  Nun  pflegten  sie  seines  schier  erstarrten  Leibes  drinnen 
in  der  Stube  nach  Brauch,  um  das  Leben  in  ihm  wieder  flüssig  zu  machen  (Wilhelm  Fischer's 
Sonnenopfer,  III).  Er  pflegt  seine  Gesundheit,  seine  Hände.  (2)  to  discharge  the  duties  of, 
usually  with  the  gen.:  Auf  dem  Frisdhof  pflegt  der  Totengräber  hastig  seines  Amtes  (Ernst 
Zahn's  Wie  dem  Kaplan  Louginus  die  Welt  aufging).  (3)  to  carry  ou  (a  conversation,  cSic), 
with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  the  acc:  Während  er  mit  dem  Schiffer  dieser  kleinen  Heim- 
lichkeit pflog  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap.  33).  (4)  to  give  ones  self  up  to, 
indulge  in,  with  the  gen.:  Er  pflegt  der  Wollust.  (5)  to  take  (counsel,  one's  rest,  &c.),  with 
the  gen.  or  acc:  Er  hat  Rücksprache  or  Rat  or  Rates  mit  seinem  Rechtsanwalt  gepflogen. 
Er  pflegt  der  Ruhe,  seiner  Bequemlichkeit. 

scherzen  (1)  to  make  fun  of,  make  sport  of,  formerly  with  the  acc,  now  with  the  gen.  in  Switzer- 
land, elsewhere  replaced  by  spotten  with  the  gen.  or  verspotten  with  the  acc:  Geben  Sie 
acht,  daß  die  irdischen  Weiber  nicht  Ihrer  „scherzen"!  (Carl  Spitteler's  Imago,  p.  49).  (2)  to 
jest  at,  joke  about,  with  über  with  the  acc. 

schonen  or  verschonen  to  spare,  have  regard  for,  use  tenderly,  now  usually  with  the  acc,  the 
former  sometimes  with  the  gen.,  both  formerly  also  with  the  dat.  (258.  1.  A.  g):  So  triff  mich, 
aber  schone  meines  Volks!  (Grillparzer's  König  üttokar,  5).  Schont  seines  Schmerzens! 
Schiller's  Tell,  1,  4).  Des  Champagners  hatte  man  nicht  geschont  (Spielhagen's  Herrin, 
p.  233). 

schweigen  (1)  to  be  silent  about,  formerly  with  the  gen.,  now  usually  with  von  with  the  dat., 
or  über  with  the  acc:  Ich  schweige  der  freuden  (Psalm  xxxix.  3).  (2)  schweigen  or  more 
commonly  geschweigen  to  pass  over  in  silence,  to  say  nothing  about,  usually  with  the  gen., 
especially  fre(|uent  in  the  infinitive  with  zu:  Ein  breitschultriger  und  kurzhalsiger  Mann 
von  Mitte  Dreißig,  dessen  Stutzhut  und  hechtgrauer  Rock  mit  grünen  Rabatten  (des 
Hirschfängers  ganz  zu  schweigen)  über  seinen  Beruf  keinen  Zweifel  lassen  konnte  (Fon- 
tane's  Quitt,  chap.  1).     Der  anderen  Dinge  zu  geschweigen. 

sorgen  to  worry,  be  anxious  about,  now  with  um,  sometimes  für,  with  the  acc. 

sparen  or  ersparen  to  spare,  now  usually  with  the  acc. 

spielen  to  play,  now  usually  with  the  acc.  or  according  to  257.  2.  A  the  simple  stem  of  the  noun. 


260.  2.  A. INTRANSITIVES   WITH   GENITIVE 513 

formerly  with  the  gen.  and  still  occasionally  so  in  case  of  an  infinitive-substantive  and  the 
diminutives,  especially  in  dialect  and  in  the  language  of  children:  Versteckens,  Räuberles, 
Soldätles,  Indianerches    (G.   Asmus's   Anierikanisches  Skizzenbilchelche,   p.   59)   spielen,  now 

^  usually  Verstecken,  Räuber,  Soldat,  Indianer,  Pferd,  Ball,  Schach  spielen. 
^  spotten  to  scorn,  mock,  make  sport  of,  with  the  gen.  in  figurative  language  and  also  elsewhere, 
more  commonly  with  über  with  the  ace:  Das  spottet  jeder  Beschreibung.  Sometimes 
spotten  takes  the  simple  dat.  and  is  also  sometimes  a  transitive  with  an  ace.  object,  hence 
the  biblical  expression  Gott  läßt  sich  nicht  spotten  God  is  not  mocked.  The  transitive  form 
is  usually  verspotten. 
■ —  staunen  to  be  astonished  at,  more  commonly  with  über  with  the  ace,  sometimes  with  the  simple 
dat.  (258.  I.  A.  /):  Sie  staunten  der  Pracht  nicht,  mit  der  die  Tante  angetan  war  (Felix  Sal- 
ten's  Die  kleine    Veronika,  p.  47). 

sterben,  to  die,  see  260,  4th  par. 
v^un  to  discharge  the  duties  of:   Erst  auf  Grund  der  Drohung,  die  Sache  bei  dem  deutschen  Kon- 
sul  Grafen  Hardenberg  anzuzeigen,  veranlaßte  er  ihn  seines  Amtes  zu  tun  (Hamburger  Xach- 
richtcn,  Dec.  14,  1904). 

verdienen  to  be  deserving  of,  now  with  the  ace. 

verbleichen  to  grow  pale,  see  260,  4th  par. 

verfehlen,  see  fehlen,  above. 

vergessen  to  be  forgetful  of,  forget,  more  commonly  the  ace,  in  S.  G.  literary  language  and  some- 
times  in  the  North  auf  (less  commonly  an)  with  the  ace.  after  the  analog>^  of  sich  besinnen 
auf,  sich  erinnern  auf,  and  the  popular  denken  auf  (instead  of  literary  an),  usually  with  a 
little  different  meaning  with  the  ace.  to  forget,  leave  behind  somewhere,  as  in  einen  Regenschirm 
vergessen,  but  with  auf  in  the  sense  not  to  think  of,  not  to  turn  one's  attention,  one's  thoughts  to. 
as  in  auf  seinen  Regenschirm  vergessen  to  forget  to  take  one's  umbrella  along,  i.e.  not  to  think 
of  it,  auf  seine  Pflicht,  auf  Gott  vergessen:  Der  Herr  hat  mein  noch  nie  vergessen,  vergiß, 
mein  Herz,  auch  seiner  nicht  (Geliert).  Wenn  sie  also  gekniet  hätte  aus  Liebe  zu  ihm, 
während  er  fem  von  ihr  weilte  und  allgemach  ihrer  vergaß  (Ertl's  Walpurga).  Vergeßt  nur 
nicht  auf  Eures  Vaters  Süppletn,  Jungfer!  (Storm's  Zur  Chronik  von  Grieshuus,  p.  109).  Dann 
vergaß  ich  auf  die  Sache  (Rosegger's  Geldtragen).  Du  vergißt  ganz  aufs  Essen,  Oltschi 
(Berlepsch's  Vendetta).  Herrgott,  die  Torte!  Rein  vergessen  hätten  wir  jetzt  auf  die! 
(delle  Grazie's  Sphinx).  Da  hatte  ich  auf  die  Geschichte  schon  beinahe  vergessen  (Ertl's 
Nachdenkliches  Bilderbuch,  p.  247).  Dann  vergesse  ich  auf  alles  und  dann  spreche  ich  mit 
Martha  schlesisch  (Paul  Keller's  Waldwinter,  X\'II).  Ich  habe,  glaub'  ich,  schon  wieder 
an  uns  beide  vergessen  (Hirschfeld's  Der  junge  Goldner,  p.  226).  For  further  discussion 
see  260  (3rd  par.). 
^^'verlangen  to  long  for,  with  the  gen.  in  poetic  style,  for  prose  construction  see  262.  II.  B.  d. 
-  verleugnen  to  deny,  disown,  sometimes  in  early  N.H.G.  with  the  gen.,  now  with  the  ace. 

vermissen  to  miss,  feel  the  want,  absence  of,  now  with  the  ace,  in  early  N.H.G.  also  with  the 
gen.,  as  in  I.  Sam.  xx.  18. 

verzagen  to  despair  of,  be  in  despair  on  account  of,  with  the  gen.  in  poetic  language,  usually  um 
einen,  seinetwegen,  an  einem,  an  seinem  guten  Willen,  an  seiner  Gesundheit  verzagen. 

. wachen  to  ivatch  over,  formerly  with  gen.  or  dat.,  now  with  über  with  the  ace   (formerly  also 

dat.). 
-v\  wahren  (1)  to  look  out  for,  with  the  gen.:  So  dachte  die  Frau  ...  I  ihrer  Ehre  zu  wahren  und 
doppelt  war  sie  verloren  (Goethe).  Wahr'  deiner  Haut  (Werner's  Ostsee,  I,  39).  (2)  to  keep, 
with  the  gen.:  Der  weise  Talbot,  der  des  Siegels  wahret  (Schiller's  Maria,  1,  7).  (3)  to  look 
after,  with  the  gen.  in  a  few  expressions:  Wahre  deiner  Pflicht,  deines  Amtes!  (4)  to  defend, 
vindicate,  with  the  gen.  in  poetic  language,  usually  with  the  ace:  Ich  geh'  zum  König,  wahre 
meines  Rechts  (Grillparzer's  Aledea,  1),  but  usually  Ich  wahre  mein  Recht.  (5)  to  guard, 
care  for,  earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in  poetic  language  with  the  gen.:  Hätten  sie  sich  alle 
gehalten  wie  er  und  ein  Knecht,  es  wäre  mein  und  meines  kleinen  Häufchens  übel  gewahrt 
gewesen  (Goethe's  Götz,  3,  6).  Und  [der  König]  wahrte  mein,  wie  eines  teuern  Sohns  (Grill- 
parzer's Medea,  1).  Usually  with  the  ace:  Sie  wahrte  ihn  wie  ihren  Augapfel.  (6)  to  ob- 
serve, save:   den  Anstand  wahren  to  observe  the  decorum,  den  Schein  wahren  to  save  appearances. 

wahrnehmen  (1)  to  take  care  of  (children,  &c.),  with  the  gen.:  Nehmt  der  Kinder  .  .  .  wahr 
(Goethe's  Rein.  Fuchs,  3).  (2)  to  take  advantage  of  (an  opportunity,  &c.),  with  the  gen.  or 
more  commonly  the  ace:  Nimm  der  günstigen  or  more  commonly  die  günstige  Gelegenheit 
wahr.  (3)  to  perceive,  now  with  the  ace:  Ich  habe  an  ihm  keine  Veränderung  wahrnehmen 
können.  (4)  to  look  after  (one's  interests),  now  with  the  ace:  Er  ninmit  mein  Interesse 
wahr.  (5)  to  reimburse  one's  self  (for  his  expenses),  now  with  the  ace:  Er  nimmt  seine  Aus- 
lagen wahr. 

walten  (1)  to  discharge  the  duties  of,  have  charge  of,  with  the  gen.:  Am  nächsten  Morgen  waltete 
sie  jedoch  ihrer  Pflichten  am  Frühlingstische  (Alewis's  Der  große  Pan,  p.  376).  (2)  to  bring  to 
pass,  now  also  with  the  ace:  Möge  es  (140.  c)  Mithras,  der  Allgütige,  walten  [Farn.  BL,  4, 
459,  a).  Das  (or  desj  walte  Gott!  (3)  to  hold  sway  over,  with  the  simple  gen.,  or  more  com- 
monly the  ace  or  dat.  after  the  prep,  über,  sometimes  in  poetic  style  with  ob  with  the  dat.: 
Macht,  die  seines  Schicksals  waltete  (Freytag's  Bild.,  I.  406).  Ein  Gott  waltet  über  uns 
alle  (allen). 

warten  (1)  to  await,  expect,  wait  for,  in  the  first  meaning  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  auf 
with  the  ace,  in  the  first  meaning  and  its  figurative  application  to  be  in  store  for,  sometimes 
also  the  dat.,  in  the  second  meaning  once  with  the  gen.,  but  now  replaced  by  erwarten  with 


514 ADJFXTIVES   WITH    GENITIVE   OBJECT  260.  2.  A. 

the  ace,  in  the  third  meaning  now  with  auf  with  the  ace.  when  the  idea  of  duration  is  promi- 
nent and  replaced  by  erwarten  with  the  ace.  when  the  attention  is  directed  more  to  the  end, 
rcsuh:  Er  wartete  des  Erfolges  seiner  Fangvorrichtung  (H.  Seidel's  Der  Luftballon).  Ich 
habe  ein  unbestimmtes  Gefühl,  als  warte  meiner  irgendwo  draußen  ein  stürmisches  Meer 
(Heykin-'s  Briefe,  die  ihn  nicht  erreichten,  p.  ISö).  Traurige  Nachrichten  warteten  auf  ihn. 
Es  warteten  mir  noch  heiße  Tage  (Gotthelf,  .5,  203).  Ich  erwarte  einen  Freund.  Ich  er- 
warte nichts  Gutes  von  ihm.  Ich  warte  auf  ihn.  Erwarten  Sie  mich  auf  dem  Bahnsteig. 
Ich  kann  die  erste  Rose  kaum  erwarten.  Earlier  in  the  period  gewarten  (now  little  used) 
and  erwarten  were  also  used  with  the  gen.  in  these  meanings.  (2)  to  tend,  with  the  gen.: 
Da  saß  ein  Mann  und  wartete  der  Fähre  (Schiller's  Tell,  2,  2).  (3)  to  care  for,  look  after, 
with  the  gen.,  or  more  commonly  the  ace,  formerly  also  the  dat.:  Warte  des  Leibes,  der 
Pflicht,  deines  Amtes!  Da  begannen  die  Menschen  des  Ackers  zu  warten,  damit  er  ihnen 
im  Herbst  ihre  Nahrung  und  Notdurft  gab  (Engking's  D'ie  Darnekower,  p.  162).  Sie  (die 
Kinderwärterin)  wartet  die  Kinder.  Man  wartet  die  Pferde, 
zürnen  to  be  angary  at  (something),  in  choice  language  sometimes  still  with  the  gen.  of  the  thing, 
in  Switzerland  sometimes  a  transitive  with  the  ace.  as  in  M.H.G.,  now  usually  with  über 
with  the  ace:  Zürnt  nicht  der  dreisten  Frage,  wie  konntet  Ihr  dies  einsame  Leben  unter 
dem  wilden  Volk  vertragen?  (Freytag's  Rittmeister,  III).  Wie  kann  ein  Mensch  menschlicher 
Fehle  zürnen?  {Zeitschrift  für  den  deutschen  Unterricht,  1919,  p.  170).  Sie  hätten  mein  Aus- 
bleiben fast  gezürnt  (Gotthelf,  6,  63).  Ich  zürne  dir  es  nicht  (K.  F.  Meyer's  Novellen,  2,  146). 
Er  zürnt  über  jede  Kleinigkeit,  but  Er  zürnt  mir,  mit  mir,  or  auf  mich. 

a.  The  genitive  object  is  also  found  after  the  following  verbs,  where,  however,  it  may  also 
be  classed  as  an  adverbial  gen.:  fahren  to  drive,  gehen  to  go,  kommen  to  come,  schleichen  to 
sneak,  schreiten  to  step,  go,  proceed,  schwanken  or  torkeln  to  stagger,  stolpern  to  stumble, 
wandern  to  wander,  ziehen  to  go.  Exs. :  Ein  wirtlich  Dach  |  für  alle  Wanderer,  die  des  Weges 
fahren  (Schiller's  Tell,  1,  2).  Die  Knaben  gingen  verhältnismäßig  still  ihrer  Wege  (Ompteda's 
Sylvester  von  Geyer,  VII).  Laß  jeden  seines  Pfades  gehen.  Sachte  schlich  ich  meiner  Wege. 
Ganze  Züge  von  Kamelen  schwankten  schwerbeladen  des  Weges  (Dominik's  Kamerun,  p.  4). 
The  accusative  is  also  used  after  these  verbs,  usually  without  difference  of  meaning,  but  some- 
times with  a  shade  of  difference.  The  gen.  represents  the  action  as  beginning,  or  as  directed 
toward  only  a  part  of  the  object,  while  the  ace.  represents  the  action  as  a  thoro  one,  or  as  ex- 
tending entirely  over  the  object:  Geh  deinen  Weg  Go  on  your  way,  keeping  to  it  till  you  reach 
the  end  of  it,  but  Geh  deines  Weges  Start  out  on  your  tuay.  The  gen.  was  once  widely  used  here, 
but  is  now  a  decaying  construction  confined  largely  to  masc.  words  in  a  few  set  expressions. 
It  is  rare  with  fem.  nouns,  found  mostly  in  poetry.  The  simple  ace,  tho  more  common  than 
the  gen.,  has  its  limitations.  The  usual  mode  of  expression  here  is  the  ace  in  connection  with 
an  adverb  or  preposition.  Er  ging  die  Straße  hinunter.  Er  kam  die  Treppe  herauf.  Er  ging 
die  Straße,  den  Fluß  entlang. 

B.  Passive  Form  of  Statement.  In  changing  sentences  containing  a  genitive 
object  into  the  passive  construction  the  genitive  does  not  become  nominative, 
but  remains  genitive  for  the  same  reason  that  the  dative  object  remains  dative 
in  changing  from  the  active  to  the  passive  (258.  1).  The  subject  of  the  passive 
sentence  must  then  become  the  impersonal  es,  expressed  or  understood:  Man 
gedenkt  meiner  They  are  thinking  of  me  becoming  in  the  passive  Meiner  wird 
gedacht,  or  Es  wird  meiner  gedacht.  Those  verbs  that  also  admit  of  the  ac- 
cusative object  in  the  active  may  likewise  be  treated  as  regular  transitives,  in 
which  case  the  accusative  of  the  active  becomes  nominative  in  the  passive: 
Er  erwähnte  diesen  Umstand  or  dieses  Umstands  He  mentioned  this  circum- 
stance becoming  in  the  passive:  Dieser  Umstand  wurde  erwähnt,  or  Dieses 
Umstands  wurde  erwähnt.  In  case  of  those  verbs  which  prefer  the  prep, 
object  in  prose,  the  impersonal  passive  must  be  formed:  Er  spottete  über  mich 
He  scoffed  at  me  becoming  in  the  passive:  Es  wurde  über  mich  gespottet,  or 
Es  wurde  meiner  gespottet. 

3.  Genilive  after  adjectives,  adverbs,  participles,  and  Jtoitns  in  Connection  with 
a  Verb.  The  genitive  here  denotes  sphere  (260),  goal,  specification,  cause, 
deprivation,  removal,  separation,  or  it  often  has  the  force  of  an  objective  geni- 
tive. In  earlier  periods  the  genitive  was  much  more  common  here  in  some 
of  these  categories  than  it  is  to-day.  Former  usage  often  survives  in  group- 
words  (247.  2)  and  compounds:  sonnenverbrannt,  schicksalsschwer,  handels- 
klug, geistesabwesend,  geisteskrank,  segensreich,  «S:c.  In  old  group-words 
(247.  2.  a)  the  genitive  is  not  marked  by  a  formal  ending,  as  this  type  originated 
in  the  period  before  the  introduction  of  inflection:    zielbewußt,  &c. 

The  genitive  now  stands  after  the  following  words  in  elevated  language  and 
in  large  part  also  in  common  prose,  but  other  constructions  too  are  found  with 
the  same  forms,  as  is  indicated  after  each  word :  — 


260.  3. ADJECTIVES   WITH   GEiNITIVE   OBJECT Ö15 

achtlos  heedless  of,  not  paying  attention  to,  in  choice  prose  with  the  gen.,  more  commonly  with 
auf  with  the  ace. 

ahnungslos  having  no  presentiment  of:  Unterdes  ließ  Ebba  sich,  ahnungslos  solchen  Übelwollens, 
die  Verdienste  der  Fliederbüschen  (name)  erzählen  (Boy-Ed's  Die  säende  Hand,  p.  77). 

ansichtig  werden  to  get  sight  of,  originally  with  the  ace,  now  also  with  the  gen.  and  perhaps  more 
commonly  so. 

bar  void  of,  free  from,  rarely  with  von  or  an  with  the  dat.:  Ich  bin  alles  Trostes,  alles  Rates  bar. 
Bar  jeden  (weak  gen.;  see  106.  Note  1)  Chauvinismus,  frei  von  Überheblichkeit  wollen  wir 
.  .  .  immer  wieder  zeigen,  was  die  Größe  und  Kraft  deutschen  Geistes  vermag  (R.  Pechel 
in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  March  1920,  p.  463). 

bedürftig  in  need  of. 

beflissen  given,  devoted  to,  engaged  in  the  study  of:   ein  der  Rechte  Beflissener. 

begierig  or  gierig  desirous  of,  eager  for,  with  the  gen.  in  choice  languatje,  more  commonly  with 
nach  with  the  dat.,  or  auf  with  the  ace:  Und  zuletzt  des  Lichts  begierig,  bist  du,  Schmetter- 
ling, verbraimt.     Er  ist  nach  Geld  begierig.     Er  ist  auf  den  Ausgang  begierig. 

beholfen  in  einem  beholfen  sein  to  be  of  assistance  to  someone  by  means  of,  with  the  gen.  or  mit 
with  the  dat.,  both  constructions  in  use  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  obsolete. 

benötigt  sein  to  be  in  want,  in  need  of,  sometimes  with  the  ace. 

beraubt  deprived  of,  stripped  of,  robbed  of. 

berechtigt  entitled  to,  with  the  gen.  now  only  in  compounds,  as  in  vorkaufsberechtigt  entitled  to 
the  refusal;   outside  of  compounds  now  with  zu  with  the  dat. 

bereit  ready  for,  earlier  in  the  period  occasionally  with  the  gen.,  still  quite  commonly  so  in  com- 
pounds, as  angriffsbereit,  gefechtsbereit,  befehlsbereit,  verkaufsbereit,  &c.;  outside  of 
compounds  now  with  zu  with  the  dat. 

berichtet  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  contracted  to  bericht)  versed  in,  still  in  use  in  the  classical  period: 
Die  Steuerleute  .  .  .  sind  des  Fahrens  (  nicht  wohl  berichtet  (Schiller's  Tell,  4,  1).  See  also 
262.  III.  1.  k. 

bewußt  conscious  of,  sometimes  with  the  ace. 

bloß  not  furnished  with,  wanting,  free  from,  usually  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  with  von  with  the 
dat.,  exposed  to,  with  the  dat. 

eingedenk  or  gedenk  (poet.)  mindful  of,  sometimes  with  the  ace:  Ich  bin  meines  Versprechens 
stets  eingedenk.  Diese  strapaziöseste  Tour  seines  Lebens  kam  auch  auf  Konto  der  Fran- 
zosen, die  wollte  er  ihnen  eingedenk  bleiben  (C.  Viebig's  Die  Wacht  am  Rhein,  p.  413). 

eingeständig,  see  geständig. 

einig  or  eins  agreed  upon,  with  the  gen.  in  the  expressions  des  Preises,  des  Handels,  des  Kaufes 
einig  or  eins,  elsewhere  über  etwas  (acc.)  einig. 

empfänglich,  formerly  with  the  gen.,  now  according  to  261.  B. 

entraten  (provinc.)  rid  of:  Eines  Dieners  mit  Weisheitszähnen  bin  ich  baß  (better)  entraten; 
d  i  e  Dinger  sind  nur  für  uns  gelehrte  Leute  (Storm's  Pole  Poppenspäler). 

entwohnt  or  more  commonly  entwöhnt  disaccustomed  to,  the  former  with  gen.  or  less  often  the 
ace,  the  latter  with  the  gen,  dat.,  or  von  with  the  dat. 

erfahren  experienced  in,  skilled  in,  versed  in,  with  the  gen.  earlier  in  the  period,  now  with  in  with 
the  dat. 

erfüllt,  see  gefüllt. 

ersättigt  satiated  with:  Denn  ich  hatte  nicht  nur  einen  des  Lebens  ersättigten  Greis  mit  dem 
weisen  Willen  der  Natur  übereinstimmend  sich  von  der  Erde  weg  einer  unbekannten  Ewig- 
keit zuwenden  sehen,  >S:c.  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf   Ursleu,  chap.  XXXX'II). 

Erwähnung  tun  to  make  mention  of,  sometimes  with  von  with  the  dat. 

fähig  capable  of. 

fvei  free  from,  with  the  gen.  earlier  in  the  period,  now  usually  with  von  with  the  dat.  The  old 
gen.  here  is  still  common  in  compounds:    vorwurfsfrei,  schuldenfrei. 

froh  (1)  enjoying,  rejoicing  in  (the  possession  of),  happy  in,  usually  with  the  gen.:  Er  wird  seiner 
hohen  Stellung,  seines  Geldes  nicht  froh.  Sie  werden  ihrer  Liebe  nicht  mehr  froh.  (2)  glad 
of,  rejoiced  at,  over,  usually  with  über  with  the  ace:  Ich  bin  froh  über  dich,  über  deine  Lei- 
stung. The  older  gen.  or  the  uninflected  stem  is  found  in  group-words  (247.  2):  schadenfroh 
rejoicing  over  the  misfortunes  of  others,  where  schaden  is  an  old  weak  gen.,  sturmfrohe  Möwen 
sea-gulls  rejoicing  over  the  storm. 

gefüllt  and  erfüllt  filled  with,  the  former  with  the  gen.  in  poetic  style,  usually  with  mit  with  the 
dat.,  the  latter  with  the  gen.  in  a  few  expressions  or  more  commonly  with  von  or  mit  with 
the  dat.:    Zweifelnd  und  doch  aller  Gewißheit  erfüllt  (Raabe's  Cutmanns  Reisen,  chap.   XI). 

geizig  eager  after,  coveting,  now  usually  with  nach  with  the  dat. 

gereuig  werden  to  regret:  Als  er  auf  den  Domplatz  kam,  wurde  er  seines  Entschlusses  fast 
gereuig  (Ruth  Waldstetter's  Das  Haus  zum  großen  Kefig). 

gesättigt  satiated  with,  tired  of,  with  the  gen.  or  perhaps  more  commonly  von  with  the  dat.:  Ich 
bin  gesättigt  des  süßen  Weins  (Halbe's  Lebenswende,  1,  p.  20). 

geständig  or  eingeständig  sein  to  confess,  plead  guilty  to  (an  offense),  sometimes  with  the  ace: 
Er  ist  des  Verbrechens  geständig  or  eingeständig. 

gewahr  werden  to  perceive,  with  the  gen.  or  ace:   Ich  wurde  meines  Irrtums  or  meinen  Irrtum 

•  bald  gewahr. 

gewaltig  sein  or  werden  to  have  control  of  (one's  senses,  &c.),  get  the  mastery  of,  in  early  N.H.G. 
with  the  gen.,  later  über  with  the  ace,  now  little  used  here. 

gewärtig  expecting,  on  the  look-out  for,  sometimes  with  the  ace:    Ich  war  mir  seines  Angriffs 


516 ADJECTIVES   WITH    GENITIVE   OBJECT 260.  3. 

gewärtig.  Den  sind  die  Lochstafelkinder  gewärtig,  ehe  sie  abziehen  (Ernst  Zahn's  Men- 
schen, I). 

gewiß  certain  of,  sometimes  with  the  ace,  earlier  in  the  period  with  von  with  the  dat. 

gewohnt  or  gewöhnt  accustomed  to,  both  more  commonly  with  the  ace,  or  in  case  of  gewöhnt 
still  more  commonlv  with  an  with  the  ace,  gewohnt  sometimes  with  an  with  the  ace:  Da 
sind  viele,  sonst  des  sanften  Gehrocks  gewohnte  Gestalten  kaum  wiederzuerkennen  in  dem 
Gewände  des  Krieges  (Tägliche  Rundschau,  Oct.  22,  1914).  Wir  sind  des  Furchtbaren  so 
gewöhnt,  daß  es  wenig  Schrecken  für  uns  mehr  gibt  (Paul  Block  in  Berliner  Tageblatt,  June 
3,  191<>i. 

habhaft  werden  to  get  hold  or  possession  of,  sometimes  with  the  ace:  Sie  wurden  des  Verbrechers 
nicht  habhaft. 

Herr  sein  or  werden  to  have  or  get  the  mastery  of,  also  with  über  with  the  ace:  Er  wtirde  nicht 
Herr  seiner  Leidenschaft. 

imstande  sein  to  he  able  to:  Wenn  es  also  entschlossen  ist,  den  Krieg  zu  führen,  bis  es  zu  einem 
ihm  günstigen  Frieden  gekommen  ist,  dann  ist  Japan  dessen  auch  imstande  ( Neue  Zürcher 
ZeHung,  March  13,  IIK)")). 

inne  or  iess  cominonh-  innen  werden  to  become  conscious  of,  perceive,  also  with  the  ace:  Sie 
werden  ihres  Wahnes  inne  werden  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  5,  4).  Wenn  sie  würden  innen  | 
hier  mein  seltsames  Beginnen  (Grillparzer's  Ahnfrau,  2). 

klar  clear  icith  regard  to,  more  commonly  with  über  with  the  ace:  Jedermann  ist  sich  der  Be- 
weggründe klar,  welche  zu  diesen  Flottenvergleichen  Anlaß  boten  ( Neue  Zürcher  Zeitung, 
March  2.  1905). 

kündig  (now  rare)  or  more  commonly  kundig  ivell  acquainted  with  (a  road,  &c.),  versed  in. 

laß  (poet.)  tired  of. 

ledig  free  from,  with  the  gen.  or  von  with  the  dat.:  Ich  bin  aller  Schuld  bar  und  ledig. 

leer  void  of,  free  from,  now  usually  with  von  or  an  with  the  dat.,  common  in  old  group-words 
(247.  2.  a):  (poetic)  aller  Falschheit  leer.  Dies  Gasthaus  ist  nie  leer  von  Gästen.  Sein 
Kopf  ist  leer  an  nützlichen  Kenntnissen.  Fischleere  Teiche,  eine  bamnleere  Grasfliir,  in- 
haltleere Worte. 

los  rid  of,  free  from,  with  the  gen.  in  poetic  language,  now  usually  with  the  ace;  earlier  in  the 
period  with  von  with  the  dat.  also  after  sein  and  werden,  now  with  von  with  the  dat.  only 
after  other  verbs  than  sein  and  werden:  Ich  bin  ihn  los,  but  Er  ist  vom  Militär  losgekommen. 
Er  machte  sich  von  mir  los.     The  older  gen.  is  preserved  in  compounds:   anspruchslos,  &c. 

mächtig  master  of,  in  control  of:  Er  ist  des  Englischen  mächtig.  Er  war  seiner  Sinne  nicht 
mächtig. 

Meister  sein  or  werden  to  be  master  of,  get  the  mastery  over,  have,  get  the  control  of,  get  the  better  of, 
also  with  von  with  the  dat.  or  über  with  the  ace:  Der  Zunge  bin  ich  Meister,  nicht  des  Auges 
(Kotzebue). 

müde  tired  of,  also  with  the  ace. 

müßig  used  earlier  in  the  period  with  gehen,  less  frequently  sein,  stehen,  bleiben,  in  the  mean- 
ings to  keep  aloof  from,  avoid,  abstain  from,  free  one's  self  from. 

nötig  or  von  nöten  haben  to  need,  with  the  gen.  or  now  more  commonly  the  ace,  nötig  sein  (S.W.G.) 
to  need,  require,  also  with  the  ace,  not  sein  to  be  in  need  of,  with  the  gen.  or  now  more  com- 
monly the  nom.,  not  haben  to  have  need  of,  with  the  gen.  or  now  usually  the  ace:  Nun  habt 
ihr  keines  Vormunds  nötig  (Lessing's  Sinnged.,  I,  124),  now  usually  keinen  Vormund.  Ihr 
habt  jetzt  meiner  (usually  mich)  weiter  nicht  von  nöten  (Schiller's  Tell,  1,  2).  Es  war  der 
Anstrengung  nötig,  um  bei  diesem  Gedanken,  der  an  der  Seite  Goethes  meine  Seele  durch- 
schauerte, eine  gewisse  Art  Beklommenheit  verbergen  zu  können  (Prof.  J-  Röckl  in  1808 
as  quoted  in  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  Aug.  27,  1905,  p.  391).  Vieles  Redens  ist 
jetzt  nicht  not.  Eins  (gen.,  but  felt  as  a  nom.)  ist  not.  Mut  ist  uns  not  und  ein  gefaßter 
Geist  (Schiller's  Wallenstein).  Sie  hat's  (the  es  a  gen.,  but  felt  as  an  ace)  nicht  not  (R. 
Wagner's  Flieg.  Holl.). 

quitt  free  from,  rid  of,  clear  of,  sometimes  with  the  ace,  earlier  in  the  period  also  von  with  the 
dat.:   Ich  bin  meines  Versprechens  quitt.     Ich  bin  aller  Sorgen  quitt. 

satt  satiated  with,  tired  of,  with  the  gen.  in  choice  language,  colloquially  more  commonly  the 
ace:  Ich  bin  des  ewigen  Gezänkes  (or  das  ewige  Gezänk)  satt. 

schuldig  guilty  of  with  the  gen.,  unschuldig  innocent  of  with  the  gen.  in  poetic  language,  usually 
with  an  with  the  dat.,  schuldig  sein  to  oive,  owe  for  with  the  ace,  an  etwas  (dat.)  schuldig 
(usually  schuld)  sein  to  be  the  cause  of  something,  in  biblical  language  an  einem  or  etwas  schuldig 
sein  in  the  general  meaning  to  sin  against,  altho  variously  rendered  into  English,  as  in  1.  Sam. 
xxii.  22,  1.  Cor.  xi.  27,  des  Todes  schuldig  sein  to  deserve  death,  forfeit  one's  life:  Er  ist  d33 
Verbrechens  schuldig.  Er  ist  an  diesem  Verbrechen  unschuldig.  Ich  bin  ihm  eine  Ant- 
wort schuldig.  Ich  bleibe  Ihnen  20  Mark  schuldig.  Ich  bin  or  bleibe  die  Ware  schuldig 
/  owe  for  the  goods,  took  the  goods  on  credit.  Wer  mit  seinem  Bruder  zürnet,  der  ist  des  Gerichts 
schuldig  (Matth.  v.  22,  rc\-ised  ed.). 

selig  happy  in,  usually  with  in  with  the  dat.  or  durch  with  the  ace 

sicher  sure  of,  only  rarely  with  von  with  the  dat. 

teilhaft  or  teilhaftig  sharing  in:   Alle  seid  ihr  teilhaft  seiner  Schuld  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  3). 

überdrüssig  tveary  of,  with  the  gen.  or  ace,  formerly  also  with  über  with  the  ace 

über'hoben  relieved  from,  usually  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  with  the  dat.:  eine  .  .  .  seiner  welt- 
lichen  Eingriffe  überhobene,  selbständige  Stellung  (Ranke's  Päpste,  1,  162). 


261. PREPOSITIONAL   OBJECT 517 

unachtend  paying  no  attention  to:  Unachtend  der  braunen  Löckchen,  die  von  der  Stirne  ihm  in 
die  Augen  hingen  (Storm's  Doppelgänger). 

unbe'kümmert  unconcerned  about,  now  with  um  with  the  ace.  or  wegen  with  the  gen.  See  also 
261.  B. 

ungläubig  incredulous  ivith  regard  to,  with  the  gen.  in  biblical  language,  as  in  Acts  xxvi.  19. 

unwissend,  see  wissend. 

verdächtig  suspected  of:   Er  ist  der  Tat  verdächtig. 

vergessen  forgetful  of,  still  in  use  in  poetic  style. 

verhxsiig  forfeiting,  losing:   Er  ist  der  Ehre  verlustig  gegangen. 

verlustigt  deprived  of,  now  ol^solete. 

vermutend  or  vermuten  sein  to  be  expecting,  more  commonly  with  the  ace:  So  wenig  sich  ein 
moderner  Leser  .  .  .  dessen  in  einer  attischen  Tragödie  vermutend  ist,  so  weitverbreitet 
war  in  privaten  Konventikeln  diese  Art  von  Selbstheiligung  (Wilamowitz-IMoellendorff's 
Griechische  Tragödie)!,  p.  116). 

versichert  assured  of. 

verständig  versed  in,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  gen.,  now  usually  found  in  this  meaning  only 
in  compounds:  rechtsverständig  versed  in  the  law,  ein  Sachverständiger  an  expert,  spe- 
cialist, &c. 

voll  or  sometimes,  especially  before  an  unmodified  object,  voller  (see  111.  8),  with  the  gen.  when 
the  object  is  modified  by  the  definite  article  or  a  descriptive  adjective  or  by  both,  especially 
in  case  of  the  superlative,  also  before  an  unmodified  plural  object;  with  von  (sometimes  mit) 
with  the  dat.  when  the  object  is  unmodified  and  precedes,  also  when  the  object  is  a  personal 
pronoun,  also  when  it  stands  before  an  object  modified  by  a  limiting  adjective  other  than 
the  definite  article,  often  also  before  an  object  modified  by  a  descriptive  adjective,  where  in 
general  the  gen.  is  more  common;  usually  with  non-inflection  of  the  object  in  the  singular 
when  there  is  no  modifying  word  before  it;  sometimes  with  the  simple  dat.  instead  of  the 
more  common  gen.:  voll  der  innigsten  Teilnahme,  voll  des  größten  Lobes,  voll  treffender 
Bemerkungen,  Briefe  voll  verräterischen  Inhalts,  ein  Glas  voll  starken  Weines  or  voll  von 
starkem  Weine.  Der  Baum  hängt  voll  Früchte  (gen.,  sometimes  dat.  Früchten).  Ein  Hafen, 
der  von  Schiffen  voll  ist;  em  Spielplatz  voll  Kinder  but  always  voll  von  üinen;  ein  Herz  voll 
von  Ihnen.  Er  hat  den  Kopf  voll  von  seinem  Plan,  voll  von  anderen  Dingen.  Er  hat  den 
Kopf  so  voll  mit  seinem  Unglück  (Fulda's  Die  Kameraden,  2,  4).  Ein  Glas  voll  Wasser 
(earlier  in  the  period  Wassers),  das  Herz  voll  schrecklichem  Höhnen  (Frenssen's  Bismarck, 
p.  337)  or  more  commonly  schrecklichen  Höhnens. 

wert  lüorth,  formerly  with  the  gen.  and  still  in  certain  expressions,  now  usually  with  the  ace, 
worthy,  with  the  gen.:  Das  ist  der  Mühe,  der  Rede  wert.  Das  ist  keinen  Schuß  Pulver  wert. 
Er  ist  der  Ehre  wert. 

wissend  (in  poetic  language)  knowing  of,  informed  concerning,  unwissend:  Dann  mach'  ich  ihn 
wissend  der  Zaubermacht,  |  durch  die  er  sie  finden  und  binden  kann  (Sudermann 's  Die  drei 
Reiherfedern,  1,  2). 

würdig  tvorthy  of. 

zufrieden  satisfied  with,  now  usually  with  mit  with  the  dat.,  in  the  eighteenth  century  also  with 
von  with  the  dat.:  Auch  bin  des  Dienstes  (now  mit  dem  Dienste)  ich  wohl  zufrieden,  den 
sie  mir  geleistet  (Goethe).  The  older  gen.  is  still  sometimes  used  where  the  reference  is  to 
a  thought  as  a  whole:  Schon  während  der  Mobilmachung  waren  Schnaps  und  selbst  Bier 
auf  Bahnhöfen  verboten,  und  unsere  wackeren  Jungen  waren  dessen  zufrieden  (Engcl's 
Ein  Tagebuch,  I,  p.  46).  Ich  bin  es  (old  gen.;  see  140.  c;  still  quite  common)  zufrieden. 
Ich  bin  davon  (now  damit)  zufrieden  (Goethe). 

a.  Instead  of  a  gen.  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  an  infinitive  with  zu  (or  more  rarely  um  zu)  or 
a  clause  is  often  found  with  these  adjectives:  Ich  bin  froh,  Sie  zu  sehen.  Er  ist  nicht  fähig, 
(um)  es  zu  begreifen.     Ich  bin  froh,  daß  Sie  gekommen  sind. 

b.  The  acc.  after  the  above  adjectives  is  more  common  in  case  of  pronouns  than  nouns. 
Especially  the  neut.  acc.  es  is  common  even  after  adjectives,  which  do  not  usually  admit  of  the 
ace:  Wenn  ich  es  ganz  und  gar  überhoben  sein  könnte!  If  I  could  be  relieved  from  it  entirely! 
The  es  is  here  in  reality  the  gen.  (see  140.  c),  but  is  now  felt  as  an  acc.  The  acc.  now  very  com- 
monly used  after  some  of  the  above  adjectives  and  participles  has  arisen  from  this  misunder- 
stood pronominal  form  es,  and  then  spread  to  other  pronouns,  and  also  to  nouns:  VVeislingen : 
Seid  Ihr  mich  schon  müde?     Adelheid:    Euch  nicht  sowohl  als  Euern  Umgang  (Goethe's  Götz, 

c.  The  gen.  object  usually  precedes  the  governing  adjective:    Sind  Sie  Ihrer  Sache  gewiß? 

Prepositional  Object. 

261.  In  the  preceding  articles  the  object  of  verbs  or  adjectives  is  in  some 
simple  case  form,  but  it  may  also  be  in  some  case  after  a  prep.,  usually,  how- 
ever, with  a  different  shade  of  meaning  or  feeling,  if  the  same  verb  also  governs 
a  simple  case :  Ich  denke  dein  /  am  thinking  of  you  is  choicer  and  inore  expressive 
than  the  more  common  Ich  denke  an  dich.  Further  shades  of  meaning  can  be 
introduced  by  using  different  prepositions:  Denke  auf  deine  Rettung  Be  think- 


518 


VERBS   WITH    PREPOSITIONAL   OBJECT 


261. 


in?  of  some  plan  to  bring  about  your  rescue.  Ich  habe  lange  über  das  Rätsel 
gedacht  I  have  long  pondered  over  the  riddle.  Many  verbs,  adjectives,  antl 
participles  have  an  object  or  objects  in  a  simple  case  form  in  some  expressions, 
but  have  prepositional  objects  in  other  expressions,  other  words  have  only 
prep,  objects;.  Eins  bitte  ich  dich,  but  Ich  bitte  um  Entschuldigung.  Jeder 
war  auf  das  Äußerste  gefaßt. 

In  the  passive  the  prepositional  object  remains  and  the  subject  becomes  es 
expressed  or  understood:  (acti\-e)  Man  bittet  um  Antwort;  (passive)  Es  wird 
um  Antwort  gebeten,  or  Um  Antwort  wird  gebeten.     See  also  219.  5.  A  and  B.  a. 

For  purposes  of  illustration  a  number  of  the  most  common  verbs,  adjectives 
and  participles  which  need  a  prepositional  object  are  listed  below  along  with 
the  prepositon  or  prepositons  which  each  word  requires.  No  attempt  is  made 
to  distinguish  here  the  prepositional  phrase  in  the  object  relation  from  the  prepo- 
sitional phrase  in  the  adverbial  relation,  as  there  is  never  a  difference  in  form 
and  no  fundamental  difference  in  function.  In  general  we  call  the  phrase  an 
object  when  its  relation  to  the  verb,  adjective,  or  participle  is  very  close,  so 
close  that  it  is  necessary  to  complete  its  meaning.  The  relation  of  the  adverbial 
phrase  to  the  verb,  adjective,  or  participle  is  less  close.  It  is,  however,  often 
impossible  to  discriminate  between  the  two  classes  sharply. 

By  glancing  at  the  preceding  and  following  articles  it  will  be  seen  that  verbs 
which  once  took  an  object  in  a  simple  case  form  now  often  take  a  prepositional 
object.  The  prep,  construction  has  become  a  marked  favorite,  and  hence 
the  study  of  the  prepositions,  their  meaning  and  grammatical  use,  is 
a    vital    one.     This    subject    is    treated    at    considerable    length    in    225  232. 

A.     Verbs  with  Prepositional  Object:  — 


abhängen  von  to  depend  upon,  be  dependent 
upon:  Das  hängt  vom  Glück  ab.  Ich  hänge 
nicht  von  meinen  Verwandten  ab. 

abnehmen  an  (with  dat.)  to  decrease  in:  Er 
hat  an  Reichtum,  Körperkräften  abgenom- 
men. 

abonnieren  auf  (with  acc.)  to  subscribe  for: 
Ich  habe  (or  less  commonly  ich  habe  mich) 
auf  die  Zeitung  abonniert  (an  act).  Ich  bin 
auf  die  Zeitung  abonniert  (a  state).  Now 
often  trans,  with  ace:  Eine  Tageszeitung 
können  sie  aus  finanziellen  Gründen  nicht 
abonnieren  {Frankfurter  Zeit.,  April  2, 
1914). 

abreisen  nach  to  depart,  set  out  for. 

abstechen  gegen  (also  von  or  zu)  to  contrast 
with. 

abzielen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  aim  at,  have  in  view. 

achten  auf  or  achtgeben  auf  (with  acc.)  to  pay 
attention  to:  Achte  auf  meine  Worte,  or 
Gib  auf  meine  Worte  acht.  See  also  260, 
2.  A. 

afterreden  von  einem,  über  or  gegen  einen,  or 
more  commonly  einem  Übles  nachreden  to 
slander  someone. 

angrenzen  to  border  on :  Seine  Felder  grenzen 
an  die  unsrigen,  but  without  prep.  obj. 
Deutschland  und  die  angrenzenden  Länder. 

anhalten  bei  to  stop  at :  unterwegs  bei  einem 
Wirtshause  — ;  um  ein  Mädchen  —  to  pro- 
pose to  a  girl. 

anklopfen  to  knock  on:  Man  klopft  an  die 
Tür,  but  without  prep.  obj.  Es  ist  zweimal 
angeklopft  worden. 

anknüpfen  an  (with  acc.)  to  begin  a  discourse, 
treatise  by  referring  to  something  already 
said  or  known,  to  start  from:  Er  knüpfte  an 
die  letzten  Worte  der  Erzählung  an. 

anspielen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  allude  to. 

auffahren  bei  to  start  at  (a  sudden  sound). 


aufhören:  —  mit  to  stop,  cease:  Hör'  endlich 
mit  deinem  ewigen  Jammern  auf!  Also  with 
the  infinitive:  Hör'  auf,  zu  jammern. 

aufmerken  to  listen  to,  give  ear  to:  Merke  auf 
meine  Worte,  auf  meinen  Wunsch,  but  with- 
out prep,  obj.:  Mit  fremden  Menschen 
nimmt  man  sich  zusammen,  da  merkt  man 
auf. 

auftauchen  aus  emerge  from. 

aussehen  nach  to  have  the  appearance  of,  be 
a  prospect  of:  Es  sieht  nicht  nach  schönem 
Wetter  aus. 

bauen  auf  (with  dat.  in  1st  meaning,  acc.  in 
2nd)  to  build  upon,  rely  upon:  Er  baut  auf 
dem  Sande.     Ich  baue  auf  ihn. 

beben  vor  (with  dat.)  to  tremble,  quiver, 
shiver  with:  Mein  Herz  bebt  vor  Furcht. 
Die  runden  Schultern  Josephines  bebten 
von  verhaltenem  Lachen. 

beginnen  mit  +  verbal  noun,  often  used  \\here 
in  English  a  direct  object  is  employed:  Zu- 
nächst habe  ich  mich  durch  den  Wunsch 
des  Herrn  Verlegers  bestimmen  lassen,  mit 
dem  Druck  zu  beginnen  (Bülbring's  Alt- 
englisches  Elenientarbuch,  Vorwort)  to  begin 
the  printing. 

beharren  bei  (also  auf  or  in  with  dat.)  to  per- 
sist in,  persevere  in:  Er  beharrt  bei  (auf,  in) 
seinem  Irrtum,  seiner  Meinung. 

bellen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  bark  at:  Der  Karo 
bellt  wohl  auch  mal  auf  seinen  Herrn,  wenn 
er  schlecht  gelaunt  ist  (Halbe's  Haus  Rosen- 
hagen, p.  Ü5).  Here  used  facetiously  after  the 
model  of  auf  einen  schimpfen.  \Ve  usually 
say:    Der  Hund  bellt  einen  an. 

bestehen  aus  to  consist  of:  Messing  besteht 
aus  Zinn  und  Kupfer,  but  Charakterstärke 
besteht  nicht  im  {in)  Eigensinn;  to  insist 
upon:  Er  besteht  auf  seinem  (also  sein) 
Recht. 


261.  A. 


VERBS   WITH    PREPOSITIONAL   OBJECT 


519 


bitten  urn  to  ask,  beg  for  (a  thing).  See  also 
262.  III.  1.  a. 

blicken  auf  (with  ace.)  to  look  at,  on:  Er 
blickt  auf  die  Karte,  auf  den  See,  auf  den 
Fleck  im  Rock,  but  to  indicate  a  more  mi- 
nute investigation  anblicken  is  employed: 
Er  blickte  die  Karte  an  He  examined  the 
map,  looking  at  its  general  make-up.  Er 
blickte  den  Fleck  im  Rock  an.  We  also  say : 
Er  blickte  mich  freundlich,  zornig  an, 

brennen  vor  to  burn  with:  Er  brennt  vor 
großer  Ungeduld;  brennen  auf  (with  acc.) 
to  burn  with  a  desire  to:  Er  brennt  auf  den 
Kampf  He  burns  with  a  desire  to  begin  the 
battle.  Er  brennt  darauf,  ins  Leben  einzu- 
greifen. 

deklamieren  über  (with  acc.)  to  declaim 
upon. 

duften  nach  to  smell  of  (roses,  &c.),  give 
forth  the  fragrance  of. 

eingehen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  enter  into,  comply 
with:  ohne  auf  die  einzelnen  Umstände 
einzugehen,  (auf)  eine  Wette  eingehen, 
auf  Bedingungen  eingehen. 

einwilligen  in  (with  acc.)  to  consent  to,  agree 
to. 

enden,  endigen  to  end :  Das  Wort  endigt  (sich; 
218.  3.  B.  o)  auf  einen  Vokal.  Der  Weg 
endigt  in  einem  (or  einen)  Wald.  Die 
Pacht  endigt  mit  dem  1.  Mai. 

entf heben  (1)  to  flee:  Die  Hasen  entfliehen 
vor  den  Hunden,  Er  ist  vor  mir,  vor  der 
Krankheit  entflohen,  (2)  to  escape,  get 
away:  Er  entfloh  (aus)  dem  Gefängnis,  but 
only  Er  entfloh  mir, 

entspringen  aus  to  escape  from :  Er  ist  aus  dem 
Zuchthaus  entsprungen,  but  Er  ist  seinem 
Aufseher  entsprungen. 

entstehen  aus  to  arise  from. 

erhellen  aus  to  become  clear  from:  Daraus  er- 
hellt, daß  usw. 

erkennen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  pass  sentence  of: 
Das  Gericht  erkannte  auf  ein  Jahr  Zucht- 
haus. 

erkranken  an  (with  dat.)  to  get  an  attack  of 
(fever,  &c.). 

erröten  über  (with  acc.)  to  blush  at,  for:  Ich 
erröte  über  die  Unwahrheit,  über  dich;  vor 
(with  dat.)  to  blush  with:  Ich  erröte  vor 
großer  Scham.     See  also  260.  2.  A. 

erschallen  von  to  resound,  ring  with. 

erwachen  aus  to  awake  from. 

erwachsen  aus  to  accrue  from:  Es  wird  dir 
aus  diesem  Schritt  manches  Leid  erwach- 
sen. 

fahnden  auf  (with  acc.)  to  be  on  the  lookout 
for,  to  search  for,  try  to  seize:  Man  fahndet 
bereits  auf  den  Dieb. 

fallen  an  (with  acc.)  to  fall  to:  Die  Erbschaft 
fällt  an  den  Sohn, 

feilschen  um  to  try  to  screw  down  the  price, 
haggle  over:  Er  feilschte  um  eine  Mark. 
Sie  feilschten  um  den  Preis. 

festhalten  an  (with  dat.)  to  stick,  cling  to. 

feuern  auf  (with  acc.)  to  fire  at. 

fischen  nach  to  fish  for. 

flehen  um  to  entreat,  beg  for:  bei  einem  um 
Hilfe  flehen. 

fliehen  vor  (with  dat.)  to  flee  from. 

folgen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  follow:  Auf  Regen 
folgt  Sonnenschein;  —  aus  to  ensue,  follow 
from. 


forschen  nach  to  search  for,  inquire  after,  in- 
vestigate. 

fragen  nach  to  ask,  inquire  for,  after;  nach 
dem  Wege,  Preise  fragen  to  ask  after  the 
way,  ask  the  price,  nach  jemandem  fragen 
to  ask  for,  after  someone. 

fressen,  nagen  an  (with  dat.)  to  prey  on: 
Der  Kummer  nagt  an  seinem  Herzen. 

funkeln  vor  to  sparkle  with:  Seine  Augen 
funkeln  vor  Zorn. 

fußen  auf  (with  acc,  usually  dat.  in  3rd  mean- 
ing) to  rely  upon,  base  one's  hopes  upon, 
stand  upon:  Ich  fuße  auf  den  Vertrag,  mein 
Recht.  Man  sieht  es  den  Leuten  ja  an, 
daß  sie  nicht  auf  sicherem  Boden  der  Hei- 
mat fußen. 

gehören  to  belong  to:  Das  gehört  mir,  but 
Das  gehört  an  den  Nagel,  in  den  Schrank, 
unter  den  Tisch,  vor  das  Gericht.  Die  Insel 
gehört  zu  (see  229.  2  under  zu  II.  1.  B.  b) 
England.     Er  gehört  diesem  Vereine  an. 

gewinnen  an  (with  dat.)  to  be  gaining  in:  Er 
gewinnt  an  Macht, 

glühen  vor  (with  dat.)  to  glow  with:  Er  glüht 
vor  Begeisterung;  —  nach  to  be  burning  for: 
Er  glüht  nach  grausamer  Rache. 

graben  nach  to  dig  for. 

greifen  to  grasp:  Er  griff  mir  an  den  Puls  He 
felt  my  pulse.  Das  greift  an  den  Beutel 
That  runs  into  money.  Er  griff  dem  Pferde 
in  die  Zügel  He  seized  the  horse  by  the 
bridle.  Ein  Ertrinkender  greift  nach  einem 
Strohhalme,  Das  Feuer  greift  um  sich  The 
fire  is  spreading.  Er  griff  mir  unter  die 
Arme  He  came  to  my  assistance.  Er  griff 
zu  strengen  Maßregeln  He  adopted  severe 
measures.  Ich  mußte  zu  diesem  Mittel 
greifen  I  had  to  resort  to  this  expedient. 

grenzen,  see  angrenzen, 

grübeln  über  (with  the  acc.  or  sometimes  dat.; 
see  231.  II  under  über,  1.  a.  Note)  to  ponder 
on,  over. 

gucken  nach  to  peep  at. 

halten  an  (with  dat.)  to  hold  to:  An  diesem 
Glauben  halte  ich  fest;  an  sich  —  to  re- 
strain one's  anger,  feelings;  — auf  (with 
acc,  formerly  also  dat.)  to  attach  value, 
importance  to,  insist  upon,  take  care  of: 
Sie  hält  peinlich  auf  äußern  Anstand.  Er 
hält  auf  seine  Ehre,  seine  Gesundheit. 

handeln:  an  einem  gut,  schlecht  —  to  do  well, 
ill  by  someone;  —  mit  to  deal,  trade  in; 
—  von  to  treat,  be  about:  Dieses  Buch  han- 
delt von  der  Freundschaft. 

hangen,  hängen  an  (with  dat.)  to  hang  on: 
Sein  Rock  hängt  am  Nagel.  Sein  Herz  hängt 
an  seinem  Liebling,  seiner  Heimat. 

haschen  nach  to  scramble  for,  aim  at,  strain 
for :  Er  hascht  nach  Effekt. 

herablächeln  auf  (with  acc.)  to  smile  upon. 

hereinbrechen  über  (with  acc.)  to  burst  upon: 
Ein  Gewitter  bricht  über  uns  herein.  Ein 
Unglück  ist  über  uns  hereingebrochen. 

herfallen  über  (with  acc.)  to  rush,  fall  upon 
(someone),  attack  (the  dishes):  Sie  fielen 
über  mich  mit  Knütteln  her.  Sie  fielen  über 
das  Essen  her. 

hervorbrechen  aus  to  break  forth  from. 

hervorgehen  aus  to  result  from. 

hervorschießen  aus  to  dart  from. 

heulen  hinter  jemandem  her  to  hoot  after 
someone. 


520 


VERBS   WITH   PREPOSITIONAL   OBJECT 


261.  A. 


hinarbeiten    auf     (with    the    ace.)    to    work 

towards:  Er  arbeitet  auf  seine  Beförderung 

hin. 
hinausgehen  über  (with  the  ace.)  to  improve 

on:    Er  ging  über  das,  was  zu  seiner  Zeit 

geleistet  war,  weit  hinaus, 
hindeuten  auf  (with  aec.)  to  hint  at,  point  to. 
hinweisen  auf  (with  ace.)  to  refer  to. 
hören:    Ich  höre   auf    (mit)   dem  einen   Ohr 

schlecht.     Er  hört  stets  auf  mich,  meiiien 

Rat.     Höre  nicht  auf  ihn!     Don't  mind  him. 

Sie  hört  auf  die  Klingel  She  answers  the  bell. 

Er  hört  bei  einem  Professor  He  attends  a 

professor's    lectures.     Ich    habe    von    ihrer 

Schönheit  gehört, 
hungern  nach  to  hunger  for. 
hüpfen  vor  (with  dat.)  to  jump  for,  with  (joy, 

kaufen  to  buy:  Ich  kaufte  es  von  (of,  from) 
ihm.  Ich  kaufe  bei  ihm  (of  him,  at  his 
store,  deal  with  him).  Ich  habe  meinem 
Sohne  (or  für  meinen  Sohn)  einen  Anzug 
gekauft.  Kaufe  das  Nachbargrundstück  an 
dich! 

klagen  über  (with  acc.)  to  complain  of;  —  um 
to  mourn  for;  —  gegen  to  go  to  law  against; 
—  gegen  jemanden  auf  (with  acc.)  to  bring 
a  suit  against  someone  for:  Er  klagt  auf 
Schadenersatz. 

kleben  an  (with  dat.)  to  stick  to. 

klettern  auf  einen  Baum  to  climb  (up)  a  tree. 

knixen  vor  (with  dat.)  to  curtsy  to. 

knurren  über  (with  acc.)  to  snarl  at. 

kochen  vor  (with  dat.)  to  boil  with  (rage,  &c.). 

kommen  wegen  to  call  for  (something). 

kriechen  vor  (with  dat.)  to  cringe  to. 

laufen  (schwimmen,  singen,  werfen,  &e.) 
um  (sometimes  in)  die  Wette  to  run  a  race 
(vie  in  swimming,  &c.). 

leben  to  live:  Er  lebt  von  seiner  Hände  Ar- 
beit by  the  work  of  his  own  hands.  Er  lebt 
vom  Spiel  by  gambling.  Sie  lebt  von  milden 
Gaben  on  charity. 

lehnen  to  lean:  Er  lehnt  an  der  Wand,  (in 
answer  to  the  question  wohin)  Er  lehnt,  or 
more  commonly  lehnt  sich  an  die  Wand. 

leiden  to  suffer:  Man  leidet  an  einer  Krank- 
heit. Wir  leiden  unter  der  Hitze.  Ich  habe 
viel  von  ihm,  von  der  Hitze  zu  leiden. 

losgehen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  fly  at  someone. 

loshacken  auf  (with  acc.)  to  peck  at. 

merken  auf  (with  ace.)  to  pay  attention  to, 
mark,  mind. 

mitwirken  bei  to  co-operate  in. 

nachdenken  über  (with  ace.)  to  meditate  upon. 

nachlassen  to  relax  one's  efforts,  cease:  Laß 
nicht  nach  mit  Beten  und  Bitten.  Laß  nach 
in  deinem  jähen  Zorn. 

nachsinnen  über  (with  acc.)  to  muse  upon. 

nachsuchen  um  to  apply  for,  make  application 
for. 

prahlen  mit  to  brag  of. 

präsidieren  bei  to  preside  at:  Er  präsidierte 
(bei)  dem  Feste.   See  258.  1.  B.  b. 

raten  auf  fwith  acc.)  to  guess:  Auf  dich,  auf 
diesen  Ausgang  haben  wir  nicht  geraten. 
Ich  riet  auf  den  Verfasser,  bis  ich  ihn  er- 
riet; —  zu  to  counsel:  Ich  rate  zur  Vorsicht. 

rauchen  von  to  reek  with:  Diese  Hand  hat 
von  Menschenblut  geraucht. 

reichen  bis  an  (with  acc.)  to  reach  to:  das 
Wasser  reicht  bis  an  die  Brust. 


reimen  to  rime:  Dieses  Wort  reimt  auf  (with) 
jenes.  Dieser  Vers  reimt  nicht  zu  dem 
folgenden. 

reisen  nach  to  leave  for,  set  out  for. 

riechen  nach  to  smell  of. 

rühren  to  touch:  Rühre  nicht  an  die  Schüssel!, 
or  Rühre  die  Schüssel  nicht  an!  Er  rührte 
mir  das  Herz.  Berühre  mich  nicht  mit 
deiner  unsauberen  Hand!  Wir  wollen  die- 
sen Punkt  nicht  berühren  (touch  on).  The 
steamer  touches  at  this  city  Der  Dampfer 
läuft  diese  Stadt  an. 

schäumen  vor  (with  dat.)  to  foam  with. 

schelten  über  etwas,  auf  jemanden  to  scold 
about  something,  rail  against  someone. 

scherzen  über  (with  ace.)  to  jest  at,  over. 

schicken  nach  or  um  to  send  for. 

schielen  auf  (with  acc),  nach  to  cast  stolen 
(furtive)   glances  at. 

schießen  auf   (with  acc),  nach  to  shoot  at; 

—  hinter  jemandem  her  to  dart  after  some- 
one. 

schimpfen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  rail  at. 

schmähen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  inveigh  against. 

schreiben:  einem  or  an  einen  —  to  write  to 
someone;  —  an  etwas  (dat.)  to  be  writing 
something:    Ich  schreibe  an  einem  Werk; 

—  um  to  write  for  (something  to  be  sent) ; 

—  über  (with  ace.)  to  write  about. 
schreien  nach  to  cry  for. 

schwärmen  von  to  swarm  with:  Es  schwärmt 
von  Menschen  auf  der  Straße. 

schwören  to  swear:  Ich  kann  auf  (to)  seine 
Unschuld,  auf  (by)  seine  Worte  schwören. 
Man  schwört  auf  (on)  die  Bibel,  bei  (by) 
Gott  und  den  Heiligen.  But  Man  wettert 
gegen  ihn  los,  or  Man  flucht  ihm,  auf  (or 
über)  ihn  They  are  swearing  at  him.  To 
swear,  profess  allegiance  to:  Er  schwört  zur 
Fahne,  zum  Katholizismus,  zu  Moskau 
(i.e.  communism)  usw. 

segeln  nach  to  sail  for. 

sprechen:  Er  ist  schlecht  auf  Sie  zu  sprechen 
He  is  angry  at  you.  Ich  sprach  deinen  or 
mit  deinem  Lehrer  I  had  a  talk  with  your 
teacher.  Sprechen  wir  von  etwas  anderem 
Let  us  speak  about  something  else.  Er 
spricht  schlecht  über  dich.  Er  spricht  über 
Kunst.  Er  redete  mich  auf  der  Straße  an 
He  spoke  to  me  on  the  street. 

Starren:  Es  starrt  von  Spitzen  It  bristles  with 
sharp  points.  Du  starrst  von  (or  vor) 
Schmutz  Vou  are  wallowing  in  dirt,  are  cov- 
ered with  dirt.  Du  starrst  vor  großer  Kälte 
You  are  benumbed  with  cold. 

sterben:  Er  stirbt  Hungers  or  vor  (of,  from, 
or  with)  Hunger,  vor  Freude,  aus  (from) 
Erschöpfung,  an  (of  or  with)  einer  Krank- 
heit, durch  (by)  jemandes  Öand. 

sticheln  auf  einen  to  make  little  stinging  re- 
marks about  someone. 

strahlen:  Etwas  strahlt  von  Gold  Something  is 
radiant  with  gold.  Er  strahlt  vor  großer 
Freude  His  face  is  beaming  with  intense  joy. 

streben  nach  to  strive  for. 

stutzen  to  be  startled,  be  taken  back:  bei  or 
über  (with  acc.)  etwas,  über  einen  stutzen. 
Ich  stutzte  vor  großer  Verwunderung. 

subskribieren  auf  (with  acc)  to  subscribe  for: 
Ich  habe  auf  das  Werk,  die  Lieferung 
subskribiert. 

suchen  nach  to  seek  for. 


261.  B.         ADJECTIVES   WITH    PREPOSITIONAL   OBJECT 


521 


taugen  zu  to  be  fit  for. 

teilhaben  an  (with  dat.)  to  share  in,  take  part 

in,  participate  in. 
teihiehmen  an    (with  dat.)   to  take  part   in, 

participate  in. 
trachten  nach  to  strive  for,  aspire  to. 
trauen  auf   (with  ace.)  to  trust  in  or  to,  rely 

upon:   Ich  traue  auf  ihn.     Ich  traue  darauf, 

daß  er  es  tut.     Compare  259.  14.  A. 
trauern  um  to  mourn  for. 
träumen  von  to  dream  of. 
treten  in  (ein  Zimmer)  to  enter  (a  room). 
triefen  von    (in  the   Bible  mit)   to   drip  with, 

overflow  with. 
trinken  auf  (with  ace.)  to  drink  to  (someone's 

health,  &c.):  Wir  trinken  auf  sein  Wohl; 

—  aus  to  drink  from. 

überströmen  vor  (causcj  or  von  (means)  to 
overflow  with:  Sein  Herz  strömt  über  vor 
Freude,  but  Dieses  Schriftstück  strömt  über 
von  Redensarten  der  Ehrfurcht  und  des 
Gehorsams. 

umkommen  vor  (with  dat.)  to  perish  with; 
Sie  kommen  vor  Hunger  um;  —  durch  to 
perish  by  (the  hand  of). 

urteilen  nach,  über  (with  ace.)  to  judge  by,  of: 
nach  sich  über  andere  urteilen,  or  von  sich 
auf  andere  urteilen  to  judge  of  others  by 
one's  self. 

verweilen  bei  to  dwell  upon:  Er  verweilt  zu 
lange  bei  Nebendingen. 

verzichten  auf  (with  acc.)  to  give  up,  renounce, 
waive :  Ich  verzichte  auf  die  Welt,  auf  einen 
Anspruch,  auf  dieses  Vergnügen. 

vorsprechen  bei  to  call  on,  visit. 

weinen  über  etwas  or  einen  to  weep  over,  cry 
about;  —  um  to  mourn  over;  —  nach  to 
cry  for  (bread);  —  vor  (with  dat.)  to  weep 
with  (joy,  &c.). 

B.     Adjectives  and  Participles  with 

abgestorben  für  dead  to. 

abhängig  von  dependent  upon. 

achtlos  auf  (with  acc.)  heedless  of,  not  paying 
attention  to.     See  also  260.  3. 

achtsam  auf  (with  acc.)    careful,  regardful   of 

angeekelt  von  disgusted  with. 

angesteckt  von  infected  with. 

angewiesen  auf  (with  acc.)  dependent,  relying 
upon:  Er  ist  auf  die  Mildtätigkeit  anderer 
angewiesen.  Er  ist  auf  sich  selbst,  auf 
sein  Einkommen  angewiesen  He  has  no 
other  resources  than  himself,  his  income. 

ängstlich  wegen  anxious  about. 

anstoßend  an  (with  acc.)  adjoining,  contiguous 
to. 

anstößig  für  (or  with  the  simple  dat. ;  see  258. 
3.  A)  giving  offense  to,  offensive  to. 

anwendbar  auf  (with  acc.)  applicable  to. 

ärgerlich  über  (with  acc.)  vexed  at. 

argwöhnisch  wegen  suspicious  with  regard  to; 

—  gegen  einen  mistrustful  of  someone. 

arm  an  (with  dat.)  poor  in. 

aufgeblasen  von  puffed  up  with. 

aufgebracht  über  (with  acc.)  angry  at  (some- 
thing);  —  gegen  angry  at  (a  person). 

aufgelegt  zu  inclined,  disposed  to:  Ich  bin 
nicht  zum  Schreiben  aufgelegt. 

aufgeregt  durch  excited  by. 

aufmerksam  auf  (with  acc.)  watchful  of,  at- 
tentive to  (some  duty,  task);  —  gegen  at- 
tentive to  (some  person),  full  of  attentions  to 


weisen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  point  at,  to:  Er  wies 

mit  dem  Finger  auf  mich.     Die  Uhr  weist 

auf  10. 
werden    aus    to    become   of:    Was   wird   aus 

ihm  werden? ;    fett  —  von  to  grow  fat  on ; 

ohrmiächtig  — •  vor     (with    dat.)    to    faint 

with. 
wetten  auf  (with  acc.)  to  bet:    Ich  wette  auf 

(on)  sein  Pferd.     Ich  wette  auf  Kopf  I  say 

heads.     Ich  wette  mit  ihm  um   (auf)   eine 

Mark  I  bet  him  a  mark, 
widerhallen  von  to  echo,  resound  with. 
wissen  um  eine  Sache,  or  von  einer  Sache  to 

know  of,  about  a  matter. 
zanken  or  sich  zanken  über    (with  acc.)  to 

quarrel  about, 
zeigen  auf  (with  acc),  nach  to  point  to. 
ziehen  auf   (with  acc.)  to  draw   (a  draft)  on 

someone:    Sie  köimen  auf  mich  ziehen, 
zielen  auf  (with  acc.)  to  aim  at. 
zittern  to  tremble:   Er  zittert  am  ganzen  Leib. 

Er  zittert  aus  or  vor  Furcht,  vor  Frost,  für 

jemandes  Leben.  Das  Espenlaub  zittert  bei 

jedem  Hauch, 
zürnen  über  (with  acc),  auf  (with  acc),  mit, 

or  with  the  simple  dat.:    Man  zürnt  über 

etwas,  but  Man  zürnt  einem,  auf  (or  über) 

einen,  mit  einem.     Compare  260.  2.  A. 
zurückkommen    auf     (with    acc.)    to    return, 

revert  to:    Darauf  kommt  er  immer  zurück 

He  is  always  harping  on  that  string. 
zurückschrecken   vor    (with    dat.)    to    shrink 

from, 
zutreten  auf  einen  to  step  up  to  one,  walk  up 

to  one. 
zweifeln  an  (with  dat.)  to  have  one's  doubts 

about,  despair  of:     Ich  zweifle  nicht  daran. 

Man  zweifelt  an  seinem  Aufkommen. 

Prepositional  Object:  — 

ausgedörrt  durch  parched  by. 

ausgezeichnet  durch  eminent  for. 

bange  vor  (with  dat.)  fearful,  afraid  of:  Mir 
ist  bange  vor  dem  Mann;  —  für  or  um  un- 
easy about,  solicitous  with  regard  to:  Mir 
ist  bange  für  or  um  sein  Leben. 

banke'rott  an  (with  dat.)  bankrupt  in:  an 
Saft  und  Kraft  und  Geld  und  Gewissen  und 
gutem  Namen  bankerott  (Schiller). 

barmherzig  gegen  merciful  to. 

bedacht  auf  (with  acc.)  thoughtful  of,  intent 
on:  Du  bist  nur  auf  dich,  auf  deinen  Vor- 
teil bedacht. 

bedrängt  von  pressed  with,  beset  with:  von 
Not,  Hunger,  Sorgen  bedrängt. 

befestigt  an  (with  dat.)  tied,  attached  to. 

befriedigend  für  (or  with  the  simple  dat.;  see 
258.  o.  A)  satisfactory  to. 

befriedigt  von  satisfied  with:  von  seiner  Ar- 
beit befriedigt,  but  mit  ihm  zufrieden  satis- 
fied with  him. 

begierig  nach  eager  for:  Er  ist  nach  großem 
Reiclitum,  hoher  Ehre  begierig;  —  auf 
(with  acc.)  eager  or  anxious  to  see,  hear,  get, 
learn  what  someone  will  say:  Ich  bin 
begierig  auf  deinen  neuen  Freund,  auf 
deine  Nachricht;  immer  auf  einen  Fang 
begierig  (Keller's  Seldzv.,  2,  171).  Nun  bin 
ich  auf  die  Theaterdirektionen  und  die 
Kritiker  begierig  (Hebbel's  Tagebücher,  24. 
Dec  1S51)  am  anxious  to  learn  what  they 


522 


ADJECTIVES   WITH    PREPOSITIONAL   OBJECT  261.  B. 


will    say,    how    they    will    pass    judgment. 
Instead  of  nach  or  auf  we  also  find  the  gen., 
especially  in  poetic  language. 
bekannt  mit  acquainted  with,  versed   in;    — 
unter    (with   dat.)    known   by    (the   name); 

—  wegen  known  on  account  of,  famed  for. 
bekümmert  über   (with  ace),  wegen,  or  urn 

concerned  about,  solicitous  with  regard  to, 
worried  over. 

beleidigt  durch  affronted  at,  offended  by. 

beliebt  bei  popular  with. 

belustigt  durch  amused  at. 

bemerkenswert  wegen  remarkable  for. 

berauscht  von  intoxicated  with. 

berechnet  auf  (with  ace.)  calculated  for,  aimed 
at,  intended  for:    auf  den  Effekt  berechnet. 

bereit  zu  ready  for,  to:  Ich  bin  bereit  zur  Ab- 
fahrt. Er  ist  zu  allem  bereit.  Ich  bin 
bereit,  es  zu  tun.     See  also  260.  3. 

berühmt  wegen  famous  for. 

beschäftigt  mit  engaged  in,  occupied  with. 

beschämt  über  (with  acc.)  ashamed  of. 

besorgt  für  or  um  careful   of,   attentive   to; 

—  für  or  more  commonly  urn.  or  wegen 
anxious  about. 

bestanden  cov-ered:  mit  or  von  Bäumen,  Ge- 
sträuch bestanden. 

bestimmt  für  intended  for:  Die  Rüstungen 
sind  für  die  Fortführung  des  Krieges  be- 
stimmt; —  zu  intended  to  become;  zum 
Kaufmann  bestimmt;   —  nach  bound  for. 

bestürzt  über  (with  the  acc.)  dismayed  at. 

betäubt  von  stunned  by. 

beteiligt  an  or  bei  interested,  concerned  in,  a 
party  in  or  to. 

betört  von  infatuated  with. 

betroffen  von  struck  with:  von  ihrer  Schönheit 
betroffen. 

beunruhigt  über  (with  the  acc.)  or  wegen  un- 
easy about,  worried  over:  Ich  bin  über  die 
(or  wegen  der)  Zukunft  beunruhigt. 

bezaubert  von  enchanted  with,  charmed  by: 
von  ihrer  Liebenswürdigkeit  bezaubert,  but 
Sie  hat  mich  mit  ihrer  (or  durch  ihre)  Lie- 
benswürdigkeit bezaubert. 

blaß  or  bleich  vor  (with  dat.)  pale  with. 

blind    auf    (with    dat.)    blind    in    (one    eye); 

—  gegen  or  für  blind  to:  Er  ist  blind  gegen 
or  für  seine  eigenen  Fehler,  or  sometimes 
with  the  simple  dative:  Er  ist  seinen  eige- 
nen Fehlern  blind;  —  vor  (with  dat.)  blind 
with  (rage,  &c.). 

blutig  von  bloody  with. 

böse  auf  (with  acc.)  angry  at  (somebody), 
über  (with  acc.)  or  wegen  angry  about 
(something).  Ich  bin  bitterböse  mit  dir 
I  won't  speak  a  word  to  you,  won't  have 
anything  to  do  with  you.  Der  Zwerg  war 
bös  zu  ihr!  (Fritz  Lienhard's  Wienand  der 
Schmied,  p.  36)  The  dwarf  treated  her  badly, 
roughly! 

dankbar  gegen  thankful  to. 

dicht  an  (with  dat.)  or  bei  close  to. 

dick  von  thick  with. 

dienlich  serviceable:  Das  ist  mir  (or  für  mich) 
nicht  dienlich.  Ein  kleines,  zur  Wohnung 
nicht  übel  dienliches  Haus. 

ehrgeizig  nach  ambitious  for. 

eifersüchtig  auf  (with  acc.)  jealous  of. 

eigen  in  (with  dat.)  particular  in:  Er  ist  eigen 
im  Essen,  in  seinen  Sachen  lie  is  particular 
in   matters  of   diet,   wants   things  just   so; 


eigen  auf  (with  acc.)  particular  with  regard 
to:  Die  Kirschen  sind  nicht  eigen  auf 
Boden,  gedeihen  in  leichtem  und  schwerem 
Erdreich  Cherry  trees  are  not  particular 
with  regard  to  soil,  &c. 

eingebildet  auf    (with  acc.)   conceited  about. 

eingenommen  für  partial  to,  prejudiced  in 
one's  favor;    —  von  captivated  with. 

eitel  auf  (with  acc.)  vain  of:  Sie  ist  eitel  auf 
ihre  Schönheit. 

empfänglich  für  willing  to  receive,  open  to: 
Er  ist  für  Trost,  Schmeicheleien,  Eindrücke, 
das  Schöne  empfänglich. 

empfindlich  für  or  gegen  sensitive  to:  empfind- 
lich für  or  gegen  chemisch  wirksame  Strah- 
len. Ich  bin  empfindlich  gegen  die  Kälte; 
—  über  (with  acc.)  irritated  at. 

entbrannt  von  inflamed  with:  von  Zorn  ent- 
brannt. 

entrüstet  über  (with  acc.)  indignant  at. 

entschlossen  zu  bent  upon:  Ich  bin  entschlos- 
sen zu  gehen. 

entzückt  delighted:  Ich  bin  über  die  (or  von 
der)  Sängerin  entzückt,  but  Sie  hat  mich 
mit  ihrem  (or  durch  ihren)  Gesang  entzückt. 

erfahren  in  (with  dat.)  expert  at. 

ergriffen  von  struck  with:  von  Schrecken  er- 
griffen. 

erhaben  über  (with  acc,  sometimes  dat.)  or 
also  in  poetic  language  ob  (with  dat.)  su- 
perior to,  above:  ein  großer  Mann,  der 
über  seine  Leiden  erhaben  ist;  über  allen 
Zweifel  erhaben;  über  jedem  kleinlichen 
Sichverletztfühlen  erhaben  (Stilgebauer's 
Götz  Kraffl,  I,  3,  p.  7.5). 

erheitert  durch  cheered  by. 

ermüdet  von  fatigued  by. 

erpicht  auf  (with  acc.)  intent  upon,  eager  for, 
after:  auf  Ehre,  Ruhm,  Reichtum,  Beute, 
aufs  Heiraten  erpicht. 

erschöpft  durch  worn  out  by,  with. 

ersichtlich  aus  apparent  from. 

erstaunt  über   (with  acc.)  astonished  at. 

erstickt  von  suffocated  with. 

falsch  gegen  false  to. 

feucht  von  moist  with. 

frech  gegen  insolent  to. 

freigebig  gegen  liberal  to. 

freundlich  gegen  friendly  to. 

fruchtbar  an  (with  dat.)  productive  of. 

furchtlos  vor  fearless  of. 

geblendet  von  dazzled  by. 

geboren  von  (see  Matth.  xi.  11;  John  i.  13) 
born  of. 

geduldig  gegen  patient  with. 

geeicht  auf  (with  acc.)  adjusted  to  (of  weights 
and  measurements  which  are  adjusted  to 
a  standard),  fig.:  Es  gibt  im  Englischen 
einige  Laute,  auf  die  unsere  Werkzeuge 
schlechterdings  nicht  geeicht  zu  sein  schei- 
nen (Max  Meyerfeld's  Von  Sprach'  und  Art 
der  Deutschen  u?id  Engländer,  p.  27). 

geeignet  zu  suitable  for,  qualified  for,  cut  out 
for. 

gefaßt  auf  (with  acc.)  prepared  (mentally)  for 
(some  trial,  misfortune,  &c.). 

gefühllos  gegen  insensible  to. 

geizig  mit  (sometimes  auf  with  acc.)  sparing 
of,  stingy  with;  —  nach  eager  for,  greedy 
after. 

gekrönt:    von  Erfolg  —  crowned  with  success. 

genau  mit  particular  about:   Sie  nimmt  es  mit 


261.  B. 


ADJECTIVES   WITH    PREPOSITIONAL   OBJECT 


523 


allem,  mit  ihrem  Rufe  genau.  Er  nimmt  es 
mit  den  Mitteln  nicht  genau. 

gerecht  gegen  just  to. 

gereizt  durch  provoked  by;  —  über  (with 
ace.)  irritated  at. 

gerührt  von  struck  by,  with,  moved,  touched 
by:  vom  Blitz  gerührt  struck  by  lightning, 
vom  Schlag  gerührt  struck  with  apoplexy; 
kalt  und  ungerührt  \  vom  Jauchzen  unsers 
Danks  (Lessing's  Nathan);  von  der  Erzäh- 
lung, von  dem  Elend  gerührt. 

gesättigt  von  satiated  with.    See  260.  3. 

geschickt  in  (with  dat.)  skilful  in  or  at,  a  good 
hand  at. 

gesund  an  (with  dat.)  healthy  in:  Er  ist  ge- 
sund am  Leib  und  an  der  Seele.  Das  ist 
mir  (or  für  mich)  nicht  gesund. 

gewöhnlich  bei  usual  with. 

gierig  nach  greedy  after. 

gleich  an  (with  dat.)  equal  in:  Er  ist  seinem 
Bruder  an  Größe  gleich. 

gleichgültig  gegen  indifferent  to. 

gnädig  gegen  gracious  to:  Er  ist  mir  or  gegen 
mich  nicht  gnädig. 

grau  vor  grey  with. 

grausam  gegen  cruel  to. 

greifbar  für  (or  the  simple  dat.;  see  258.  3.  A. 
ö)  palpable  to:  Das  ist  für  jedermann 
greifbar. 

grenzend  an  (with  acc.)  adjacent  to. 

großmütig  gegen  generous  to. 

gut  gegen,  zu,  mit  good  to.  The  expression 
mit  einem  gut  sein  also  means  to  be  on  friend- 
ly tcniis  ivitli  someone. 

gütig  gegen  kind  to. 

habgierig  nach  grasping  after,  greedy  after. 

hart  mit  hard,  severe  on:  Weil  ich  ein  wenig 
hart  mit  Kriemhild  (name)  war  (Hebbcl's 
Nibelungen,  II,  5,  2),  but  also  hart  gegen: 
Er  ist  hart  gegen  mich. 

hervorragend  durch  eminent  for. 

höflich  gegen,  zu,  mit  polite,  civil  to. 

interessant  für  (or  the  simple  dat.;  see  258. 
3.  A)  interesting  to. 

interessiert  interested:  Er  ist  bei  diesem  Ge- 
schäft —  He  is  interested  in  this  business, 
owns  a  part  of  it;  kein  in  phonetischen 
Dingen  Interessierter  (Victor's  Elemente 
der  Phonetik,  \'orwort,  5th  ed.),  but  Er  in- 
teressiert sich  für  allerlei,  für  die  Phonetik, 
für  den  Fortgang  der  Arbeiten,  für  ihn  He 
is  interested  in  or  takes  an  interest  in  every- 
thing, <S;c.  Also  Die  Geschichte  interes- 
siert mich  I  am  interested  in  tlie  story  or 
The  story  interests  me.  Oldenburg  ist 
durch  seine  Eisenbahnen  stark  daran  in- 
teressiert, einen  möglichst  großen  Teil  des 
Unterweserverkehrs  zu  gewinnen  {Hambur- 
ger Nachrichten,  Dec.  10,  1904)  Oldenburg 
is  greatly  interested  in  getting,  &c.  An 
dem,  was  er  uns  gibt,  ist  neben  dem  Irani- 
sten auch  der  Indologe  auf  das  ernstlichste 
interessiert  (Deutsche  Rundschau,  April 
1905,  p.  156). 

klein:  —  an  Geist  of  inconsiderable  parts, 
weak  intellectually;  —  von  Gestalt  small 
of  stature. 

lahm  an  or  auf  (with  dat.)  lame  in:  Er  ist  an 
(or  auf)  beiden  Beinen,  an  (or  auf)  dem 
einen  Fuße  lahm. 

langmütig  gegen   forbearing  toward. 

leutselig  gegen  affable  to. 


liebevoll  gegen  affectionate  to. 

lüstern  nach  lusting  after. 

mild  gegen  mild,  gentle  to,  toward. 

mißgestimmt  auf  or  über  (with  acc.)  out  of 
humor  with  (someone  or  something). 

mißtrauisch  gegen   mistrustful   of    (someone). 

mitleidig  gegen  compassionate  to. 

mörderisch  für  fatal,  death  to. 

müde  von  weary  with:  von  der  Arbeit  müde; 
with  gen.  tired  of:   der  Arbeit  müde. 

nachsichtig  gegen  indulgent  to. 

nachteilig  für  injurious,  detrimental  to. 

naß  von  wet  with. 

neidisch  auf  (with  acc.)  envious  of. 

neugierig  auf  (with  acc.)  curious  about,  eager 
to  know :  Ich  bin  neugierig  darauf.  Ich  bin 
neugierig  auf  ihn  I  am  eager  to  learn  what 
kind  of  man  he  may  be. 

offen  für  (or  often  with  the  simple  dat.)  open 
to:  ein  für  alle  Eindrücke  offenes  Herz. 
Sein  Ohr  ist  der  Schmeichelei  offen. 

rasend  vor  (with  dat.)  frantic  with. 

reich  an  (with  dat.)  rieh  in. 

reif  ripe:  —  für  (representing  a  stage  of  de- 
velopment for  which  someone  is  ready)  reif 
für  die  Freiheit,  (sarcastically)  reif  für  das 
Tollhaus,  für  den  Galgen;  —  zu  (represent- 
ing a  goal  as  a  final  stage  of  the  previous 
development):  Ein  Geschwür  ist  reif  zum 
Aufbrechen.  Die  Sache  ist  noch  nicht  reif 
zur  Ausführung. 

rot  vor  (with  dat.)  red  with  (anger,  &c.),  but 
rot  von  Blut,  Gold,  &c.  red  with  blood,  gold, 
&c. 

ruhig  bei  calm  at  (the  misfortune  of  others, 
&c.). 

schimpflich  für  a  disgrace  to:  Das  ist  für 
mich,  für  die  ganze  Verwandtschaft  schimpf- 
lich. 

schmerzlich  für  (or  the  simple  dat.;  see  258. 
3.  A)  painful  to. 

schüchtern  gegen  or  gegenüber  shy,  timid  to, 
in  the  presence  of:  Er  ist  schüchtern  gegen 
mich,  or  mir  gegenüber. 

schuldlos  an  (with  dat.)  guiltless  of. 

schwach:  Er  ist  schwach  am  Leibe,  auf  den 
Beinen,  auf  der  Brust,  im  Kopfe,  von  Be- 
griffen or  von  Geist.  Er  ist  schwach  gegen 
die  Kinder. 

schwarz  von  black  with:  Binnen  kurzem  war 
das  Ufer  schwarz  von  Menschen. 

sparsam  mit  saving  of. 

steif  vor  (with  dat.)  stiff  with. 

stolz  auf  (with  acc.)  proud  of. 

streng  gegen  severe  on,  strict  to. 

taub  auf  (with  dat.)deaf  in  (one  ear);  —  _  gegen 
(also  für,  zu,  and  sometimes  also  with  the 
simple  dat.),  deaf  to:  Er  war  taub  gegen 
(or  für)  unsere  Bitte,  taub  zu  unserer  Bitte, 
or  Er  war  unserer  Bitte  taub. 

tauglich  zu  apt  for,  good  for. 

toll  vor  (with  dat.)  mad  with. 

tot  für  dead  to :  Er  ist  tot  für  die  "Welt ;  —  vor 
(with  dat.)  dead  with:  Ich  war  fast  tot  vor 
großem  Schreck. 

traurig  über  (with  acc),  wegen  sorry  for,  sad 
on  account  of. 

treulos  gegen  disloyal  to. 

überlegen  an  (with  dat.)  superior  in:  Er  ist 
uns  allen  an  praktischer  Umsicht  über- 
legen. 

über'rascht  durch  surprised  at,  by. 


524 


DATIVE   OF   PERSON   &  ACCUSATIVE   OF   THING     261.  B. 


jber'tragbar  auf  (with  ace.)  transferable  to: 
Wir  wollen  zum  Schluß  der  Frage  nicht 
ausweichen,  wieweit  diese  Anschauungen 
übertragbar  sind  auf  uns  und  unsre 
Tage  {Deutsclw  Monatsschrift,  July  1906, 
p.  459). 

iiber'wältigt  von  overwhelmed  with. 

um'geben  von  surrounded  by:  von  einem 
Fluß,  von  Eis  umgeben,  von  Schwierigkei- 
ten umgeben  beset  with  dil'ticulties,  but  mit 
is  used  to  denote  the  passive  idea  that  some- 
thing is  the  result  of  an  act:  Die  Stadt  ist 
mit  einer  Mauer  umgeben. 

um'wölkt  von  clouded  with. 

unbe'kümmert  um  careless  of,  about,  indiffer- 
ent to,  unconcerned  about;  — wegen,  über 
(with  ace),  vor  (with  dat.;  of  a  future  evil 
or  danger)  unworried  by.     See  also  260.  3. 

unbe'merkbar  für  (or  the  simple  dat.;  see  258. 
:!.  A.  a)  imperceptible  to. 

undurch'dringlich  für  (or  the  simple  dat.;  see 
258.  3.  A.  (i)  impenetrable  to. 

unempfänglich  für  insensible,  dead  to:  un- 
empfänglich für  Eindrücke,  unempfänglich 
für  jedes  Schamgefühl. 

unempfindlich  für,  gegen  insensible,  indifferent 
to:    unempfindlich  gegen  den  Tadel. 

unfreundlich  gegen  unfriendly  to. 

ungeduldig  über  (with  acc.)  displeased  at. 

ungehalten  über  (with  acc.)  displeased  at. 


ungewiß  über  (with  acc.)  doubtful  of,  concern- 
ing, uncertain  with  regard  to. 

un'sichtbar  für  (or  the  simple  dat.;  see  258. 
3.  A.  a)  invisible  to. 

verderblich  für  ruinous  to. 

vergleichbar  mit  (or  sometimes  the  simple  dat.) 
comparable  to. 

verletzt  von  or  durch  offended  at,  aggrieved 
or  hurt  by:  Er  fühlte  sich  von  dieser  Äuße- 
rung verletzt. 

verliebt  in  (with  acc.)  in  love  with. 

verlobt  mit  engaged  to. 

verschieden  von  dilTerent  from. 

verwandt  mit  (or  sometimes  the  simple  dat.) 
related  to:  Ich  bin  ihm  or  more  commonly 
mit  ihm  verwandt.  In  the  meaning  of  the 
same  nature,  congenial  to  the  simple  dat.  is 
the  usual  construction:  Ich  fühle  mich  ihm 
innerlich  verwandt.  Sie  ist  ihm  geistes- 
verwandt. 

vorteilhaft  für  advantageous  to. 

wachsam  auf  (with  acc.)  watchful  of. 

wesentlich  für  essential,  material  to. 

wohltätig  für  beneficial  to:  Das  Grün  ist  für 
die  Augen  wohltätig. 

zornig  auf  (with  acc.)  or  gegen  angry  at  (a 
person);  —  über  (with  acc.)  angry  at  (a 
thing). 

zusammengesetzt  aus  composed  of,  com- 
pounded from,  made  up  of. 


Double  Object. 

262.  An  acc,  dat.,  gen.,  or  prepositional  object  may  not  only  each  be  used 
singly  after  a  verb,  but  two  objects  may  be  employed,  one  in  the  acc.  to  denote 
the  direct  object  of  the  verb  and  one  in  the  simple  dat.,  gen.,  acc,  or  in  some 
case  after  a  prep.,  to  denote  a  second  object,  which  stands  in  various  relations 
to  the  verb  or  some  other  word  or  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  as  described  below. 
Sometimes  both  objects  are  prepositional  objects. 


I.     Dative  of  the  Person  and  Accusative  of  the  Thing. 

This  construction  is  found  after  a  great  many  verbs,  especially  those  with 
the  general  meaning  of  giving,  devoting,  dedicating,  consecrating,  adapting, 
pardoning  (einem  etwas  verzeihen),  concealing  (einem  etwas  verbergen),  tak- 
ing, bringing,  sending,  saying,  commanding,  owing,  selling,  preventing,  refusing 
(einem  etwas  verweigern),  doing  (einem  viel  Gutes  tun),  making  or  causing 
(einem  einen  Rock,  viel  Freude,  Sorgen  machen,  einem  ein  Haus  bauen), 
explaining,  wishing,  promising,  swearing  (einem  Treue  schwören),  robbing,  &c 
The  accusative  denotes  the  direct  object  or  thing  affected  or  produced,  and 
the  dative  the  indirect  object,  the  person  or  thing  to  whose  advantage  or  dis- 
advantage the  action  accrues,  or  the  person  to  whom  the  statement  seems  true 
or  with  reference  to  whom  it  holds  good,  or  the  person  who  has  or  is  expected 
to  have  an  emotional  or  sympathetic  interest  in  the  statement,  where,  however, 
often  in  case  of  an  indirect  object,  as  in  the  first  six  of  the  following  examples, 
beneath  these  the  predominant  meanings  of  the  dative  somewhat  of  the  old 
original  concrete  idea  of  direction  toward  (258.  1)  is  still  felt:  Ich  schenke,  gebe, 
schicke  Ihnen  dieses  Buch.  Er  gibt  sich  diesem  Gedanken  hin.  Er  widmet 
sich  der  Kunst.  Ich  habe  mich  dem  Studium  geweiht.  Ich  füge  mich  deinem 
(or  in  deinen)  Willen.  Er  bequemt  sich  den  Umständen  or  nach  den  Um- 
ständen. Er  entzieht  mir  seine  Unterstützung  He  withdraws  his  support  from 
me.  Ich  verschaffe  mir  einen  Paß.  Der  Bube  hat  mir  den  Rock  entwendet. 
Ich  verdanke  dir  mein  Glück.  Man  trägt  ihm  die  Speisen  auf.  Er  macht  ihm 
ein  Paar  Schuhe.     Er  hat  mir  viel  Verdruß  verursacht.      Sie  verwehrten  dem 


262.  I.  b.  DATIVE   OF   PERSON   &   ACCUSATIVE   OF   THING  525 

Feinde  den  Übergang  They  prevented  the  enemy  from  crossing.  Er  hat  mir 
viel  Zeit  geraubt.  Er  hat  dem  Mädchen  einen  Kuß  geraubt.  Der  Schreck 
hat  ihm  das  Bewußtsein,  die  Vernunft,  die  Sprache  geraubt.  As  in  a  number 
of  these  examples,  the  verb  is  often  compounded  with  certain  prefixes.  See 
258.  1.  B.   a. 

The  idea  of  personal  interest  is  prominent  in  many  of  these  datives,  but  the 
ideas  of  a  goal,  place,  position,  association  (see  b,  3rd  par.),  separation,  source 
are  also  common,  especially  after  verbs  compounded  with  a  preposition:  Er 
führte  uns  bewohnteren  Gegenden  zu.  Er  führte  die  Frage  einer  neuen  Ent- 
scheidung entgegen.  Ich  unterwerfe  mich  blindlings  Ihrem  Ausspruch.  Ich 
unterziehe  mich  dem  schwierigen  Geschäft,  der  Operation.  Warum  entziehst 
du  dich  unserem  Verkehr?  Er  hat  das  Gleichnis  dem  or  von  (or  aus)  dem  Ho- 
mer entlehnt.  Ich  entnehme  (aus)  Ihrem  Briefe,  daß  usw.  I  learn  from  your 
letter,  that,  &c.     For  fluctuation  in  usage  here  see  b  below. 

In  the  passive  the  accusative  becomes  nominative  and  the  dative  remains 
dative:  (active)  Mir  hat  er  einen  neuen  Hut  gegeben;  (passive)  Mir  ist  ein 
neuer  Hut  gegeben  worden.  The  same  usage  obtains  in  English,  as  in  "A  new 
hat  has  been  given  to  me,"  but  in  colloquial  language  the  dative  may  become 
nominative  and  the  accusative  remain  accusative:  "I  have  been  given  a  new 
hat."  Here  the  accusative  with  its  modifying  adjective  enters  into  such  close 
relations  with  the  verb  that  it  forms  with  it  a  kind  of  compound  verb.  This 
takes  place  regularly  in  the  passive  whenever  the  indirect  object  becomes 
subject.  The  subject  is  then  represented  as  acted  upon  in  the  manner  described 
by  the  compound  verb,  which  is  made  up  of  the  simple  verb  and  the  accusative. 
Compare  HI.  1./.  Note. 

a.  The  ace.  is  often  replaced  by  an  infinitive  with  zu  or  by  a  clause:  Meine  Geschäfte  erlau- 
ben mir  keinen  langen  Aufenthalt,  or  Meine  Geschäfte  erlauben  mir  nicht,  mich  lange  aufzu- 
halten, or  Meine  Geschäfte  erlauben  (mir)  nicht,  daß  ich  mich  lange  aufhalte. 

b.  A  Productive  Type.  This  double  object  construction  is  productive,  and  is  growing  at  the 
expense  of  other  double  object  constructions.  Thus  gewähren,  which  in  early  N.H.G.  belonged 
to  II  (as  in  Der  HERR  gewere  dich  aller  deiner  bitte  —  Psalm  xx.  6),  now  usually  belongs 
here  (as  in  Der  Herr  gewähre  dir  alle  deine  Bitten).  In  a  number  of  cases  this  change  of  con- 
struction has  resulted  from  a  confusion  of  forms.  Thus  we  sometimes  find  such  expressions  as 
Untersteh  dir's  (instead  of  dich's  =  dich  es),  Mädel!  (Beyerlein's  Dämon  Othello,  2,  2).  The 
dative  and  accusative  in  such  cases  originated,  perhaps,  in  such  expressions  as  Er  untersteht 
sich's,  where  sich  is  in  fact  an  accusative  and  es  an  old  genitive  (140.  c),  but  sich  is  construed 
as  a  dative  and  es  as  an  accusative  in  conformity  with  the  familiar  dative  and  accusative  con- 
struction. Sometimes  the  thought  influences  the  construction.  As  the  idea  of  separation  is 
associated  with  both  the  dative  and  the  genitive,  a  number  of  verbs  fluctuate  between  the  dative 
and  genitive:  Du  mußt  dich  des  Rauchens  entwöhnen,  but  also  Wie  wir  bemüht  sind,  allem 
zwecklos  Schönen  |  .  .  .  uns  zu  entwöhnen  (P.  IIe>se  in  Nord  S.,  28,  65).  As  von  also  expresses 
the  same  idea  it  is  likewise  sometimes  used  alongside  of  the  gen.  or  dat.,  or  of  both,  or,  as  in  the 
following  sentence,  is  preferred  in  certain  expressions:  Der  Säugling  ist  jetzt  von  der  Brust  ent- 
wöhnt. Fluctuations  between  dat.  and  gen.  also  occur  in  the  expression  of  the  idea  of  a  goal, 
as  both  cases  contain  this  meaning  with  certain  compound  verbs:  ein  gutes  Land,  |  wohl  wert, 
daß  sich  ein  Fürst  sein  unterwinde  (Grillparzer's  König  Ottokars  Glück  und  Ende,  3).  Er  wei- 
gerte nicht,  daß  auch  er  demselben  Glauben  sich  unterwinden  werde  (Freytag's  Bild.,  1,  256). 
The  dat.  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  in  the  compound,  while  the  gen.  is  an  old  gen.  of  goal, 
which  was  once  more  vividly  felt  than  it  is  to-day. 

This  construction  of  dative  and  accusative  has  gained  its  most  complete  victory  in  connection 
with  verbs  compounded  with  a  preposition.  The  dative  is  here  almost  exclusively  used  in  con- 
nection with  an  accusative  object,  altho  the  force  of  the  preposition  requires  the  accusative: 
Man  legt  dem  Stiere  das  Joch  auf.  For  other  examples  see  258.  1.  B.  a.  In  M.H.G.  we  find: 
Ir  muoter  bot  ir  dienest  in  giietlichen  an  (Nibelungenlied,  IX)  =  Ihre  Mutter  bot  ihm  ihre 
Dienste  freundlich  an.  In  the  M.H.G.  version  dienest  is  the  object  of  the  verb  bot  and  in  the 
object  of  the  preposition  an.  For  the  reasons  given  in  258.  1.  B.  a,  wherever  there  is  to-day 
more  than  one  object  the  dative  is  almost  invariably  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposition,  so 
that  the  construction  is  now  conformed  to  the  common  dative  and  accusative  type.  We  have  a 
marked  exception  in  case  of  annehmen  wherever  the  object  of  an  is  a  reflexive  pronoun:  Er 
nimmt  sich  des  Kindes  an.  Here  the  accusative  of  the  reflexive  is  retained  and  the  M.H.G. 
accusative  object  of  the  \'erb  becomes  a  genitive,  as  the  construction  has  been  conformed  to  a 
type  still  well-known,  namely  the  accusative  of  a  reflexive  pronoun  in  connection  with  a  genitive. 
Outside  of  the  common  dative  and  accusative  type  the  dative  has  not  secured  so  complete  a 
victory.  Thus  with  intransitives  where  there  is  no  accusative  as  object  of  the  verb  the  force 
of  the  preposition  still  asserts  itself:  Bin  ich  thn  angefahren:  Was  er  da  beim  Herd  zu  tun  hätt? 
(Rosegger's  Martin  der  Mann,  p.  76).     Sie  wußte  selbst  nicht,  was  sie  überkommen  war  (Storm's 


526 ACC.   OF    PERSOxN   &   GEN.   OF   THING 262.  I.  b. 

Zur  Wald-  und  Wasserfreude,  p.  1S8).  Er  redete  mich  an.  The  idea  of  an  interested  person, 
however,  has  in  a  measure  weakened  the  influence  of  the  preposition,  and  hence  the  dative  is 
sometimes  used  here:  Wie  meiner  guten  Mutter  dieser  traurige  Zustand  anflog,  weiß  ich  nicht 
(Gutzkow's  R.,  2,  117),  but  also  Plötzlich  flog  Um  eine  Freude  an  (J.  Paul's  77/.,  4,  44).  A  num- 
ber of  fluctuations  here  are  given  in  259.  1,  2,  3,  4,  32.  The  force  of  the  preposition  was  more 
vividly  felt  in  early  X.H.G.,  and  hence  the  accusative  could  then  be  employed  where  to-day 
the  dative  is  used:  welche  nicht  freiet  |  die  sorget  was  den  HErm  angehöret  \  das  sie  heilig 
sey  I  beide  am  Leibe  vnd  auch  am  Geist.  Die  aber  freiet  |  die  sorget  was  die  Welt  angehört 
(1  Cor.  vii.  34).  Where  the  accusative  has  become  established,  as  in  case  of  anfahren  and  über- 
kommen given  above,  the  transitive  idea  has  developed,  which  leads  to  the  use  of  haben  in  the 
compound  tenses.  Thus  instead  of  the  form  bin  in  the  sentence  from  Rosegger  we  can  also  say 
habe.     See  also  191.  I.  Note. 

The  common  type  of  dative  and  accusative  is  not  so  common,  sometimes  even  poetic,  in  one 
particular  category,  namely  to  give  expression  to  the  idea  of  association,  where  usually  mit  with 
the  dative  is  used.  Sometimes  mit  indicates  a  mere  accidental  association,  while  the  dative 
suggests  a  cloSe  intimate  association:  Man  kann  die  verschiedensten  Dinge  miteinander,  einen 
klugen  Mann  mit  einem  törichten,  vergleichen,  eben  um  ihre  Verschiedenheit  recht  zu  erken- 
nen (Sanders's  Wörterbuch),  but  Wer  diese  meine  Rede  höret  vnd  thut  sie  |  den  vergleiche  ich 
einem  klugen  Mann  j  der  sein  Haus  auff  einen  Felsen  bawet  (Matth.  vii,  24)  and  In  diesem 
Buch  steckt  soviel  Beobachtung,  ein  so  gründliches  Erfassen  alles  Menschlichen  paart  sich 
technischem  Können,  daß  man  ihm  viele  Freunde  wünscht  (E.  A.  Greeven  in  Die  schöne  Literatur, 
Oct.  7,  l'JOo). 

II.     Accusative  of  the  Person  and  Genitive  of  the  Thing. 

A.  In  this  construction  the  accusative  denotes  the  person  or  thing  directly 
affected,  and  the  genitive  expresses  the  idea  of  cause,  means,  removal,  separa- 
tion, deprivation,  a  goal,  specification,  or  indicates  a  person  or  thing  related 
in  various  other  ways  to  the  activity  implied  in  the  verb:  Sie  erfreut  sich  des 
Geschenks  She  is  rejoicing  over  (on  account  of)  her  present.  Sie  schämt  sich 
ihres  Vaters.  Deines  Schwerts  wirst  du  dich  nähren  (Gen.  xxvii,  40,  revised 
ed.).  Man  verwies  ihn  des  Landes  They  banished  him  from  the  land.  Der 
Fürst  hat  ihn  des  Amts  entsetzt  The  prince  has  put  him  out  of  office.  Er  be- 
fleißigt sich  der  Kürze  He  aims  at  brevity.  Ich  werde  mich  des  Erfolges  fgen. 
of  specification;  or  wegen  des  Erfolges,  or  über  den  Erfolg)  vergewissern. 
The  genitive  object  can  also  be  replaced  by  a  clause  or  an  infinitive  phrase: 
Es  reut  mich  der  Tat,  or  daß  ich  es  getan  habe,  or  es  getan  zu  haben. 

In  a  few  cases  both  objects  represent  things.     See  haben  and  wissen  in  a. 

This  construction  is  found  after  the  following  groups  of  verbs: 

a.  The  Accusative  and  Genitive  after  Transitives  other  than  Reflexives.  The 
following  decreasing  list  of  verbs,  which  still  usually  take  an  accusative  but 
now  frequently  also  admit  of  or  prefer  a  prepositional  phrase  instead  of  the 
genitive,  or  instead  of  the  accusative  and  genitive  now  take  another  construc- 
tion, as  indicated  after  each  verb: 

abgewöhnen  to  break  someone  of  (a  habit,  &c.),  formerly  with  the  gen.  or  von  with  the  dat., 
now  with  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing,  as  in  einem  das  Trinken  abgewöh- 
nen, 
^/anklagen  to  accuse,  with  the  gen.,  also  wegen  and  um  —  willen  with  the  gen.  or  um  with  the 
ace,  sornetimes  with  über  with  the  ace.  and  in  the  Bible  über  with  the  dat.  as  in  Acts  xxvi.  6. 
The  genitive  simply  calls  attention  to  the  specific  charge  brought  against  the  off'ender,  while 
the  prepositional  constructions  indicate  the  grounds  for  the  aci;ion:  Sie  klagten  ihn  der  Ver- 
untreuung an  They  accused  him  of  embezzlement.  Sie  klagten  ihn  wegen  einer  Veruntreu- 
ung an  They  indicted  him  for  embezzlement.  Ich  werde  angeklaget  vmb  der  hoffnung  und 
aufferstehung  willen  der  todten  (Acts  xxiii.  6). 

anmuten  to  expect  of,  with  the  gen.  in  early  N.H.G.,  later  einem  etwas  aimiuten,  now  einem 
etwas  zumuten,  but  dieses  Mädchen  mutet  mich  an  This  girl  pleases  me. 

anschuldigen  to  accuse  of,  formerly  also  sometimes  with  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of 
the  thing.     Also  with  the  same  prepositional  constructions  as  with  anklagen. 

beargwöhnen  (beargwöhnen),  formerly  also  verargwohnen  to  suspect  of. 

bedeuten,  sec  259.  G. 

befreien  to  free  from,  now  usually  with  von  or  aus  with  the  dat. 

beklagen  to  accuse  of,  now  replaced  by  anklagen. 

belehren  to  instruct  concerning,  now  usually  with  über  with  the  ace,  earlier  in  the  period  also 
with  von  with  the  dat.:  Ich  will  dich  eines  Besseren  belehren  I'll  teach  you  better  than  that. 
Ich  belehrte  die  Zuhörer  über  diese  sonderbare  Erscheinung. 

benehmen  (246.  II.  1.  c)  to  free  one  entirely  from,  with  the  gen.,  to  take  something  entirely  away 


262.  II.  A.  a.        ACC.   OF   PERSON   &   GEN.  OF  THING 527 

from  someone,  with  dat.  and  ace. :   Ein  Liedchen,  welches  zwar  doch  nur  von  weltlicher  Liebe 

und  Torheit  handelte,  mich  aber  doch  zugleich  aller  Furcht  und  Unruhe  benahm  (R.  Huch's 

Teufelei,  p.  46).     Der  Schreck  benahm  mir  die  Sprache, 
berauben  (or  earlier  in  the  period  simple  rauben)  to  rob,  deprive  of,  take  away  from:   einen  seiner 

Ehre,  aller  seiner  Freuden  berauben, 
berechtigen  to  entitle  one  to,  warrant  one  in,  gen.  now  replaced  by  zu  with  the  dat.:  Seine  schnellen 

Fortschritte  berechtigen  uns  zu  den  schönsten  Hoffnungen, 
bereden,  see  III.  1.  //.  below. 
berichten,  see  III.  1.  k  below. 
bescheiden  to  apprize  one  of,  instruct  concerning,  usually  with  über  with  the  ace:    Ich  beschied 

ihn  eines  Besseren  I  set  him  right  on  the  point.     Ich  beschied  ihn  über  den  Punkt, 
beschuldigen,  to  accuse  of. 

betrügen  to  cheat  out  of,  formerly  with  the  gen.,  now  with  um  with  the  ace. 
bezichtigen  to  accuse  of,  charge  with,  formerly  also  with  mit  with  the  dat. 
bitten  to  ask  for,  with  the  gen.  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  with  um  with  the  ace.     See  also  III.  1.  a 

below. 
entbinden  to  release  from,  with  the  gen.  or  von  with  the  dat.,  to  he  delivered  of  (a  boy,  girl),  with 

von  with  the  dat.:    Entbinde  mich  meines  Versprechens  or  von  meinem  Versprechen.     Sie 

ist  von  einem  Knaben  entbunden, 
entblößen  to  strip  of,  bare  of,  usually  with  von  with  the  dat. 

enterben  to  cut  off  from  (by  disinheriting),  deprive  of,  usually  with  von  with  the  dat. 
entheben  to  relieve  from,  dismiss  or  remove  from,  also  with  von  with  the  dat.,  sometimes  with 

the  simple  dat.:    Der  Mensch  des  Südens  ist  so  vieler  Mühseligkeiten  enthoben.     Enthebe 

ihn  doch  seines  Amtes  or  von  seinem  Amte.     Das  Kind  an  seiner  Seite  enthob  ihn  plötzlich 

weiteren  Erwägungen  (A.  Behrens-Litzmann's  Ei)i  Sommerabend   in  Deutsche   Monatsschrift, 

Aug.  1904,  p.  6.53). 
entkleiden  to  divest  of,  sometimes  with  von  with  the  dat. 
entladen  to  free  from,  relieve  of  a  burden,  more  commonly  with  von  with  the  dat.:    von  allem 

Wissensqualm  entladen  (Faust,  I), 
entlassen  to  discharge  from,  release  from,  also  aus  or  von  with  the  dat.:   Er  hat  den  Knecht  des 

Dienstes  or  aus  dem  Dienste  entlassen.     Man  entließ  ihn  aus  or  von  der  Haft, 
entlasten  to  disburden  someone  of,  free  from,  also  with  von  with  the  dat.:    einen  der  Geschäfte, 

der  Sorgen,  eines  Verdachts  entlasten, 
entledigen  to  free  from,  also  with  von  with  the  dat.:  Entledige  ihn  seiner  Pflichten, 
entleeren  to  empty  of:   ein  Faß  seines  Inhalts  entleeren, 
entschließen /o /ree /ro;w  (chains,  &c.),  now  obsolete. 

entsetzen  to  dispossess  of,  depose  from,  occasionally  with  von  with  the  dat. 

entübrigen  to  relieve  from,  now  little  used  and  when  employed  usually  found  in  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple with  some  form  of  sein,  as  in  einer  Person,  eines  Dinges  entübrigt  sein  to  do  luithoiit, 

dispense  with. 
entwehren  to  rob  of,  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  einem  etwas  entwehren,  both  constructions 

early  N.H.G.,  now  obsolete. 
entwöhnen  to  disaccustom  to,  wean  away  from,  also  with  von  with  the  dat.,  sometimes  with  the 

simple  dat.    (see  I.  b  above):    Der  General  entwöhnt   seine  Truppen    des   Alkohols.     Der 

Säugling  ist  jetzt  von  der  Brust  entwöhnt, 
erfreuen  to  rejoice,  delight  or  gladden  with  or  by  means  of,  now  usually  with  mit  with  the  dat. 
ergötzen  (earlier  in  the  period  ergetzen)  to  make  up,  compensate  for,  cause  to  forget,  now  obsolete: 

early  N.H.G.  einen  seines  Leides  ergetzen,  now  einen  sein  Leid  vergessen  machen,  or  einen 

für  sein  Leid  entschädigen, 
erinnern  to  remind  of,  now  usually  with  an  with  the  ace:   einen  an  sein  Versprechen  erinnern. 

Das  Bild  erinnert  lebhaft  an  Böcklin  {reminds  us  of  Böcklin's  art). 
erlassen  to  release  from,  now  einem  etwas  erlassen:   Ich  habe  Sie  Ihrer  Verbindlichkeit  erlassen 

([.essing's  Minna,  .5,  5). 
erledigen  to  free  from,  also  with  von  with  the  dat.,  now  in  this  meaning  usually  replaced  by 

entledigen, 
erleichtern  to  relieve  from:   einen  der  Last  or  usually  von  der  Last  erleichtem, 
ermahnen  to  exhort  to  usually  with  zu  with  the  dat.,  remind  of  with  the  gen.  or  an  with  the  ace. 
erretten  to  save  or  rescue  from,  with  the  gen.  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  with  von  or  aus  with  the  dat. 
fragen  to  inquire  after,  ask  for,  with  the  gen.  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  with  nach  with  the  dat.  or 

um  with  the  ace.     See  also  III.  1.  b  below. 
freisprechen  to  acquit  of,  usually  with  von  with  the  dat. 
geben  in  the  expression  es  einem  schuld  geben  to  blame  someone  for  it:    Ihm  allein  habe  ich  es 

schuld  gegeben,  daß  meine  Sache  so  auf  die  lange  Bank  geschoben  werde   (Lessing  an  E. 

König,  1773).     The  es  is  here  an  old  gen.  as  explained  in  140.  c.     It  is  now  usually  construed 

as  an  ace.  and  hence  in  case  of  other  words  the  gen.  is  now  replaced  by  an  ace:  Am  Ende  gibt 

Mama  dann  auch  das  mir  schuld  (Raabe's  Kloster  Lugau,  p.  70). 
gemahnen  to  remind  one  of  (a  promise,  &x.),  to  put  one  in  mind  of,  now  more  commonly  with 

an  with  the  ace.     See  also  c  and  B.  d  below. 
gewähren  to  grant,  with  the  gen.  in  early  N.H.G.,  as  in  Psalm  xx.  6,  and  as  late  as  Grillparzer, 

now  with  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing:   Schließ  deinen  Helm,  dann  sei  des 

Kampfs  gewährt  (Grillparzer's  König  Ottokar,  5).     Er  gewährte  mir  die  Bitte, 
haben  in  the  expressions  es  (old  gen.  as  explained  in  140.  c,  now  usually  construed  as  an  ace. 


528 ACC.  OF   A    REFLEXIVE   &   A   CxEN.  262.  II.  A.  a. 

and  hence  in  case  of  other  words  the  gen.  is  replaced  by  an  ace.)  nicht  Wort  haben  >wt  to  admit 
it;  es  nicht  Hehl  haben  to  make  no  secret  of  it,  now  also  kein  Hehl  daraus  machen;  es  Ursache 
haben  to  have  good  reasons  to  do  or  think  so,  now  more  commonly  alle  Ursache  dazu  haben 
as  in  Ich  habe  alle  Ursache  dazu;  es  (old  gen.)  or  das  (acc.)  schuld  haben  to  be  to  blame 
for  it,  now  more  commonly  daran  schuld  sein  (or  haben). 

lösen  or  erlösen  to  free  from,  now  with  von  or  aus  with  the  dat. 

lossprechen  to  acquit  of,  iclease  from,  now  usually  with  von  with  the  dat. 

mahnen  to  remind  of,  usually  with  an  with  the  ace,  to  dun  for  with  urn  with  the  ace.  or  wegen 
with  the  gen.,  to  urge  to  with  zu  with  the  dat. 

schelten  to  scold  someone  for,  now  with  wegen  with  the  gen. 

sichern  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  3)  to  assure  of. 

strafen  still  with  the  gen.  in  the  set  expression  jemanden  Lügen  strafen  to  give  one  the  He,  where 
Lügen  tho  gen.  pi.  is  now  usually  felt  as  an  ace.  pi. 

trösten  to  console  over,  now  with  über  with  the  ace.  (formerly  also  dat.,  as  in  John  xi.  19)  or  wegen 
witli  the  gen. 

über'führen  to  convict  of. 

über'heben  to  relieve  from,  spare  one  (the  trouble,  &c.)  of,  sometimes  with  the  dat.:  Uber'heben 
Sie  mich  des  Gegenbesuchs.  An  diesem  Maßstabe  gemessen,  bleibt  die  Verfasserin  unserer 
Aufzeichnungen  solchem  Vorwurfe  überhoben  (Paul  HofYmann  in  Euphorion,  1903,  Band  X, 
p.  10()). 

über'weisen  to  convict  of  with  the  gen.,  convince  of  with  the  gen.  or  von  with  the  dat.,  in  the 
second  meaning  now  replaced  by  überzeugen. 

über'zeugen  to  convince  of,  usually  with  von  with  the  dat. 

unter'richten  and  unter'weisen,  see  IIL  1./ below. 

verdächtigen  to  suspect  of. 

verdenken  to  Name  for,  find  fault  ivith  someone  for,  earlier  in  the  period:  Wet  will  sie  des  ver- 
denken? (Luther),  or  Wer  will  sie  darum  verdenken?,  now  Wer  will  es  ihnen  verdenken  or 


verargen? 

vergewissern  to  assure  of  (the  truth  of  a  statement,  of  the  existence  of  some  state  of  things,  &c.), 
also  with  über  with  the  ace,  von  with  the  dat.,  or  wegen  with  the  gen. 

verjagen  to  drive  out  of,  now  with  von  or  aus  with  the  dat. 

verklagen  to  accuse  of,  now  replaced  by  anklagen. 

versichern  to  assure  of  (one's  friendship,  &c.).     See  also  B.  a  below  and  259.  35. 

verwarnen  to  caution  against,  now  with  vor  with  the  dat. 

verweisen  to  banish  from,  also  with  aus  with  the  dat.:   Er  verwies  den  Verräter  des  Landes. 

warnen  to  ivarn,  now  with  vor  with  the  dat.:   Ich  habe  dich  vor  dem  Schwindler  gewarnt. 

weisen  to  show,  now  usually  with  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing:  Der  wies  ihn 
des  Weges  aufwärts  durch  wirres  Strauchwerk  (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Sonnenopfer,  II),  or  more 
commonly  Der  wies  ihm  den  Weg.  The  former  construction  in  part  survives  in  such  ex- 
pressions as  Er  läßt  sich  weisen  He  can  be  guided. 

wissen  in  the  expression  es  einem  Dank  wissen  to  be  grateful  to  someone  for  something.  The  es 
is  here  according  to  140.  c  an  old  gen.,  but  it  is  now  felt  as  an  ace.  and  hence  in  case  of  other 
words  the  gen.  is  sometimes  replaced  by  the  ace:  Ich  weiß  dir  deine  Freigebigkeit  großen 
Dank  (Alex.  König,  1001  Nacht,  II,  p.  15).  Das  wußte  er  ihr  Dank  (A.  Behrens-Litzmann's 
Ein  Sommerahend  in  Deutsche  Monatsschrift,  Aug.  1904,  p.  64S).  Usually  the  gen.  is  re- 
placed by  für  with  the  ace. :   Ich  weiß  dir  für  die  Gabe  Dank. 

würdigen  to  deem  ivorthy  of. 

zeihen  to  accuse  of. 

h.  The  Accusative  of  the  Reflexive  Pronoun  and  a  Genitive.  The  following 
list  of  verbs  which  usually  take  the  accusative  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  but 
sometimes  admit  of  or  prefer  a  prepositional  phrase  instead  of  the  genitive,  or 
instead  of  the  accusative  and  genitive  take  another  construction,  as  indicated 
after  each  verb :  — - 

siDh  abgewöhnen  to  disaccustom  one's  self  to,  leave  off,  give  up,  formerly  with  the  ace.  of  the  re- 
flexive and  the  gen.  of  the  noun  or  von  with  the  dat.,  now  with  the  dat.  of  the  reflexive  and 
the  ace.  of  the  noun,  as  in  Ich  gewöhne  mir  das  Trinken  ab. 

sich  abtun  to  free  one's  self  from,  renounce,  give  up,  now  little  used:  Wie  wenn  der  falsche  Mann 
....  sich  seines  Glaubens  abgetan?  (Burger's  Lenore). 

sich  anmaßen  to  arrogate  to  one's  self,  now  more  commonly  with  the  dat.  of  the  reflexive  pronoun 
and  the  ace.  of  the  thing:  Wenn  sie  (i.e.  die  Rolle)  von  einem  Komödianten  gespielt  wird, 
der  sich  dieses  Titels  in  der  Tat  anmaßen  könnte  (Lessing,  4,  1S2).  Du  hast  dir  dieses 
Recht  nur  angemaßt. 

sich  annehmen  to  interest  one's  self  in  or  for:  Nimm  dich  doch  meiner,  meiner  Sache  an.  In 
S.G.  we  often  find  um  with  the  acc.  here  instead  of  the  gen.:  Er  nimmt  sich  um  gar  keinen 
Menschen  an  (Auerhach's  Dorfgeschichten,  S,  p.  36).     See  also  262.  I.  b.  (2nd  par.). 

sich  ärgern  (1)  to  he  vexed  at,  by,  with,  sometimes  still  with  the  gen.,  usually  with  über  with  the 
ace.  or  earlier  in  the  period  über  with  the  dat. :  Ich  ärgerte  mich  der  fatalen  Rücksichtslosig- 
keit (J.  J.  David  in  Die  Nene  Rundschau,  July,  lOOli,  p.  875).  Dann  war  ich  fortgegangen, 
hatte  ihn  nach  der  Mutter  Tod  allein  gelassen,  mich  oft  seiner  geärgert  (Hermann  Hesse's 
Peter  Camenzind,  p.  1(JS).     (2)  to  be  'worried  by,  with  an  with  the  dat.:   An  dem  ungezogenen 


262.  II.  A.  b.  ACC.  OF   A   REFLEXIVE   &   A   GEN. 529 

Schüler  ärgere  ich  mich  zu  Tode  The  naughty  pupil  worries  almost  the  life  out  of  me.  This 
construction  with  an  is  also  used  in  biblical  language  with  the  meaning  to  be  offended  because  of, 
as  in  JXIatth.  xxvi.  31. 

sich  bedanken  to  thank  for,  now  with  für  with  the  ace.  or  wegen  with  the  gen.:  Ich  bedanke 
mich  bei  ihm  wegen  des  schönen  Geschenks  (or  für  das  schöne  Geschenk). 

sich  bedenken  to  bethink  ones  self  of:  Er  hat  sich  eines  Besseren  bedacht  He  changed  his  mind. 

sich  bedienen  to  malze  use  of. 

sich  befahren  to  fear,  now  obsolete. 

sich  befleißen  (or  in  early  N.H.G.  fleißen;  see  2  Macc.  xv.  12)  or  sich  befleißigen  (or  in  early 
N.H.G.  fleißigen;  see  Rom.  xii.  17)  to  apply  one's  self  to,  aim  at:  Befleißige  dich  der  Wahrheit. 
Er  befleißigt  sich  {is  studying)  der  Rechtswissenschaft.  Er  befleißigt  sich  der  Kürze.  Der 
Sparsamkeit  beflissen  (given  to). 

sich  befreien  to  free  one's  self  from,  now  with  von  with  the  dat. 

sich  befürchten  to  fear,  the  reflexive  verb  now  replaced  by  the  transitive  befürchten  with  an 
ace.  object. 

sich  begeben  to  renounce,  waive,  strip  or  deprive  one's  self  of,  refrain  from :  Ich  begebe  mich 
meines  Rechtes.     Ich  begebe  mich  (refrain  from)  jedes  Urteils. 

sich  behelfen  to  get  along  with,  now  with  mit  with  the  dat.:  Ich  behelfe  mich  mit  einem  geringen 
Gehalte. 

sich  beklagen  to  complain  of,  now  with  über  with  the  ace. 

sich  bemächtigen  to  take  possession  of. 

sich  bemeistern  to  seize  on,  overcome,  take  possession  of. 

sich  bereden,  see  III.  1.  h  below. 

sich  beriihmen  (Fontane's  Quitt,  chap.  7),  now  usually  replaced  by  sich  rühmen. 

sich  bescheiden  to  refrain  from,  reserve,  acquiesce  in  with  the  gen.,  content  one's  self  with  mit  with 
the  dat.:  Er  bescheidet  sich  seines  Urteils.  Ich  bescheide  (acquiesce)  mich  dessen.  Be- 
scheide dich  mit  wenigem.     Ich  bescheide  mich  mit  dem,  was  Sie  sagen. 

sich  beschweren  to  complain  of,  now  with  über  with  the  ace. 

sich  besinnen  with  the  gen.  in  sich  eines  Besseren  for  anderen)  besinnen  to  think  better  or  dif- 
ferently of  something,  to  change  one's  mind,  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  with  auf  with  the 
ace.  in  the  meanings  to  call  to  mind,  recollect:  Besinne  dich  auf  deine  Worte.  Ich  besinne 
mich  fortwährend  auf  den  Namen. 

sich  besorgen  to  fear,  apprehend,  be  apprehensive  of,  also  with  vor  with  the  dat.,  both  construc- 
tions now  little  used.  Besorgen  is  now  a  transitive  with  an  ace.  object:  Ich  besorgte  nichts 
Böses. 

sich  bessern  to  improve  or  grow  better  by  means  of,  now  with  durch:  Nu  hatte  ich  bereit  den 
Katechismum  geleret,  des  (now  wodurch)  sich  viel  Leute  gebessert  hatten  (Luther). 

sich  bestreben  to  strive  after:  Ich  bestrebe  mich  einer  ebenso  reinen  und  edlen  Liebe  als  er 
(Lessing's  Minna,  5,  9). 

sich  entäußern  (or  earlier  in  the  period  simply  äußern)  to  rid  one's  self  of,  cast  off,  give  up,  sell, 
transfer,  renounce. 

sich  entblöden  to  be  so  bold,  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  with  the  ace,  now  little  used  in  this  mean- 
ing and  these  constructions:  Was?  Dürft  ihr  solches  Unfuges  euch  vor  meinem  Aug'  ent- 
blöden? (Schlegel's  Span.,  2,  168).  Was  könnte  der  Mann  sich  entblöden?  (Wieland). 
Compare  246.  II.  2.  a  and  b. 

sich  entblößen  to  strip  one's  self  of,  now  with  von  with  the  dat. 

sich  entbrechen  to  refrain  from,  now  little  used  except  in  negative  form  with  a  dependent  infin.: 
Ich  konnte  mich  nicht  entbrechen,  ihm  die  Wahrheit  zu  sagen. 

sich  entgürten  to  uugird:    Des  Schwerts  entgürte  dich  (Hebbel's  Cenoveva,  1.  2). 

sich  enthalten  to  abstain  from,  sometimes  with  von  with  the  dat. 

sich  entkleiden  to  divest  one's  self  of. 

sich  entladen  to  ease  one's  self  of,  sometimes  also  von  with  the  dat. 

sich  entlasten  to  free  one's  self  from,  also  with  von  with  the  dat. 

sich  entledigen  (1)  to  free  one's  self  from,  cast  off,  usually  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  von  with  the 
dat.:  Ich  habe  mich  meiner  Fessel,  meiner  Sorgen  entledigt.  (2)  to  perform  (a  duty,  task), 
execute,  make  good,  with  the  gen.:  Ich  habe  mich  meines  Auftrags,  meines  Versprechens 
entledigt. 

sich  entleeren  to  empty  itself:    Der  Selbstentlader  entleert  sich  seines  Inhalts. 

sich  entmemmen  to  free  one's  self  from  the  coivardice  of  (one's  dejected  thoughts,  feelings):  Ent- 
memme  dich  deiner  verzagten  Gefühle!  (Heine). 

sich  entringen  to  disengage  one's  self  from,  free  one's  self  from,  usually  with  the  dat.:  Sie  haben 
an  mir  ein  Beispiel,  wie  man  sich  selbst  solcher  Fesseln  entringen  kann  (Franzos's  Der  Gott 
des  alten  Doktors,  p.  130). 

sich  entsagen  to  renounce,  sometimes  with  von  with  the  dat.  The  reflexive  is  now  replaced 
by  the  intransitive  entsagen  with  the  dat.  according  to  258.  1.  B,  or  sometimes  auf  with 
the  ace,  earlier  in  the  period  and  occasionally  still  with  the  simple  gen.     See  260.  2.  A. 

sich  entschlagen  to  free  one's  self  from,  banish  (care,  thoughts,  &c.):  Entschlage  dich  dieser 
Sorgen,  dieser  Gedanken.  Sometimes  according  to  I.  b  with  dat.  instead  of  gen.:  Das 
lastet  nur,  ich  muß  mich  ihm  entschlagen  (Goethe's  Elegie,  1.  112). 

sich  entschließen  to  decide  upon,  gen.  now  usually  replaced  by  zu  with  the  dat.  except  in  case 
of  gen.  es  (140.  c)  or  ace.  das  or  was  instead  of  es:  Ich  habe  mich  zur  Reise,  zu  nichts,  zur 
Tat  entschlossen,  or  with  an  infin.  instead  of  a  noun  Ich  habe  mich  entschlossen  zu  gehen. 


530 ACC.  OF   A    REFLEXIVE  &   A   GEN.  262.  II.  A.  6. 

Ich  war  es  entschlossen  (Fontane's  Irrungen,  261),  or  das  instead  of  es:  Das  bin  ich  fest 
entschlossen  (Iflland's  Hausfrieden,  55),  or  more  commonly  dazu  instead  of  es  or  das. 

sich  entschuldigen  to  excuse  one's  self  on  account  of,  now  usually  with  wegen  with  the  gen. 

sich  entschiitten  to  get  rid  of,  throw  off,  much  used  earlier  in  the  period. 

sich  entsetzen  to  be  terrified  at,  usually  with  vor  with  the  dat.  or  über  with  the  ace. 

sich  entsinnen  to  recollect,  call  to  mind,  with  tlie  gen.  or  auf  with  thcacc,  rarely  a  transitive  with 
an  ace.  object:  Ich  entsinne  mich  nicht  mehr  dieses  Mannes,  or  auf  diesen  Mann,  Ent- 
sinnst du  den  Jeronimo?  (H.  v.  Hofmannsthal's  Das  gerettete  Venedig,  p.  33). 

sich  entwöhnen  to  disaccustom  one's  self  to,  also  with  von  with  the  dat.,  sometimes  with  the 
simple  dat.:  Du  mußt  dich  des  Rauchens  (or  von  dem  Rauchen)  entwöhnen.  Unter  den 
Schachtelsätzen,  deren  wir  uns  seit  Nietzsche  mehr  und  mehr  entwöhnt  haben  (A.  Heusler 
in  Anzciiier  für  deutsches  Altertum,  1902,  p.  324).     See  also  I.  b  above. 

sich  entziehen  to  ^vithdraw  from,  usually  with  the  dat.,  sometimes  with  von  with  the  dat.:  Ver- 
schlossen in  dem  Innern  der  Gemächer,  |  entzieht  er  sich  des  Reiches  (Grillparzer's  Esther, 
1).     Warum  entziehen  Sie  sich  unserem  Verkehr  immer  mehr? 

sich  erbarmen  lo  take  pity  on,  more  commonly  with  über  with  the  ace.      See  also  B.  d  below. 

sich  erdreisten  to  be  bold  enough,  have  the  cheek,  sometimes  also  with  the  ace:  der  sich  jener  Tat 
erdreistet  (Goethe);  was  sich  kein  anderer  erdreistet  hatte  (J.  Paul).  Now  usually  with 
the  intin.;   Erdreiste  dich  nicht,  mir  das  zu  sagen. 

sich  erfrechen  to  have  the  impudence  to:  Erfrechst  du  dich  so  gottverdammter  Lügen  mir  ins  Gesicht? 
(P.  lieysc,  20,  S4). 

sich  erfreuen  (1)  to  take  pleasure  in  (doing  something),  enjoy,  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly 
with  an  with  the  dat.:  Ich  erfreue  mich  an  einem  schönen  Spaziergang,  an  einer  gut  besetzten 
Tafel,  an  einem  guten  Glas  Wein.  (2)  to  have,  possess,  usually  with  the  gen.:  Ich  erfreue 
mich  einer  guten  Gesundheit. 

sich  ergötzen  (earlier  in  the  period  ergetzen)  to  make  tip,  compensate  for,  cause  to  forget,  now 
obsolete:  Da  wil  ich  mich  meiner  mühe  vnd  meines  hertzenleides  ergetzen  (Jer.  viii.  18), 
now  Da  will  ich  mich  für  meine  Mühe  und  mein  Herzeleid  entschädigen. 

sich  erheben  (Goethe's  Rein.  F.,  5)  to  boast  of,  be  haughty  on  account  of,  now  replaced  by  sich 
überheben. 

sich  erholen  (1)  to  seek  or  apply  for  (advice,  &c.),  with  the  ace.  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  the 
gen.  of  the  thing,  or  with  the  dat.  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  the  gen.  or  ace.  of  the  thing, 
as  in  Ich  erhole  mich  bei  ihm  Rats  or  Ich  erhole  mir  bei  ihm  Rats  or  Rat.  (2)  to  retrieve,  with 
the  gen.  or  more  commonly  von  with  the  dat.,  as  in  Ich  will  mich  meines  Schadens  or  usually 
von  meinem  Schaden  erholen  and  Er  erholt  sich  von  seinem  Schaden  an  einem  anderen. 
(3)  to  recover  from,  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  von  with  the  dat.,  as  in  Erhole  dich  erst 
von  dem  Schreck,  von  der  Arbeit,  von  den  Strapazen,  von  der  Krankheit. 

sich  erinnern  to  remember,  with  the  gen.,  often  also  with  an  with  the  ace,  sometimes  with 
auf  with  the  ace.  after  the  analogy  of  sich  auf  etwas  besinnen,  especially  in  the  meaning  to 
recall,  sometimes  with  the  ace.  or  dat.  of  the  reflexiv^e  pronoun  and  the  ace.  instead  of  the 
gen.,  often,  especially  in  the  extreme  North,  as  in  English  used  as  a  transitive  with  a  direct 
ol)ject  in  the  ace,  perhaps  after  the  analogy  of  vergessen  with  the  ace:  Ich  erinnere  mich 
nicht  mehr  des  Vorfalls,  or  an  den  Vorfall.  Vergebens  suchte  er  sich  auf  das  Aussehen  der 
anderen  Frau  zu  erinnern  (G.  Freytag).  Das  erirmere  ich  mich  wieder  (Goethe).  Das 
kann  ich  mir  jetzt  nicht  deutlich  erinnern  (Otto  Frommel's  Grundlsee).  Aber  das  müßte 
man  doch  erinnern  (Timm  Kröger's  Das  Wimderbare,  I).  Sieh  mal,  Jürgen,  du  eriimerst 
unser  Zusammentreffen  im  Garten  (Frenssen's  Jörn  Uhl,  chap.  24).  The  simple  acc.  is  the 
rule  in  the  meaning  to  censure:    Ich  fand  manches  zu  erinnern. 

sich  erkühnen  to  make  bold,  sometimes  with  the  ace:  Nur  Graf  Lester  durfte  sich  |  an  diesem 
Hofe  solcher  Tat  erkühnen  (Schiller's  Maria,  4,  6).     Sie  darf  sich  was  erkühnen  (Geibel,  1, 

.  ^■''^ 

sich  erkundigen  to  inquire  after,  now  usually  nach  with  the  dat.:  Ich  erkundigte  mich  bei  ihm 
nach  Ihnen,  nach  der  Ursache  usw. 

sich  erledigen,  with  the  meanings  and  constructions  of  entledigen,  but  much  less  common: 
wie  man  des  Drucks  sich  möcht'  erledigen  (Schiller's  Tell,  1,  2).  Erledigen  is  quite  common, 
however,  as  a  transitive  with  an  ace  object  in  the  related  meanings  to  finish,  settle,  pay: 
Er  hat  seine  Korrespondenz,  den  Streit,  die  Schuld  erledigt. 

sich  erleichtern  to  relieve  one's  self  from:   sich  der  Last  or  usually  von  der  Last  erleichtern. 

sich  ernähren,  see  nähren  below. 

sich  ersättigen  to  become  satiated  with,  more  commonly  with  an  or  mit  with  the  dat.:  Endlich 
als  er  sich  des  ersten  Schmerzes  ersättigt,  erhob  er  sich  usw.  (L.  Forster's  Die  Flinte  von  San 
_  Marco,  XIII,  Deutsche  Rundschau,  April  189G). 

sich  ersehen  lo  perceive,  look  out  for,  avail  one's  self  of,  more  commonly  with  the  dat.  of  the  re- 
flexive pronoun  and  the  ace  of  the  thing,  or  used  as  a  transitive  with  an  object  in  the  ace: 
Ich  habe  mich  meines  Vorteils,  des  Augenblicks,  der  Gelegenheit  ersehen,  or  Ich  habe  mir 
den  Vorteil,  den  Augenblick,  die  Gelegenheit  ersehen,  or  Ich  habe  meinen  Vorteil,  den  Au- 
genblick, die  Gelegenheit  ersehen. 

sich  erwegen  or  erwägen  (2  Cor.  I.  S)  to  give  up,  renounce,  despair  of,  now  obsolete. 

sich  erwehren  (or  earlier  in  the  period  entwehren)  to  ward  off,  refrain  from,  resist:  Er  konnte 
sich  der  Hunde,  der  Diebe  nicht  erwehren.  Ich  kann  mich  des  Schlafes,  des  Lachens,  der 
Tränen  nicht  erwehren.  Rarely  with  the  dat.  of  the  reflexive:  Geht  die  Sonne  des  Morgens 
auf  ...  ,  erwehr'  ich  mir  niemals  auszurufen  usw.  (Goethe's  Wert  her,  den  S.  Februar). 


262.  II.  A.  b.  ACC.  OF   A   REFLEXIVE   &   A   GEN. 531 

sich  freuen  lo  rejoice  in,  over,  take  a  pleasure  in  (a  thing,  the  idea  of,  thought  of),  with  the  gen. 
and  also  with  prepositions:  Freue  dich  deiner  Gesundheit,  deines  Glückes,  or  an  deiner 
Gesundheit,  an  deinem  Glück,  or  über  deine  Gesundheit,  über  dein  Glück.  Man  freut  sich 
über  das  Geschehene,  an  dem  Gegenwärtigen,  auf  das  Künftige.  Ich  freue  mich  auf 
des  Freundes  Ankunft.  Formerly  über  governed  the  dat. :  Sie  aber  frewen  sich  vber  meinem 
schaden  (Psalms  xxxv.  15). 

sich  fürchten  to  fear,  early  in  the  period  ich  fürchte  mir  eines  Dinges,  later  ich  fürchte  mich 
eines  Dinges,  now  with  the  gen.  only  in  the  expression  sich  der  Sünde  fürchten  to  be  afraid 
of  committing  the  sin  of,  usually  with  vor  with  the  dat.:  Ich  fühlte  mich  so  glücklich,  daß  ich 
mich  der  Sünde  fürchtete,  noch  glücklicher  werden  zu  wollen.  Ich  fürchte  mich  vor  diesem 
Menschen. 

sich  gebrauchen  to  use  and  sich  mißbrauchen  to  misuse,  now  replaced  by  the  transitives  gebrau- 
chen and  mißbrauchen  with  ace.  object. 

sich  getrauen,  see  259.  14. 

sich  getrösten  (1)  to  expect  confidently,  with  the  gen.:  Ich  kann  mich  der  Hilfe  sicher  getrösten. 
(2)  to  comfort  one's  self  luith,  with  the  gen.,  or  an  or  mit  with  the  dat.:  In  behaglicher,  wunsch- 
loser Ruhe  sehen  wir  Handewitter  die  schnatternden  Völker  der  Wanderschwäne  über  die 
Baumgruppen  unserer  Höfe  streben,  indem  wir  uns  derweilen  unserer  gefüllten  Torfställe 
und  Holzschuppen  für  den  kommenden  Winter  getrösten  (Kröger's  Der  Schulmeister  von 
Handewitt,  p.  24).  (3)  to  console  oie's  self  over,  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  with  über 
with  the  ace:  Die  Ehe  blieb  kinderlos,  dessen  sich  jedoch  beide  in  christlicher  Ergebung 
getrösteten  (Fontane's    Vor  dem  Sturm,  I.  6). 

sich  gewärtigen  to  expect,  with  the  gen.,  or  with  the  dat.  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  the  ace. 
of  the  thing:  Du  mußt  dich  eines  Verlustes  gewärtigen.  Was  könnte  ich  mir  für  eine  Ant- 
wort gewärtigen?  (Lessing).  A  clause  instead  of  the  ace.  of  the  thing:  Du  mußt  dir  gewärti- 
gen, daß  er  kündigt.  Instead  of  the  reflexive  construction  gewärtigen  can  be  used  as  a  transi- 
tive with  an  ace.  object:  Ich  gewärtige  von  dem  Herrn  .  .  .  den  Beweis  (Bismarck's  Reden, 
2,  125).     See  also  260.  2.  A. 

sich  härmen  to  worry  about,  grieve  about,  be  annoyed  at,  by,  more  commonly  with  wegen  with  the 
gen.  or  über  or  um  with  the  ace:  Wer  sich  des  Klanges  härmet,  |  der  mag  ins  Kloster  gehen 
(Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Lieder  Jung  Werners,  \'I). 

sich  kümmern  or  bekümmern  to  concern  one's  self  with,  usually  with  tmi  with  the  ace:  Er 
kümmert  or  bekümmert  sich  um  seine  Mutter.  Kürrmiere  or  bekümmere  dich  nicht  um  Dinge, 
die  dich  nichts  angehen.     Compare  kümmern,  c,  B.  d  below,  also  bekümmern,  IV  below. 

sich  lohnen  or  verlohnen  (1)  to  reward,  be  worth,  with  the  gen.  or  instead  of  this  construction  a 
nom.  employed  as  logical  subject:  Es  (ver)lohnt  sich  der  (also  nom.  die)  Mühe  nicht.  Es 
lohnt  sich  nicht,  das  zu  tun.  (2)  to  be  rewarded  by,  sometimes  with  gen.,  more  commonly 
with  für  with  the  ace:  Des  bloßen  Hinstarrens  lohnte  sich  doch  die  Mühe  des  Weges  aus 
deinem  weichen  Bett  nicht  (Raabe's    Unruhige  Gäste,  chap.  6). 

sich  mäßigen  to  be  temperate  in,  now  with  in  with  the  dat. 

sich  mißbrauchen,  now  a  trans,  with  an  ace  object.     Compare  260.  2.  A. 

sich  nähren  or  ernähren  to  feed,  live  upon,  make  one's  livelihood  by,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the 
gen.,  but  now  with  mit  or  von  with  the  dat.,  or  durch  with  the  ace:  Deines  Schwertes  wirst 
du  dich  nähren  (Gen.  xxvii.  40,  revised  ed.).  Ich  (the  wolf)  nähre  mich  bloß  mit  (here  more 
commonly  von)  toten  Schafen  (Lessing's  Fabeln,  3,  20).  Die  Massageten,  ein  von  Fischen 
und  Milch  sich  nährendes  iranisches  Volk  (Hommel's  Grundriß  der  Geographie,  p.  213). 
Dieses  Tier  nährt  sich  von  Fleisch  (Traut-Fritsch's  German  Grammar,  p.  139).  Daher  scheint 
es  mir  höchst  unzeitgemäß,  wenn  man  das  von  Jahrhunderten  errichtete  Gebäude  der  Kultur 
verlassen  und  sich  wieder  mit  wildem  Honig  und  Heuschrecken  ernähren  will  (Konrad 
Falke  in  Deutsche  Monatsschrift,  Sept.  6,  1906,  p.  S5S).  Er  ernährt  sich  von,  mit,  durch  seiner 
Hände  Arbeit.     Sie  ernährt  sich  durch  Stundengeben,  mit  Weben. 

sich  reinigen  to  purify,  cleanse  one's  self  from,  now  with  von  with  the  dat. 

sich  rühmen  to  boast  of,  with  the  gen.  or  wegen  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  with  mit  or  von  with 
the  dat.:  Er  rühmt  sich  seiner  Stärke.     Du  rühmst  dich  noch  (wegen)  des  Streiches? 

sich  sättigen  to  appease  (one's  hunger,  &e)  with,  now  with  an,  mit,  or  sometimes  von  with  the 
dat.:   Ich  habe  mich  am  Kohl,  an  den  Kartoffeln  gesättigt. 

sich  schämen- /o  be  ashamed  of,  also  with  wegen  with  the  gen.  and  über  with  the  ace:  Schäme 
dich  des  Betrugs,  über  den  Betrug,  or  wegen  des  Betrugs.  But  Ich  schämte  mich  vor  (in 
the  presence  of)  ihm. 

sich  scheuen  to  be  shy  of,  shrink  from,  now  only  rarely  with  the  gen.,  usually  with  vor  with  the 
dat.:  sich  keiner  Arbeit  scheuen  {Gartenlaube,  19,  367  b).  Er  scheut  sich  vor  der  Kranlt- 
heit,  vor  der  Verantwortung.  Often  with  the  infinitive:  Ich  scheue  mich  nicht,  die  Wahr- 
heit zu  sagen. 

sich  schmeicheln  to  flatter  one's  self  ivith,  a  little  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  dat.  or  ace  of  the 
reflexive  pronoun  and  the  gen.  of  the  thing,  or  with  the  dat.  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  the 
ace.  of  the  thing,  now  usually  with  the  dat.  of  the  reflexive  pronoun  and  mit  with  the  dat.: 
Ich  schmeichele  mir  or  mich  dessen,  or  Das  schmeichele  ich  mir  I  venture  to  hope  so.  Ich 
schmeichele  mir  mit  der  Hoffnung,  daß  usw.  I  flatter  myself  with  or  cherish  the  hope  that,  &e 

sich  trösten  (1)  to  console  Okie's  self  over,  more  commonly  with  über  with  the  ace  (formerly  also 
the  dat.)  or  wegen  with  the  gen.:  Er  konnte  sich  über  seinen  Verlust  nicht  trösten.  (2)  to 
find  comfort  in,  usually  with  an  or  mit  with  the  dat.  or  durch  with  the  ace  (3)  to  rely  on,  rejoice 
in,  with  the  gen.:    Denn  darauff  wir  vns  verliessen  |  das  ist  vns  jtzt  eitel  schände  vnd  des 


532 ACC.  OF   A   REFLEXIVE  &   A   GEN.  262.  II.  A.  6. 

wir  vns  trösteten  |  des  müssen  wir  vns  jtzt  Schemen  (Jer.  III.  25).  Sondern  er  tröstet  sich 
dieses  guten  lebens  {i'salin  xlix.  19). 

sich  über'heben  (1)  to  elevate  one's  self  above  others  on  account  of,  be  unduly  proud  of,  with  the  gen. 
or  wegen  with  the  gen.:  Überhebe  dich  nicht  deiner  Kleider,  or  wegen  deiner  Kleider.  (2)  to 
spare  one's  self  {the  trouble,  &c.)  of,  usually  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  with  the  dat.:  Dieser 
Mühe  kann  man  sich  überheben. 

sich  über'reden,  see  III.  1.  i  below. 

sich  über'zeugen  to  convince  one's  self  of,  usually  with  von  with  the  dat. 

sich  unter'fangen  to  dare  to  undertake,  usually  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  with  the  ace:  So  ist  es 
mit  allem,  dessen  sich  der  Mensch  unterfäng^t  (Goethe).  Du  verzeihst  .  .  .  ,  was  sich  die 
Frechheit  unterfangen  (Schiller). 

sich  unter'stehen  to  be  so  bold  as  to,  to  dare  to  do,  usually  with  the  gen.,  sometimes  with  the  ace. 
sometimes  also  with  the  dat.  of  the  pronoun  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing:  Wer  untersteht  sich 
dessen?  Vergib,  daß  ich  des  Worts  mich  unterstanden  (Lenau).  Was  vnterstehet  sich 
der  Arme  I  das  er  vnter  den  lebendigen  wil  sein?  (Eccl.  vi.  8).  Sometimes  Ich  untersteh' 
mir  das  nicht.     See  also  I.  b  above  and  III.  1.  l  below. 

sich  unter' winden  to  dare  to  undertake,  assume  the  charge,  care  of,  adopt:  Wie  kann  ich  solcher  Tat 
mich  unterwinden!  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  1,  10).     See  also  I.  b  above. 

sich  unter'ziehen  to  undertake,  undergo  (an  operation,  &c.)  with  the  gen.  or  more  commonly  the 
dat.:  Ich  unterzog  mich  der  großen  Mühe,  dem  schwierigen  Geschäft,  einer  Operation, 

sich  verantworten  to  justify  one's  self  concerning,  with  reference  to,  with  the  gen.  (as  in  Acts  xxv.  16) 
or  more  commonly  with  wegen  with  the  gen.:  Du  sollst  dich  wegen  deines  Verfahrens  ver- 
antworten. 

sich  vergewissern  to  assure  one's  self  of  (the  truth  of  a  statement,  <S:c.),  also  with  wegen  with 
the  gen.,  über  with  the  ace,  or  von  with  the  dat.:  Ich  werde  mich  des  Erfolges,  über  den 
Erfolg,  or  von  dem  Erfolg  vergewissern. 

sich  verleugnen  to  deny,  disown,  renoutice,  now  replaced  by  the  transitive  verleugnen  with  an  ace. 
object. 

sich  verlohnen,  see  sich  lohnen  above. 

sich  vermessen  to  dare:  Wessen  vermessen  (or  unterstehen,  unterfangen,  erkühnen)  sie  sich? 
Sie  vermaßen  sich  hoher  Dinge  (Ranke's  Päpste,  1,  lOS).  Often  with  an  acc.  of  an  indefinite 
pronoun  instead  of  a  gen.:  Wenn  die  Bestien,  die  Franzosen  sich  nur  etwas  gegen  mich  ver- 
messen sollten  (Goethe). 

sich  vermögen  (Swiss)  =  wofür  können  (see  213.  2.  F.  Note  1):  „Ist  sie  da?"  „Nein,  Herr 
Heideck!  Aber  was  vermag  ich  mich  dessen?"  (Boßhart's  Die  Barettlitochter,  p.  100)  =  Was 
kann  ich  dafür? 

sich  vermuten  to  suppose,  expect,  earlier  in  the  period  sich  eines  Dings  vermuten,  now  ein  Ding 
(ace.)  vermuten:  Ich  habe  deinen  Besuch  nicht  vermutet.  Das  konnte  ich  (mir)  nicht 
vermuten. 

sich  versagen  to  refuse  to  enter  into  relations  with,  withdraw  from,  more  commonly  a  dat.  instead 
of  a  gen.:  Wenn  die  dänische  Regierung  in  der  Tat  gesonnen  sein  sollte,  sich  amtlicher 
(usually  amtlichen)  Verhandlungen  auf  die  Dauer  zu  versagen  {Preußen  im  Bundestag,  1851 
&f5  1859,  1,  30). 

sich  versehen  to  expect  something  {confidently)  of  one,  sich  (ace.)  eines  Dinges  zu  (or  von)  einem 
versehen  or  sich  (dat.)  ein  Ding  von  (or  zu)  einem  versehen:  Einer  solchen  Aufnahme  hatte 
sich  der  arme  Vetter  zu  der  reichen  Sippschaft  seines  Weibes  nicht  versehen.  Ich  hatte 
mich  eines  Besseren  zu  Ihnen  versehen.  Mit  banger  Sorge  würde  sich  das  deutsche  Volk 
die  Frage  vorlegen,  wer  denn  der  Nachfolger  werden  und  wessen  man  sich  von  ihm  zu  ver- 
sehen haben  würde  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Nov.  13,  1908).  Das  hätte  ich  mir  von  (or  zu) 
Ihnen  nicht  versehen. 

sich  versichern  to  make  sure  of,  gain  over,  seize:  Versichern  Sie  sich  des  Ministers  Make  sure  of, 
gain  over  the  minister.     Man  wird  sich  der  Häupter  versichern  (Goethe's  Egmont)  will  seize  &c. 

sich  verstehen  to  understand,  formerly  with  the  gen.  as  in  Acts  xxv.  20,  now  usually  with  auf 
with  the  ace. :  Ich  verstehe  mich  auf  solche  Sachen  nicht. 

sich  vertrösten  to  put  reliance  on,  trust  in  or  to,  with  gen.  as  in  2  Chron.  xxxii.  10,  but  now  rare 
in  this  meaning,  to  cheer  one's  self  by  looking  forward  and  counting  ow,  with  auf  with  the  ace: 
Die  Besten  hatten  sich  auf  diese  letzte  Instanz  vertröstet. 

sich  verwegen  (sometimes  verwägen)  to  dare,  venture  upon,  renounce,  give  up,  do  without,  now 
little  used  except  in  the  adjective  perfect  participle  (see  199.  2nd  Division,  2):  Solcher  Gewalt- 
tat hätte  der  Tyrann  wider  die  freie  Edle  sich  verwogen?  (Schiller's  Tell,  4,  2) 

sich  verweigern  to  refuse:  earlier  in  the  period  sich  eines  Dinges  or  einem  Dinge  verweigern, 
now  according  to  I  above. 

sich  verwundem  to  be  surprised  or  astonished  at,  with  the  gen.,  as  in  Luke  ii.  47,  or  more  commonly 
über  with  the  ace. :   Ich  habe  mich  über  dich,  über  die  Rede  verwundert. 

sich  verzeihen  to  renounce,  give  up,  now  obsolete  in  this  meaning  and  construction. 

sich  wehren  to  defend,  usually  with  gegen:  Ich  wehre  mich  meiner  Haut,  meines  Lebens.  Ich 
wehrte  mich  gegen  ihn,  gegen  seinen  Spott,  but  with  different  meaning  Ich  wehrte  (prevented) 
dem  Bettler  den  Eintritt. 

sich  weigern  to  refuse,  sometimes  with  the  dat.:  Er  weigerte  sich  dessen.  Der  Alte  bat  um  das 
Gewehr,  dem  aber  weigerte  sich  der  junge  Mann  (Immermann's  Münchhausen,  1,  151). 
Now  little  used  except  with  an  infin.  instead  of  the  gen.,  or  without  any  object  at  all:  Er 
weigerte  sich,  es  zu  tun.     Ich  weigere  mich  nicht.     Compare  verweigern,  I  above. 


262.  n.  B.  5.  ACC.  &   GEN.  WITH    IMPERSONAL   VERBS 533 

sich  wundern  to  he  surprised  at,  sometimes  with  the  gen.  as  in  Luke  iv.  22,  usually  with  über 
with  the  ace.  The  gen.,  according  to  III.  2.  B  (2nd  par.),  is  common  in  the  expression  Sie 
wunderte  sich  des  Todes   (or  zu  Tode,  or  sehr)  She  was  greatly  astonished. 

c.  Accusative  and  Genitive,  or  Dative  and  Genitive  after  Impersonal  Verbs. 
The  impersonal  subject  es  may  be  expressed  or  understood,  as  explained  in 
219.  This  construction  was  once  a  favorite,  so  that  it  occasionally  took  the 
place  of  other  constructions,  but  it  did  not  permanently  hold  its  gains  and  in 
recent  literature  has  been  largely  replaced  by  other  constructions,  as  is  indicated 
after  each  verb.     Here  belong  the  following  impersonal  verbs:  — 

dauern  to  pity,  in  early  N.H.G.  and  In  archaic  and  poetic  language  still  with  the  ace.  and  gen., 

now  usually  according  to  B.  d  below:    Mich  dauerte  der  heimatlosen  Kleinen    (Grillparzer's 

Sappho,  3,  5),  now  usually  in  plain  prose:    Mich  dauerte  die  heimatlose  Kleine, 
denken  or  gedenken  to  roiiemher,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  ace.   (or  dat.)  and  gen.:    Mich 

denkt  des  Ausdrucks  noch  recht  wohl  (Lessing's  Nathan,  2,  2).     Es  gedenkt  mir  aus  meinen 

Knabenjahren  eines  armen  Manns   (Riehl's  Wanderbuch).     See  also  B.  d  below. 
ekeln  to  loathe,  be  disgusted  at,  with  the  ace.  and  gen.,  or  perhaps  more  commonly  the  dat.  and 

gen.:    Mich  ekelt  meiner  Kunst   (Fritz  Lienhard's  Wieland  der  Schmied,  p.  56).     Es  ekelte 

Um  des  funkelnden  Gaukelspiels   (Paul  Keller's  Der  Sohn  der  Hagar,  p.  261).     Wenn  ihm 

beinahe  des  ganzen  Lebens  ekelt  (Lessing).     The  more  common  prose  construction  is  given 

in  B.  (i  below. 
erbarmen  to  pity,  here  with  the  ace.  (or  formerly  also  dat.)  and  gen.,  or  more  commonly  according 

to  A.  h  above:  Und  doch  erbarmt  mich  deiner  (Schiller's  Tell,  5,  2). 
freuen  to  rejoice,  here  with  the  ace.  and  gen.,  or  more  commonly  according  to  b  above:    Mich 

freut  des  verwegenen  Entschlusses  (J.  H.  Voß). 
gebrechen  to  be  lacking,  luanting,  with  the  dat.  and  gen.  only  rarely  even  in  early  N.H.G.,  as 

the  nom.  had  already  supplanted  the  gen.  according  to  B.  d  below:   Zenan  den  Schrifftgelerten 

vnd  ApoUon  fertige  ab  mit  vleis   |  auff  das  jnen  nichts  (in  fact  a  gen.,  but  soon  felt  as  a  nom.) 

gebreche  (Titus  iii.  13). 
gelüsten  or  lüsten  to  covet,  lust  after,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  ace.  (or  dat.)  and  gen.:   Las 

dich  nicht  gelüsten  deines  N ehesten  Weibs  (Exod.  xx.  17).     Present  usage  is  given  in  B.  tJ 

below. 
gemahnen  to  put  one  in  mind  of,  seem  to  one  like,  remind  one  of,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  ace. 

(or  dat.)  and  gen.:  Es  gemanet  mich  (sometimes  mir)  der  welt  wie  eines  bawfelligen  hauses 

(Luther's  Tischreden).     Present  usage  is  given  in  B.  d  below. 
genügen  to  suffice,  early  N.H.G.  es  genügt  mich  or  mir  eines  Dinges.     Present  usage  is  given 

in  B.  d.  below. 
jammern  to  grieve,  pity,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  ace.  (or  sometimes  dat.)  and  gen.:   Vnd  da 

er  das  Volck  sähe  |  jammert  jn  desselbigen  (Matth.  ix.  36).     Present  usage  is  given  in  B.  d 

below. 
kümmern  to  concern  now  little  used  here:   earlier  in  the  period  Es  kümmert  mich  dessen  nicht. 

Present  usage  is  given  in  B.  d  below. 
reuen  or  gereuen  to  repent,  rue;   earlier  in  the  period  with  the  ace.  (or  sometimes  dat.)  and  gen.: 

Denn  er  ist  Gnedig  |  Barmhertzig  |  Gedültig  |  vnd  von  grosser  Güte  |  vnd  rewet  jn  bald  der 

straffe  (Joel  IL  13).     Present  usage  is  given  in  B.  d  below. 
verdrießen  to  vex,  earlier  in  the  period  with  the  ace.   (or  sometimes  dat.)  and  gen.:    Der  Müh' 

mich  gleich  verdrießen  tut   (H.  Sachs).     Verdroß  ihm   (usually  ihn)  der  Schlacht  und  des 

Lebens  (J.  Müller,  24,  177).     Present  usage  is  given  m  B.  d  below. 
verlangen  to  long  for,  only  rarely  with  the  ace.  and  gen.     The  usual  construction  is  given  in 

B.  d  below. 
wundem  to  wonder  at,  he  surprised  at;    formerly  with  the  ace.  and  gen.,  now  usually  according 

to  b  above  or  B.  d  below:   Des  wundert  ihn  gar  mächtiglich  (Wieland). 

B.  The  different  constructions  in  A  are  not  so  common  now  as  in  early 
N.H.G.,  and  are  in  instances  now  confined  to  elevated  discourse.  In  common 
prose  they  are  often  replaced  by  the  following  constructions,  but  sometimes 
the  old  and  the  new  constructions  e.xist  side  by  side  with  or  without  a  different 
shade  of  meaning. 

a.  In  a  number  of  cases  the  ace.  of  the  person  and  the  gen.  of  the  thing  can 
be  replaced  by  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing:  Dessen  ver- 
sichere ich  Sie  I  assure  you  of  that,  or  now  more  commonly  Das  versichere  ich 
Ihnen,  or  with  a  clause:  Ich  versichere  Sie  or  now  more  commonly  Ihnen, 
daß  ich  es  gesehen  habe.     See  also  I.  b  above,  and  259.  35. 

b.  The  old  gen.  es  (see  140.  c)  still  occurs  in  a  number  of  idiomatic  expres- 
sions, and,  not  being  any  longer  understood,  has  been  construed  as  a  nom.  or 
ace.  neuter.  This  false  conception  has  led  to  the  use  of  the  nom.  and  ace.  of 
other  words,  where  the  gen.  should  stand,  and  has  thus  given  rise  to  several 
common  but  in  fact  erroneous  expressions:   Es  (gen.,  but  felt  as  a  nom.)  or  das 


534  NOM.  NOW    IN    PLACE   OF   OLDER   GEN.     262.  II.  B.  b. 

(instead  of  dessen)  nimmt  mich  Wunder  (nom.)  That  surprises  me,  or  literally 
according  to  the  original  genitive  construction:  Wonderment  seizes  me  on 
account  of  it.     Das  (instead  of  dessen)  versichere  ich  Sie. 

c.  In  a  number  of  cases,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  many  remarks  after  the  verbs 
in  A  above,  the  gen.  is  usually  in  prose  replaced  by  a  prep,  construction.  Also 
the  prep,  construction  can  be  used  with  verbs  which  usually  take  the  gen.,  if 
it  is  desired  to  express  some  different  shade  of  meaning.  Thus  sich  erfreuen 
w.  gen.  denotes  possession,  while  w.  an  it  denotes  a  lively  interest  or  pleasure 
in  something:  Ich  erfreue  mich  einer  guten  Gesundheit  I  enjoy  (have)  good 
health.     Ich  habe  mich  recht  an  ihm  erfreut  I  was  delighted  with  him. 

d.  The  gen.  in  the  construction  in  A.  c  is  not  now  common  in  prose.  In- 
stead of  the  gen.  we  now  with  some  verbs  find  the  nom.,  which  becomes  subject, 
as  explained  in  255.  II.  L  H.  c:  Vnd  ekelt  mich  jr  nicht  also  |  das  mit  jnen 
aus  sein  solt'  (Lev.  xxvi.  44),  but  Weil  ihn  das  nackte  Schauspiel  ekelte  (K.  F. 
Meyer's  Gustav  Adolfs  Page).  Es  erbarmt  mich  seiner,  or  more  commonly 
Er  erbarmt  mich,  or  still  more  frequently  according  to  A.  b:  Ich  erbarme  mich 
seiner  or  über  ihn  I  pity  him.  Mich  freut  dessen,  or  more  commonly  Das 
freut  mich,  or,according  to  A.  b:  Ich  freue  mich  dessen  or  darüber.  Da  meiner 
Leuchte  das  Öl  gebrach  (K.  F.  Meyer's  Nov.,  I,  253),  or  more  commonly  Da  es 
meiner  Leuchte  an  Öl  (dat.)  gebrach.  The  sentence  from  Luther's  Tischreden 
given  in  A.  c  would  now  read :  Die  Welt  gemahnt  mich  (also  mir)  wie  ein  bau- 
fälliges Haus,  or  more  commonly  Die  Welt  gemahnt  mich  an  ein  baufälliges 
Haus,  or  sometimes  w.  acc.  of  the  person  and  gen.  of  the  thing:  Daß,  wenn 
dein  Herz  |  der  Stunde  dich  gemahnt,  du  sagen  kannst,  |  ich  weiß  von  ihr 
nichts  (Wildenbruch's  König  Laiirin,  p.  76).  Mich  (occasionally  mir)  gereut 
die  Tat,  der  getane  Schritt.  Es  genügt  mir  an  deinem  Wohlwollen,  or  Dein 
Wohlwollen  genügt  mir.  Mich  jammert  nur  der  Vater  (Schiller's  Tell,  1,  4). 
Das  kümmert  mich  nicht,  nicht  im  geringsten,  wenig,  nichts,  gar  nichts,  kein 
Haar,  or  often  according  to  A.  b  above.  Sein  Benehmen  verdrießt  mich.  Das 
wundert  mich,  or  Ich  wundere  mich  darüber. 

The  impersonal  construction,  however,  is  still  quite  common  after  gelüsten 
and  lüsten  (both  sometimes  w.  dat.  of  the  person  instead  of  the  ace),  verlangen 
(w.  ace,  sometimes  dat.),  and  ekeln,  but  with  a  prepositional  object  instead 
of  a  gen.:  Es  gelüstet  die  Frau  nach  dem  Obst.  Mag's  der  Mönch  alleine 
tun,  wenn  ihm  danach  gelüstet  (von  der  Gabelentz's  Der  MöncJi,  last  chap.). 
Also  w.  personal  construction:  Ich  gelüste  nach  dem  Obst.  Mich  verlangt 
nach  dir.  Wenn  du  wüßtest,  wie  mir  gerade  danach  verlangt!  (Fontane's  Effi, 
chap.  10).  Tag  und  Nacht  verlangt  ihn,  sie  zu  sehen  (E.  von  Handel-Maz- 
zetti's  Stephana  Schwertner,  II,  chap.  VI).  Verlangen  sometimes  takes  a  gen. 
object.  See  260.  2.  A.  Mir  (or  also  mich)  ekelt  vor  etwas  (dat.),  etwas  ekelt 
mich,  or  now  also  ich  ekele  mich  vor  etwas  (dat.)  or  an  etwas  (dat.) :  Mir  ekelt 
vor  der  Speise,  or  Ich  ekele  mich  vor  der  Speise,  or  Diese  Speise  ekelt  mich. 
Er  blickte  sich  wie  ein  Verirrter  im  großen  Räume  um  mit  all  den  Spuren  des 
gestrigen  Gelages  und  ekelte  sich  daran  (Schulze-Smidt's  Denk'  ich  an  Deutsch- 
land in  der  Nacht,  I).  An  infinitive  or  a  clause  may  replace  the  prep,  object: 
Es  iüstete  sie,  einen  Schmetterling  zu  fangen  (P.  Heyse).  Es  verlangt  einem 
allmählich,  daß  Sie  die  Stille  wieder  unterbrechen  (T.  Storm  an  G.  Keller,  13. 
September  1883). 

After  denken  and  gedenken  both  the  acc.  and  gen.  construction  and  that 
with  the  nom.  and  acc.  have,  perhaps,  disappeared,  tho  both  are  found  earlier 
in  thti  period.  The  dat.  of  the  personal  pronoun  is  now  usually  found  instead 
of  the  ace,  but  also  this  construction  is  now  rare:  Mir  denkt's  kaum,  daß  ich 
sie  einmal  sah  (Mörike).  Gedenkt  dir's  noch,  wie  uns  nach  Friedrichs  Krö- 
nung I  die  Römer  hart  am  Tiber  überfallen?  (M.  Greifs  Heinrich  der  Löwe, 
3,  2). 

C.  Of  the  constructions  in  A  only  a  can  be  transferred  to  the  passive.  Then 
the  acc.  of  the  person  becomes  nom.  and  the  gen.  of  the  thing  remains:  Er 
beraubte  mich  aller  meiner  Hoffnungen  becoming  in  the  passive  Ich  wurde 


262.  III.  1.  c.    ACC.  OF   PERSON   AND   ACC.  OF  THING 535 

aller  meiner  Hoffnungen  beraubt.  The  nom.  may  become  an  ace.  object: 
Nur  ein  paar  Mal  meinte  ich  das  scharfe  S  vor  einem  anderen  Konsonanten 
zu    vernehmen,    dessen   ich    selbst    freilich    mich    längst    entwöhnt    glaubte 

(T.  Storm). 

III.     Double  Accusative. 

A  double  accusative  is  found  in  the  following  constructions: 

1.  Accusative  of  the  Person  and  Accusative  of  the  Thing.  This  construction, 
as  described  in  I.  b,  was  once  more  common  than  now.  It  is  at  present  limited 
to  the  following  verbs:  bitten  to  ask  (a  favor),  beschwören  to  implore,  fragen 
or  befragen  to  ask  (a  question),  abhören,  überhören,  or  verhören  to  hear  re- 
cite, hören  (especially  in  the  set  expression  einen,  also  einem  die  Beichte  hören) 
to  hear,  heißen  to  bid,  bid  to  do,  anweisen  to  instruct,  order  (to  do),  kosten 
to  cost,  lehren  and  in  early  N.H.G.  unterrichten  to  teach,  führen  and  leiten 
to  lead,  lenken  to  guide,  bereden  to  persuade,  überreden  to  persuade,  zeihen 
to  accuse,  berichten  to  inform,  sich  unterstehen  (with  ace.  of  the  reflexive  and 
the  ace.  of  the  thing)  to  be  so  bold,  verstehen  to  understand,  most  of  which 
admit  of  other  constructions,  hence  are  treated  below  separately. 

a.  bitten  has  two  accusatives  only  when  the  thing  is  a  neut.  pronoun  or  a 
numeral,  otherwise  the  thing  is  in  the  ace.  after  the  prep,  um:  Bitte  mich  alles 
in  der  Welt,  nur  das  nicht.  Eins  bitte  ich  dich  One  thing  I  ask  of  you.  Er 
bittet  mich  um  eine  Gefälligkeit.  In  poetry  the  simple  acc.  of  the  thing  is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  um  with  ace,  when  the  ace.  of  the  person  is  not 
expressed:  Ich  bitte  nicht  Gnade  (Klopstock).  Sometimes  also  in  terse  vigor- 
ous prose :  Reiten  Sie  zur  Fabrik  und  bringen  mir  —  ich  bitte  flotte  Gang- 
art—  Bericht  (Liliencron's  KriegsnoveUen,  Anno  1870,  Der  Richtungspunkt). 
According  to  II.  A.  a  above,  bitten  was  in  early  N.H.G.  used  with  an  accusative 
of  the  person  and  the  genitive  of  the  thing.  The  old  genitive  construction 
survives  in  case  of  alles  and  eins,  as  found  in  the  first  two  examples  given  above, 
but  these  forms  are  now  felt  as  accusatives. 

Beschwören  has  the  same  limited  use  of  the  double  ace.  as  bitten:  Was  ich 
dich  jüngst  so  heiß  beschworen,  o  mache  den  Propheten  stumm!  (Lenau). 

h.  fragen  and  befragen  have  in  a  few  set  expressions,  especially  such  as  con- 
tain a  neut.  demon,  or  indef.  pronoun,  two  accusatives,  the  ace.  of  the  person 
and  the  ace.  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  the  gen.,  as  in  earlier  periods)  of  the  thing, 
but  more  commonly,  aside  from  these  set  expressions,  the  thing  is  in  the  dat. 
after  the  prep,  nach  after,  concerning,  or  in  the  ace.  after  the  prep,  um  for: 
Fragte  er  dich  das?  Er  fragte  mich  wenig.  Er  fragte  mich  etwas.  Ich  habe 
Sie  verschiedenes  zu  fragen  (Wildenbruch's  Der  uusterbliche  Felix,  2,  19). 
Lasse  mich  heimlich  den  Tapfersten  sehen,  den  Otto  von  Bismarck,  daß  ich 
ihn  alles  befrage,  was  meine  Seele  belastet  (Frenssen's  Bismarck,  p.  109). 
Ich  fragte  ihn  nach  seinem  Namen  I  asked  him  his  name.  Ich  fragte  ihn  nach 
der  Ursache.  Ich  fragte  ihn  um  Rat.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  prep,  von  was  also 
used  here:  Vnd  wenn  die  Leute  am  selben  ort  fragten  von  seinem  Weibe  |  so 
sprach  er  (Genesis  xxvi.  7).  The  simple  acc.  and  the  construction  with  nach 
are,  however,  sometimes  used  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning.  The  ace.  of 
the  thing  asks  for  a  formal  statement  or  explanation  of  some  problem  or  task, 
not  for  information,  but  to  ascertain  whether  the  one  questioned  is  informed, 
while  the  dat.  after  nach  asks  for  information  about  something:  Der  Lehrer 
fragt  den  Schüler  die  Vokabeln,  die  Regeln,  die  Jahreszahlen  The  teacher  is 
asking  the  pupil  to  give  the  vocabulary,  rules,  dates.  Ich  fragte  ihn  nach  dem 
Weg  I  asked  him  the  way.     The  passive  of  this  construction  is  formed  as  in  c. 

c.  The  words  abhören,  überhören,  verhören  to  hear  recite,  prüfen  to  examine, 
hören  to  shrive,  have  a  double  construction  —  the  ace.  of  the  thing  and  either 
the  dat.  or  the  ace.  of  the  person :  Der  Lehrer  hat  dem  Schüler  (or  sometimes 
also  den  Schüler)  die  Aufgabe,  die  Vokabeln  abgehört  (or  überhört,  or  verhört) 
The  teacher  has  heard  the  pupil  recite  the  exercise,  vocabulary.  Der  Herr 
überhört  die  Kinder  ein  auswendig  gelerntes  artiges  Gedicht  (Goethe's  Wan- 


530 ACC.  OF   PERSON   AND   ACC.  OF  THING    262.  III.  1.  c. 

derj.,  3,  10).  Der  Lehrer  hat  dem  (or  den)  Schüler  die  Geschichte  geprüft 
examined  the  pupil  in  history,  or  hat  ihn  in  der  Geschichte  geprüft.  Der  Prie- 
ster hört  einen  (sometimes  also  einem)  (die)  Beichte.  Hören  is  also  some- 
times used  with  a  double  accusative  in  its  primary  meaning:  Höre  mich  noch 
ein  paar  Worte  (Goethe).  The  acc.  Worte  is  an  adverbial  acc.  of  extent  (223. 
iv.  2.  A). 

Überhören,  verhören,  and  fragen  may  form  a  passive  in  the  following  ways, 
which  are  without  material  difference  of  meaning.  The  acc.  of  the  person 
becomes  nom.  and  the  acc.  of  the  thing  may  either  remain  acc,  or  may  form 
a  prep,  phrase  with  nach  in  case  of  fragen,  and  with  über  in  case  of  all  three 
words:  Diesen  Abschnitt  sind  wir  gar  nicht  gefragt,  verhört  worden,  or  Nach 
diesem  Abschnitt  sind  wir  gar  nicht  gefragt  worden,  or  Über  diesen  Abschnitt 
sind  wir  gar  nicht  gefragt,  überhört,  verhört  worden.  Instead  of  these  dif- 
ferent constructions  the  acc.  of  the  thing  of  the  active  may  become  nom.  in  the 
passive,  and  the  dat.  of  the  person  remain  dat.:  Dieser  Abschnitt  ist  uns  gar 
nicht  abgefragt,  abgehört,  überhört  worden. 

d.  Heißen  cannot  freely  take  an  acc.  of  the  person  and  also  of  the  thing, 
but  is  limited  to  an  acc.  of  the  person  and  a  neut.  acc.  of  a  pronoun,  or  to  an 
acc.  of  the  person  and  an  infinitive:  daß  du  mir  Gehorsam  schuldig  bist  in  allem, 
was  ich  dich  heiße  (Schiller's  Rauher,  4,  2).  Jeden  Mord,  den  du  mich  begehen 
heißt  (id.,  3,  2).  Liebe  Laura!  Du  kannst  mich  das  heißen?  Ich  heiß'  ihn 
eilen.  The  acc.  of  the  person  is  now,  perhaps,  more  commonly  replaced  by  the 
dat.,  where  the  object  of  the  thing  is  not  an  infinitive:  Was  ein  evangelischer 
Geistlicher  einem  andren  heißen  konnte,  könnt'  er  auch  selber  tun  (Telmann's 
Wahrheit,  V'III),  but  usually  Ich  habe  dich  das  tun  heißen.  In  the  latter  case 
the  dat.  of  the  person  is  also  sometimes  found:  Wann  hieß  ich  dir  die  Schrift 
an  Burleigh  geben?  (Schiller's  M.  Stuart,  5,  14).  The  dative  is  more  frequently 
used  if  the  infinitive  with  zu  is  employed:  Nun  erzählte  der  Mönch,  wie  er 
das  Mädchen  in  den  Armen  des  betrunkenen  Soldaten  angetroffen  und  daß 
er  ihr  geheißen  habe,  das  lärmige  tolle  Fest  zu  verlassen  (G.  von  Gabelentz's 
Der  Mönch).  In  the  passive  the  person  is  usually  in  the  dat.  and  the  thing  in 
the  nom. :   Das  ist  dir  geheißen  worden.    Es  ist  dir  geheißen  worden,  das  zu  tun. 

Anweisen  to  instruct,  order  {to  do),  much  like  heißen,  in  meaning,  may  like- 
wise take  an  accusative  of  the  person  and  a  neuter  accusative  of  a  pronoun: 
So  wurde  es  Georg  auf  einmal  ganz  klar,  daß  er  ebenfalls  ganz  aus  eigenem 
Antrieb  Pfarrer  werden  wolle,  und  daß  es  ihn  niemand  anweisen  dürfe  (Anna 
Schieber's  Alle  guten  Geister,  p.  123).  More  common  than  the  acc.  of  a  neuter 
pronoun  is  an  infinitive  with  zu:  Ich  habe  ihn  angewiesen,  dir  das  Geld  zu 
zahlen. 

e.  kosten   (see  259.  21.  B) 

/.  lehren  (and  sometimes  incorrectly  lernen  =  lehren)  admits  of  the  acc. 
of  the  thing  and  either  acc.  or  dat.  of  the  person,  the  latter  (dat.)  appearing 
about  1600  and  later  gradually  spreading  until  it  has  come  into  wide  use,  but 
at  present  is  generally  opposed  by  grammarians:  Sie  lehrte  ihn  in  choice  language 
but  in  colloquial  speech  often  ihm  kleine  Lieder.  Der  kleine  Sylvester,  dem 
die  Mutter  selbst  Lesen  und  Schreiben  lehrte  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer, 
vi).  Altho  the  dative  is  often  used  here  in  connection  with  the  accusative  it  is 
replaced  by  the  accusative  if  it  is  the  only  object:  ,,Was  kann  ich  dir  lehren? 
Lehre  du  mich!"  sagte  Bruder  Nathaniel  (Hauptmann's  Der  Narr  in  Christo, 
p.  43).  Where  there  are  two  objects  the  simple  infinitive  or  the  infinitive  with 
zu  may  replace  the  acc.  of  the  thing.  See  185.  B.  I.  2.  <:  and  Note  thereunder. 
Also  a  clause  may  replace  the  acc.  of  the  thing:  Er  lehrte  ihm,  daß  jeder 
Gegenstand  seinen  genau  vorgeschriebenen  Platz  hatte  (Ompteda's  Sylvester 
von  Geyer,  xxvi).  Compare  in  English:  "He  taught  me"  (acc).  "He  taught 
me  (acc.  or  dat.)  that,"  but  a  clear  modern  dative  in  "He  taught  it  to  me"  and 
"It  was  taught  to  me." 

In  the  passive  this  construction  assumes  different  forms:    (1)  The  acc.  of  the 
person  of  the  active  construction  becomes  here  nom.,  and  the  acc  of  the  thing 


262.  III.  1./.    ACC.  OF   PERSON   AND   ACC.  OF   THING 537 

remains  ace:  Ich  werde  das  nicht  gelehrt.  (2)  The  acc.  of  the  thing  becomes 
nom.  and  the  acc.  of  the  person  remains  acc. :  Das  wird  mich  nicht  gelehrt. 
(3)  The  acc.  of  the  thing  becomes  nom.  and  the  dat.  of  the  person  remains  dat.: 
Das  wird  mir  nicht  gelehrt.  The  last  construction  is  now  much  more  common 
than  the  others.  A  clause  or  an  infinitive  with  zu  may  replace  the  nom.:  Mir 
ist  gelehrt  worden,  daß  dies  meine  Pflicht  sei.  Mir  ist  gelehrt  worden,  den 
Eltern  zu  gehorchen. 

In  early  N.H.G.  unterrichten  and  unterweisen  to  teach,  instruct,  might  take 
either  a  doul^le  acc.  or  an  acc.  (\n  passive  a  nom.)  of  the  person  and  a  gen.  of 
the  thing:  das  er  sie  die  Wort  des  Gesetzs  vnterrichtet  (Neh.  viii.  13).  Auff 
das  du  gewissen  grund  erfarest  der  Lere  |  welcher  (in  revised  ed.  in  welcher) 
du  vnterrichtet  bist  (Luke  i.  4).  Er  wird  jn  vnterweisen  den  besten  weg  ( Psalm 
XXV.  12).  Older  usage  is  still  occasionally  found:  Gott  habe  den  apostolischen 
Vater  des  rechten  Weges  unterwiesen  [Rundsch.,  2,  5,  220).  The  acc.  or  gen. 
of  the  thing  is  now  usually  replaced  by  a  prepositional  construction:  Er  unter- 
richtet uns  im  Französischen.  Ich  wurde  davon  unterrichtet  I  was  informed 
with  regard  to  it,  It  came  to  my  knowledge.  Er  hat  seinen  Enkel  im  Lesen 
unterwiesen. 

Note.  Such  accusatives  as  das  in  (1)  and  mich  in  (2)  are  to-day  little  used  as  there  is  a  feeling  that  an  object  is 
out  of  i)lace  in  connection  with  a  passive.  Formerly  when  the  force  of  these  accusatives  was  more  vividly  felt  the 
accusative  was  freely  used  in  both  the  active  and  passive,  as  it  was  the  only  form  that  could  express  the  meaning 
here  involved.  Accusative  and  verb  were  so  closely  united  as  to  form  a  kind  of  compound,  and  hence  the  accusa- 
tive was  just  as  appropriate  in  the  passive  as  in  the  active.  Later  this  feeling  was  blunted  by  the  new  conception 
that  the  action  was  carried  on  for  the  benefit  of  somebody,  which  led  to  the  dative  construction  in  (3).  The  older 
construction  is  better  preserved  in  c:  Welchen  Zeitraum  bist  du  gefragt  (geprüft)  worden?  See  also  first  example 
in  the  second  par.  in  c.     Compare  in  English:    "I  was  taught  that."     "I  was  asked  that."     Compare  I,  last  par. 

g.  Führen,  leiten,  and  lenken  take  an  acc.  of  the  person  and  an  acc.  of  the 
way:  Er  führt  mich  diesen  Weg.  Janthe,  komm  und  leite  mich  den  Pfad 
(Grillparzer's  Des  Meeres  und  der  Liehe  Wellen,  4).  Wollt  ihr  nun  mein  als 
einer  Frau  gedenken,  |  lenksam  dem  Zaum,  so  daß  kein  Stachel  not,  |  will 
freudig  ich  die  Ruhmesbahn  euch  lenken  (id.,  Lihiissa,  1).  As  in  260.  2.  A.  a 
we  also  find  here  the  genitive  instead  of  the  accusative:  Zwei  von  ihnen  hielten 
den  Mittleren  an  den  Ohrläppchen  gefangen  und  führten  ihn  so  des  Weges 
(Wilhelm  Fischer's  Die  Freude  am  Licht,  p.  34). 

In  the  passive  the  acc.  of  the  person  becomes  nom.  and  the  acc.  of  the  way 
remains:  Ja,  ja,  wir  werden  eben  unerforschliche  Wege  geführt  (Raabe's 
Schiidderump,  chap,  xxxvi). 

//.  Bereden  to  make  believe  something  false  often  has  a  pronominal  acc.  of  the 
person  and  the  acc.  of  a  thing  instead  of  the  older  and  more  correct  acc.  of  the 
person  and  gen.  of  the  thing:  Mich  wollt  ihr  das  bereden?  (Schiller's  Don  Carlos, 
3,  4).  We  sometimes  find  the  dat.  of  the  person  here  and  the  acc.  of  the  thing: 
Es  (das  Herz)  läßt  sich  alles  bereden,  was  Ihrer  Einbildungskraft  ihm  zu 
bereden  einfällt  (Lessing's  Samps.,  2,  3).  Bereden  to  persuade  takes  the  acc. 
of  the  person  and  the  prep,  zu:  Er  beredete  ihn  dazu.  Earlier  in  the  period 
the  gen.  of  the  thing  was  used  instead  of  both  the  acc.  and  the  prep,  construc- 
tion: Ich  kann  mich  dessen  schwerlich  bereden  (Lessing).  In  the  meaning 
to  talk  over,  discuss  bereden  takes  a  simple  accusative:  Ich  habe  den  Plan  mit 
ihm  beredet. 

i.  Überreden  to  persuade  usually  has  the  acc.  of  the  person  and  the  prep,  zu: 
Er  hat  mich  zu  der  Sache  überredet.  Earlier  in  the  period  we  find  the  acc.  of 
the  person  and  the  gen.  of  the  thing:  Ich  kann  mich  dessen  nicht  überrede» 
(Adelung).  In  Goethe  the  double  acc.  is  also  frequent :  Der  Mensch  ist  gemacht, 
daß  man  ihn  das  Abenteuerlichste  überreden  kann  ( Werthe'r,  Am  15.  Aug., 
Ausgabe  letzter  Hand,  1828;  in  the  earlier  editions  E^--  ihm  instead  of  ihn). 
As  in  the  earlier  editions  of  Werther  the  dative  was  once  also  elsewhere 
common. 

The  object  in  all  the  above  constructions  may  in  case  of  the  thing  be  replaced 
by  an  infinitive  (Acts  xviii.  13)  or  a  clause  (Acts  xxvi.  28). 

j.  Zeihen  to  accuse  has  sometimes  an  acc.  of  a  neut.  pronoun  instead  of  the 
correct  gen.:   Was  ich  ihn  zeihe,  werd'  ich  selbst  (Schiller's  Don  Carlos,  4,  6). 


538        ACC.  OBJECT   &   AN   OBJECTIVE   PREDICATE       262.  III.  1.  fe. 

k.  In  early  N.H.G.  berichten  to  inform  took  an  ace.  of  the  person  and  the 
gen.  of  the  thing,  which  construction  still  survives  in  jemanden  eines  Besseren 
berichten  to  disabuse  a  person  of  an  opinion.  Early  in  the  period  the  gen.  is 
replaced  by  a  prep,  phrase  or  an  ace. :  einen  von  (or  über)  etwas  berichten,  or 
einen  etwas  (double  ace.)  berichten.  The  acc.  of  the  person  is  now  replaced 
by  a  dat. :  einem  etwas  (or  über  etwas)  berichten.  The  former  acc.  construc- 
tion here  still  survives  in  such  expressions  as  Wenn  ich  recht  berichtet  bin,  or 
Du  bist  falsch  berichtet.     See  260.  3. 

1.  The  reflexive  sich  unterstehen  belongs  properly  to  II.  h  above,  but  as 
the  gen.  object  es  (140.  c)  which  is  so  often  used  with  it  is  construed  as  an  ace, 
the  real  ace.  is  sometimes  used :  Was  vnterstehet  sich  der  Arme  |  das  er  vnter 
den  Lebendigen  wil  sein?  (Eecl.  vi.  8).  Wie  ich  mich  das  unterstehen  kann? 
(Hopfen's  Die  fünfzig  Semmeln  des  Studiosus  Taillefer,  p.  66)  You  wonder  how 
I  am  so  bold  as  to  do  that!  This  word  is  usually  employed  with  the  object  es 
and  an  infinitive  clause  which  stands  in  apposition  with  the  es,  or  with  the  in- 
finitive clause  alone  which  takes  the  place  of  the  es:  Aber  die  blasse,  abge- 
spannte Jadviga  .  .  .  fuhr  auf  wie  ein  wildes  Tier,  wenn  er  sich's  unterstand, 
sie  mit  seinen  Zärtlichkeiten  belästigen  zu  wollen  (Schubin's  Refiigium  pecca- 
torum,  vi).  As  the  sich  in  such  sentences  is  not  a  distinct  ace.  form,  it  is  some- 
times construed  as  a  dat.,  and  elsewhere  a  real  dat.  is  employed:  Untersteh 
dir's,  Mädel!  (Beyerlein's  Dämon  Othello,  2,  2).  It  is  quite  common  to  suppress 
the  object  of  the  thing  in  a  few  expressions:  Untersteh  dich  nicht!  In  early 
N.H.G.  unterstehen  was  also  a  transitive  verb,  taking  as  object  an  ace.  or  an 
infinitive  clause:  Vmb  des  willen  haben  mich  die  Juden  im  Tempel  gegriffen  | 
Vnd  unterstunden  mich  zu  tödten  (Acts  xxvi.  21). 

m.  We  sometimes  find  two  accusatives  with  verstehen  to  understand:  Ich 
kann  ihn  nicht  alles  verstehen.  The  dative  of  the  person  occurs  here  some- 
times instead  of  the  ace. 

2.  Accusative  of  the  Direct  Object  and  an  Objective  Predicate.  This  construc- 
tion differs  from  the  double  ace.  in  1  above,  in  that  the  two  accusatives  together 
form  logically  a  sentence  in  which  the  first  acc.  performs  the  office  of  the  sub- 
ject and  the  second  acc.  the  office  of  predicate:  Sie  nannten  ihn  einen 
Verräter  ( =  Er  ist  ein  Verräter).  Ich  sehe  ihn  laufen.  The  sim- 
ple infinitive  here  as  in  the  last  example  is  the  accusative  of  an  old  type  of 
verbal  noun  which  still  as  in  the  prehistoric  period  has  no  article  before  it. 
The  two  accusatives  in  each  of  these  examples  as  elsewhere  are  the  direct  objects 
of  the  verb.  As  the  construction  is  very  old  there  has  sprung  up  in  course  of 
time  a  close  association  between  the  two  accusatives,  so  that  the  second  one  is 
now  felt  as  the  predicate  to  the  first  one,  the  subject.  The  predicate  is  here 
joined  to  the  subject  without  the  aid  of  a  copula,  as  the  statement  is  felt  to 
be  of  the  old  appositional  type  of  sentence  described  in  252.  1.  b.  Note,  where 
the  predicate  is  placed  alongside  the  subject  like  an  appositive  without  the  use 
of  a  finite  verb. 

The  objective  predicate  is  now,  except  in  the  group  in  A.  a  below,  usually  intro- 
duced by  als,  für,  or  zu,  with  differentiated  meanings.  Earlier  in  the  period  the 
predicate  noun  is  often  a  simple  accusative  where  we  to-day  find  zu,  für,  or  als 
before  the  predicate.  This  indicates  that  the  literary  language  of  that  time 
was  under  strong  Latin  influence,  for  even  in  oldest  German  zu  and  für  were 
often  used  here.  The  literary  language  of  our  own  day  has  a  lively  feeling  for 
the  strong  concrete  force  of  these  old  forms,  which  have  always  been  in  wide 
use  among  the  people.  The  zu  represents  the  new  state  as  the  result  of  a  de- 
velopment or  as  the  purpose  of  the  action,  while  für  represents  the  new  state 
as  entirely  or  seemingly  identical  with  the  conception  held  by  the  person  in 
question.  These  old  conceptions  are  still  well  established  in  the  language, 
but  the  new  form  als  (sec  A.  b  below),  which  has  sprung  up  in  the  present  peri- 
od, is  growing  at  the  expense  of  für,  which  it  is  gradually  displacing,  and  also 
at  the  expense  of  the  simple  forms.      Compare  252.  2.  A.  b.  (1),  (2).  Note,  (3). 

The  following  groups  occur:  — 


262.  III.  2.  A.  c.  ACC.  OBJECT   &   AN    OBJECTIVE    PREDICATE       539 

A.     A  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  as  an  objective  predicate: 

a.  After  erachten  (also  according  to  b  and  c;  see  c  Note  1)  to  deem,  ernennen 
(now  rare  here,  usually  according  to  d  below)  to  appoint,  glauben  to  believe, 
wähnen  to  fancy,  imagine,  grüßen  to  greet  with  the  title  of,  heißen  to  call,  name, 
nennen  to  call,  rufen  to  call,  spotten  to  call  in  derision,  taufen  (also  auf  einen 
Namen  taufen)  to  christen,  titulieren  to  call,  style,  schelten  (also  according  to  b) 
to  call  unjustly,  call  (one  a  harsh  name),  schimpfen  (stronger  than  schelten)  to 
call  (one  a  bad  name),  fluchen  to  call  (one  a  terrible  name),  machen  (now  rare 
here,  usually  according  to  d  below),  sagen  (poetic  here,  but  common  in  B 
below)  to  claim  to  be,  träumen  (also  according  to  b  below)  to  dream,  the  ob- 
jective predicate  is  a  simple  ace:  Beliebige  Fremdlinge,  „Schriftsteller," 
,, Dichter!"  erachten  es  keinen  Raub,  ohne  jeden  Grund  mir  halbe  Stunden 
zu  stehlen  (Dahn's  Ennnerungen,  \\\  p.  218).  Vielleicht  wäre  ich  der,  den 
du  mich  glaubst  (Lessing).  Der  Vater  wähnet  Hippodamien  i  die  Mörderin 
(Goethe's  Iphigenie,  1,  3).  Wir  nennen  Gott  unseren  Vater.  Warum  schiltst 
du  mich  einen  Feigling?  Ihr  sollt  mich  Hundsfott  fluchen,  |  findet  ihr  das 
Mausloch  leer  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  1,  3).  Sie  schalt  ihn  einen 
Narren.  Er  hat  ihn  einen  Grobian  geschimpft.  Zittre  du  für  dein  Leben,  weil 
du  mich  Herzog  (may  be  construed  as  ace.  or  nom.;  see  Note)  spottest  (Schiller's 
Fiesko,  5,  14).  Käthchen  von  Heilbronn,  die  dein  Kind  du  sagst,  |  ist  meines 
höchsten  Kaisers  dort  (Kleist's  Käthchen,  5,  1).  Dann  kommen  mir  wohl 
Momente,  wo  ich  mich  ihren  Bruder  träume  (Spielhagen's  Selbstgerecht,  II, 
p.  35). 

Both  of  these  accusatives  become  nom.  in  the  passive:  Warum  wurde  ich 
von  dir  ein  FeigUng  gescholten?  Er  wurde  Karl  (or  auf  den  Namen  Karl) 
getauft. 

Note.  Instead  of  the  predicate  accusative  we  often  find  a  nom.:  CI)  in  order  to  preserve  the  exact  form  of  direct 
address:  Er  nannte  sie  mein  lieber  Schatz,  mein  Engelchen,  mein  Kind  (Hölty).  Und  ich  sage  Euch,  daß  ich  kein 
Bedenken  trüge,  ihn  heiliger  Ruffinus  zu  nennen  (Ertl's  Dif  Sladt  der  Heiligen).  The  nominative  with  the  definite 
article  is  often  used  to  preserve  the  usual  declarative  form  of  statement:  Nicht  ohne  Grund  habe  ich  ihn  schon: 
Philipp,  der  Schweigsame,  genannt  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  225).  Es  war  ein  alter  halbgelähmter  Bettler  da  — 
er  nennt  sich  der  lange  Hitz  (Heer's  Der  König  der  Bernina,  xx).  (2)  In  case  of  articieless  weak  masculine  nouns. 
See  94.  1.  c.  In  case  of  articieless  strong  nouns  and  feminines  it  is  not  possible  to  distinguish  here  whether  the  form 
is  nom.  or  ace:  Ich  könnte  jetzt  das  arme  Würmchen  nicht  Veiten  (name)  rufen  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs, 
p.  17.3).  Er  schreibt  sich  Meyer,  nicht  Meier.  Sie  fühlt  sich  Mutter.  With  a  number  of  reflexive  verbs  tliere  is 
a  fluctuation  of  usage.     See  218.  2.  b  and  Nute. 

After  rufen  we  also  find  the  dative  instead  of  the  first  accusative:  Sie  hieß  Agnes,  doch  rief  man  ihr  Agi  (Hermann 
Hesse's  Peter  Camenzind,  p.  197).     Ich  rief  meiner  Frau  ,,Anna"   {Fliegende  Blätter,  Oct.  17,  1911). 

b.  After  the  verbs  anerkennen  to  recognize,  anführen  to  cite  (as  an 
example),  ansehen  to  regard,  ansprechen  to  claim,  anweisen  to  assign,  sich 
aufspielen  to  pose,  auslegen  to  construe,  begrüßen  to  greet,  behandeln 
to  treat,  beschreiben  to  describe,  besingen  to  celebrate,  betrachten  to 
consider,  bezeichnen  to  designate,  darstellen  to  represent,  dekla'rieren  to 
declare  (to  be),  sich  (dat.)  denken  to  picture  to  one's  self,  imagine,  denun'zieren 
to  denounce,  einführen  to  introduce,  empfehlen  to  recommend,  erfinden  to 
find  (someone)  out  (to  be  so  and  so),  erwähnen  to  mention,  sich  erweisen  or 
sich  herausstellen  to  turn  out  to  be,  geben  to  give,  kennen  to  know,  kenn- 
zeichnen to  characterize,  kleiden  to  dress  up  as,  make  look  like,  preisen  or 
rühmen  to  praise,  schätzen  to  prize,  schildern  to  depict,  sehen  to  see,  verdingen 
or  vermieten  to  hire  out  as,  zeigen  to  show  to  be,  &c.,  the  objective  predicate 
is  introduced  by  als,  which  here  denotes  identity  or  oneness  with:  Er  spielt  sich 
als  Schönredner  auf.  Ich  betrachte  ihn  als  einen  Narren.  Ich  denunziere 
Sie  hiermit  dieser  Gesellschaft  als  notorischen  Atheisten!  (Lienhard's  Münch- 
hausen,  1). 

For  fluctuation  of  usage  in  case  of  reflexive  verbs  see  218.  2.  b  and  Note  there- 
under. For  the  inflection  of  an  unmodified  objective  predicate  after  als  see 
94.  I.e. 

In  the  passive  both  of  these  accusatives  become  nom.     See  252.  2.  A.  b.  (1). 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  there  was  often  no  als  here,  and  this  older  usage  survives  in  poetrj':  vnd  hast  sie  Lügener 
erftinden  (Rev.  ü.  2).     Als  ich  .  .  .  j  mich  einen  Fremdling  sah  in  diesem  Kreise  (Schiller's  Piccolomini,  3,  4). 

c.  After  a  few  verbs  the  objective  predicate  is  introduced  by  für  (with  ace), 
which  here  does  not  positively  afifirm  complete  and  absolute  identity  as  does 


540     AC(\  ÜBJPXT   &   AN   OBJECTIVE   PREDICATE    262.  III.  2.  A.  c. 

als,  but  only  equality,  and  hence  denotes  that  something  is  considered  or  repre- 
sented as  able  or  worthy  to  pass /or  the  thing  expressed  by  the  predicate:  Man 
erklärte  ihn  für  einen  Betrüger  They  pronounced  him  a  fraud.  Er  gibt  sich  für 
einen  Gelehrten  aus  He  makes  himself  out  to  be  a  scholar.  Ich  halte  ihn  für 
einen  Schmeichler  I  consider  him  a  flatterer.  Ich  achte  es  für  eine  große 
Ehre  I  esteem  it  a  great  honor.  Ich  erkenne  ihn  für  einen  Freund  I  own  him 
as  mj^  friend.     For  the  passive  construction  see  252.  2.  A.  h.  (2). 

Yole  1.  Several  verbs,  as  erachten,  ansehen,  (aus)deuten,  auslegen,  erkennen,  ausschreien,  ausrufen  C to  pro- 
claim as)  arc  followed  by  either  als  or  für  accordini;  to  the  shade  of  meaninc;  required:  Sie  erkannten  i  recognized) 
die  von  dem  Finanzminister  abgelegte  Rechnung  als  ms.  here  expressing  identity)  falsch,  aber  aus  Mangel  an  Mut 
erkannten  (pronounced)  sie  dieselbe  für  ^simply  letting  it  pass  as)  richtig.  Often  there  is  a  sharp  distinction  between 
als  and  für;    als,  however,  is  decidedly  the  favorite,  and  is  even  used  when  für  would  be  more  appropriate. 

Xole  2.  In  early  N.H.G.  there  was  often  no  für  with  those  verbs,  and  this  older  usage  survives  in  poetry:  Solch 
unsinnig'e  verfluchte  Gojim  halten  sie  uns  (Lutlier,  Erlanger  Ausgabe,  32,  226).  Du  hältst  es  Recht  (Goethe's  Tasso, 
2,  4). 

d.  As  after  werden  (252.  2.  A.  b.  (3)),  so  also  after  the  verbs  machen  to  make, 
aufwerfen  to  constitute  (one's  self)  to  he,  einsetzen  to  appoint,  designate,  wählen 
to  elect,  ernennen  to  appoint,  befördern  to  promote  to  he,  erklären  to  pronounce 
to  he,  ausrufen  to  proclaim,  sich  fallen  to  make  ones  self  by  falling,  schlagen  to 
beat,  strike,  verkochen  to  convert  into  by  boiling,  verarbeiten  to  make  or  convert 
into,  zerstoßen  to  pound,  laden  to  invite  to  be,  and  with  similar  meaning  haben 
to  have  as,  nehmen  to  take  as,  make,  &c.,  the  prep,  zu  (with  the  dat.)  introduces 
the  objective  predicate  to  denote  a  transformation  into  a  new  condition:  Der 
Zwang  der  Zeiten  machte  mich  zu  ihrem  Gegner.  Er  macht  sie  zu  seiner 
Frau.  Der  Hund  hat  sich  zum  B8schü::zer  des  Kätzchens  aufgeworfen.  Der 
König  ernannte  ihn  zum  Offizier.  Und  [sie]  erklärten  den  forschen  Kund- 
schafter zu  ihrem  Gefangenen  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Sept.  22,  1907).  Er 
hat  sich  zum  Krüppel  gefallen.  Einen  zum  Krüppel  schlagen,  einen  zu  Brei 
schlagen  to  beat  someone  into  a  jelly,  Fleisch  zu  Kraftbrühe  verkochen  to  make 
a  strong  broth  out  of  meat  by  boiling,  Hanf  zu  Seilen  verarbeiten,  etwas  zu 
Pulver  zerstoßen,  einen  zu  Gaste  laden,  einen  zum  Freunde  haben,  etwas 
zum  Muster  nehmen.  Er  nimmt  sie  zur  Frau.  In  the  passive  the  acc.  becomes 
nom.,  but  the  objective  predicate  remains  as  in  the  active:  Er  wurde  vom  König 
zum  Offizier  ernannt. 

Notice  here  as  in  252.  2.  A.  b.  (3)  the  common  use  of  the  generalizing  definite 
article  in  contracted  form,  zum  and  zur,  where  English  usually  requires  the 
indefinite  article.  In  case  of  a  mass  or  a  material  the  article  is  here  dropped  in 
German,  while  in  English  the  indefinite  article  is  used,  as  illustrated  in  examples 
given  above.  Notice  also  that  the  article  is  lacking  in  a  few  old  set  expressions, 
as  einen  zu  Gaste  laden. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  zu-construction  was  often  displaced  by  the  Latin  construction  of  the  simple  accusative: 
Darnach  wollen  wir  all  deutsche  Bischoff  Cardinel  machenn  (Luther). 

B.  The  objective  predicate  can  be  an  adjective  or  a  participle,  now  usually 
uninflected,  unless  preceded  by  an  article  or  some  other  modifying  word :  Er  weinte 
sich  die  Augen  rot.  Er  schlug  ihn  tot.  Man  sagt  ihn  tot.  Ich  glaubte  ihn  ge- 
heilt. Here  belongs  the  perf.  participle  in  compound  tenses:  Er  hat  einen  Brief 
geschrieben.     Compare  104,  2.  A.  c. 

Instead  of  an  adjective  or  participle  we  often  find  here  a  gen.,  an  adverb,  or 
a  prep,  phrase:  Jedenfalls  rechne  nicht  darauf,  mich  anderen  Sinnes  zu  machen 
(Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  XII ).  Er  fiel  sich  tot  or  zu  Tode.  Ich  komme,  sobald 
ich  ihn  hier  weiß.     Ich  ließ  ihn  in  guten  Händen. 

The  predicate  adjective,  participle,  genitive,  adverb,  or  prepositional  phrase 
predicates  a  quality  or  state  of  the  object,  but  the  copula  sein  which  often 
formally  announces  the  predication  is  here  as  in  2  above  not  expressed,  as  ex- 
plained in  2  above  and  in  252.  1.  h.  Note.  In  this  old  attributive  or  appositional 
type  of  sentence,  as  explained  in  252.  1.  b.  Note,  the  predicate  adjective  is  not 
only  found  as  an  appositive  with  uninflected  form  but  it  is  in  exclamatory  style 
often  in  attributive  form:  Freie  Bahn  dem  Tüchtigen!  Let  us  keep  the  road  (to 
employment,  promotion  in  public  service,  <S:c.)  open  to  able  men.  Freie  is  here 
the  logical  objective  predicate  to  Bahn,  which  is  the  object  of  some  verb  under- 
stood. 


262.  III.  2.  C.  r.     ACC.  OBJECT  &   AN   OBJECTIVE   PREDICATE     541 

In  all  the  preceding  examples  the  accusative  object  of  the  principal  verb  is 
the  subject  of  the  clause  and  the  adjective,  participle,  adverb,  or  prepositional 
phrase  is  the  predicate.  In  the  impersonal  passive  construction  (219.  5.  A), 
however,  the  participle  is  as  usual  the  predicate  but  there  can  be  no  accusative 
object  in  the  sentence  as  there  is  no  subject  in  an  impersonal  construction. 
The  dative,  genitive,  or  prepositional  object  of  the  active  is  simply  retained  in 
the  passive:  Ich  fühle  mir  (often  mich)  durch  Ihren  Besuch  geschmeichelt. 
Ich  glaubte  ihr  geholfen.  So  findet  man  doch  eines  Alten  erwähnet  (Lessing's 
Sämtliche  Schriften,  Lachmann-Muncker,  3rd  ed.,  8,  301,  21).  Ich  will  an 
Julianen  nicht  mehr  gedacht  wissen  (ib.,  1,  346,  3).  Compare  219.  5.  A  (last 
par.). 

a.  Instead  of  the  simple  uninflected  form  this  objective  predicate  is  in  cer- 
tain instances,  as  in  case  of  nouns  (see  A.  h  and  c),  introduced  by  the  particles 
als  or  für:  Wir  betrachten  die  Sache  als  abgemacht.  Er  hält  mich  für  reich. 
The  objective  predicate  here  can  also  be  a  genitive  or  a  prepositional  phrase: 
Ibsen  hat  die  vier  Werke,  die  er  so  selbst  als  einen  Geistes  empfand,  in  Christi- 
ania  geschrieben  (Otto  Brahm  in  Die  neue  Rundschau,  1900,  p.  1433).  Sie 
versäumte  nichts,  um  sich  als  klug  und  trefflichen  Gemütes  zu  zeigen  (Enking's 
Die  Darnekower,  p.  306).  Der  offiziöse  Berliner  Telegraph  hält  es  für  seines 
Dienstes,  der  Welt  mitzuteilen,  daß  usw.  illarnhurger  NachricJiten,  Dec.  23, 
1904).  Das  Schlimmste  aber  ist,  daß  die  heranwachsenden  Kinder  die  ganze 
lottrige  Wirtschaft  für  in  Ordnung  halten  (Frenssen's  Jörn    Ulli,  chap.  v). 

Noie  1.  Als  and  für  are  more  extensively  used  in  case  of  certain  adjectives  than  of  nouns,  as  the  simple  adjective 
objective  predicate  may  be  mistalcon  for  an  adverb:  Er  schalt  mich  heftig  =  He  scolded  me  severely,  or  He  called  me 
passionate.  The  ambiguity  is  removed  by  using  als  or  für,  or  by  converting  the  adjective  into  a  substantive:  Er 
schalt  mich  als  heftig,  or  Er  schalt  mich  einen  Heftigen.  Thus  also,  unless  the  context  makes  the  thought  clear, 
it  is  better  to  say  Ich  erkläre  euch  für  Freie  tlian  Ich  erkläre  euch  frei.  Usage  in  general  with  regard  to  these  particles 
is  not  entirely  fixed.  Some  verbs  take  als,  others  für,  still  others  both  als  and  für,  either  with  about  the  same  mean- 
ing or  a  different  shade,  as  in  tlv?  following:  Die  Preisrichter  erkamitea  ihn  als  vorzüghcher,  aber  sie  wollten  ihn  aus 
Rücksicht  auf  den  mächtigen  Mitbewerber  nicht  dafür  erkermen. 

Nole  2.  Earlier  in  the  period  there  were  often  no  als  and  für  here:  Unsittlich  wie  du  bist,  hältst  du  dich  gut? 
(Goethe's  Tasso,  2,  3),  now  usually  für  gut.  Siehst  du  den  Ring?  Wie  teuer  hältst  du  ihn?  (Hebbel's  Gyges  und  sein 
Ring,  1),  now  usually  Für  wie  teuer  usv/. 

C.  An  objective  predicate  infinitive  is  found  after:  ahnen  to  have  a  presentiment 
of,  bemerken  or  merken  to  notice,  sich  denken  to  imagine  to  one's  self,  empfinden 
to  feel,  erblicken  to  notice,  finden  to  find,  fühlen  to  feel,  führen  to  lead,  ge- 
wahren to  perceive,  glauben  to  believe,  haben  to  have,  hören  to  hear,  lassen 
to  let,  order,  cause,  machen  to  make,  schauen  to  see,  sehen  to  see,  spüren 
to  feel,  tragen  to  carry,  treffen  to  meet,  vernehmen  to  hear,  wähnen  to  imag- 
ine, wiegen  to  rock,  wissen  to  know,  zeigen  to  show.  Exs. :  Ich  höre  ihn  kom- 
men I  hear  him  coming.  Ich  lasse  ihn  kommen  (with  active  force)  I  shall  have 
him  come.  Ich  lasse  mir  von  ihm  einen  neuen  Rock  machen  (with  passive  force) 
I  am  having  a  new  coat  made  by  him.  For  other  examples  see  185.  B.  I.  2.  d. 
In  some  cases  the  infinitive  here  has  developed  from  a  present  participle,  which 
is  still  more  or  less  frequently  used.     See  185.  B.  I,  2.  d.  (1). 

The  modal  verbal  is  also  used  as  objective  predicate  after  certain  verbs.  See 
180.  A.  c. 

a.  If  the  Infin.  should  have  as  an  object  a  pronoun  of  the  same  form  as  the  object  of  the 
principal  verb,  one  of  the  forms  is  usually  suppressed  in  older  German,  but  modern  usage  employs 
both  forms  or  avoids  the  construction:  Laß  uns  eignen  Wertes  [uns]  freuen  (Grillparzer's  Ah7i- 
frau,  1),  or  in  prose:    Freuen  wir  uns  eigenen  Wertes! 

b.  After  some  of  these  verbs  a  prep,  phrase  is  often  fount!  as  a  predicate  instead  of  an  in- 
finitive:   Ich  sah  ihn  weinen,  or  in  Tränen. 

c.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  dative  of  the  person  instead  of  the  ace.  is  frequently  found 
after  lassen  and  machen,  especially  the  former,  and  sometimes  after  sehen:  Ein  Geschenk, 
das  mir  jeden  neuem  Verlust  ertragen  machte  (Goethe  an  Karl  August,  I,  113).  This  con- 
struction is  in  part  due  to  the  influence  of  the  analogous  French  expressions,  a.s  faire  voir  qiielqne 
chose  ä  qiielqu'un,  and  in  part  to  the  general  tendency  toward  the  dative  of  a  person  in  connection 
with  the  accusative  of  a  thing.  This  usage  still  lingers  on  in  tiie  literature  of  our  time:  Er  ging 
aber  vergeblich  die  Fremdeiüiste  durch  und  war  endlich  froh,  die  Insel,  der  er  seine  Mißstim- 
mung entgelten  ließ,  nach  zwei'^ägigem  Aufenthalt  wieder  verlassen  zu  können  (P'ontane's  Cecile, 
chap.  xvii).     In  general  this  incorrect  construction  is  avoided  now  in  choice  language. 

In  the  reflexive  expression  sich  etwas  merken  lassen  to  betray,  shoiv,  "let  on,"  the  dat.  of  the 
person  is  now  much  more  common  than  the  older  ace. :  Laß  dir  for  dich)  nichts  davon  gegen 
ihn  merken  Don't  let  on  to  him.     Ich  fürchtete  mich  so  sehr  als  die  andern,  ließ  mich  es  aber 


542     ACC.  OBJECT  &   A   PREPOSITIONAL    PHRASE     262.  III.  2.  C.  c. 


nicht  merken  (Ciocthe).  Doch  ließ  ich  mir  nichts  merken,  (id.).  Ich  fürchte,  ich  habe  mir 
merken  lassen,  wie  widerwärtig  mir  das  alles  war  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  35).  The  es 
in  such  expressions  as  in  the  first  sentence  from  Goethe  is  in  reality  not  an  accusative,  but  an 
old  genitive  (140.  c)  of  specification,  which  was  not  infrequent  in  early  N.H.G.:  Ich  ließ  mich 
dessen  nicht  merken,  daß  ich's  verstünde  {Buch  der  Liebe,  194<^,  Frankfurt,  1587),  literally  /  did 
not  allow  myself  to  be  observed  with  regard  to  that.  The  genitive  form  es  is  now  construed  as  an 
accusative,  and  hence  the  original  construction  is  no  longer  understood  and  the  thought  has 
become  oI)scure,  which  naturally  leads  to  the  use  of  the  dative  of  reference  here:  Ich  ließ  mir  es 
nicht  merken,  literall v  /  did  not  allow  it  to  be  observed  on  me.  The  ace.  of  the  thing  here  is  omitted 
after  a  comparati\e:  Diese  Erkenntnis  war  deim  auch  meinem  Onkel  viel  eher  gekommen,  als 
er  sich  merken  ließ  (R.  lluch's  Liidolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxi). 

In  some  expressions  the  ace.  or  dat.  of  the  person  may  be  used,  but  with  quite  different  mean- 
ing: Er  ließ  mich  vorlesen  He  had  me  to  read  to  him,  but  Er  ließ  mir  vorlesen  He  had  someo7ie 
to  read  to  me. 

Provincially  the  nom.  often  occurs  here  instead  of  the  ace.  of  the  person:  Jahne:  Na,  Indrik! 
Trembe  fragt  schon  nach  dir.  Indrik:  Laß  er  fragen  (Keyserling's  Ein  Frühlingsopfer,  2). 
This  peculiar  idiom  is  the  result  of  the  blending  of  two  constructions:  Er  mag  fragen  and  Laß 
ihn  fragen. 

IV.     Accusative  of  the  Person  or  Thing  and  a  Prepositional  Phrase. 

This  is  a  very  common  type:  which  is  growing  at  the  expense  of  the  other 
types,  as  can  be  seen  by  a  careful  study  of  the  preceding  articles:  Er  legte  den 
Hut  auf  den  Tisch.  In  the  passive  the  accusative  becomes  nominative  and  the 
prepositional  phrase  remains:   Der  Hut  wurde  auf  den  Tisch  gelegt. 

A  number  of  the  most  common  verbs  which  take  an  accusative  and  a  prepo- 
sitional object  are  listed  below  along  with  the  preposition  or  prepositions  which 
each  word  requires.  The  selection  has  been  made  with  regard  to  idiomatic 
difficulties  that  beset  English-speaking  students  of  German. 

aufziehen:  einen  mit  etwas  or  jemandem  — 
to  tease  someone  about  something  or  some- 
one. 

ausdehnen:  etwas  —  auf  (with  ace.)  to  extend 
to,  apply  to:  Wir  dürfen  die  Regel  auf  jenen 
Fall  nicht  ausdehnen. 

ausgeben:  etwas  —  für  to  expend  something 
for. 

ausgießen:  etwas  —  über  (with  ace.)  to  pour 
something  out  upon. 

ausschelten:  einen  —  wegen  to  upbraid 
someone  for. 

aussprechen:  sich  —  zu  einem  (or  gegen 
einen)  über  (with  acc.)  to  have  a  good  talk 
with  someone  about;  ein  Urteil  —  über 
einen  to  pronounce  a  sentence  upon  some- 
one. 

austauschen:  etwas  —  für  (or  gegen  or  mit) 
to  exchange  something  for. 

austeilen:  etwas  —  an  (with  ace.)  to  distribute 
something  among,  portion  out  to. 

balgen:    sich  —  um  to  grapple    fight  for. 

befähigen:   einen  —  zu  to  fit,  qualify  one  for. 

befestigen:  einen,  etwas  —  an  (with  ace.)  to 
fasten  someone,  something  to. 

befragen:  einen  —  über  (with  acc.)  to  ques- 
tion someone  upon;  sich  wegen  or  in  einer 
Sache  bei  einem  —  to  inquire  of  someone 
about. 

begegnen  to  coincide:  sich  (acc.)  mit  einem  in 
einem  Wunsche,  in  einer  Ansicht  — .  Ihre 
Wünsche,  Ansichten  begegnen  sich   (dat.). 

beglückwünschen:  einen  —  zu  to  complnnent 
someone  upon. 

begrüßen:  sich  mit  einem  —  to  exchange 
greetings  with. 

beklagen:  sich  bei  einem  über  etwas  (acc.)  — 
to  complain  to  someone  of. 

bekleiden:  einen  or  sich  —  mit  to  put  on: 
Ich  habe  mich  nur  mit  einem  dürmen  Rock 
bekleidet. 


abhärmen:  sich  —  über  (with  acc.)  to  grieve 
at,  about. 

abhärten:  sich  or  einen  —  gegen  to  inure 
one's  self  or  someone  to. 

ablegen:  Rechnung  —  von  or  über  (with  arc.) 
to  give  (or  render)  an  account  of. 

abnehmen,  see  ziehen. 

abrichten:  einen  Hund,  Pferd  —  zu  and  some- 
times auf  (with  acc.)  to  train  a  dog,  horse 
for  some  particular  performance:  Er  richtet 
das  Pferd  zum  Reiten,  den  Hund  zur 
Jagd,  aufs  Apportieren  ab. 

absehen:  es  —  auf  (with  acc.)  to  aim  at,  have 
designs  upon:  Er  hat  es  auf  meinen  Geld- 
beutel abgesehen.  Das  Unglück  hat  es  auf 
mich  abgesehen. 

adressieren:  einen  Brief  —  an  (with  acc.) 
to  address  a  letter  to. 

andrängen:  einen  —  an  (with  acc.)  to  press, 
push  one  against. 

anheften  to  fasten  on  (with  tacks,  nails,  &c.): 
man  heftet  ein  Bild  an  die  Wand,  but  with- 
out prep.  obj.  er  hat  das  Bild  schon  ange- 
heftet. 

anklagen:  einen  —  bei  to  bring  action  against 
someone  before;  einen  —  wegen  to  charge 
one  with:  einen  wegen  schweren  Dieb- 
stahls anklagen.     See  also  II.  A.  a. 

anklammern  to  cling  to:  Das  Kind  klammert 
sich  immer  an  die  Mutter,  but  without  prep, 
obj.  Da  hat  es  sich  wieder  angeklammert. 

anstellen:  eine  Untersuchung  —  über  (with 
acc.)  to  examine,  inquire  into. 

anwenden  to  apply,  direct  to  a  definite  end: 
Wende  alle  deine  Kraft  zur  Ausbildung 
deines  Geistes  an;  fig.  apply:  Die  Theorie 
auf  die  Praxis  — . 

ärgern:  sich  —  über  (with  acc.)  to  be  vexed  at. 

aufwenden  to  spend  money,  time,  eiTort  upon: 
Geld  für  seinen  Garten,  seine  Kräfte  für 
eine  große  Aufgabe  — . 


262.  IV.         ACC.  OBJECT   &  A   PREPOSITIONAL   PHRASE 


543 


bekümmern:  sich  — über  (with  ace.)  or  wegen 
to  be  concerned,  worried  about  something  or 
someone;  sich  —  or  kümmern  um  to  con- 
cern one's  self  about,  with:  Er  bekümmert 
or  kümmert  sich  um  alles.  Bekümmern  or 
kümmern  Sie  sich  um  sich!  Mind  your  own 
business!  Er  bekümmert  or  kümmert  sich 
gar  nicht  um  mich  He  never  comes  to  see  me 
any  more,  doesn't  seem  to  know  that  I  am 
alive.  Er  ist  über  mich,  über  den  Verlust 
bekümmert  He  is  worried,  &c.  Compare 
kümmern,  H.  A.  b,  c,  B.  d  above. 

belästigen:  einen  —  wegen,  mit  to  trouble 
someone  about,  bother  him  with. 

belaufen:  sich  —  auf  (with  ace.)  to  amount 
to:  Die  Kosten  belaufen  sich  auf  einen 
Taler. 

belustigen;  sich  —  mit  to  amuse  one's  self 
with;  sich  —  über  einen  to  amuse  one's  self 
at  the  expense  of  someone,  to  make  fun  of 
someone. 

bemühen:  sich  imi  jemandes  Gunst  —  to 
court  a  person's  favor;   sich  um  eine  Stelle 

—  to  try  to  obtain,  secure  a  position;  sich 
für  einen  —  to  interest  one's  self  for  some- 
one; sich  zu  einem  —  to  take  the  trouble  to 
go  to:  Es  tut  mir  leid,  daß  Sie  sich  haben 
zu  mir  bemühen  müssen. 

beneiden  or  neiden  to  envy:  Ich  (be)neide  dir 
dein  Glück,  or  more  commonly  Ich  beneide 
dich  um  dein  Glück. 

benennen:  einen  —  nach  to  name  someone 
after;  einen  mit  einem  Spitznamen  —  to 
give  one  a  nickname;  das  Kind  beim  rechten 
Namen  —  to  give  a  thing  its  right  name. 

beordern:  eine  Maschine  auf  rückwärts  — 
to  order  the  engine  to  be  reversed. 

beraten:  sich  —  mit  einem  über  (with  ace.) 
to  take  counsel  with  someone  about. 

berufen:  sich  — auf  (with  ace.)  to  appeal  to. 

beschirmen:  einen  — vor  (with  dat.)  to  shield 
one  from. 

beschränken:  sich  —  auf  (with  ace.)  to  con- 
fine^  limit  one's  self  to. 

beschützen:  einen  —  vor  (with  dat.)  to  pro- 
tect one  from. 

beschwatzen:   einen  —  imi  to  talk  one  out  of. 

besprechen:   sich  mit  einem  über  etwas  (acc.) 

—  to  confer  with  someone  about. 
betören:  einen  —  um  to  fool  one  out  of. 
betrüben:    sich  —  über  (with  acc.)  to  grieve 

at,  over. 

betrügen:  einen  —  imi  to  cheat  one  out  of. 
See  also  H.  A.  a  above. 

beugen:  sich  —  vor  (with  dat.)  to  bend,  bow 
to. 

bewahren:  einen  — vor  (with  dat.)  to  preserve 
one  from. 

bewerben:  sich  —  um  to  apply  for  (a  situa- 
tion, &c.),  compete  for  (a  prize),  woo,  can- 
vass for  (votes). 

bewundern:  einen  —  wegen  to  admire  one  for. 

beziehen:  etwas  or  sich  —  auf  (with  acc.)  to 
refer  to:  Ich  bezog  diese  Anspielung  auf 
einen  Vorfall  der  neuesten  Zeit.  Ich  bezog 
mich  auf  dich.  Diese  Bemerkung  bezieht 
sich  wohl  auf  ihn. 

bilden:  etwas  —  aus  to  fashion  something  out 
of;   etwas  —  nach  to  model  something  after. 

binden:  etwas  —  an  (with  ace.)  to  bind  some- 
thing to. 

bitten:    einen  —  imi  to  ask,  beg  someone  for. 


brauchen:   etwas  —  zu  to  need  something  for. 

bringen:  etwas  —  über  (with  ace.)  to  bring 
something  upon:  Du  hast  nur  Unglück  über 
mich  gebracht;  einen  —  um  to  cause  some- 
one to  lose:  Er  hat  mich  yxm.  meinen  guten 
Namen  gebracht. 

bücken:  sich  —  vor  (with  dat.)  to  bow  down 
to. 

drehen:  sich  —  um  to  turn,  hinge  upon:  Alles 
dreht  sich  um  diesen  Punkt. 

duzen :  sich  —  mit  to  be  on  such  familiar  terms 
with  as  to  use  the  address  du. 

eindrängen:  sich  —  bei,  in  (with  acc.)  to 
intrude  upon,  thrust  one's  self  upon:  Du 
hast  dich  bei  uns,  in  vmseren  Kreis  einge- 
drängt. 

einführen:  einen  —  bei,  in  (with  acc.)  to 
introduce  to  (someone's  family),  into:  Er 
hat  mich  bei  ihr,  bei  Hofe  eingeführt.  Er 
will  dich  in  unsere  Gesellschaft  einführen. 

einigen:  sich  —  über  (with  acc.)  to  agree 
upon. 

einlassen:  sich  auf  eine  Schlacht  —  to  engage 
in  battle.  Ich  lasse  mich  darauf  nicht  ein 
I  shall  have  nothing  to  do  with  it. 

einmengen:  sich  —  in  (with  ace.)  to  meddle 
with. 

einrichten  nach  to  suit  to,  regulate  by,  conform 
to:  Er  richtet  seine  Ausgaben  nach  seinem 
Einkommen  ein.  Er  richtet  sein  Leben 
nach  dem  von  ihm  erwählten  Muster  ein. 

einschiffen:   sich  —  nach  to  embark  for. 

einschwören:  sich  —  auf  (with  acc.)  to  swear 
by,  have  implicit  faith  in:  Auch  ist  sie 
(Helene  Böhlau)  ein  viel  zu  selbständiger 
Geist,  um  sich  auf  irgend  ein  metaphysisches 
Credo  einzuschwören  (Max  Krieg  in  Nord 
und  Süd,  May  1905,  p.  335). 

eintauschen:  etwas  —  für  (or  gegen  or  imi) 
to  take  something  in  exchange  for. 

empfinden:  Ekel  —  vor  (with  dat.)  to  sicken 
at,  be  disgusted  with. 

entlassen:  einen  —  aus  to  discharge  one  from 
(ofhce,  &c.).     See  also  II.  A.  a. 

entnehmen:  etwas  —  aus  to  gather,  learn 
something  from:'  Wir  entnehmen  (aus) 
Ihrem  Briefe,  daß  usw. 

entscheiden:  sich  —  für  to  decide,  fix  upon: 
Wir  entscheiden  uns  für  einen  anderen 
Plan;  sich  —  für  einen  to  decide  in  favor  of 
someone. 

entschließen:  sich  —  zu  to  resolve  upon:  Ich 
entschloß  mich  endlich  zur  Reise;  to  fix  one's 
choice  upon:  Ich  habe  mich  für  diese  Woh- 
nung entschlossen.    Compare  II.  A.  b. 

entschuldigen:  sich  —  bei  to  make  excuse, 
apologize  to;  sich  —  Wegen  to  excuse  one's 
self  for. 

ergreifen:    Besitz  —  von  to  seize  upon. 

erheben:  einen  Anspruch  —  auf  (with  aec.) 
to  lay  claim  to;  Steuern  —  von  to  levy  taxes 
upon. 

erkennen:  einen  —  an  (with  dat..)  to  recog- 
nize one  by. 

erkundigen:  sich  —  bei  einem  nach  to  inquire 
of  one  for,  a'oout;  Ich  hatte  mich  bei  ihm 
nach  der  Ursache  erkundigt. 

erraten:  etwas  —  aus  to  guess,  divine  some- 
thing from. 

ertappen:  einen  auf  (also  bei,  in,  sometimes 
über,  ob)  der  Tat  —  to  catch  a  person  in  the 
very  act. 


544 


ACC.  OBJECT  «Sc  A   PREPOSITIONAL   PHRASE        262.  IV. 


erwähnen:  einen  mit  Namen  —  to  mention 
sf)mcone  by  name. 

erwecken:  einen  aus  dem  Schlafe  —  to  arouse 
one  from  sleep. 

erzürnen:  sich  —  mit  einem  to  fall  out  with 
someone. 

fesseln:  einen  —  an  (with  ace.)  to  fetter  to; 
also  to  confine  to:  Die  Gicht  fesselt  ihn  ans 
Bett. 

finden:  Vergnügen  —  an  (with  dat.)  to  find 
pleasure  in;  sich  —  in  (with  acc.)  to  recon- 
cile one's  self  to:  Finde  dich  in  deinen 
Beruf,  in  das  Unglück. 

folgern:   etwas  —  aus  to  infer  something  from. 

fordern  (emphasizing  the  idea  of  a  right  to 
demand)  or  verlangen  (emphasizing  the  idea 
of  a  desire  to  demand)  to  demand:  Ich  for- 
dere Gerechtigkeit  vo.i  Ihnen.  Ich  habe  von 
ihm  (formerly  and  sometimes  still  also  an 
ihn)  noch  100  Mark  zu  fordern.  Fordere  ihn 
doch  vor  die  Pistole,  vors  Gericht!  Ich  ver- 
lange nichts  Unbilliges  von  dir.  Jene 
Mischung  der  geistigen  Kräfte,  die  wir  von 
dem  (formerly  and  sometimes  still  also  an 
den)  himioristischen  Schriftsteller  ver- 
langen. 

fragen:  einen  —  nach  einer  Sache,  or  über  or 
um  eine  Sache,  or  wegen  einer  Sache  to  ask 
someone  about  a  matter,  or  sometimes  von 
einem  etwas  fragen ;  einen  um  Erlaubnis  — 
to  ask  someone  for  permission;  einen  um 
Rat  fragen  to  ask  someone's  advice.  Com- 
pare bitten  to  ask,  which  has  a  different 
meaning. 

fügen:  sich  -—  in  (with  acc.)  to  fit  one's  self 
into,  reconcile  one's  self  to,  yield,  submit  to: 
Er  fügt  sich  in  die  Umstände. 

fürchten:  sich  —vor  (with  dat.)  to  be  afraid  of. 

gewöhnen:  sich  —  an  (with  acc.)  to  accustom 
one's  self  to,  get  used  to. 

grämen:  sich  —  über  (with  acc.)  to  grieve 
over,  worry  about,  over. 

gravieren:  einen  Namen  —  auf  or  in  (with 
acc.)  to  engrave  a  name  upon. 

gründen:  sich  or  etwas  —  auf  (usually  with 
acc,  sometimes  with  dat.)  to  found  one's 
self  or  something  upon:  Das  gründet  sich 
auf  einen  Irrtum. 

haben:  Anteil  —  an  (with  dat.)  to  have  a 
share  in;  Mangel  —  an  (with  dat.)  to  be  in 
want  of;  die  Oberhand  —  über  (with  acc.) 
to  hold  sway  over;  Überfluß  —  an  (with 
dat.)  to  have  plenty  of;  einen  in  Verdacht  — 
to  suspect  one. 

halten:  etwas  an  das  Feuer  —  to  hold  some- 
thing close  to  the  fire;  etwas  auf  (dem) 
Lager  —  to  keep  something  in  stock;  viel  or 
große  Stücke  auf  einen  — ,  or  viel  von  einem 
or  einer  Sache  —  to  think  highly,  much  of 
someone  or  something;  etAvas  gegen  das 
Licht  —  to  hold  somethin;^:  up  to  the  light; 
wenig,  nichts  von  einem,  von  einer  Sache  — 
to  think  little,  nothing  of,  despise  someone 
or  something;  sich  an  (now  v.ith  acc,  for- 
merly dat.)  die  Wahrheit,  die  Tatsachen, 
seinen  Glauben  —  to  keep,  hold  to,  &c.; 
einen  bei  dem  Versprechen  — . 

hängen:  etwas  —  an  (with  acc.)  to  hang  some- 
thing on. 

hassen:   einen  —  wegen  to  hate  one  for. 

herauswickeln:  sich  —  aus  to  extricate  one's 
self  from. 


herausziehen:  etwas  —  aus  to  extract  some- 
thing from,  take  something  out  of:  einen 
Splitter  aus  dem  Finger  herausziehen ;   sich 

—  aus  to  get  out  of.  extricate  one's  self  from: 
Ich  habe  mich  aus  der  Schlinge  herausge- 
zogen. 

hmdem:  einen  —  an  (with  dat.)  to  hinder, 
keep  from:    Du  hinderst  mich  am  Arbeiten. 

hinweisen:  einen  hinweisen  auf  (with  acc.)  to 
direct  or  refer  a  person  to:  Ich  habe  ihn  auf 
den  rechten  Weg,  auf  seine  Fehler  hinge- 
wiesen. 

hören:  etwas  —  von  or  über  iwich  acc.)  to 
hear  something  of,  about. 

hüten:  sich — vor  (with  dat.)  to  beware  of, 
be  on  one's  guard  against. 

interessieren:  einen  an  einem  Geschäft  —  to 
induce  one  to  take  an  interest,  share  in  a 
business;  einen  für  etwas  (z.  B.  die  Botanik) 

—  to  interest  one  in  something  (as  botany); 
sich  für  etwas  —  to  take  an  interest  in  some- 
thing (as  botany,  &c). 

ketten:  etwas  —  an  (with  acc)  to  chain  some- 
thing to. 

kümmern,  see  bekümmern  above. 

küssen:    sich  —  mit  to  exchange  kisses  with. 

leimen:    etwas  —  an  (with  acc. J  to  glue  to. 

loben:   einen  —  wegen  to  praise  one  for. 

machen:  sich  —  an  (with  acc):  Er  macht 
sich  an  die  Arbeit  He  sets  to  work:  sich  — 
auf  (with  accj:  Er  macht  sich  auf  den  Weg 
He  sets  out  on  his  way;  Anspruch  —  auf 
(with  acc)  to  lay  claim  to;  sich  beliebt  — 
bei  to  ingratiate  ones  self  with;  Einwen- 
dungen —  gegen  to  make,  raise  objections 
to;  einen  unfähig  —  zu  to  unfit  one  for; 
sich  verdient  —  um  to  de-erve  well  of:  Er 
hat  sich  um  das  Vaterland  verdient  gemacht. 

mengen  or  mischen:  sich  —  in  (with  acc.)  to 
meddle  with. 

mischen:  sich  —  imter  (with  acc.)  to  mingle 
with. 

nageln:   etwas  —  an  (with  acc)  to  nail  to. 

necken:  einen  mit  jemandem  —  to  tease  one 
about  someone;  sich  mit  jemandem  —  to 
exchange  good-natured  railleries  with  some- 
one. 

nehmen:  Anstoß  —  an  (with  dat.)  to  take  of- 
fense at;  Interesse  —  an  (with  dat.)  to  take 
an  interest  in  someone  or  something;  An- 
teil —  an  (with  dat.)  to  take  an  interest  in, 
sympathize  with;  einen  beim  Worte  neh- 
men. 

neiden,  see  beneiden. 

neigen:  sich  —  auf  (with  acc.)  to  be  inclined 
in  favor  of:  Ich  neigte  mich  auf  seine  Seite; 
(sich)  —  zu  to  lean  to-  Ich  neige  mich  zu 
seiner  Meinung.  Er  neigt  zur  Erkältung 
he  catches  cold  easily;  sich  —  vor  (with  dat.) 
to  bow  to. 

nennen  to  call:  Das  Kind  beim  rechten  Na- 
men —  to  call  the  thing  by  the  right  name; 
einen  mit  Namen  or  bei  seinem  Namen  — 

packen:    etwas  in  eine  Kiste  packen. 

prügeln:  sich  mit  einem  —  to  have  a  fight 
with. 

rächen:  sich  —  an  (with  dat.)  to  avenge  one's 
self  on. 

reiben:  sich  —  an  (with  dat.,  sometimes,  es- 
pecially earlier  in  the  period,  with  acc.)  to 
rub  against:  Die  Schweine  reiben  sich  an 
den  Bäumen  or  an  die  Bäume. 


262.  IV. 


ACC.  OBJECT   &   A   PREPOSITIONAL   PHRASE 


545 


richten:  etwas  —  an  (with  ace.)  to  address 
(a  letter,  &c.)  to;  eine  Frage  —  an  einen 
to  put  a  question  to  someone;  etwas  —  auf 
(with  ace.)  to  direct,  point  something  at; 
sich  —  nach  to  conform  to,  regulate  one's 
conduct  by:  Er  richtet  sich  nach  dem  Ge- 
setz. Das  Verbum  richtet  sich  (agrees) 
nach  (with)  dem  Subjekt.  Ich  richte  mich 
ganz  nach  dir,  nach  meinem  Gaste. 

rümpfen:  Die  Nase  —  über  (with  acc.)  to 
turn  up  the  nose  at. 

runzehi:  die  Stirne  —  über  (with  acc.)  to 
frown  at. 

schätzen:  etwas  — auf  (with  acc.)  to  estimate 
something  at:  Ich  schätze  das  Alter  des 
Kindes  auf  einen  Monat. 

schelten:  einen  —  wegen  to  scold  someone  for. 

schicken:  einen  in  einem  Auftrag  —  to  send 
someone  on  an  errand;  einen  in  den  April  — 
to  april-fool  someone;  sich  in  etwas  —  to 
adapt  one's  self  to:  Er  schickt  sich  in  alle 
Verhältnisse. 

schlagen:  etwas  ans  schwarze  Brett  —  to  post, 
placard  something;  sich  mit  einem  auf 
Säbel,  auf  Pistolen  —  to  fight  a  duel  with. 

schließen:  einen  an  die  Brust  schließen  to 
clasp  one  to  one's  bosom.  Hieran  schließen 
wir  die  Bemerkung,  daß  usw.  To  this  we 
would  add  that,  iSic. 

schmiegen:  sich  — vor  (with  dat.)  to  cringe  to. 

schreiben:  einen  Brief  —  an  (with  acc.)  to 
write  to  (a  person);  einen  Brief  —  nach  to 
write  to  (a  place);  sich  mit  einem  —  to  cor- 
respond with. 

schützen:  einen  — vor  (with  dat.)  to  protect 
someone  from. 

sehnen:  sich  —  nach  to  long  for. 

stecken:  etwas  in  Brand  —  to  set  something 
on  fire. 

stehen:  sich  mit  einem  gut  —  to  be  on  good 
terms  with  someone.  Er  steht  sich  gut 
dabei  He  is  not  a  loser  by  it,  he  has  profited 
by  the  transaction. 

stoßen:  einen  —  an  (with  acc.)  to  push  some- 
one against. 

stützen:  sich  — auf  (with  acc.)  to  lean  upon, 
rely  upon,  be  based  upon. 

suchen:  Hast  du  was  an  mich  zu  suchen? 
(Hebbel's  //.  iDid  M.,  4,  '.i),  now  usually 
Hast  du  etwas  von  mir  zu  erbitten? 

tadeln:  einen  —  wegen  to  censure  someone 
for. 

taxieren:  etwas  —  auf  (with  acc.)  to  estimate 
something  at:  Ich  taxiere  den  Wert  auf 
einen  Taler. 

tragen  to  entertain  (thoughts.  Sec):  Erträgt 
sich  mit  Selbstmordgedanken.  Er  trägt  sich 
mit  der  Absicht,  sein  Geschäft  aufzugeben. 

trennen:  sich  von  einem  —  to  part  with  or 
from  somebody;  sich  von  etwas  —  to  part 
with  something:  Ich  kann  mich  nur  schwer 
davon  trennen. 

tun:  Eingriffe  —  in  (with  acc.)  to  encroach 
upon. 

überschütten:  einen  —  mit  to  pour,  shower 
something  upon:  Beide  Gegner  überschüt- 
ten sich  mit  Schrapnells. 

unterhalten:  sich  —  über  (with  acc.)  to  con- 
verse about. 

verbergen:  einen  — vor  (with  dat.)  to  conceal 
someone  from. 

verbreiten:    sich  —  über   (with  acc.)  to  ex- 


patiate upon;  Ich  will  mich  des  weiteren 
über  diesen  Fall  nicht  verbreiten. 

vergehen:  sich  an  einem  —  to  do  someone  a 
wrong;  sich  tätlich  an  einem  —  to  offer 
violence  to  someone,  inflict  bodily  injury 
upon  someone. 

verhaften:  einen  —  wegen  to  arrest  someone 
for;  einen  auf  frischer  Tat  —  to  arrest  some- 
one in  the  very  act  (of  stealing,  &c.). 

verhängen:  eine  Strafe  — über  (with  acc.)  to 
inflict  a  punishment  upon. 

verheiraten,  vermählen  to  give  in  marriage, 
marry:  Ich  habe  mich,  meinen  Sohn  mi; 
unserer  Nachbarin,  or  an  unsere  Nach- 
barin, or  in  rather  choice  language  with  the 
simple  dat.  unserer  Nachbarin  verheiratet, 
vermählt. 

verkaufen  to  sell:  Verkaufe  dich  niemals  dem 
(or  an  den)  Teufel  für  (or  tun)  aUes  Geld. 
Er  verkaufte  es  mit  Verlust. 

verklagen:  jemanden  wegen  Verleumdung  — 
to  prosecute  someone  for  libel;  jemanden  auf 
Schadenersatz  — to  sue  someone  for  damages. 

verkleiden:  sich  in  einen  Bettler,  or  sich  als 
Bettler  or  als  ein  (en)  Bettler  —  to  disguise 
one's  self  as  a  beggar. 

verkuppeln  to  persuade  to  an  ill-sorted  mar- 
riage: Er  verkuppelte  das  Mädchen  an  den 
Wüstling,  or  less  commonly  er  verkuppelte 
das  Mädchen  dem  Wüsthng. 

verladen:   Waren  —  nach  to  ship  goods  to. 

verlangen,  see  fordern. 

verlassen:  sich  — auf  (with  acc.)  to  rely  upon. 

verlässigen:  sich  —  über  (with  acc.)  to  make 
sure  of,  convince  one's  self  of:  Es  ist  nicht 
zu  bestreiten,  daß  der  Staat  das  Recht  hat, 
sich  als  Arbeitgeber  über  die  Leistungen 
des  Arbeitnehmers  zu  verlässigen  (W.  A. 
Lay's  Experimentelle.  Didaktik,  p.  456). 

verlieben:  sich  — in  (with  acc.)  to  fall  in  love 
with. 

verlieren  to  lose:  viel  an  jemandem  —  to  lose 
much  in  a  person,  to  lose  a  good  friend  in 
him;  viel  an  jemanden  —  to  lose  much  in 
dealing  or  playing  with  someone;  viel  bei 
jemandem  —  to  lose  much  in  someone's 
estimation. 

verloben,  versprechen:  sich  —  mit  to  become 
engaged  to. 

vermählen,  see  verheiraten. 

vermögen:  es  über  sich  (acc.) — to  bring  one's 
self  to:  Darum  vermochte  sie  es  über  sich, 
geduldig  zuzuhören  und  auszuharren. 

verraten  to  betray:  Du  hast  mich  an  den 
Gegner  verraten.  Ich  darf  dir  das  Geheim- 
nis nicht  verraten. 

verschieben:  etwas  auf  einen  anderen  Tag  — 
to  put  sometiiing  off  until  another  day. 

verstecken:  einen  —  vor  (with  dat.)  to  hide 
one  from. 

verstehen  to  understand:  sich  —  auf  (with 
acc.)  to  understand,  be  a  judge  of:  Er  ver- 
steht sich  auf  Pferde;  etwas  aus  dem  Zu- 
sammenhang —  to  understand  something 
by,  from  the  connection. 

vertagen:  sich  —  auf  (with  acc.)  to  adjourn 
until;    die  Sitzung  —  auf  (with  acc). 

vertauschen:  etwas  —  gegen  (für,  mit,  um) 
to  exchange  something  for. 

verteilen:  etwas  —  an  or  unter  (with  acc.)  to 
distribute  something  among:  Geld  an  or 
unter  dis  Arm3n  verteilen;    etwas   —  auf 


546 


SYNESIS 


262.  IV. 


(with  ace.)  to  divide  something  up  among: 

Leistungen  und  Lasten  auf  die  Bürgerschaft 

verteilen, 
verweisen:    einen  —  auf  (with  acc.)  to  refer 

one  to:    Ich  verweise   den  Leser  auf  das, 

was  ich  früher  gesagt  habe, 
verwenden  to  spend  on  (a  thing):   Er  hat  viel 

Geld,  viel  Zeit  auf  die  Erziehung  der  Kinder 

verwandt, 
vorbereiten:  sich  —  auf  (with  acc.)  to  prepare 

for  (a  speech,  examination,  an  approaching 

ordeal);    sich  —  zu  to  get  ready  for,  make 

preparations  for:    Ich  habe  mich  zur  Reise 

vorbereitet, 
warnen:    einen   —  vor    (with  dat.)   to  warn 

someone  against. 
wegwerfen:    sich  —  an  (with  acc.)  to  throw 

one's  self  away  on. 


weisen:  einen  —  an  (with  acc.)  to  refer  a 
person  to:  Er  hat  mich  an  Sie,  an  die  richtige 
Quelle  gewiesen;  einen  —  auf  (with  acc.) 
to  point  out  to:  Er  wies  mich  auf  den  rechten 
Weg;  einen  —  aus  to  expel  one  from 
(school,  &c.);  etwas  von  der  Hand  or  von 
sich  —  to  decline  something. 

wenden:  sich  —  an  (with  acc.)  to  apply  to, 
turn  to:  Er  wandte  sich  an  mich;  etwas  — 
an  or  auf  (with  acc.)  to  spend  something  on. 

v/issen  to  know:  etwas  auf  (against)  or  gegen 
einen  — ;  etwas  aus  (from)  guter  Quelle  — ; 
etwas  aus  (by)  Erfahrung  — ;  etwas  von 
einem  or  etwas  über,  um  einen  or  etwas  — 
to  know  something  of,  about,  concerning 
someone  or  something. 

ziehen  or  abnehmen:  den  Hut  vor  einem  — 
to  take  off  one's  hat  to  someone. 


V.     Dative  of  the  Person  and  a  Prepositional  Phrase. 

This  group  is  much  smaller  than  the  preceding  one.  A  few  illustrations 
follow:  Es  fehlt  mir  an  Geld.  Es  gebricht  mir  am  Gelde  or  an  Geld.  Es 
genügt  mir  an  deiner  Liebe,  an  deinem  Wohlwollen.  Las  dir  an  meiner  Gnade 
genügen  (2  Cor.  xii.  9).  Er  gratulierte  mir  zur  Beförderung.  Er  half  mir  bei 
der  Arbeit.  Er  half  mir  über  den  ersten  Schmerz.  Ich  habe  ihm  beim  Tode 
des  Vaters  kondoliert.  Wozu  raten  Sie  mir?  Ich  traue  ihm  nicht  um  die 
Ecke.  Er  hat  mir  zu  einer  guten  Stellung  verhelfen.  Ich  rate  dir  zur  Amanda 
(Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  8,  p.  62)  I  advise  you  to  choose  A.  A  number  of 
peculiar  or  idiomatic  combinations  which  in  a  formal  sense  belong  here  have 
been  treated  in  258.  1.  C  from  another  point  of  view. 

In  a  number  of  words  the  prepositional  phrase  here  represents  an  older  simple 
gen.:  einem  der  Gabe  danken,  now  einem  für  die  Gabe  danken;  einem  eines 
Dinges  bürgen,  now  einem  für  ein  Ding  bürgen;  &c.  A  gen.  is  now  only  found 
in  sich  (originally  acc,  but  now  also  dat.)  bei  einem  Rats  erholen  (II.  A.  ö  above). 
Thus  this  gen.  has  almost  disappeared,  while  the  gen.  in  connection  with  an 
acc,  as  described  in  II.  A.  b,  is  fairly  well  preserved. 

VI.     Double  Prepositional  Object. 

A  verb  quite  frequently  has  a  double  prepositional  object:  Sie  klagt  gegen 
ihn  auf  Ehescheidung  She  is  suing  him  for  divorce.  Er  trug  bei  seinem  Vorge- 
setzten auf  Beförderung  an  He  applied  to  his  superior  for  promotion. 


Synesis. 

263.  Different  parts  of  speech,  especially  pronouns,  often  assume  a  different 
gender  or  number  from  that  required  by  the  strict  rules  of  grammatical  con- 
cordance, following  in  these  points  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  the  particular 
use  in  question  rather  than  the  usual  grammatical  gender  or  number  of  the 
antecedent  or  the  word  to  which  reference  is  made.  This  assignment  of  gender 
and  number  according  to  meaning  is  called  Synesis   (i.e.  understanding,  sense). 

I.  Synesis  of  Gender.  Words  may  assume  their  gender  according  to  mean- 
ing in  the  following  cases: 

1.  A  neuter  diminutive,  or  any  other  neut.  or  masc.  word  representing  a 
female,  such  as  Weib,  V/eibchen,  Weiblein,  Fräulein,  Frauenzimmer,  Mädchen, 
Mädel,  Mägdlein,  Töchterlein,  Töchterchen,  Kind,  Geschöpf,  and  Mensch, 
require  usually  the  article  and  any  other  attributive  adj.  standing  before  them 
and  also  the  relative  pronoun  referring  to  them  to  be  neut.  or  masc,  but  the 
personal  pronouns,  possessive  adjectives,  and  all  other  adjectives,  on  the  other 
hand,  which  refer  to  them  are  much  more  commonly  fern,  according  to  the  sex 
of  the  person  represented:    Das  Fräulein  ist  nicht  zu  Hause;    sie  ist  spazieren 


263.  I.  3. SYNESIS   OF   GENDER 547 

gegangen.  Du  böses  Tantchen!  Du  bist  das  leutseligste  Komteßchen,  das 
es  nur  auf  der  Welt  geben  kann.  Dieses  Weib  hat  ihrem  Gatten  Kummer 
gemacht.  Du  schönste  der  Weiber!  (Heyse's  Maria  von  Magdala,  3,  10). 
Aber  du  bist  eine  von  den  wenigen  glücklichen  Frauenzimmern  (M.  Dreyer's 
Winterschlaf,  1).  Mutterchen,  goldene  —  es  ist  wohl  nichts?  (Marianne 
Mewis's  Mettes  Kinder  in  Velhageji  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  Sept.  1905,  p.  89). 
Altho  synesis  of  gender  is  more  common  in  this  category  than  any  other,  present 
usage  is  inclining  more  and  more  to  stricter  grammatical  concordance:  Es  war 
keine  andere  Obhut  für  Lili  geblieben,  als  die  alte  Haushälterin  des  Verstor- 
benen, ein  auf  seine  „Bildung"  stolzes,  aber  ungebildetes  Weibchen  (Wilbrandt's 
Vater  Robinson,  II,  chap.  1).  Sophie  ist  das  schönste  (also  die  schönste)  der 
Mädchen.  Er  rief  der  Pritzke  (name)  ...  zu,  sie  solle  nebenan  dem  Mädchen 
sagen,  es  möge  aufstehn,  er  habe  nachher  mit  ihm  zu  reden  (Telmann's  Wahr- 
heit, IX) .  Anna  sah  die  Tante  zögernd  an ;  da  diese  aber  nur  ein  wenig  lächelte, 
so  tat  das  Mädchen,  was  ihm  geboten  war  (H.  Seidel's  Die  Augen  der  Erinnerung, 
II).  Seit  jenem  Tage  hatte  ich  nichts  anderes  mehr  im  Kopf  als  das  Prinzeß- 
chen und  seinen  Garten  (Isolde  Kurz's  Nachbar  Werner).  Kannst  du  nicht 
ein  bißchen  nachhelfen.  Mutterchen,  einzigstes?  (M.  Mewis's  M.  K.  in  V.  und 
K.  M.,  Sept.  1905,  p.  90). 

a.  In  the  expression  Ihr(e)  Fräulein  Tochter  your  (unmarried)  daughter,  Ilir(e)  Fräulein 
Schwester,  &c.,  the  possessive  or  article  is  perhaps  more  commonly  neat.:  von  Ihrem  Fräulein 
Braut  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  258),  ein  Fräulein  Nichte  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  p.  115), 
Ihr  Fräulein  Tochter  (Sudermann's  Heimat  (twice  in  4,  8),  Ihres  Fräulein  (not  Fräuleins) 
Tochter  (Jensen's  Unter  der  Tarnkappe,  VI).  The  fem.,  however,  is  not  infrequent,  especially 
earlier  in  the  period:  mit  Ihrer  Fräulein  Tochter  (Schiller),  gegen  deine  Fräulein  Schwester 
(Raahe),  Ihre  Fräulein  Schwester  (H.  Hoffmann),  die  Hand  Ihrer  Fräulein  Tochter  (Suder- 
mann's Heimat,  4,  S).  In  colloquial  language  we  often  find  the  fem.  article  or  the  feminine 
form  of  the  adjective  here  before  a  name:  die  (instead  of  the  choicer  das)  Fräulein  Ehrhard. 
Gute  Fräulein  Marie!  (G.  Keller  an  Marie  Exner,  June  17,  1S74).  The  simple  word  Fräulein 
was  formerly  treated  as  a  fem.,  and  is  sometimes  still  so  used  in  popular  language:  Nein,  das 
war  eine  alte  Fräul'n,  die  schon  immer  bei  ihnen  gewohnt  hat  (JXIizi  in  Schnitzler's  Liebelei, 
Act  I). 

h.  The  synesis  of  the  relative  here  was  not  uncommon  earlier  in  the  period,  and  is  still  found 
in  popular  speech,  and  sometimes  even  in  the  literary  language:  Jenes  Mädchen  ist's,  das  ver- 
triebene, die  du  gewählt  hast  (Goethe's  H.  und  D.,  4,  210).  Bitte,  grüßen  Sie  das  gnädige 
Fräulein,  die  so  gut  ist  (Frau  Hulen  in  Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  IV,  chap.  vii).  Dieses  kleine 
Mädchen  hier,  die  ihr  eigenes  Herz  noch  nicht  keimt  (Agnes  Harder's  Franzinen s  Geschichte  in 
Velhagen  und  Klasings  Monatshefte,  April  1907,  Roman-Bibliothek,  p.  177).  Synesis  is  more 
common  in  case  of  a  second  relative,  as  the  pronoun  does  not  immediately  follow  the  antecedent, 
and  the  speaker  or  writer  has  the  natural  sex  in  mind  rather  than  the  grammatical  gender  of  the 
antecedent:  Denn  der  Alte  hatte  ein  Enkeltöchterchen  bei  sich,  zu  dem  sie  Pate  gestanden 
und  deren  sie  sich  auf  allerlei  Art  anzunehmen  pflegte  (Storm's  In  St.  Jürgen).  We  now  usually 
find  strict  grammatical  concordance  here  in  choice  language:  Wir  haben  da  ein  sehr  zartes 
Frauchen,  das  eine  Weile  gepflegt  werden  muß  (H.  Böhlau). 

2.  Diminutives  of  masc.  common  nouns  representing  males  usually  require 
grammatical  concordance.  They  take  the  neut.  article:  das  Männlein,  das 
Söhnlein,  &c.  Pronouns  referring  to  such  nouns  are  as  a  rule  neut.,  altho 
synesis  often  occurs:  Ein  kleines  schwarzes  Männlein,  welches  auf  der  Bank 
an  der  anderen  Seite  der  Tür  saß  (Raabe's  Schüdderiimp,  chap.  1).  The 
synesis  of  the  personal  pronoun  becomes  more  common,  the  further  it  is  removed 
from  the  noun  to  which  it  refers.  The  synesis  of  the  relative  occurs  only  in 
older  literature:  Ein  Kerlchen,  den  Frau  Fortuna  zu  ihrem  Liebling  gedrechselt 
zu  haben  schien  (Klinger). 

In  dialect  and  popular  language  synesis  may  occur:  Den  Wurstl  (i.e.  den 
kleinen  Hanswurst)  meinst?  (Storm's  Pole  Poppenspäler). 

3.  If  a  feminine  or  a  neuter  other  than  a  diminutive  represents  a  male, 
the  same  rule  is  now  followed  as  is  given  in  2  for  diminutives :  Als  Seine  Majestät, 
I  der  Kaiser,  Ihren  (his)  mutigen  Armeen  |  ein  ruhmgekröntes,  kriegserfahrnes 
Haupt  I  geschenkt  in  der  Person  des  Herzogs  Friedland  (Schiller's  Piccolomini, 
2,  7).  Fast  drehte  sich  im  kaiserlichen  Lager  |  .  .  .  um  Heinrichs  Jäger,  Arzt, 
Roß,  Hund  und  Federspiel  |  mehr  das  Gespräch  als  um  die  Majestät  |  des 
Kaisers  selbst,  die  nie  zur  Tafel  ging,  |  Heinrich  von  Aue  schritt  ihr  denn  zur 


548 SYNESIS   OF   GENDER 263.  I.  3. 

Seite  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  2,  p.  57).  Draußen  rief  er  eine  Or- 
donnanz und  schärfte  ihr  ein,  Leutnant  von  Edelfleth  zu  benachrichtigen,  daß 
er  gegangen  sei  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  Iviii).  Nun  ward  es  eine 
untersetzte,  breitrückige  Mannsperson,  deren  Kleidung  sich  nicht  deutlich 
unterscheiden  ließ  (Jensen'  Schatzsucher,  p.  164).  Das  Mitglied  des  Kongresses, 
das,  &c. ;  die  Schildwache,  die  vor  der  Tür  steht.  Except  in  the  case  ol  the  re- 
lative, synesis  sometimes  occurs:  Exzellenz  zauberten  uns  hier  einen  seiner  schö- 
nen Gärten  (Gutzkow). 

4.  The  article,  or  a  limiting  or  descriptive  adjective,  before  the  diminutive 
form  of  a  proper  name  which  represents  a  person  has  often  natural  gender  in 
certain  dialects,  while  other  dialects  are  not  unfriendly  to  the  neut.  gender: 
die  Liesel  (Anzengruber's  Kreuzelschreiber,  3,  3),  die  Sepherl  (ib.,  2,  11 1,  der 
Toni  (ib.,  1,  3),  arme  Liesel  (Anzengruber's  Gänseliesel),  das  Bärbele  (Auer- 
bach's  Tonele,  chap.  1),  das  arme  Hannele  (Hauptmann's  Hanncics  Himmel- 
fahrt, p.  75).  Likewise  common  nouns  when  used  as  names:  die  Mutterchen 
muß  ihren  Tee  haben  (Schulze-Smidt's  Denk'  ich  an  Deutschland  in  der  Nacht, 
II).  Der  Herrchen  darf  nicht  schelten  (ib.).  The  masc.  form  of  the  article 
is  often  used  in  the  Swabian  dialects  before  the  diminutive  of  a  name  or  a  com- 
mon class  noun  referring  to  a  male.  See  245.  I.  8.  1.  /.  Note  3.  The  neuter 
form  of  the  article  or  a  limiting  or  descriptive  adjective  is  preferred  in  the 
literary  language:  Das  kleine  Hänschen,  du  gutes  Hänschen,  mein  kleines 
Dortchen.  In  the  literary  language  as  well  as  in  dialect  all  pronouns  and 
possessives  referring  to  diminutive  names  are  quite  commonly  selected  ac- 
cording to  the  natural  gender  except  relatives,  which  usually  in  choice  language 
follow  the  gender  of  the  antecedent:  ,, Mutter,  so  viel  Geld  hast  du  bekommen!" 
rief  Lieschen,  als  sie  auf  dem  Fensterbrett  eine  Reihe  Silbermünzen  liegen  sah. 
Lieschen  und  ihre  Mutter.  Sometimes  the  pronoun  or  the  possessive  is  selected 
according  to  the  grammatical  gender:  Schweigend  verbeugte  sich  Eislein, 
wofür  ihm  ein  hochmütiges  Nicken  wurde.  Was  aus  dem  Korderl  (Kordula 
-f  lein)  seiner  (her)  Mutter  und  dem  Herrn  Ingenieur  geworden,  hatte  ich 
nicht  erfahren  können  (P.  Heyse's  Ein  Idealist).  If  there  is  an  inflected  adjec- 
tive before  the  diminutive,  synesis  of  the  relative  is  not  now  common  in  the 
literary  language,  altho  it  occasionally  occurs  in  case  of  reference  to  females: 
das  kleine  Hänschen,  das  unter  dem  Baume  sitzt.  Das  hübsche  Lisettchen  von 
Amberg,  der  (instead  of  the  more  common  dem)  das  Kostüm  des  vorigen 
Jahrhunderts  allerliebst  zu  Gesichte  steht  (National-Zeitung,  28,  47).  Synesis 
of  the  relative  is,  however,  quite  common  even  in  case  of  masculines,  if  there 
is  no  inflected  adjective  before  the  diminutive:  Röschen,  die  der  Mutter  Freude 
war;  Hänschen,  der  ein  sehr  guter  Knabe  ist.  But  also  here  we  sometimes 
find  grammatical  concordance:  Vrenchen,  welches  nur  das  eine  zu  fühlen 
fähig  war  (Keller's  Romeo  und  Julie). 

5.  If  the  word  Frau  stands  before  the  title  of  the  husband,  the  article  agrees 
with  Frau  instead  of  with  the  title:    Die  geehrte  Frau  Professor. 

6.  Aside  from  the  above  cases,  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  adjective-substantive 
representing  a  person  usually  has  natural  gender,  but  where  the  sex  is  a  matter 
of  doubt  or  little  concern,  as  in  case  of  children  or  the  young  of  animals,  the 
substantive  is  often  neut.,  as  this  gender  gives  grammatical  expression  to  the 
idea  of  vagueness:  Der  Freund  (male)  friend,  die  Freundin  lady  friend,  der 
Kranke  or  die  Kranke,  but  das  Kleine  the  young  child,  sein  Kleinstes  his 
smallest  child,  das  Junge  eines  Schafes. 

a.  After  the  indefinite  pronouns  jemand,  niemand,  wer,  the  following  adjective-substantive 
is  in  the  neut.  or  masc,  to  indicate  that  it  may  represent  either  a  male  or  female.  See  145, 
Notes  under  b,  c,  and  e. 

b.  The  masc,  less  frequently  the  neut.,  is  used  in  general  references,  referring  to  either  males 
or  females,  or  both,  and  also  in  cases  where  it  is  desired  to  emphasize  the  abstract  idea  in  the 
word  without  reference  to  sex:  Teuer  ist  mir  der  Freund,  doch  auch  den  Feind  kann  ich  nützen; 
zeigt  mir  der  Freund,  was  ich  kann,  lehrt  mich  der  Feind,  was  ich  soll  (Schiller).  Der  Gerechte 
wird  seines  Glaubens  leben  (Romans  i.  17).  Die  Hütte  scheint  mir  etwas  zu  eng.  Für  uns 
beide  doch  geräumig  genug,  versetzte  Charlotte.     Nim  freilich,  sagte  Eduard,  für  einen  Dritten 


263.  IL  2. SYNESIS   OF   NUMBER 549 

ist  auch  wohl  noch  Platz.  Warum  nicht?  versetzte  Charlotte,  und  auch  für  ein  Viertes  (Goethe's 
Die  Wahlverwandtschaften,  chap.  i).  Es  ist  ja  kein  Fremdes,  das  danach  fragt,  ich  bin  ja  doch 
dein  Elind  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  11).  For  an  example  of  the  use  of  the  niasc.  for  an 
abstract  idea  see  253.  111.  2.  a.  The  neuter  is  also  used  to  denote  an  abstract  idea,  but  its  use 
differs  from  that  of  the  masculine.  See  253.  III.  2.  a,  2nd  par.  General  references  applying  to 
either  males  or  females  are  especially  common  in  case  of  pronouns  and  prononnnal  adjectives. 
Here  the  masc.  form  is  now  usually  found,  but  the  neut.  forms  es,  das,  dies,  jedes,  alles,  keins, 
ein(e)s,  was,  &c.,  are  also  found,  especially  in  the  cases  recorded  in  II.  4  below:  Es  ist  keiner 
vor  dem  Tode  glücklich  zu  preisen,  denn  jeder  ist  dem  Wechsel  des  Schicksals  unterworfen. 
Vater  und  Mutter  sind  jedes  ein  Mensch  für  sich,  und  die  Menschen  sind  verschieden  (Wildcn- 
bruch's  Neid).  Knaben,  Männer  und  Frauen,  keins  blieb  unberührt  (Goethe).  Wenn  ich 
nur  eines  meiner  eigenen  Angehörigen  jetzt  bei  mir  hätte!  (Auerbach).  Gesehen  habe  ich  von 
meinen  Großeltern  keines  (Hermann  Stehr's  Drei  Nächte,  p.  4S).  Früh  übt  sich,  was  ein  Meister 
werden  will  (Schiller).  For  fuller  description  of  the  use  of  v/as  see  157.  b.  There  is  sometimes 
a  shade  of  difference  between  the  neut.  and  masc.  of  some  of  these  words,  the  former  having 
collective,  the  latter  individualizing  force:  Und  jedes  (each  and  all  of  the  brothers  and  sisters) 
quälte  seine  Phantasie,  |  mit  einem  neuen  Reize  dich  zu  schmücken.  |  Der  gab  dir  Pallas'  Aug', 
der  Heres  Arm,  |  der  Aphroditens  reizdurchwirkten  Gürtel  (( '.rillparzer's  Sappho,  1,  3).  Instead 
of  a  masc.  or  neut.  sometimes  both  masc.  and  fern,  are  used  to  emphasize  especially  the  idea 
that  both  sexes  are  included:  Keiner  und  keine  bleibe  daheim  (Rosegger).  Diesen  hier  mußte 
wohl  jeder  und  jede  schön  finden  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  148).  In  dem  Schlafrock  mußt 
du  dich  photographieren  lassen,  dann  widersteht  dir  niemand  und  keine!  (Wildenbruch's 
Schwester- Seele,  chap.    XV). 

c.  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  no  definite  noun,  but  to  a  general  or  indefinite  idea,  the  neuter 
is  used:  Er  meint  es  gut  mit  dir.  Er  hat  es  bequem.  „Die  Erfüllung  ist  an  eine  Bedingung 
geknüpft."  „Welche  Bedingung?  sage  mir's"  (Freytag).  The  es  here  cannot  refer  to  the  fem. 
Bedingung,  but  to  the  unknown  purport  of  the  condition. 

d.  A  demonstrative  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb  and  referring  to  a  pre- 
ceding individual  usually  agrees  in  the  literary  form  of  speech  with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  but 
colloquially  the  neuter  is  often  used  without  reference  to  the  antecedent:  Ich  kenne  deinen  Vater 
wohl:  der  (colloquially  das)  ist  ein  braver  Mann.  Sind  sonst  wackre  Brüder.  Aber  das 
denkt  wie  ein  Seifensieder. 

7.  The  relative  is  neuter  if  the  reference  is  to  a  fern,  noun  denoting  an  in-- 
definite  quantity:  Fräulein  Hermann  wußte  eine  Menge  (=  viel)  über  Goethe 
zu  sagen,   das  nicht  ganz  dem  entsprach,  was  Professor  von  Rangenhofen 
vorgetragen  hatte  (Ompteda's  Cäcilie  von  Sarryn,  chap.  18). 

8.  Sometimes  the  predicate  noun  does  not  assume  a  grammatical  form  in 
accordance  with  the  natural  sex  of  the  person  represented  by  the  subject.  See 
253.  III.  2.  a. 

9.  In  the  expression  seinerzeit  in  his  (or  her,  their,  my,  our)  time  the  pos- 
sessive may  remain  constant  without  reference  to  the  gender  of  the  antecedent. 
See  138.  2.  a. 

II.  Synesis  of  Number.  The  number  of  a  word  may  be  regulated  by  the 
sense  instead  of  by  the  rules  of  grammatical  concordance  in  the  following  cate- 
gories : 

1.  The  cases  where  the  number  of  the  verb  is  regulated  by  the  sense  are 
described  in  253.  \.  \.  d,  g  and  2.  c,  d. 

2.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  period  a  personal  pronoun  (er,  sie,  es,  derselbe, 
solch-)  is  not  infrequently  in  the  pi.  if  it  refers  to  a  sing,  noun  containing  a  col- 
lective idea:  Den  Teufel  spürt  das  Völkchen  nie,  |  und  wenn  er  sie  beim  Kragen 
hätte!  (Goethe's  Faust,  Auerbachs  Keller).  This  usage  continues  in  our  own 
time,  but  the  trend  toward  strict  grammatical  concordance  has  become  very 
strong,  so  that  the  sing,  here  is  now  more  common  in  the  literary  language. 
Synesis  is,  however,  still  quite  common  when  the  pronoun  refers  to  a  noun  in 
the  sing,  representing  not  an  individual  but  a  whole  class:  Ich  hatte  mir  .  .  . 
eingebildet  .  .  .  ,  auf  dem  Bock  säi5e  der  Tod  in  einem  schwarzen,  flatternden 
Mantel,  auf  seinem  klappernden  Schädel  einen  blanken,  niedrigen  Hut,  wie 
ich  solche  an  unseren  Droschkenkutschern  zu  sehen  gewohnt  war  (R.  Huch's 
Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  26). 

Synesis  of  the  possessive  was  common  earlier  in  the  period:  Da  riß  alles  Volk 
seine  goldenen  Ohrringe  von  ihren  Ohren  (Luther).  Ein  echter  deutscher 
Mann  mag  keinen  Franzen  leiden,  1  doch  ihre  Weine  trinkt  er  gern  (Goethe's 
Faust,  Auerbachs  Keller).  This  usage  still  continues:  Wenn  wir  Deutsche 
nach  Frankreich  gehen,  so  lernen  wir  vorher  die  Sprache  ihres  Landes  (Riehl). 


550 SYNESIS   OF    NUMBER 263.  II.  2. 

The  trend  to-day  is  decidedly  toward  strict  grammatical  concordance  or  toward 
the  avoidance  of  a  conflict  by  changing  the  construction:  Die  Treue  des  Volkes 
zu  seinem  König. 

Synesis  of  the  relative  occurs  earlier  in  the  period :  Denn  der  HERR  hat  dis 
Geschlecht  |  vber  die  er  zornig  ist  |  verworffen  vnd  Verstössen  (Jer.  vii.  29). 
Des  Hauses  Espinay  — ,  die  nicht  in  den  Krieg  zögen,  um  reich  zu  werden 
(Schiller).  To-day  the  synesis  of  the  relative  is  in  the  strict  sense  almost  un- 
known. For  an  instance  see  253.  I.  1.  g.  It  is  usually  only  used  when  the 
relative  stands  in  a  loose  relation  to  its  antecedent,  introducing  a  free  and  in- 
dependent statement  with  reference  to  either  a  preceding  collective  idea  con- 
tained in  a  sing,  noun  together  with  its  modifying  adjective,  or  with  reference 
to  a  noun  in  the  sing,  representing  not  an  individual  but  a  whole  class:  Manches 
aufstrebende  Talent,  deren  einige  nunmehr  zu  Ruf  und  Ruhm  gelangt  sind. 
Jeder  Witz,  an  denen  er  es  nicht  fehlen  ließ,  wurde  stürmisch  belacht.  Ist's 
nicht  ein  Mönch,  deren  du  tausende  sahst? 

3.  Sometimes  we  find  a  plural  pronoun  referring  to  a  noun  Vv'hich  is  sing,  in 
form,  but  which  in  the  passage  in  question  by  its  synecdochical  or  metonymic 
use  represents  a  plural  idea:  Das  edle  Weib  ist  halb  ein  Mann,  ja  ganz,  erst 
ihre  Fehler  machen  sie  zu  Weibern  (Grillparzer's  Die  Jüdin  von  Toledo).  Ruß- 
land sucht  sein  Gebiet  in  Asien  zu  erweitern;  sie  sind  abermals  vorgerückt. 
While  this  usage  continues  in  our  own  day  the  trend  is  toward  strict  grammatical 
concordance  or  toward  avoidance  of  a  conflict  by  changing  the  construction. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  singular  noun  is  often  used  distributively  with  reference 
to  several  individuals:  Die  Herren  zündeten  sich  eine  Zigarre  an  (Ompteda's 
Eysen,  II,  29).  Other  examples  in  96.  12.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe 
caution  here  as  this  usage  is  limited.  Thus  we  say:  Die  Kinder  nehmen  die 
Bücher  (not  das  Buch)  vor  and  may  say:  Die  Herren  zündeten  sich  Zigarren  an. 

4.  The  neuter  sing,  of  a  pronoun  or  adjective-substantive  is  often  used 
without  reference  to  the  sex  or  the  number  of  the  persons  or  things  referred  to: 

a.  Alles  is  used  to  give  the  general  idea  of  universality,  including  males  and 
females,  young  and  old:  Alles  freut  sich  der  Frühlingszeit  Everybody  rejoices 
in  spring.  Alles  (everybody)  war  entzückt.  Alles  rät  ihm,  ein  milderes  Klima 
zu  suchen.  Heute  ist  Familientag,  und  dazu  muß  alles  da  sein,  was  unseren 
Namen  trägt  (Ompteda's  Eysen). 

b.  Jedes  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  statement  applies  to  all  the  members 
of  a  certain  group,  both  males  and  females:  Vater  und  Mutter  sind  jedes  ein 
Mensch  für  sich  und  die  Menschen  sind  verschieden  (Wildenbruch 's  Neid, 
Werke,  VI,  p.  161).  Der  Pfarrer  hat  doch  prächtig  gepredigt.  Da  hat  sich 
jedes  was  herausnehmen  können,  sei  es  ledig  oder  verheiratet  (Auerbach 's 
Edelweiß,   X\T).     The  masc.  sing,  is  also  often  used  here. 

c.  Also  das,  dies,  and  es  are  used  collectively,  embracing  a  number  of  things 
previously  mentioned  or  pointed  out  by  gesture:  Gold  und  Schätze,  Macht 
und  Hoheit,  das  begehre  ich  nicht.  Schönheit,  Ehre,  Reichtum,  dies  alles  ist 
vergänglich.  Es  is  used  here  quite  often  in  subordinate  clauses  introduced  by 
als  (or  als  wenn  or  als  ob) :  Sie  sprach  mit  ihren  Steinen  oft,  als  wären  es  belebte 
Wesen   (Wilhelm  Fischer's  Die  Freude  am  Licht,  II,  p.   19). 

d.  Das  is  often  used  referring  to  individuals,  not  as  such,  but  as  members 
of  one  class:  Schon  so  große  Töchter  hast  du?  Wie  das  heranwächst!  Are 
your  daughters  so  large  already?  Well,  how  girls  do  grow!  See  also  129.  2. 
C.  (3). 

e.  The  neut.  sing,  beides  is  used  in  a  collective  sense,  including  both  of  two 
things:  Ich  habe  beides,  Brief  und  Paket  richtig  erhalten.  Sommer  und 
Winter  trug  sie  ein  schmieriges,  schwarzseidenes  Fransentüchlein  um  den 
Kopf  und  einen  verschossenen,  türkischen  Schal  um  die  Schultern,  beides 
sorgfältig  nach  hinten  ins  Dreieck  gelegt  (Isolde  Kurz's  Das  Vermächtnis  der 
Tante  Susanne). 

f.  The  neut.  indefinite  eins  (or  the  masc.  form  einer)  often  stands  after  the 
gen.  pi.  of  a  personal  pronoun  to  indicate  that  the  different  persons  of  the  class 


265. ADVERBIAL   MODIFIERS 551 

referred  to  in  the  personal  pronoun,  whether  they  be  males  or  females,  are 
included  in  the  statement,  and  that  not  a  mere  reference  to  one  is  intended : 
Wenn  unsereins  (or  very  commonly  unsereiner)  am  Spinnen  war,  |  .  .  .  stand 
sie  bei  ihrem  Buhlen  süß  (Goethe's  Faust,  Am  Brunnen)  When  we  (here: 
hard-working  girls  like  you  and  me)  used  to  be,  &c.  Sometimes  the  fem.  form 
is  used  to  make  a  distinct  reference  to  females:  Wahrscheinlich  zu  alt,  zu  erhaben 
über  ein  armes  Ding  wie  ich,  um  vernünftig  mal  über  eine  Sache  mit  unser- 
einer ...  zu  reden  (Raabe's  Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  17). 

g.  An  adjective-substantive  is  often  used  in  the  neut.  sing,  to  indicate  in  a 
general  way  the  idea  of  a  collection  or  indefinite  number  of  things:  Man  hört 
viel  Gutes  und  viel  Dummes  We  hear  many  good  and  foolish  things.  Er  hat 
mir  viel  Liebes  und  Gutes  erwiesen.  See  also  109.  a.  (2).  For  the  use  of 
das,  was,  and  es  in  a  collective  sense  see  153.  1.  (1);  157  and  b  thereunder; 
141.  9.  a.     For  the  number  of  the  predicate  appositive  after  was  see  157.  c. 

h.  Das,  dies,  es,  jenes,  are  often  used  as  subjects  referring  to  one  or  several, 
to  a  masc,  fem.,  or  neut.,  whenever  they  represent  the  thing  or  things  pointed 
out  by  a  gesture  or  the  context  as  identical  with  the  thing  or  things  indicated 
by  the  predicate:  Das  ist  mein  Buch.  Das  sind  meine  Bücher.  Die  unbe- 
kannte Wohltäterin,  von  der  ihr  sprächet,  das  ist  diese  Frau.  Es  sind  meine 
Brüder  They  are  my  brothers.  Here  the  gesture  or  preceding  words  always  make 
the  reference  so  clear  that  close  grammatical  concordance  does  not  seem  necessary. 

i.  The  neut.  pronominal  forms  es,  das,  was,  often  stand  as  a  predicate, 
referring  to  a  masc,  fem.,  or  neut.,  a  sing,  or  pi.:  Sie  hält  sich  für  eine  große 
Künstlerin,  ohne  es  zu  sein  She  thinks  she  is  a  great  artist,  although  she  is  not. 
Wir  hofften  willkommene  Gäste  zu  sein,  und  wir  waren  es  wirklich  We  hoped 
to  be  welcome  guests  and  we  were  indeed  so.  Er  ist  ein  Gelehrter;  das  ist  sein 
Bruder  nicht.  Was  ist  seine  Schwester?  Eine  Schauspielerin.  Here  these 
pronouns  do  not  refer  to  the  sex  of  the  persons  denoted  by  their  antecedents, 
but  rather  to  the  general  abstract  idea  contained  within  these  antecedents, 
hence  the  lack  of  literal  grammatical  concordance  with  the  words  to  which  they 
refer  and  the  selection  of  the  neuter  form. 

5.  In  the  expression  seinerzeit  in  his  (or  her,  their,  my,  our)  time  the  possessive 
may  remain  constant  without  reference  to  the  number  of  the  antecedent.  See 
138.  2.  a. 

Adverbial  Modifiers. 

264.  Adverbial  modifiers  assume  the  form  of  simple  uninflected  adverbs, 
nouns  in  an  oblique  case,  a  prepositional  phrase,  or  a  clause:  Große  Seelen 
dulden  still.  Frohen  Mutes  trat  er  herein.  Sie  weinte  vor  Freude.  Wäh- 
rend wir  schliefen,  brach  der  Sturm  los.  This  subject  is  treated  at  considerable 
length  under  the  head  of  Adverbs,  beginning  at  223.  The  adverbial  clause  is 
treated  in  273-282. 

The  adverb,  as  indicated  by  its  literal  meaning  joined  to  a  verb,  is  an  apposi- 
tive to  a  verb,  i.e.  is  placed  before  or  after  a  verb  to  explain  its  meaning  in  the 
case  at  hand  more  clearly,  much  as  an  adjective  as  an  appositive  is  placed  before 
or  after  a  noun  to  explain  it:  Das  Mädchen  zürnt  sehr.  This  same  form  is 
similarly  used  as  an  appositive  to  an  adjective  or  another  adverb  and  here  is 
also  called  an  adverb  altho  of  course  it  is  here  not  true  to  its  name:  Das  Mäd- 
chen ist  sehr  schön.  Das  Mädchen  singt  sehr  schön.  An  adverbial  dement, 
tho  usually  different  in  meaning  from  a  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  or  prepo- 
sitional object,  always  performs  the  same  function,  i.e.  serves  as  an  appositive 
to  a  verb  or  adjective,  and  often,  as  explained  in  261  (3rd  par.),  is  closely  related 
in  meaning  to  the  object,  often  even  so  closely  that  it  is  confounded  with  it, 
as  illustrated  in  185. 

Independent  Elements. 

265.  Independent  elements  are  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  which  are  not 
related  grammatically  to  other  parts  of  the  sentence,  or  which  stand  all  alone 


552 ABSOLUTE    PARTICIPLE 265. 

without  filling  any  grammatical  office.  In  some  cases  these  elements  are  in 
fact  grammatically  independent,  while  in  others  they  are  only  seemingly  so, 
as  they  in  reality  belong  to  some  word  understood.  A  historical  study  of  these 
constructions  shows  clearly  that  most  of  them  were  originally  dependent.  The 
following  are  the  most  important  classes  of  such  elements: 

A.  Direct  Address.  The  name  of  a  person  who  is  called  is  often  spoken  alone 
without  other  words.  Like  interjections  (241)  such  names  are  independent 
sentences  of  a  primitive  type,  which,  tho  a  single  word,  can  in  connection  with 
the  situation  and  an  appropriate  accent  convey  a  thought,  as  in  Fritz!  spoken 
in  loud  tone  and  prolonged  vowel  to  call  him  into  the  house,  or  Fritz!  spoken 
quickly  with  a  short  vowel  and  angry  tone  when  we  scold  him.  See  250.  a. 
They  are  also  often  inserted  in  a  modern  sentence  without  grammatical  relations 
to  the  other  words:  Kinder,  ich  habe  euch  allen  etwas  mitgebracht.  Such 
words  now  stand  in  the  nom.,  in  an  earlier  period,  however,  they  stood  in  a 
distinct  case,  called  the  vocative. 

B.  Absolute  Construction.  Words  are  often  used  absolutely,  that  is,  without 
a  grammatical  connection  with  any  other  word  in  the  sentence.  This  construc- 
tion may  assume  different  forms: 

a.  An  uninflected  participle  may  be  used  absolutely,  with  the  force  of  a 
subordinate  adverbial  clause  which  has  a  subject  of  a  general  meaning:  Diesen 
Mangel  abgerechnet,  ist  die  Wohnung  gut  If  one  doesn't  take  note  of  this  defect, 
the  house  is  a  good  one.  Abgesehen  [habend]  von  diesem  Lärm,  an  den  man 
sich  bald  gewöhnte,  konnte  man  in  Versailles  glauben,  im  tiefen  Frieden  zu 
leben  (Moltke).  The  second  example  gives  an  insight  into  the  origin  of  the  con- 
struction. Originally,  as  still  in  this  example,  the  perfect  active  participle  was  an 
appositive  to  some  noun  or  pronoun,  usually  the  subject  as  here.  The  habend  of 
the  perfect  active  participle  was  regularly  suppressed  in  M.H.G.,  as  explained 
in  183.  2.  C.  c:  Inch  möcht'  des  waldes  han  bevilt,  |  von  erbuwenem  lande  her 
geritn  [habende]  (Parzival,  250.  20)  The  forest  must  have  seemed  very  large  to 
you  having  ridden  hither  from  a  cultivated  country.  Here  geritn  is  in  appo- 
sition with  itich  and  has  with  its  modifiers  the  force  of  a  conditional  clause, 
just  as  the  participle  with  its  modifiers  in  this  construction  still  often  has.  As 
an  active  perfect  participle  is  not  now  employed  to  denote  an  act  this  old  perfect 
participle  construction  is  no  longer  understood,  so  that  the  perfect  participle  is 
now  often  used  absolutely,  i.e.  without  relations  to  any  noun  in  the  sentence, 
the  reference  becoming  general  or  indefinite,  as  in  the  first  example.  The  object, 
if  it  be  a  reflexive  pronoun,  is  still  regularly  suppressed  here,  as  in  183.  2.  C.  c: 
Beim  Sonnenuntergang  glaubt  man  immer,  von  der  Stelle,  wo  man  steht,  bis 
nach  Westen  hin  reicht  das  Abendrot,  da  ist  noch  Licht,  [sich]  rückwärts  gekehrt 
erscheint  alles  dunkel   (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  2,  p.  77). 

In  recent  literature  this  old  perfect  active  participle  is  often  felt  as  belonging 
to  the  impersonal  passive  (219.  5)  construction,  in  which  the  form,  tho  passive, 
is  active  in  force:,.  Gelinde  gesprochen  [=  wenn  gelinde  gesprochen  werden 
soll],  ist  das  eine  Übertreibung  Speaking  in  mild  terms  that  is  an  exaggeration. 
Similarly  im  Vertrauen  gesagt  speaking  confidentially,  offen  gestanden  to  tell 
the  truth,  &c. 

Sometimes  also  the  present  participle  is  used  absolutely:  Die  Sache  selbst 
betreffend,  so  ist  zunächst  zu  bemerken  Concerning  the  point  itself,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  remark.  Die  alte  Sprache  anlangend  ...  so  denke  ich  ganz  wie  Sie 
usw.  (T.  Storm  an  G.  Keller).  In  einer  anderen  Abteilung  werden  Schiffs- 
kanonen aller  Kaliber  und  Arten  zu  sehen  sein,  mit  denen  des  15.  Jahrhunderts 
beginnend. 

b.  Absolute  Accusative  and  Nominative. 

(1)  Absolute  Accusative.  An  absolute  acc,  analogous  to  the  ablative  absolute 
in  Latin,  often  forms,  in  connection  with  an  uninflected  adjective,  a  participle, 
an  adverb,  or  prepositional  phrase,  a  construction  that  is  equivalent  to  a  sub- 
ordinate adverbial  clause  of  which  the  acc.  is  the  logical  subject,  and  the  adj., 
part.,   adverb,   or   phrase,    the   predicate.     Attendant   circumstance:    Wilhelm 


265.  B.  h.  (1) ABSOLUTE   ACCUSATIVE 553 

hatte,  den  Kopf  in  die  Hand  gestützt  (=  indem  der  Kopf  in 
die  Hand  gestützt  war),  nachdenklich  zugehört.  Der  Mann  näherte  sich  ihm 
langsam,  die  Arme  herunterhängend,  die  Augen  starr.  Und  so  kehrte  ich 
denn  in  die  Heimat  zurück,  nichts  mein  als  einen  leeren  Beutel.  So  stand 
er  da,  die  Füße  auswärts,  den  Kopf  empor,  die  Arme  übereinander.  Friedrich 
ging,  die  Hände  auf  dem  Rücken,  im  Zimmer  auf  und  ab.  Time:  Dies  getan, 
entfernte  er  sich  After  this  was  done  he  withdrew.  Goethe  ist  der  König  seines 
Volks;  ihn  gestürzt  und  wie  leicht  dann  mit  dem  Volke  fertig  werden  (Börne). 
Dies  geschehen,  nahm  der  Student  Konrad  an  der  Hand  und  führte  ihn  usw. 
(Hans  Hopfen's  Verdorben  zu  Paris,  II,  155).  Cause:  Diese  (i.e.  die  Tür)  zu, 
ging  das  Feuer  auf  dem  Herd  aus  (Hans  Hopfen's  Verdorben  zu  Paris,  I,  265). 
Condition:  In  der  Hand  den  LiUenstengel,  wäre  er  ein  Heil'genbild.  Conces- 
sion: Den  Tod  schon  im  Herzen,  kämpfte  er  tapfer  weiter.  The  accusative  is 
sometimes  omitted:  Da  sagt'  ich:  kleine  Hexlein,  grüß'  euch  Gott!  |  Was  braut 
und  backt  und  kocht  ihr  hier  im  Dunklen?  |  Doch  kaum  gesagt  —  hui!  stob  der 
Schwärm  davon  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  I,  p.  19).  This  construction 
is  most  commonly  used  to  give  some  attendant  circumstance  of  an  action. 
Sometimes  it  can  be  construed  as  having  temporal,  causal,  conditional,  or  con- 
cessive force. 

The  accusative  here  and  the  accompanying  adjective,  participle,  adverb,  or 
prepositional  phrase  have  the  force  of  an  adverbial  clause.  The  relation  of  this 
clause  to  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposition  is  not  indicated  by  a  conjunction, 
but  by  the  accusative  form  of  its  subject.  That  the  relation  of  this  construction 
to  the  principal  verb  is  that  of  an  adverb  to  its  governing  word  is  plainly  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  an  adverbial  genitive  or  prepositional  phrase  is  often  used 
instead  of  the  absolute  construction:  Wankenden  Schrittes,  mit  Tränen  in 
den  Augen,  erscheint  der  alte  Mann  auf  der  Schwelle  (Raabe).  So  mit  dem 
Felleisen  auf  dem  Rücken  und  ein  paar  Groschen  in  der  Tasche  glaubte  man 
Herr  der  Welt  zu  sein  (Baumbach's  Der  Scindegersohn,  VIII).  In  these  prepo- 
sitional clauses  the  predicate  sometimes  assumes  the  form  of  an  attributive  par- 
ticiple or  adjective  instead  of  a  predicate  participle  or  adjective:  Nach  getaner 
Arbeit  ist  gut  ruhen.  Er  geht  mit  bloßem  Kopfe.  The  attributive  form  is  quite 
common  in  a  few  expressions:  nach  geschlossenem  Frieden,  nach  beendetem 
Kriege,  nach  aufgehobener  Tafel,  bei  einbrechender  Nacht,  bei  drohendem 
Regen,  &c.  It  is  the  common  construction  where  the  logical  predicate  is  an 
adjective:  Er  ist  bei  schönem  Wetter  abgereist.  The  attributive  form  is  also 
the  rule  in  the  adverbial  genitive:  unverrichteter  Sache  without  having  attained 
one's  end,  without  accomplishing  anything,  stehenden  Fußes  immediately, 
tränenden  Auges  or  mit  tränenden  Augen,  &c. 

Note.  Historical  Development  of  the  Accusative  Abso'ute.  The  attributive  form,  i.e.  the  old  appositional  thing 
tvpe  of  sentence  described  in  250.  a  (2nd  par.),  is  in  many  cases  the  outgrowth  of  attempts  to  translate  the  Latin 
form  of  this  type  found  in  the  ablative  absolute,  as  in  "Haud  aliter  dissoliitis  nebulis  hausi  coelum"  Just  as  the  misl 
was  scattered  I  saw  the  sky.  The  O.H.G.  writers  in  trying  to  approach  the  Latin  original  employed  the  dative  instead 
of  the  ablative:  also  gestobenemo  nebele  sah  ih  ten  himel  fNotker,  B.  17.  23).  In  fact  neither  the  ablative  nor  the 
dative  is  used  here  absolutely  as  they  stand  in  an  adverbial  relation  to  the  verb  in  that  the  words  in  the  dative  and 
ablative  form  an  adverbial  clause  in  which  the  noun  is  subject,  the  adjective  predicate,  and  the  ablative  or  dative  the 
sign  of  subordination  to  the  principal  verb.  As  the  simple  dative  was  not  in  natural  German  expression  thus  used 
to  modify  the  verb  it  later  became  customar\'  in  this  attributive  type  of  adverbial  clause  to  use  in  certain  expressions 
the  more  natural  adverbial  genitive  instead  of  the  dative:  unverrichteter  Dinge,  &c.  In  some  other  cases  the  prepo- 
sitional construction  was  employed,  which  in  general  is  much  used  in  German  in  the  adverbial  relation:  Nach  zerteiltem 
Nebel  erblickte  ich  den  Himmel.  Aside  from  a  few  set  expressions  given  above  the  old  attributive  type  with  the 
adjective  element  before  the  noun  has  not  taken  deep  root  in  German  where  the  adjective  element  is  a  perfect  participle, 
altho  a  descriptive  adjective  is  quite  common  here.  The  old  attributive  type  is  very  common,  even  in  oldest  German, 
where  the  adjective  element  is  a  prepositional  phrase  and  stands  after  the  noun:  [Er]  fand  sia  drurenta  1  mit  saltern 
in  henti  (Otfrid.  I.  5.  9)  =  Er  traf  sie  voller  Trauer  an  mit  dem  Psalter  in  der  Hand.  The  weakly  stressed  preposition 
mit  which  stands  here  before  the  first  noun  of  the  adverbial  clause  has  disappeared  in  a  number  of  set  expressions,  as 
in  Komm  zu  mir  und  setz  dich  nieder,  |  wir  kosen  Hand  in  Hand.  The  first  noun  in  such  expressions,  as  Hand  in 
this  example,  is  now  felt  as  an  absolute  accusative  as  can  be  clearly  seen  when  it  is  modified:  Sie  ging  fort,  ihren 
ältesten  Jungen  an  der  Hand.  Thus  there  has  arisen  a  real  absolute  accusative  where  in  older  German  there  was  a 
prepositional  phrase.  The  absolute  accusative  here  arose  under  the  influence  of  the  absolute  accusative  in  elliptical 
constructions:  Solche  hindernis  alle  ungeachtet  [habendi,  richtet  gott  diesen  zug  durch  das  rote  meer  gleichwol 
aus  (Luther,  Weimar  16,  265,  19).  Originally  the  perf.  participle  was  felt  here  as  having  active  force,  often  as  here 
taking  an  object,  and  was  not  absolute  but  was  an  appositive  to  the  subject,  as  in  this  example.  As  explained  in 
a  above  and  in  183.  2.  C.  c  such  perfect  active  participles  are  found  in  M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.,  but  as  they  are  no 
longer  used  the  original  force  of  this  construction  is  not  now  understood,  .-^s  the  accusative  here  is  not  now  felt  as  an 
object,  it  is  construed  as  the  logical  subject  of  the  adverbial  clause  and  the  participle  is  construed  as  the  predicate  of 
the  clause.  The  construction  has  become  productive,  so  that  we  now  find  as  predicate  of  the  clause  not  only  a  perfect 
participle  of  a  transitive  verb,  but  also  the  perfect  participle  of  an  intransitive  verb,  an  adjective,  adverb,  or  a  prepo- 
sitional phrase,  as  illustrated  above. 


554 ABSOLUTE   NOMINATIVE,  INTERJECTIONS  265.  B.  6.  (1) 

(2)  Absolute  Nominative.  The  absolute  nominative  is  not  infrequent.  It 
does  not  seem  to  be  as  closely  related  to  the  principal  proposition  as  the  ac- 
cusative absolute.  It  limits  the  main  verb  by  adding  the  time  or  some  circum- 
stance of  the  action,  but  it  has  the  force  of  an  additional  contracted  proposition 
of  which  the  verb  is  sein  understood  rather  than  that  of  a  subordinate  clause. 
It  is  most  common  in  descriptive  style  and  usually  adds  some  additional  detail 
to  render  more  complete  the  picture:  Endlich  so  kommt  der  Graf  hergefahren, 
der  Wagen  schwer  bepackt,  voraus  ein  Reiter  (Schiller),  Ich  geh  ins  Dorf 
hinaus,  allein  und  nicht  einmal  mein  Hund  bei  mir  (Auerbach).  Mein  Freund! 
Am  Tische  sitzen  wir  zusammen,  nichts  zwischen  uns  als  reiner,  goldner 
Wein  (Frey tag).  Ich  kann  mehr  wie  die  Kerle  alle,  mein  eigner  Vater  mit 
inbegriffen  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  3).  Zu  seinen  Häupten  der 
wolkenlose  Himmel,  zu  seinen  Füßen  dieses  Leben,  dachte  er  der  Tausend 
und  Abertausend,  die  der  Strudel  der  Weltstadt  unbarmherzig  in  seine  Tiefen 
reißen  würde!  (Stilgebauer's  Götz  Krafft,  II,  14,  p.  446). 

The  absolute  nominative  is  also  used  in  subject  clauses  m  connection  with 
an  appositive  participle  or  adjective  which  serves  as  the  logical  predicate: 
Diese  sechs  Punkte  erfüllt  war  nichts  Geringeres  als  der  Sieg  des  Konstitu- 
tionalismus über  die  königliche  Prärogative  (Brachvogel)  The  carrying  out  of 
these  six  points  meant  nothing  less  than,  &c.  Einige  Schurken  weniger  im 
Lande  würde  der  Welt  nichts  schaden. 

c.  Besides  the  quite  common  cases  in  a  and  h  above  other  participles  are 
sometimes  used  absolutely,  referring  to  persons  or  things  not  mentioned  at  all 
in  the  principal  proposition:  In  die  Stadt  zurückgekehrt,  beendigte  ein  Ball 
das  Fest  Having  returned  to  the  city,  they  closed  up  the  festival  with  a  ball. 
Here  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is  Ball,  which  would  regularly  be  the  subject 
of  the  participle,  but  the  context  implies  that  it  was  the  people,  not  the  ball, 
that  returned  to  the  city.  This  construction  is  generally  condemned  by  gram- 
marians. In  spite  of  their  frequent  protests  it  is  sometimes  used  by  good 
authors:  Lustig  davonfahrend,  wurden  die  Eindrücke  des  Abends  noch  einmal 
ausgetauscht  (Riehl's  N.  Nov.,  L54). 

d.  Absolute  Infinitive.  The  infinitive  with  or  without  zu  is  often  used  abso- 
lutely; see  185.  A.  I.  5,  II.  2.  c.  Also  the  infinitive  with  um  zu  is  used  ab- 
solutely: Wie  viele  interessante  Entdeckungen  haben  in  der  neuesten  Zeit 
allein  Sweet  und  Jespersen  gemacht,  um  nur  zwei  Namen  zu  nennen  (W.  Franz 
in  Englische  Studien,  32.  Band,  p.  232),     Compare  281.  b  (2nd  par.). 

C.  Interjections  are  often  inserted  in  a  proposition  without  having  any 
grammatical  connection  with  it,  and  exclamations  often  stand  alone,  filling 
no  grammatical  office.     Such  utterances  assume  the  following  forms: 

a.  They  are  uninflected  words,  or  have  the  form  of  a  sentence  or  a  phrase. 
See  241. 

b.  Exclamations  may  be  nouns,  the  person  or  thing  which  causes  the  feeling 
being  (1)  very  often  in  the  nom. :  O  ich  Ungeheuer  von  einem  Toren  O  what  a 
monstrous  fool  I  am!  O  mein  verlornes  Glück!  (2)  In  the  gen.  of  cause: 
Ach,  der  vielen,  vielen  Evatöchter,  die,  erwachend,  innewerden,  daß  ihr  Paradies 
nichts  war  als  ein  kurzer  schöner  Traum!  (Spielhagen 's  Freigeboren,  p.  11), 
O,  des  Glücks!  O,  der  Wonne!  (id..  Was  will  das  werden?,  IX,  chap,  xiii), 
O,  der  sonnigen  Tage,  mit  keiner  Wolke,  weder  am  Himmel  noch  in  ihrem 
Gemüt  (Rodenberg's  Klostermanns  Grundstück,  II).  O  der  Schlemmerei  am 
frühen  Morgen!  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  II,  p.  40).  This  construction  was 
very  common  earlier  in  the  period  and  even  still  frequent  in  the  classics,  and, 
as  can  be  seen  from  the  sentences  quoted  above,  not  yet  entirely  extinct.  It  is 
usually  replaced  to-day  by  the  nom.,  as  in  (1),  or  the  prepositional  constructions 
in  (5)  below.  The  genitive  is  much  more  common  than  the  nominative  in  ex- 
clamations as  a  word  to  strengthen  the  force  of  leider  alas:  Freilich  starb  er 
leiderdessen  (Storm  in  Westm.,  259,  10  b).  More  frequently  with  Gottes: 
Viel  ist  nicht  geworden,  leider  Gott's  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  2) 
(3)   Sometimes  in  the  dat.:    O  mir!  (Schiller)  Woe  is  me!     Pfui  allem  Tod!  | 


267.  1. COMPOUND   SENTENCE 555 

Ei,  ich  will  leben,  ich  (Grillparzer's  Ein  treuer  Diener,  4).  Pfui  dir,  or  more 
commonly  Pfui  über  dich  Shame  on  you!  We  sometimes  find  the  ace.  after 
pfui:  Pfui  dich!  (Lienhard's  Eulenspiegels  Heimkehr,  1).  Sometimes  with  the 
genitive  of  cause  described  in  (2)  above:  Pfui,  des  Kupplers!  (Grillparzer's 
Ottokar,  1).  The  dative  of  Seele  is  quite  common  in  the  expression  meiner 
Seele,  or  meiner  Seel'  (Fulda's  Die  Zxvillingssclnv ester,  3,  11)  upon  my  soul\ 
Sometimes  unin fleeted :  Mein  Seel',  sie  hat  so  unrecht  nicht,  Ihr  Herren  (Kleist's 
Der  zerbrochene  Krug,  7).  These  forms  are  short  for  bei  meiner  Seele!  The 
preposition  is  also  found:  bei  meiner  armen  Seele  (Lessing's  Minna,  3,  7). 
The  dative,  too,  is  common  after  weh(e)  to  denote  the  person  affected:  wehe 
mir!  woe  is  me!,  wehe  mir  Armem!,  or  wehe  über  mich  Armen!,  or  o  weh!  ich 
Armer!  The  dative  is  also  often  used  to  denote  the  person  threatened:  Wehe 
ihm,  wenn  er  zu  kommen  wagt!  In  early  N.H.G.  the  genitive  was  used  to 
denote  the  cause  of  the  feeling:  O  weh  des  tages  |  Denn  der  Tag  des  HERRN 
ist  nahe  |  vnd  kompt  wie  ein  verderben  vom  Allmechtigen  (Joel  i.  15).  The 
dative  is  also  common  after  Heil,  wohl,  and  Fluch:  Heil  dem  König!  Long  live 
the  King!  God  save  the  King!  Wohl  ihm,  daß  er  das  noch  erlebt  hat!  How 
fortunate  for  him  that  he  has  lived  to  see  that!  Fluch  dir,  Fluch  den  falschen 
Freunden  |  und  ihrer  schändUchen  Geschäftigkeit!  (Wilamowitz-Moellendorff's 
Griechische  Tragödien,  I,  p.  15G).  (4)  Only  rarely  in  the  ace:  O  mich  Vergeß- 
lichen (Lessing)  Plague  on  my  forgetfulness,  lit.  on  me  forgetful  one.  (5)  Very 
often  in  the  dat.  after  the  prep,  mit  or  the  ace.  after  über:  Mit  dir  feigem  Kerl! 
(Goethe's  Götz,  5,  5)  O,  you  cowardly  fellow!  Mit  diesem  Menschen!  Plague 
on  this  fellow!  Johannes:  Aber  du  wirst  doch  noch  'n  Rest  Pietät  für  'ne  Feier 
aufbringen,  die  noch  vor  .  .  .  Braun:  Du  mit  deiner  Pietät  (Hauptmann's  Ein- 
same Menschen,  1),     O  über  sie!     O!  O,  sie  sind  nicht  gekommen. 

Classes  of  Sentences 

266.  Sentences  are  divided  according  to  their  structure  into  three  classes — 
simple,  compound,  and  complex.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  indepen- 
dent proposition.  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  independent 
propositions.  A  complex  sentence  contains  one  independent  proposition  and 
one  or  more  subordinate  clauses.  As  the  simple  sentence  has  already  been 
discussed,  there  remain  only  the  compound  and  complex  sentences  to  be  treated. 

TJie  Compoimd  Sentence. 

267.  The  compound  sentence  consists  of  different  independent  propositions 
or  members.  These  members  may  be  two  or  more  simple  sentences,  or  one 
member  may  be  a  simple  sentence  and  the  others  complex  sentences,  or  there 
may  be  any  combination  of  simple  and  complex  sentences.  The  members  of  a 
compound  sentence  need  not  necessarily  be  complete.  When  two  or  more 
members  have  in  common  an  element  which  has  the  same  construction  in  each 
member  this  element  need  only  be  expressed  once:  Die  Eintracht  baut,  die 
Zwietracht  zerstört  das  Haus.  In  such  a  sentence  as  Er  hat  uns  nie  gefallen, 
also  auch  nie  enttäuscht  the  uns  has  the  same  form  in  both  members,  hence  is 
by  some  suppressed  as  here  in  the  second  member,  but  it  is  a  dative  in  the  first 
member  and  an  accusative  in  the  second,  hence  with  a  different  construction  in 
the  two  members,  which  leads  others  to  insert  it  also  in  the  second  member: 
Er  hat  uns  nie  gefallen,  uns  also  auch  nie  enttäuscht.  This  is  a  choicer  form 
of  expression. 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  usually  connected  in  the  following 
ways: 

1.  The  members  are  connected  by  co-ordinating  conjunctions.  This  manner 
of  joining  sentences  is  treated  at  considerable  length  under  the  head  of  Con- 
junctions, articles  233-236.  It  should  be  noticed  in  these  articles  that  different 
conjunctions  have  different  influence  over  the  word -order  in  the  members. 


556 PARATAXIS 267.  1. 

a.  The  most  important  case  of  contraction  when  two  or  more  members  have  in  common  an 
element  which  has  the  same  construction  in  each  member  is  when  several  subjects  have  one  verb 
in  common.  The  question  of  the  number  and  person  of  the  verb  in  such  cases  is  treated  in 
articles  253.  I.  2  and  II. 

Nole.  Sometimes  still,  not  however  in  choice  language  as  earlier  in  the  period,  a  pronoun,  such  as  das,  dieses, 
was,  or  a  noun  without  an  article,  is  expressed  luit  once,  even  if  it  lias  a  different  construction  in  the  two  members, 
provided,  however,  that  the  pronoun  or  noun  have  the  same  form  for  tlie  different  cases:  Nur  das  (eine)  hielt  er  mit 
seinem  ganzen  Herzen  fest,  und  konnte  ihm  nie  ausgeredet  werden.  Was  heißt  und  zu  welchem  Ende  studiert 
man  Universalgeschichte?  (title  of  one  of  Schiller's  productions).     See  also  271.  II.  3.  a;    272.  C.  c. 

h.  Sometimes  two  sentences  have  the  form  of  two  independent  propositions  connected  by 
a  co-ordinating  conjunction,  while  in  fact  one  of  them  is  logically  dependent:  Seien  Sie  so  gut 
und  kommen  Sie  (with  the  logical  force  of  a  subordinate  clause  of  result).  An  explanation  is 
given  in  4  (3rd  par.)  below. 

2.  The  connection  between  the  members  may  be  made  by  means  of  de- 
monstrative pronouns,  or  adverbs,  which  point  to  a  preceding  sentence,  and 
thus  bind  the  thought  of  the  several  propositions  together:  Ans  Vaterland,  ans 
teure,  schließ  dich  an;  das  halte  fest  mit  deinem  ganzen  Herzen;  hier  sind 
die  starken  Wurzeln  deiner  Kraft. 

3.  One  member  may  have  an  adverb  or  conjunction  which  refers  to  a  cor- 
responding element  in  the  other,  and  the  several  members  may  thus  be  bound 
firmly  together:  Erst  denke,  dann  rede!  Bald  (now)  weint  er,  bald  (now) 
lacht  er. 

4.  Parataxis.  Sometimes  there  is  no  formal  link  binding  the  members  to- 
gether, the  logical  connection,  however,  forms  a  sufficient  tie:  Kinder  sind  wie 
die  Blumen,  sie  können  nicht  zu  uns  herauf,  wir  müssen  uns  zu  ihnen  nieder- 
beugen, wenn  wir  sie  erkennen  wollen  (Wildenbruch's  Der  Letzte). 

Upon  close  investigation  it  will  become  clear  that  such  apparently  inde- 
pendent propositions  are  not  always  absolutely  independent.  One  of  the 
propositions  often  stands  in  some  grammatical  relation  to  the  other,  such  as 
that  of  subject,  object,  &c.,  or  in  an  adverbial  relation,  such  as  that  of  result, 
cause,  purpose,  concession,  condition:  Es  ist  besser,  du  gehst  (subject  clause). 
Den  Brackenburg  (name)  solltest  du  in  Ehren  halten  (object  clause),  sag'  ich 
dir  (Goethe's  Egmont,  3).  Sie  kam  ihm  wie  eine  Fee  vor  (result),  sie  war  so 
schön.  Es  ist  dieses  Jahr  Miß  wachs  gewesen;  alles  ist  teuer  (result).  Du 
mußt  gleich  gehen;  es  ist  spät  (cause).  Man  hatte  ihm  Geld  angeboten;  er 
sollte  still  sein  (purpose).  Der  Berg  sei  auch  noch  so  hoch,  or  Sei  der  Berg 
auch  noch  so  hoch  (concession),  ich  ersteige  ihn.  Er  soll  nur  kommen  (condi- 
tion), ich  werde  ihm  schon  heimleuchten.  For  other  forms  of  condition  here 
see  237.  1.  A.  b  (also  Note  2  thereunder),  279.  h.  (2). 

Such  sentences  represent  an  older  order  of  things,  which  was  once  more 
general  than  now.  In  the  earliest  stage  of  the  parent  tongue  from  which  the 
various  Indo-European  languages  have  come  there  were  no  subordinating  con- 
junctions as  now,  i.e.  no  formal  expression  had  as  yet  been  found  for  the  idea 
of  the  subordination  of  one  proposition  to  another.  This  placing  of  a  subordi- 
nate proposition  by  the  side  of  a  principal  proposition  without  a  formal  sign  of 
subordination  is  called  parataxis.  The  development  of  a  distinctive  formal 
sign  of  subordination  in  the  form  of  conjunctions  and  relative  pronouns — • 
hypotaxis  as  it  is  called — is  characteristic  of  a  later  stage  of  language  growth 
and  belongs  to  the  individual  life  of  the  different  languages  after  the  migration 
of  the  different  peoples  from  their  original  home.  It  has  required  many  cen- 
turies to  develop  the  present  hypotactic  forms,  but  actual  subordination,  altho 
without  a  formal  expression,  was  present  at  a  very  early  stage  of  language 
growth  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  old  verbless  type  of  sentence  preserved  in  old 
saws :  Ende  gut,  alles  gut  =  Wenn  das  Ende  gut  ist,  so  ist  alles  gut.  An  early 
stage  of  formal  hypotaxis,  asyndetic  hypotaxis,  i.e.  hypotaxis  clearly  marked  in 
thought  and  form  but  not  yet  indicated  by  a  separate  word  such  as  a  conjunction 
or  a  relative,  is  illustrated  in  154.  Note.  Here  of  the  two  originally  independent 
sentences  one  of  them,  lying  alongside  of  the  other  in  close  relation,  often  even 
embedded  literally  in  it,  is  so  markedly  dependent  logically  and  also  formally 
dependent  by  reason  of  its  peculiarly  abridged  and  closely  linked  form  that  it 
is  no  longer  felt  as  an  independent  sentence  but  as  a  relative  clause.     This 


268.  2.  a. SUBORDINATE   CLAUSES 557 

primitive  type  of  relative  clause  is  still  very  common  in  English:  The  book 
/  hold  [it]  here  in  my  hand  is  a  German  grammar.  An  imperative  sentence  that 
lies  alongside  of  another  sentence  often  becomes  dependent  to  it  and  develops 
into  a  subordinate  conditional  clause:  Geh  hin,  du  wirst  sehen,  or  so  wirst  du 
sehen.  Einer  trage  des  andern  Last,  so  werdet  ihr  das  Gesetz  Christi  erfüllen 
(Gal.  vi.  2,  rev.  orthog.).  Likewise  a  question  is  often  degraded  to  a  subordinate 
conditional  clause:  1st  jemand  gutes  muts?  der  singe  Psalmen  (James  v.  13), 
Luther  used  an  interrogation  point,  but  to-day  a  comma  is  used  here  and  the 
tone  is  that  of  a  subordinate  conditional  clause,  not  that  of  a  question.  In 
general  the  formal  hypotactic  stage  was  preceded  by  co-ordination,  the  connect- 
ing of  sentences  by  the  co-ordinating  conjunctions,  dann,  da,  und,  oder,  &c. 
mentioned  in  1  above.  Co-ordination  frequently  indicates  a  close  relation  be- 
tween two  propositions,  the  context  often  showing  clearly  that  one  of  these  is 
dependent  upon  the  other:  Höre  meinen  Rat  und  es  kann  sich  alles  ändern 
Just  listen  to  my  advice  and  the  whole  situation  may  change  =  Wenn  du 
meinen  Rat  hörst,  kann  sich  alles  ändern  If  you  listen  to  my  advice  the  whole 
situation  may  change.  The  older  construction  of  co-ordination  cannot  as 
accurately  as  hypotaxis  give  expression  to  many  fine  shades  of  meaning  required 
in  exact  thinking,  but  it  is  by  reason  of  its  simple  directness  often  more  forceful 
than  the  younger  exacter  construction  of  hypotaxis  and  consequently  is  still 
widely  used  in  certain  styles.  Examples  of  its  use  are  given  in  275.  a,  211.  2 
(last  par.),  279.  b.  (3),  280.  b.  (4).  Likewise  the  oldest  construction  here, 
parataxis,  still  has  its  distinct  advantages  in  lively  language,  as  illustrated  in 
277.  2  (last  par.),  278  (last  par.). 

The  Complex  Sentence. 

Subordinate  Clauses. 

268.  1.  Grammatical  Function.  A  complex  sentence  consists  of  an  inde- 
pendent proposition  and  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses.  This  is  true,  however, 
in  only  a  general  sense.  In  an  exact  sense  there  is  often  no  principal  proposition 
at  all :  Wer  wagt,  gewinnt.  Here  one  of  the  essential  elements  of  the  sentence, 
the  subject,  has  the  form  of  a  subordinate  clause,  a  subject  clause,  but  there  is 
no  principal  proposition  in  the  sentence  distinct  from  the  subordinate  clause. 
The  so-called  principal  proposition  is  merely  a  predicate.  Not  only  an  essential 
element  but  also  any  subordinate  element  can  assume  the  form  of  a  clause: 
Ich  weiß,  daß  er  gekommen  ist.  Here  the  object  has  the  form  of  a  clause,  an 
object  clause.  The  subordinate  clause  may  also  be  merely  a  modifier  of  some 
word  within  one  of  the  component  elements:  Das  Buch,  das  auf  dem  Tische 
liegt,  ist  eine  deutsche  Grammatik.  Here  the  clause  is  not  the  subject  but 
only  a  modifier  of  it,  i.e.  an  adjective  clause.  Thus  according  to  their  gram- 
matical function  subordinate  clauses  are  divided  into  subject,  predicate,  adjective, 
object,  adverbial  clauses. 

a.  These  clauses  might  be  reduced  to  three  if  we  divide  them  according  to  the  part  of  speech 
they  represent:  (1)  substantive  clauses  which  represent  a  substantive,  including  subject,  predi- 
cate, object  clauses,  and  such  adjective  (271.  I)  clauses  as  represent  an  appositive  noun,  a  gen., 
or  a  prep,  phrase;  (2)  adjective  clauses;  (3)  adverbial  clauses.  The  former  classification,  how- 
ever, is  for  practical  reasons  usually  employed  in  the  following  articles,  while  for  the  same  rea- 
sons the  latter  classification  is  also  at  times  used. 

2.  Word-order,  Mood,  Conjunctions.  These  subordinate  clauses  differ  in 
form  from  the  principal  proposition  in  that  they  often  have  the  transposed  word- 
order  and  often  have  also  different  moods  and  tenses  from  those  of  the  principal 
sentence,  and  hence  will  be  treated  more  or  less  at  length  according  to  the 
difficulties  they  present.  The  discussion  of  the  subjunctive  is  given  in  articles 
167-171.     The  subordinate  conjunctions  are  given  in  238. 

a.  Formal  Words.  Just  as  the  pronoun  es  may  anticipate  the  logical  subject,  so  may  an 
es  or  a  demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb  in  the  principal  proposition  anticipate  a  subordinate 
clause,  or  the  pronoun  or  adverb  may  follow  the  subordinate  clause,  summing  up  in  a  word  its 
contents:    Dessen  erinnere  ich  mich  nicht,  daß  Sie  mir  das  gesagt  haben.     Dazu  (for  that 


558 POSITION    &   ABRIDGMENT   OF   CLAUSES  268.  2.  a. 

purpose)  hast  du  nicht  das  Geld,  daß  du  es  so  verschwendest.  Wer  einmal  lügt,  dem  glaubt 
man  nicht,  und  wenn  er  auch  die  Wahrheit  spricht.  Denn  wo  das  Strenge  mit  dem  Zarten,  | 
wo  Starkes  sich  und  Mildes  paarten,  |  da  gibt  es  einen  guten  Klang  (Schiller's  Glocke).  Was 
ich  nun  tun  soll,  darüber  bin  ich  im  Unklaren.  Wenn  du  lange  wartest,  dann  versäumst  du 
den  Zug.  F^specially  frequent  is  the  use  of  so  to  point  back  to  a  preceding  subordinate  con- 
ditional or  concessive  clause,  altho  now  not  absolutely  required:  Wenn  du  dich  nicht  fügen 
willst,  so  wirst  du  im  Leben  nie  durchkommen.  Wenn  es  auch  finster  ist,  so  finde  ich  doch 
meinen  Weg.  It  is  also  found  elsewhere  and  is  still  common  in  certain  set  expressions:  Wie 
man's  treibt,  so  geht  es.  Was  das  betrifft,  so  meine  ich,  man  hätte  anders  verfahren  sollen. 
These  intiecterl  words  and  uninllected  particles  are  all  of  more  or  less  formal  nature.  Some- 
times as  in  case  of  darüber,  dazu,  dessen,  dem,  &c.  they  serve  to  make  the  grammatical  rela- 
tions clearer,  but  in  many  cases  da,  so,  &c.  have  lost  every  vestige  of  concrete  meaning  and 
are  mere  formal  particles.  Originally  they  were  helpful  in  binding  the  two  propositions  more 
closely  together,  but  to-day  the  proposition  preceding  da,  so,  &c.,  is  often  so  distinctly  felt  as 
a  subordinate  adverbial  clause  by  reason  of  its  peculiar  form  and  word-order  that  it  is  not  now 
felt  as  necessary  to  indicate  the  subordination  further  by  means  of  da,  so,  &c.,  pointing  back 
to  it. 

3.  Position  of  the  Subordinate  Clause.  As  each  subordinate  clause  which  is 
not  merely  a  modifier  of  some  word  luithin  one  of  the  component  elements  has 
a  definite  function  in  the  sentence  as  if  it  were  a  simple  word,  its  position  in  the 
sentence  is  regulated  by  the  same  principles  that  determine  the  position  of  a 
simple  word  with  the  same  function  and  logical  force.  For  instance,  just  as  an 
emphatic  subject  stands  near  the  close  of  the  sentence  an  emphatic  subject 
clause  assumes  the  end  position,  as  illustrated  in  251.  II.  B.  a.  cc.  A  subordinate 
clause  may  often  not  only  precede  or  follow  the  principal  proposition  but  may 
also  be  embodied  in  it:  Während  ich  schlief,  hat  man  mir  meine  Uhr  gestohlen, 
or  Man  hat  mir  meine  Uhr  gestohlen,  während  ich  schlief,  or  Man  hat  mir, 
während  ich  schlief,  meine  Uhr  gestohlen.  In  contrast  to  older  usage,  which 
allowed  a  much  greater  freedom  of  position,  it  is  now  in  general  a  fixed  rule  that 
a  subordinate  clause  which  depends  upon  another  subordinate  clause  must 
either  follow  it  or  be  embodied  in  it:  Daß  Karl  sehr  fleißig  gewesen  ist,  während 
er  in  Rom  war,  or  Daß  Karl,  während  er  in  Rom  war,  sehr  fleißig  gewesen  ist, 
habe  ich  schon  von  anderer  Seite  gehört. 

4.  Abridged  Clauses.  These  various  clauses  are  the  result  of  a  long  develop- 
ment and  represent  the  active  efforts  of  the  German  mind  in  its  countless  prac- 
tical struggles  for  fuller  expression  to  adapt  from  emergency  to  emergency  the 
available  historical  materials  of  the  language  to  the  more  accurate  processes  of 
thought  that  became  necessary  in  its  growing  intellectual  life.  Alongside  of 
these  involved  structures  are  simpler  forms  of  expression  which  in  their  first 
beginnings  belong  to  the  earliest  stages  of  language  growth.  There  is  still  pre- 
served in  old  saws  a  very  primitive  type  of  complex  sentence  which  is  verbless 
and  conjunctionless  and  yet  as  complete  in  its  expression  as  a  modern  complex 
sentence  with  its  highly  developed  hypotactic  form:  Ende  gut,  alles  gut!  = 
Wenn  das  Ende  gut  ist,  so  ist  alles  gut.  Neuer  Arzt,  neuer  Kirchhof!  =  Wo 
ein  neuer  Arzt  ist,  da  ist  ein  neuer  Kirchhof.  Where  the  thought  is  not  intricate 
the  older  type  is  still  in  use.  In  general,  however,  these  old  constructions  have 
not  in  large  numbers  come  down  to  us  in  their  original  form  but  have  very  often 
undergone  considerable  change,  frequently  under  the  influence  of  the  younger 
clause  structures,  and  hence  in  their  present  form  are  comparatively  modern 
creations,  which  have  long  been  developing  into  convenient  terser  types  of 
expression  alongside  of  the  more  intricate  clause  formations.  These  simpler 
types  of  expression  are  treated  in  the  following  articles  alongside  of  the  fuller 
and  more  precise  clause  formations.  They  are  given  under  the  caption  of 
abridgment  under  the  various  kinds  of  clauses  treated  below  and  are  often  else- 
where spoken  of  as  abridged  or  contracted  forms.  Altho  these  abridged  clauses 
are  in  their  original  form  older  than  the  fuller  clause  structures  and  hence  in  a 
historical  sense  cannot  be  said  to  be  abridged  from  them  the  terms  "abridged" 
or  "contracted"  are  not  inappropriate,  for  the  compacter  structures  have  long 
been  under  the  influence  of  the  fuller  more  involved  structures  and  in  contrast 
to  their  fuller  form  are  now  felt  as  abridgments  or  contractions.  English  has 
gone  much  farther  than  German  in  preserving  these  old  forms  and  developing 


269.  1. SUBJECT   CLAUSE 559 

them   into  types  of  expression   capable  of  wide  use.     Particularly  terse  and 
forceful  is  the  predicate  appositive  construction,  where  the  participle  and  its 
modifiers  form  an  abridged  clause  in  which  the  participle  is  the  logical  predicate 
and  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  the  logical  subject,  the  clause  as  a 
whole  indicating  some  adverbial  relation,  as  time,  cause,  manner,   &c.,  which 
can  only  be  determined  from  the  connection,  as  this  relation  is  not  formally 
expressed  in  the  clause  itself:    Time:    Going  down  town  (=  when  I  was  going 
down  town)  I  met  an  old  friend.     Having  finished  my  work  (=  after  I  had  fin- 
ished my  work)  I  went  to  bed.     Cause:   Being  sick  (=  as  I  was  sick)  I  stayed  at 
home.     This  is  the  old  attributive  or  appositional  thing  type  of  sentence  struc- 
ture described  in  250.  a  (2nd  par.)  and  252.  1.  h.  Note.     The  thought  is  not 
expressed  accurately  by  means  of  intricate  grammatical   form  but  is  merely 
suggested  by  placing  the  participle  alongside  of  the  subject  of  the  principal 
proposition.     As  German  has  in  large  measure  abandoned  this  old  construction 
for  the  more  accurate  fuller  clause  the  English-speaking  student  should  be  on 
his  guard  here.     Additional  details  on  German  usage  here  are  given  in  182.  1. 
E.  Note.      The  old  attributive  type  of  clause  structure  is  also  very  common  in 
English  where  the  person  implied  in  a  subjective  genitive  or  a  possessive  ad- 
jective (originally  a  gen.  of  apers.  pronoun,  here  still  with  the  force  of  a  subject, 
gen.)  is  the  logical  subject  and  the  governing  gerund  the  logical  predicate:    / 
am  opposed  to  your  or  Johns  going  to  his  house  Ich  bin  dagegen,  daß  du  zu  ihm 
gehst,  or  daß  Hans  zu  ihm  geht.      English   and   German   usage  at  this  point 
is  treated  in  detail  in  the  following  articles,  also  in  182.  1.  B.  a.     Quite  similar 
to  the  old  attributive  type  of  clause  structure  just  described  is  the  development 
of  modifiers  of  the  verb,  especially  the  prepositional  infinitive  constructions, 
into  terse  forceful  types  of  expression  with  the  value  of  a  subordinate  clause, 
as  illustrated  in  269.  3,  272.  C.  g,  281.  h.  Note  (2nd  par.).      The  outline  of  German 
usage  here  is  given  in  185.  A.  II.  2.     As  English  allows  a  much  more  liberal  use 
of  the  infinitive  than  German  the  English-speaking  student  must  again  be  on  his 
guard.     On  the  other  hand,  the  abridged  clause  in  the  form  of  a  prepositional 
phrase  is  very  common  in  both  German  and  English:  Er  ist  bei  schönem  Wetter 
angekommen  He  arrived  in  beautiful  weather.     Er  sagte  es  mit  Tränen  in  den 
Augen   He  said  it  with  tears  in  his  eyes.     The  first  noun  in  each  prepositional 
phrase   is   the  subject  of  the  abridged   clause.     The  attributive  adjective   or 
participle  before  the  noun  or  the  prepositional  phrase  after  the  noun,  as  in  den 
Augen  in  his  eyes  in  the  second  example,  is  the  logical  predicate  of  the  clause, 
the  preposition  introducing  the  abridged  clause  is  the  sign  of  subordination  to 
the  principal  verb.     In  German  differing  from  English  the  sign  of  subordination 
to  the  principal  verb  is  sometimes  indicated  by  the  genitive  form  of  the  noun 
instead  of  a  preposition  placed  before  the  noun:    Schwankenden  Schrittes  er- 
schien der  alte  Mann  auf  der  Schwelle  With  tottering  steps  the  old  man  appeared 
on  the  threshold. 

Subject  Clause. 

269.  1.  The  subject  clause  performs  the  function  of  the  subject  of  the 
sentence:    Wer  leicht  glaubt   (=  Der  Leichtgläubige),  wird  leicht  betrogen. 

The  subject  clause  is  usually  introduced  by  the  conjunctions  daß  that,  since, 
seit  or  seitdem  since,  als  when,  ob  whether,  wenn  if,  when,  weil  because,  by  the 
relatives  wer  (156),  was  (153.  1.  (2)),  der  (130.  2.  b,  151.  3.  C,  and  156),  die, 
das,  wie,  worüber,  worauf,  &c.,  and  in  indirect  questions  by  some  interrogative 
pronoun  or  adverb :  Daß  der  Mond  auf  die  Witterung  Einfluß  übt,  ist  eine  ver- 
breitete Ansicht.  Es  sind  schon  viele  Jahre,  daß  ich  hier  wohne.  Es  ist  viele 
Jahre  her,  daß  (or  seit  or  seitdem)  ich  ihn  gesehen  habe.  Es  sind  vergangene 
Zeiten,  als  für  dynastische  Zwecke  kleine  Heere  von  Berufssoldaten  ins  Feld 
zogen  (Moltke).  Ob  sie  kommen  werden,  steht  dahin  (remains  to  be  seen). 
Es  ist  erfreulich,  wenn  man  wohlerzogene  Kinder  sieht  ( =  Der  Anblick  wohl- 
erzogener Kinder  ist  erfreulich).  Die  Lichtenstein  tut  vornehm  und  ernst; 
das  macht  aber,  weil  der  gestrenge  Herr  Vater  da  ist  (Riehl).     Wer  Schlösser 


560 SUBJECT   CLAUSE 269.  1. 

in  die  Luft  erbaut,  wird  billig  als  ein  Tor  verlacht.  Kein  Lärm,  keine  Erschütte- 
rung war  es,  was  (153.  1.  (2))  mich  geweckt  hatte,  sondern  ein  Qualm  uner- 
träglich verpesteter  Luft  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder!,  iv).  Die  (130.  2.  ö)  so 
redeten,  wußten  sehr  wohl,  daß  sie  bis  zu  einem  gewissen  Grade  die  öffentliche 
Meinung  ihres  Volkes  und  Heeres  hinter  sich  hatten.  Eine  Lust  ist's,  wie  er 
alles  weckt  und  stärkt  und  neu  belebt  um  sich  herum.  Worüber  der  eine  sich 
ärgert,  das  freut  den  anderen.  Worin  er  sich  auszeichne,  ist  schwer  zu  sagen. 
Es  ist  nicht  bekannt,  woher  diese  Krankheit  zu  uns  gekommen.  The  predicate 
word  often  introduces  the  sentence,  as  explained  in  h  (2nd  par.):  Mein  einziger 
Trost  ist,  daß  es  den  anderen  nicht  besser  geht.  Seine  Antwort  [war],  er 
fürchte  sich  nicht.     Tatsache  ist,  daß  er  schon  da  ist. 

o.  There  often  stands  in  the  principal  proposition  when  it  is  preceded  by  the  subject  clause 
a  demonstrative,  which  points  to  the  preceding  subordinate  clause,  and  in  a  word  sums  up  its 
contents,  thus  binding  the  two  propositions  more  firmly  together:  Worüber  der  eine  sich  ärgert, 
das  freut  den  anderen.  Wen  der  Neid  zu  stürzen  denkt,  der  wird  erst  von  ihm  erhoben.  This 
demon,  is  usually  necessary  if  its  correlative  in  the  subordinate  clause  is  an  adverb  or  a  pronoun 
in  a  different  case,  as  in  the  two  sentences  just  given. 

b.  Anticipative  Subject  es.  Often  the  sentence  is  introduced  by  the  anticipative  subject 
es,  das,  or  eines,  which  points  to  a  following  subject  clause,  which  is  the  real  subject  of  the 
sentence:  Es  ist  zweifelhaft,  ob  er  noch  lebt.  Es  kann  nicht  fehlen,  daß  er  daran  gedacht 
1  le  must  have  thought  of  it.  Und  das  ist  das  Schrecklichste,  daß  einem  die  Welt  so  zu  ist  (P^on- 
tane's  Effi,  XXXII j.  Mag  auch  Entwickelung  und  Ausgang  des  Krieges  in  Ostasien  noch 
gänzlich  unabsehbar  sein  —  eines  ist  heute  schon  sicher:  Der  erste  Kanonenschuß  in  Ost- 
asien hat  in  der  ganzen  Welt  .  .  .  das  stärkste  Echo  erweckt  (Neue  Zürcher  Zeitung,  Feb.  '22, 
1904).  Of  course  es  follows  the  verb  in  questions:  1st  es  denn  so  nötig,  daß  er  sich  entfernt? 
For  the  omission  of  es  see  251.  1.2.  B.  Note. 

The  es,  pronounced  with  falling  intonation — here  indicated  by  a  period — ,  is  much  used  when 
the  predicate  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  for  emphasis:  Möglich  or  Eine  Möglich- 
keit ist  es.,  daß  er  morgen  kommt.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  predicate  is  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence,  not  for  emphasis  but  in  order  that  the  subject  clause  may  take  the 
emphatic  end  position  the  anticipative  es  drops  out,  as  the  position  of  the  unstressed  predicate 
in  the  first  place  and  the  rising  intonation — here  indicated  by  a  raised  period — after  the  verb 
pointing  forward  indicate  that  the  emphatic  subject  will  follow:  Möglich  or  Eine  Möglichkeit 
ist-,  daß  er  morgen  kommt.  Eine  andere  Frage  ist-,  ob  auf  die  Erklärung,  die  Lloyd  George 
in  seiner  Rede  abgegeben  hat,  bereits  fest  gebaut  werden  kann  {Berliner  Tageblatt,  May  14, 
1921).  If  the  predicate  is  a  noun  or  an  uninflected  neuter  demonstrative  referring  back  to  a 
preceding  noun,  an  inflected  demonstrative  pronounced  with  rising  intonation  is  often  used  as 
an  anticipative  subject  pointing  forward  to  the  following  emphatic  subject  clause:  Eine  Mög- 
lichkeit ist  die-,  daß  er  morgen  kommt.  Mein  Haupteinwand  gegen  ihn  ist  der-,  daß  er  so 
selbstisch  ist.  Es  gibt  doch  nur  einen  Termin  für  das  Erscheinen  eines  Buches  und  das  ist  der" , 
wenn  es  fertig  ist.     See  also  251.  I.  2.  B.  Note  and  II.  B.  a.  aa.  Note. 

When  the  subject  clause  thus  stands  at  the  end  and  there  is  a  predicate  adjective,  noun,  ad- 
verb, or  prepositional  phrase  in  the  first  place,  we  often  find  in  the  principal  proposition  the  old 
verbless  appositional  type  of  sentence  described  in  252.  1.  b.  Note:  Möglich  [ist],  daß  das  ganze 
Gerüste  meiner  Schlüsse  ein  bestandloses  Traumbild  gewesen  (Schiller).  Gewinn  genug 
[ist  es],  weim  wir  nur  soviel  erreichen!  Vergebens  [war  es],  daß  ich  durch  Hin-  und  Hergehen 
mich  zu  erwäraien  suchte  (Spielhagen).  Zum  größten  Glück,  daß  ich  ihm  aus  den  Augen 
kam.  After  nicht  in  the  first  place  daß  is  often  replaced  by  als  ob,  as  explained  in  2.  b  (2nd  par.) 
below,  or  now  also  often  by  weil  thus  indicating  that  the  subject  clause  is  developing  into  a 
causal  clause:  Heute  gibt  es  wenige  gute  Dichter,  nicht  daß  (or  als  ob,  or  weil J. sich  heutzutage 
etwa  so  viel  weniger  Gutes  fände  als  früher,  nein,  nur  das  Mittelmäßige,  Überflüssige  und 
Elende  hat  sich  in  einer  Weise  vermehrt,  daß  es  jammervoll  ist.  The  daß  that  follows  kaum 
in  the  first  place  has  become  so  closely  associated  with  it  that  both  words  are  now  felt  as  a  tem- 
poral conjunction  so  that  the  subject  clause  has  developed  into  a  clause  of  time:  Schon  dreht 
sich  der  Boden  vor  Wonne  mit  mir,  j  kaum  daß  ich  die  Schwelle  betrat  (Mörike). 

c.  Omission  of  daß.  The  connective  daß  is  often  omitted  in  subject  clauses  and  the  normal 
or  the  inverted  word-order  employed,  especially  when  es  is  used  in  the  main  proposition  as  an 
anticipative  subject:  Es  ist  besser,  du  gehst,  or  daß  du  gehst.  Schulze,  heißt  es,  hat  einen 
Ruf  nach  Berlin.  Denn  ist  es  zu  leugnen?  Der  Übermut  der  fremden  Lehrer  hat  sich  täglich 
erhöht  (Goethe's  Egmont,  1).  Sometimes  when  the  anticipative  es  is  omitted  in  accordance 
with  older  usage:  Du  bist,  scheint  mir,  versthnmt.  Im  Gegenteil,  ist  mir  viel  lieber,  Sie  bleiben 
(Wildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  3,  6).  Especially,  however,  when  a  predicate  word 
introduces  the  sentence  in  order  that  the  subject  may  be  withheld  until  the  end  for  the  purpose 
of  making  it  more  emphatic:  Wahr  ist,  der  Vater  hätt'  früher  g'scheit  sein  und  nicht  erlauben 
sollen,  daß  die  Resel  und  der  Toni  von  Kind  auf  beständig  mitsammen  herumrennen  (Ebner- 
Eschenbach's  Die  Resel,  p.  IGO).  Das  Natürlichste  ist,  du  fragst  ihn  selbst.  Sie  sind  beide 
sehr  geschickte  Leute;  das  macht,  sie  kommen  von  Sachsen  (E.  von  Handel-Mazzetti's  Jesse 
tmd  Maria,  p.  25).  For  further  particulars  concerning  the  omission  of  es  see  251.  I.  2.  B.  Note 
and  II.  B.  a.  aa.  Note. 


269.  3. ABRIDGED   SUBJECT   CLAUSP: 561 

The  daß  should  not,  however,  be  omitted  if  it  is  needed  to  make  the  thought  clear,  i.e.  to  in- 
dicate the  oneness  of  the  words  in  the  subject  clause  and  maintain  the  integrity  of  the  group 
as  a  distinct  grammatical  element  in  contradistinction  to  other  elements  in  the  sentence:  Es  ist 
ein  Vorurteil,  daß  in  der  allgemeinen  Verbreitung  der  elementaren  Kenntnisse  das  Altertum 
hinter  unserer  Zeit  wesentlich  zurückgestanden  habe  (Mommsen's  Römische  Geschichte,  III, 
chap.  14).  The  omission  of  daß  in  this  sentence  would  bring  a  prep,  phrase  next  to  the  noun 
Vorurteil,  which  at  the  first  glance  might  lead  us  to  seek  for  a  connection  between  these  two 
elements  instead  of  connecting  the  phrase  with  the  words  that  follow,  where  it  properly  belongs. 
The  daß  here  points  out  the  oneness  of  the  following  group  of  words. 

There  is  often  also  another  reason  for  the  use  of  daß.  The  transposed  word-order  according 
to  284.  I.  3.  a  must  be  used  after  verbs  expressing  mere  feeling:  Es  tut  mir  sehr  leid,  daß  du 
dich  gekränkt  fühlst  (not  du  fühlst  dich  gekränkt). 

2.  Mood.     The  mood  of  the  subject  clause  is: 

a.  Indicative  when  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a  fact:  Es  ist  mehr  als  wahr- 
scheinlich, daß  der  Torf  aus  abgestorbenen  Pflanzenteilen  entsteht. 

h.  The  mood  is  the  potential  (168.  II.Cx.o.  (1);  169.  2.G.  a.(l)),  the  volitive  (168. 1.2.  E.  a.  (1)), 
the  sanguine  and  the  unreal  subjunctive  of  wish  and  the  subjunctive  of  modest  wish  (168.  I.  2.  K. 
h.  (1);  169.  1.  A),  or  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse  (170  and  171)  or  indirect  question: 
Es  läßt  sich  nicht  Ijezweifeln,  daß  er  es  tun  könnte  (potential  subj.)  There  is  no  doubt  that  he 
could  do  it.  Es  geziemt  dem  Manne,  daß  er  auch  das  Schwerste  willig  tue  (volitive  subj.; 
hence  the  will  of  the  speaker).  Daß  du  an  unserer  Freude  teilnehmest  (sanguine  subj.  of  wish), 
ist  unser  inniger  Wunsch.  Mir  wäre  besser,  ich  wäre  (unreal  subjunctive  of  wish;  169.  1.  A) 
nie  geboren!  Es  ist  noch  ungewiß,  ob  diese  Nachricht  sich  bestätige  (subj.  of  indirect  question). 
Wer  den  Brief  abgesandt  habe,  ist  noch  nicht  ermittelt  worden.  Other  examples  are  given  in 
the  examples  referred  to  above. 

To  emphasize  the  idea  of  appearance,  mere  subjectivity,  mere  semblance,  or  unreality  als  ob 
with  transposed  word-order  or  simple  als  with  question  order  often  replaces  daß.  A  good  example 
to  illustrate  a  subjective  view  is  given  in  168.  II.  G.  a.  (1).  The  idea  of  appearance  is  often  found 
in  als  ob  after  vorkommen:  Es  kommt  mir  vor,  als  ob  er  löge.  Unreality:  Damals  kam  es  mir 
vor,  als  ob  ich  verloren  wäre.  Modest  or  cautious  statement:  Es  konmit  mir  vor,  als  ob  du 
unrecht  hättest.     Compare  272.  A.  a,  C.  d,  D.  b,  276.  A. 

c.  Also  the  imperative  mood,  or  the  simple  infinitive  or  the  perfect  participle  used  with  the 
force  of  the  imperative:  „Kehre  um!"  schallte  es  ihm  entgegen.  Unser  Wahlspruch,  der 
Gambettas  wie  der  meinige,  war:  „Nie  davon  sprechen,  immer  daran  denken!'*  {Haivbtirger 
NacJirichten,  Nov.  LS,  1904).  Unsere  Haltung  kann  nur  diese  sein:  kühl  abwarten,  an  uns 
herankommen  lassen,  keine  Liebenswürdigkeiten,  keine  Avancen!  (ib.,  March  31,  1906). 
Frisch  mitten  durchgegriffen,  das  ist  besser  (Schiller's  Die  Piccoloiiriiii,  1,  2).  Hier  heißt  es, 
den  Geldbeutel  offen,  Karst  und  Spaten  genommen  und  graben  und  abermals  graben  und 
zum  letztenmal  graben!  (Lauff  s  Frau  Aleit,  p.  348). 

3.  Abridged  Form.  Clauses  introduced  by  daß  can  be  abridged  by  substituting  the  infinitive 
construction,  or  a  simple  noun  for  the  clause  form  if  its  subject  is  man,  or  is  identical  with  or 
implied  in  some  dependent  word  of  the  principal  proposition:  Daß  man  vorsichtig  sei,  ist  ratsam; 
or  Vorsichtig  zu  sein  ist  ratsam;  or  Vorsicht  ist  ratsam.  Hier  ist  das  Schwerste,  daß  man 
seine  Pflicht  tue,  or  seine  Pflicht  zu  tun.  Sich  abfinden,  Mutter,  ist  Menschenlos  (Hauptmann's 
Michael  Kramer,  I.).  Es  ist  die  Pflicht  treuer  Untertanen,  daß  sie  das  Vaterland  schützen; 
or  Das  Vaterland  zu  schützen,  ist  treuer  Untertanen  Pflicht.  Es  war  dumm  von  Ihnen,  es  zu 
sagen,  or  daß  Sie  es  sagten.  Es  ist  mein  sehnlichster  Wunsch,  zu  gehen.  When  the  subject 
of  the  subordinate  clause  is  not  identical  with  or  implied  in  some  dependent  word  of  the  principal 
proposition  a  full  clause  must  be  employed  in  German,  while  in  English  for  with  the  prei:)Ositional 
infinitive  can  be  used:  Es  ist  mein  sehnlichster  Wunsch,  daß  Sie  gehen  My  most  ardent  desire 
is  for  you  to  go.  Es  ist  unmöglich,  daß  ein  Streit  zwischen  unseren  beiden  Ländern  je  entstehe 
It  is  impossible  for  there  ever  to  be  any  conflict  between  our  two  countries.  This  English  con- 
struction originated  in  such  sentences  as  It  would  be  better  for  me  to  go  at  once  and  For  me  the  best 
plan  would  be  to  go  at  once,  which  corresponds  closely  to  the  German:  Es  wäre  besser  für  mich, 
sogleich  zu  gehen  and  Für  mich  wäre  das  Beste,  sogleich  zu  gehen.  The  for  me  and  für  mich 
represent  an  older  dative  of  reference  (258.  3.  A,  2nd  par.)  and  hence  originally  modified  the 
sentence  as  a  whole  and  had  grammatically  nothing  to  do  with  the  infinitive.  As,  however, 
there  is  in  such  sentences  a  close  logical  relation  between  the  pronoun  or  noun  after  for  and 
the  infinitive,  the  pronoun  or  the  noun  usually  serving  as  the  logical  subject  of  the  infinitive, 
noun  or  pronoun  and  infinitive  have  come  in  English  to  be  felt  as  forming  together  a  subordinate 
clause  introduced  by  for,  just  as  in  case  of  German  infinitive  clauses  introduced  by  um  zu,  as 
described  in  281,  b.  Note,  2nd  par.  Thus /or  and  the  following  noun  or  pronoun  became  entirely 
detached  from  the  principal  proposition,  so  that  the  infinitive  could  freely  take  as  subject  any 
noun  or  pronoun  whatever  without  regard  to  whether  it  corresponded  to  the  original  dative 
construction  in  the  principal  proposition  or  not:  Your  plan  for  me  to  go  doesn't  please  me  Ihr 
Plan,  daß  ich  gehen  sollte,  gefällt  mir  nicht.  This  infinitive  /or-clause  arose  in  Englisli  in  the 
fourteenth  century  and  has  become  very  productive  since,  so  that  it  is  now  regularly  used  whei  e 
the  infinitive  /o-clause  cannot  be  employed,  i.e.  where  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition 
and  that  of  the  infinitive  clause  are  not  identical,  as  illustrated  in  271.  I.  c,  271.  II.  6,  272.  C.  g 
and  D.  c,  277.  2.  b,  279.  d,  281.  b.  Note,  2nd  par.  In  German  there  are  no  traces  of  a  development 
in  this  direction.     In  English  the  infinitive  construction  is  often  here  in  the  subject  relation 


562 PREDICATE   CLAUSE,  ADJECTIVE   CLAUSE  269.  3. 

and  often  elsewhere  replaced  by  the  gerund:    Having  done  one's  duty  is  a  consolation  iji  misfortune 
Seine  Schuldigkeit  getan  zu  haben  ist  ein  Trost  im  Unglück.     Compare  182.  1.  B.  a.  (1). 

The  regular  subject  clause  with  a  conjunction  followed  by  a  nominative  subject  and  a  finite 
verb  is  often  replaced  by  the  old  appositional  type  of  clause  described  in  268.  4,  which  consists 
here  of  a  subject  in  the  absolute  nominative  followed  by  a  predicate  in  the  form  of  an  appositive 
adjective  or  participle:  Einige  Schurken  weniger  im. Lande  würde  der  Welt  nichts  schaden. 
See  265.  B.  b.  (2),  last  par. 

4.  Word-order.  As  can  be  seen  by  the  illustrative  sentences,  the  word-order  is  usually  the 
normal  or  the  inverted,  or,  in  case  there  is  a  connective,  the  transposed.  The  question  order 
is  also  found:  1st  es  möglich:  liebt  sie  mich?  {K.  F.  Meyer). 

5.  For  the  case  where  several  subject  clauses  have  the  same  relative  in  common,  see  272. 
C.c. 

Predicate  Clause. 

270.  1.  The  predicate  clause  performs  the  function  of  a  predicate  noun 
or  adjective:  Widerwärtigkeiten  sind  für  die  Seele,  was  d  er  Sturmfür 
die  Luft  ist   (=  Läuterungsmittel). 

The  predicate  clause  is  introduced  by  the  relative  wer,  was,  der,  die,  das 
(never  welcher),  the  relative  adverbs  wozu,  &c.,  and  the  conjunctions  wie, 
daß:  Wir  sind  selten,  was  wir  sein  sollten.  Ich  bin  nicht,  der  ich  zu  sein 
scheine.  Seid,  wozu  die  herrliche  Natur  Euch  machte.  Er  ist,  wie  er  ist. 
Alles  [ist],  wie  Sie  gewünscht  haben.  Das  heißt,  wir  müssen  morgen  fort, 
or  daß  wir  morgen  fortmüssen.  Das  Essen  war  so,  daß  man  es  nicht  genießen 
konnte. 

2.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  as  in  the  preceding  sentences  the  indicative,  but  sometimes 
the  subjunctive,  especially  the  potential  subjunctive  (168.  II.  F.  b;  169.  2.  F.  b),  is  found:  Wer 
der  Dichtkunst  Stimme  nicht  vernimmt,  ist  ein  Barbar,  er  sei,  wer  er  sei. 

3.  Abridgment.  Predicate  clauses  cannot  usually  be  abridged  except,  as  in  the  first  sentence 
in  1,  by  substituting  some  noun  for  the  clause.  On  the  other  hand,  in  certain  set  expressions 
the  infinitive  is  common:  Es  ist  mit  ihm  nicht  auszukommen  There  (formerly  •//)  is  no  getting 
along  with  him.  Compare  185.  A.  I.  1.  b.  (2).  (3).  The  perfect  infinitive  (185.  B.  II.  b)  is  also 
common  in  set  expressions,  usually  however  without  zu:  Das  heißt  recht  den  Nagel  auf  den 
Kopf  getroffen  [haben]  That  is  hitting  the  nail  on  the  head.  Also  the  present  infinitive  without  zu 
may  be  used  here  after  sein  and  heißen:  Sich  allein  leben  heißt  gar  nicht  leben  To  live  for  one's 
self  is  the  same  as  not  to  live  at  all.  See  185.  B.  I.  1.  b.  Notice  that  in  the  English  translation 
of  such  sentences  we  must  sometimes  use  the  gerund  instead  of  the  infinitive.  Compare  182.  1. 
B.  a.  (2). 

Adjective  Clause. 

271.  Adjective  clauses  fall  into  two  classes — attributive  substantive  clauses 
and  attributive  adjective  clauses: 

I.  Attributive  substantive  clauses  are  for  the  most  part  either  appositive 
or  prepositional  clauses:  Die  Gewißheit,  daß  wir  ewig  leben  werden,  tröstet 
uns.  Die  Hoffnung,  daß  wir  uns  wiedersehen  ( =  auf  Wiedersehen),  erleichtert 
die  Trennung.  Seine  Angst  (darüber),  er  könnte  nie  etwas  erreichen,  hat  ihn 
furchtbar  gequält.  Seine  innere  Auflehnung  dagegen,  daß  er  doch  schließlich 
weichen  müsse,  hat  ihn  sehr  verbittert.  In  examples  like  the  last  one  the 
clause  is  evidently  a  prepositional  clause.  The  two  preceding  examples  may 
be  similarly  construed,  but  other  interpretations  are  possible,  for  the  clause 
in  both  examples  may  represent  an  older  genitive,  once  common,  or  it  may 
now  be  felt  as  an  appositional  clause.  In  the  first  example  the  clause  is  evi- 
dently an  appositional  clause.  This  interpretation  often  becomes  very  natural : 
In  aUem  Wandel  menschlicher  Zustände  bleibt  doch  ein  Naturgesetz  unver- 
ändert: daß  der  Tag  für  den  Lernbegierigsten  und  Fleißigsten  doch  eben  nur 
24  Stunden  hat.  Verzeihe  mir  die  runde  Frage:  was  willst  du  hier?  There 
is  an  old  form  of  the  appositional  clause  which  has  become  so  changed  that  the 
original  construction  is  no  longer  felt.  In  this  old  form,  as  in  268.  4,  appositional 
clauses  have  often  developed  into  adverbial  clauses,  here  especially  into  clauses 
of  result.  Originally  such  a  clause  stood  in  apposition  with  a  post-positive 
article  of  the  governing  noun.  Thus  Er  hat  das  Alter,  daß  er  für  sich  selbst 
reden  kann  was  originally:  Er  hat  Alter,  das:  er  kann  für  sich  selbst  reden. 
In  course  of  time  das  (now  daß)  became  a  stereotyped  form,  so  that  it  can  now 


271.  II. ATTRIBUTIVE   SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSE 563 

be  used  even  if  the  governing  noun  is  masc.  or  fern.,  and  also  when  an  indefinite 
article,  demonstrative,  or  adverb  is  used:  Sie  haben  ja  hier  einen  Qualm,  daß 
man  ersticken  möchte.  Such  clauses  may  now  be  classed  as  adverbial  clauses 
of  quality  or  degree.     For  further  examples  see  276.  D;    277.  2. 

Attributive  substantive  clauses  are  usually  introduced  by  daß  (see  238.  2.  d), 
weil  (sometimes  used  with  the  force  of  daß),  als,  or  als  ob,  or  als  wenn  (sec  a 
below),  or  the  interrogative  pronouns  or  particles,  such  as  was,  wer,  ob,  wo, 
wie,  wann,  weshalb,  weswegen,  warum,  &c.:  Die  Behauptung,  daß  die  Erde 
sich  drehe,  setzte  Galilei  manchen  Verfolgungen  aus.  Aus  dem  ganz  ein- 
fachen Grunde,  weU  (instead  of  daß)  der  kluge  König  schon  seine  Maßregeln 
genommen  (Heine).  Wem  ein  offener  Sinn  für  die  Schönheiten  der  Natur 
verheben  ist,  dessen  (268.  2.  a)  Leben  wird  reich  an  Freuden  sein.  Immer 
wieder  dazwischen  waren  ihre  Gedanken  abgeirrt,  denn  sie  hatte  Angst,  was 
da  kommen  möchte.  Die  Ungewißheit,  ob  sein  Sohn  glückhch  aus  dem  Kriege 
heimkehren  werde,  heß  ihm  keine  Ruhe.  Können  Sie  mir  Nachricht  geben, 
wo  er  sich  aufhält?  Erst  im  Unglück  gelangt  man  zu  der  Einsicht,  wie  schwer 
ein  Freund  in  der  Not  wiegt.  Die  Hoffnung,  daß  wir  ihm  helJfen  werden, 
verleiht  ihm  Mut.  Ich  habe  noch  nicht  die  Ursache  erfahren,  warum  (or 
weshalb,  or  weswegen,  or  derentwegen)  dies  geschehen  ist.  Sein  Verzicht 
darauf,  daß  er  zuerst  rede,  hat  allgemein  befriedigt. 

a.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  indicative,  but  the  subjunctive  often  occurs,  especially  the 
subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse  in  clauses  modifying  a  preceding  noun,  as  in  the  sentence  above 
beginning  Die  Behauptung,  or  in  clauses  explaining  a  preceding  prepositional  adverb  as  in  the 
last  sentence  of  the  examples  given  above,  also  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  question  (see  sen- 
tences above  beginning  with  Immer  and  Die  Ungewißheit).     See  also  168.  II.  G.  b;   169.  2.  G.  b\ 

168.  I.  2.  B.  (1).     Also  the  subjunctive  of  modest  or  cautious  statement  is  common  here.     See 

169.  2.  G.  b.  Instead  of  daß  the  conjunction  als  (with  question  order)  or  als  ob  or  als  wenn 
(with  transposed  order)  is  often  used  with  a  past  or  a  present  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  to 
give  expression  to  the  idea  of  non-reality  or  mere  subjectivity.  Examples  are  given  in  168.  II. 
G.  b  (2nd  par.);  169.  2.  G.  b  (2nd  par.);  238.  2.  d.  Note.  Also  the  imperative  mood  or  a  simple 
infinitive  with  the  force  of  an  imperative  may  be  used:  Dieser  P.  P.  hat  nur  einen  Gedanken: 
jung  sein!     Mitmachen  mit  der  Jugend!  (Wildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  1,  5). 

b.  When  the  thought  or  feeling  of  someone  is  reported  indirectly,  daß  is  often  dropped, 
and  the  subordinate  clause  has  the  order  of  a  principal  proposition:  Im  Altertum  war  die  An- 
sicht des  Thaies,  die  Erde  sei  eine  große,  auf  dem  Wasser  schwimmende  Scheibe,  eine  weit 
verbreitete. 

c.  Abridgment.  Clauses  introduced  by  daß  may,  when  no  ambiguity  would  arise,  be  replaced 
by  the  infin.  construction:  Jetzt  ist  der  Zeitpunkt  da,  vondiesenPapierenöffent- 
lichen  Gebrauch  zu  machen  (=  daß  man  von  diesen  Papieren  öffentlichen  Ge- 
brauch mache).  A  predicate  nom.  remains  in  the  nom.  in  the  contracted  clause:  Er  hatte  das 
Lob,  ein  schöner  Mann  zu  sein  (Freytag's  Rittmeister,  chap.  vi).  Where,  however,  the  subject 
of  the  clause  is  other  than  the  general  or  indefinite  man  or  a  person  implied  in  the  subject  of  the 
principal  proposition  the  clause  form  must  be  retained  in  German,  while  in  English /or  with  the 
prepositional  infinitive  may  be  used:  Ihr  Plan,  selbst  zu  gehen,  gefällt  mir  nicht  Your  plan  to  go 
yourself  doesn't  please  me,  but  Ihr  Plan,  daß  ich  gehen  sollte,  gefällt  mir  nicht  Your  plan  for 
me  to  go  doesn't  please  me.  For  the  origin  of  English  usage  here  see  269.  3.  In  English  the 
infinitive  here  may  be  replaced  by  a  gerund,  which  requires  as  subject  a  person  implied  in  a 
possessive  adjective  or  a  genitive  if  the  subject  of  the  clause  is  difi'erent  from  the  person  implied 
in  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition,  but  has  no  subject  expressed  if  it  is  the  same  as  the 
person  implied  in  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition:  Your  plan  of  my  or  John's  going 
doesn't  please  me  Ihr  Plan,  daß  ich  or  Hans  gehen  sollte,  gefällt  mir  nicht,  but  Your  plan  of  going 
yourself  doesn't  please  me  Ihr  Plan,  selbst  zu  gehen,  gefällt  mir  nicht.  See  272.  C.  g  for  further 
remarks  on  the  gerund. 

II.  Attributive  Adjective  Clause.  The  attributive  adjective  clause  was 
originally  an  appositive  to  the  governing  noun  as  the  substantive  clause  in  I, 
but  it  is  no  longer  felt  as  such.  Originally  a  der,  welcher,  or  so  stood  in  the 
principal  proposition  after  the  governing  noun  pointing  as  a  demonstrative  to 
the  following  appositional  clause.  These  words  are  now  felt  as  pronouns  stand- 
ing in  the  subordinate  clause  pointing  backiuard  to  the  governing  noun,  i.e.  are 
now  felt  as  relative  pronouns.  See  154.  Note,  130.  3,  153.  5.  Note.  ■  This  clause 
is  now  usually  introduced  by  the  relatives  der,  welcher,  was  (153.  1.  (1),  (3)), 
desgleichen,  or  dergleichen  (161.  2),  or  by  a  relative  adverb,  such  as  so  (153. 
5),  wie  (153.  3.  B  and  C./),  als  (153.  3.  C.  a),  wo,  worin,  worunter,  &c.,  which 
are  sometimes  separated  when  compound  (see  153.  2,  toward  end) :   Die  Stätte, 


.564 ATTRIBUTIVE  ADJECTIVE   CLAUSE 271.  II. 

die  ein  guter  Mann  betrat,  ist  eingeweiht.  Man  war  sehr  unschlüssig  über 
die  Art,  wie  der  Krieg  geführt  werden  sollte.  For  the  use  of  different  relatives 
see  articles  150-154,  where  this  subject,  so  difficult  for  foreigners,  is  treated  at 
considerable  length  and  many  illustrative  sentences  are  given.  The  conjunction 
daß  is  also  used  relatively.     See  153.  3.  C.  e. 

1.  As  in  English,  the  relative  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in 
gender  and  number,  while  its  case  is  determined  by  the  ofifice  it  performs  in 
the  clause. 

a.  Synesis  of  gender.  If  the  antecedent  is  a  common  neut.,  fem.,  or  masc.  noun  representing 
a  male  or  female  the  relative  is  usually  neut.,  fem.,  or  masc.  according  to  grammatical  gender, 
but  if  the  antecedent  is  the  diminutive  of  a  proper  name  the  relative  has,  as  a  rule,  natural  gender. 
For  fuller  explanation  see  263.  I.  1,2,  3,  4,  5,  6. 

Synes'is  of  number.     For  usage  here  see  263.  II.  2,  last  paragraph. 

b.  The  relatives  das  and  welches  were  earlier  in  the  period  employed  like  das  (129.  2.  C.  (1)) 
as  the  subject  of  the  clause,  remaining  unchanged  for  all  genders  and  numbers.    See  151.  1.  g. 

c.  The  relative  is  in  the  pi.,  altho  its  antecedent  is  in  the  sing.,  if  it  refers  to  the  antecedent, 
not  as  to  an  individual,  but  as  to  a  class  or  genus:  Das  gebräuchlichste  Gewand  ist  ein  blauer 
Samtrock,  von  denen  20  auf  einen  von  Tuch  kommen  The  most  common  garment  is  a  blue 
velvet  coat,  of  which  there  are  20  to  one  of  cloth. 

d.  In  English  the  relative  often  agrees  incorrectly  with  some  word  closely  connected  with 
the  antecedent  instead  of  agreeing  with  the  antecedent  itself,  as  this  word  lies  nearer  the  thought 
and  feeling  of  the  speaker  or  writer  than  the  grammatical  antecedent:  That  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  books  that  has  appeared  -in  any  language.  This  incorrect  construction  is  much  less  com- 
mon in  German:  So  viel  steht  fest,  daß  unsere  heimischen  Kartoffelklöße  eines  der  wunder- 
barsten Gerichte  vorstellen,  das  die  Welt  kennt   (H.  Seidel's  Thüringische  Kartoffelklöße). 

e.  A  peculiar  kind  of  attraction  called  trajection  often  takes  place  in  relative  clauses.  This 
consists  in  conforming  the  relative  pronoun  or  adverb  to  the  construction  required  in  the  fol- 
lowing dependent  clause  instead  of  to  that  required  in  its  own  clause:  Er  besitzt  das  Buch,  aus 
welchem  du  meinst,  daß  er  viel  lernen  kann  instead  of  Er  besitzt  das  Buch,  von  welchem  du 
meinst,  daß  er  daraus  viel  lernen  kann.  This  construction  is  very  common  with  Luther  and 
Lessing,  and  is  still  sometimes  used  especially  in  clauses  introduced  by  wo  or  wie  to  avoid  a 
clumsy  circumlocution:  Er  ging  in  eine  Restauration,  wo  er  wußte,  daß  er  seinen  Freund  treffen 
werde  instead  of:  Er  ging  in  eine  Restauration,  von  der  er  wußte,  daß  er  seinen  Freund  dort 
treffen  werde.  Denn  ein  Geist  hat  nicht  fleisch  vnd  bein  |  wie  jr  (ihr)  sehet  das  (daß)  j  ich 
habe  (Luke  xxiv.  39)  instead  of  Ein  Geist  hat  nicht  Fleisch  xmd  Bein,  von  denen  ihr  seht,  daß 
ich  sie  habe. 

2.  If  the  relative  has  the  same  case  in  a  number  of  successive  clauses  de- 
pendent upon  the  same  word,  it  may  be  expressed  in  the  first  clause  and  under- 
stood in  the  others,  or  for  rhetorical  effect  it  may  be  retained  in  all:  Ich  sandte 
ihm  einen  Mann,  welcher  in  die  Sache  eingeweiht  war,  die  Gegend  genau 
kannte  und  sich  bei  einer  früheren  Gelegenheit  zuverlässig  gezeigt  hatte. 
If  the  relative  be  in  the  gen.  it  is  usually  repeated  with  each  clause:  Aber  einem 
romantischen  Volke  war  eine  Religion  angemessen,  deren  prächtiger  Pomp 
die  Sinne  gefangen  nimmt,  deren  geheimnisvolle  Rätsel  der  Phantasie  einen 
unendUchen  Raum  eröffnen,  deren  vornehmste  Lehren  sich  durch  malerische 
Formen  in  die  Seele  einschmeicheln.  See  also  272.  C.  c.  For  the  rhetorical 
repetition  of  the  relative  see  152.  2. 

3.  If  the  relative  in  adjective  clauses  has  a  different  case  in  a  number  of 
successive  clauses  dependent  upon  the  same  word,  it  is  now  usually  repeated 
each  time  with  its  proper  case  form,  tho  many  exceptions  can  be  found  in  a 
careless  style  and  in  earlier  periods  where  the  influence  of  the  grammarian  was 
not  so  strong  as  to-day:  Das  Schloß  war  schon  mit  mehreren  Unglücklichen 
belegt,  denen  man  nicht  helfen,  die  man  nicht  erquicken  konnte.  Either  der 
or  welcher  can  here  be  used,  but  they  do  not  usually  alternate  with  each  other. 
See  152.  2.  Also  was  is  employed  here,  but  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning, 
as  explained  in  153.  1.  The  differentiation  is  not  always  carried  out.  See  153. 
1.  (1)  (last  par.)  and  a  and  b  thereunder. 

a.  Violations  of  this  rule  are  not  infrequent  even  in  the  best  authors  when  the  relative  has 
the  same  form  for  different  cases:  Dieses  Anerbieten,  das  ich  für  kein  leeres  Kompliment  halten 
durfte  und  für  mich  höchst  reizend  war  (Goethe).  To-day  when  the  grammatical  conscience 
is  so  aroused  such  violations  are  becoming  less  frequent  in  choice  language,  but  the  relative  was 
is  still  sometimes  used  but  once  even  by  good  writers:  Ich  muß  zu  dem  übergehen,  was  hiermit 
zusammenhängt  und  ich  dir  vorzulegen  habe  (G.  Keller).  The  repetition  of  was  is  now  felt 
as  choicer  German.     Otlier  seeming  short  cuts  sometimes  occur:    Es  mag  kommen  zu  was  (for 


271.  II.  8. ATTRIBUTIVE   RELATIVE   CLAUSE 565 

dem  was)  es  will.  Sie  war  unbekümmert  um  was  (for  das  was)  nicht  ihre  nächste  Sorge  war. 
Such  sentences  are  curious  survivals  of  older  usage,  where  was  and  wer  were  not  relative  pro- 
nouns but  indefinites  belonging  to  the  principal  proposition,  as  explained  in  154.  Note. 

b.  Very  frequently  we  find  in  the  best  authors  and  in  the  language  of  the  common  people 
a  personal,  possessive,  or  demonstrative  pronoun,  or  demonstrative  adverb,  or  derselbe  in  the 
second  of  two  relative  clauses  instead  of  the  grammatically  correct  relative  pronoun  or  adverb, 
a  construction  common  also  in  M.H.G.  hence  old,  usually  found  where  the  construction  in  the 
clause  is  different  from  that  of  the  preceding  clause  hence  often  employed  as  a  convenient  means 
of  avoiding  the  reconstruction  of  the  clause:  Goethe:  Die  Elemente  sind  als  kolossale  Gegner 
zu  betrachten,  mit  denen  wir  ewig  zu  kämpfen  haben  und  sie  nur  durch  die  höchste 
Kraft  des  Geistes  bewältigen  (instead  of  die  wir  nur  durch  die  höchste  Kraft 
des  Geistes  bewältigen).  Schiller:  Sprüche,  die  der  Wandersmann  verweilend  liest  und 
ihren  Sinn  bewundert  (instead  of  deren  Sinn  er  bewundert).  Tieck:  Etwas  Inni- 
geres, welches  er  nicht  verstand,  jedoch  bald  einmal  die  Erklärung  desselben  von  seinem  Freunde 
zu  hören  hoffte.  Mommsen:  eine  schändliche  Gewalttat,  vor  der  jedermann  schauerte  und 
sich  dabei  der  furchtbaren  Herrschaft  des  Schreckens  erin- 
nert. Wir  bestellen  bei  unserem  Meister  Silberschmied  einen  neuen  Becher,  an  dem  er 
keinen  Gewinn  zu  nehmen  verspricht,  sondern  ihn  so  wertvoll  als  möglich  liefert  (Keller's 
Züricher  Novellen,  II.  28).  The  attitude  of  the  literary  language  is  at  present  not  as  favorable 
to  this  construction  as  formerly. 

c.  Often  we  find  a  relative  in  one  clause,  but  do  not  discover  in  the  following  clause,  which 
is  co-ordinate  with  it,  a  relative  expressed  or  understood:  Darauf  wagte  Anton  den  Hals  des 
Schwarzen  zu  streicheln,  was  der  Pony  wohlwollend  aufnahm  und  seinerseits  dem  Fremdling 
die  Rocktaschen  beroch  (Freytag).  In  such  sentences  which  cannot  be  translated  literally  the 
second  clause  has  the  word-order  of  a  subordinate  clause  and  a  subject  in  common  with  the  first 
clause,  but  there  is  no  relative  pronoun  or  conjunction  that  connects  it  to  the  main  proposition, 
and  it  is  in  fact  logically  an  independent  statement.  This  construction,  not  infrequent  in  M.H.G. 
and  later  in  the  classical  period  and  still  common  in  the  language  of  the  common  people  but  at 
present  not  so  frequent  in  the  literary  language,  is  an  ungrammatical  but  convenient  Avay  of 
adding  to  a  preceding  clause  an  additional  proposition  containing  the  same  subject,  without 
formally  constructing  a  new  sentence  or  a  grammatical  subordinate  clause. 

4.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  the  indicative,  but  also  the  subjunctive  is  found,  especially 
the  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse,  the  optative  subjunctive  (for  examples  see  168.  I.  2.  D.  a 
and  b),  the  potential  subjunctive  in  all  its  uses,  especially,  however,  that  one  known  as  the  sub- 
junctive of  modest  or  cautious  statement,  which  softens  the  broad,  sweeping  negative  statement 
of  the  principal  proposition:  Die  Regierung  der  Vereinigten  Staaten  beschwerte  sich  über  die 
Landung  sovieler  Armen,  welche  manche  europäische  Regierung  fortschicke  (subj.  of  indirect 
discourse).  Sie  grübelte  über  die  Worte,  die  er  zu  ihr  sprechen  könnte  (potential  subj.),  und 
über  ihre  Antworten.  Noch  nie  ist  eine  Unwahrheit  gesprochen  worden,  die  nicht  früher  oder 
später  nachteilige  Folgen  gehabt  hätte  (subj.  of  cautious  statement).  For  other  illustrative 
examples  of  the  potential  subjunctive  see  168.  II.  C.  ö,  b,  F.  a;  169.  2.  C,  F.  a.  In  elevated 
diction  the  sanguine  subjunctive  of  purpose  (see  168.  I.  2.  B.  (3))  is  sometimes  found:  Ihr  wünscht 
euch  einen  tugendhaften  Sohn,  "der  eures  Hauptes  heil'ge  Locken  ehre  (Schiller).  The  unreal 
subjunctive  of  purpose  is  quite  common.     See  169.  1.  C.  (3). 

5.  For  the  person  of  the  verb  in  relative  clauses,  see  151.  3.  B.  a,  b,  c.  _ 

6.  Abridgment.  A  relative  clause  can  only  be  abridged  when  the  relative  is  the  subject 
of  the  clause.  Its  contracted  form  is  usually  that  of  an  appositive  noun,  adj.,  or  part.:  Die 
Römer,  [welche]  ein  tapferes  und  mächtiges  Volk  [waren],  haben  einst  die  Herrschaft  über 
den  halben  Erdkreis  besessen.  Ein  Morgen,  [der]  rot  imd  golden  [war],  hat  uns  den  Mai 
gebracht.  Gott  lohnt  Gutes,  [das]  hier  getan  [wird],  auch  hier  noch.  Eine  Sache,  [die]  zu 
oft  gesagt  [wird],  tut  den  Ohren  weh. 

In  English,  however,  the  clause  can  often  be  abridged  to  an  infinitive  phrase  where  the  subject 
of  the  clause  is  the  indefinite  one  or  the  antecedent  of  the  relative,  where  in  general  the  German 
employs  the  clause  form:  He  is  not  a  man  to  trifle  with  Er  ist  kein  Mann,  mit  dem  man  spaßen 
kann.  He  is  the  man  to  go  Er  ist  der  Mann,  der  gehen  sollte  (or  müßte).  For  other  details  of 
usage  here  see  185.  A.  I.  2.  a.  (3),  also  180.  B.  d. 

Where  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  other  than  the  indefinite  man  or  the  antecedent  of  the 
relative  the  preposition  for  must  be  used  with  the  infinitive:  This  is  the  man  for  you  to  send 
Das  ist  der  Mann,  den  Sie  schicken  sollten  (or  müßten).     Compare  269.  3. 

7.  Descriptive  Relative  Clauses.  Propositions  which  are  in  form  dependent  adjective  clauses, 
being  introduced  by  was  (referring  to  the  thought  as  a  whole),  a  relative  pronoun  (der  or  welcher), 
or  a  relative  adverb  (wofür,  &c.),  are  often  in  fact  independent  propositions,  as  they  do  not  limit 
the  antecedent,  but  add  an  independent  thought,  hence  are  often  employed  as  a  convenient 
means  of  making  an  additional  remark  which  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  principal 
statement:  Sie  versprachen,  ihm  in  allen  Nöten  beizustehen,  was  sie  auch  getreulich  aus- 
führten. Mit  dem  notwendigen  Geldumtausche  kam  der  Wechselhandel  auf,  der  den  Nieder- 
ländern eine  neue  fruchtbare  Quelle  des  Reichtums  eröffnete.  Wir  nahmen  den  Weg  über 
den  Berg,  wodurch  wir  eine  Stunde  ersparten.  For  fuller  discussion  of  this  common  construc- 
tion see  153.  1.  (3)  and  153.  2.  A.  (1).  For  the  common  use  of  a  descriptive  relative  clause  in- 
troduced by  als  when  see  275.  a. 

8.  Word-order.  The  attributive  adjective  clause  usually  has  the  transposed  word-order, 
but  explanatory  clauses  which  are  not   introduced  by  a  connective  have  normal  word-order: 


566 GENITIVE   CLAUSE,  DATIVE   CLAUSE 271.  i:.  \ 

Der  Unglückliche  —  es  war  Chatillon  —  klammerte  sich  einen  Augenblick  mit  Händen  und 
Füßen  an  das  Gesims  (,K.  F.  Meyer).  Friedrich — -er  war  damals  etwa  zehn  Jahre  alt,  aber 
schon  sehr  groß  und  stark  —  machte  mit  uns  sehr  weite  und  anstrengende  Touren.  Such  ex- 
planatory clauses  with  normal  word-order  are  distinguished  as  subordinate  clauses  by  their 
more  rapid  enunciation. 

Object  Clause. 

272.  Object  clauses  are  divided  into  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  and  prepo- 
sitional clauses: 

A.  Genitive  clause.  The  genitive  clause  is  usually  introduced  by  daß  (see 
240.  a),  and  the  interrogatives  was,  ob,  wie,  &c.,  and  can  be  used  to  replace 
any  gen.,  whether  it  be  the  object  of  a  verb  or  an  adjective:  Ich  erinnere  mich 
nicht,  daß  ich  dies  gesagt  habe  (=  dieser  Worte).  Der  Träge 
ist  nicht  wert,  daß  man  ihn  unterstütze.  Ich  erinnere  mich  nicht  mehr  genau, 
ob  er  sich  dieses  scharfen  Ausdrucks  bediente.  Often  representing  the  old 
genitive  of  cause:  Ich  freue  mich  riesig,  daß  du  gekommen  bist.  Es  wundert 
mich,  daß  er  das  Wort  übel  genommen  hat,  or  Daß  er  das  Wort  übel  genommen 
hat,  wundert  mich.  Compare  238.  3.  E.  c.  After  a  deshalb,  deswegen,  or 
um  deswillen  in  the  principal  proposition  the  conjunction  weil  has  become 
more  common  here  than  daß:  Was  endlich  das  von  Professor  Laband  ange- 
führte Beispiel,  betreffend  die  Ausweisung  der  Engländer  aus  Hamburg, 
betrifft,  so  ist  es  um  deswillen  beweisunkräftig,  weil  der  Hamburger  Senat  so 
wenig  wie  eine  andere  Bundesregierung  solche  Torheiten  begehen  wird 
{Hamburger  Nachrichten,  June  7,  1906). 

From  a  modern  point  of  view  many  such  examples  may  be  classed  as  prepo- 
sitional clauses,  as  the  genitive  is  now  often  replaced  by  a  prepositional  phrase: 
Ich  freue  mich  dessen  or  darüber. 

If  the  subordinate  clause  precedes  there  is  usually  a  demonstrative  in  the 
principal  proposition  referring  back  to  the  subordinate  clause:  Was  du  für 
recht  hältst,  dessen  brauchst  du  dich  nicht  zu  schämen. 

a.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  indie,  but,  as  in  the  following  sentences,  the  subjunctive  of 
indirect  discourse  or  indirect  question,  and  the  potential  subjunctive,  may  be  used:  Karl  V.  von 
Spanien  konnte  sich  rühmen,  die  Sonne  gehe  (subj.  of  indirect  discourse)  in  seinem  weiten 
Reiche  nicht  unter.  Er  erinnerte  sich,  er  habe  es  früher  gesagt.  Er  war  ungewiß,  wo  er  mehr 
Ansehen  hätte  (unreal  potential  form  of  the  subj.  of  indirect  question),  ob  in  dem  Feld,  ob  in 
dem  Kabinette.  Er  war  nicht  gewiß,  ob  er  es  tun  könnte  (same  kind  of  subj.  as  in  the  preceding 
sentence).  Ich  erinnere  mich  nicht,  daß  ich  ihm  einen  Besuch  gemacht  hätte  (unreal  potential; 
very  common  after  a  negative  proposition). 

To  give  the  idea  of  mere  subjectivity  or  more  commonly  the  idea  of  unreality  daß  is  sometimes 
replaced  by  the  conjunction  als  ob  with  transposed  word-order  or  simple  als  with  question  order, 
as  so  often  found  in  clauses  of  manner  (168.  II.  B,  169.  2.  B,  276.  A):  welchen  seine  Gegner 
anklagten,  als  habe  er  Geld  von  den  Juden  empfangen  (Heine).  Welcher  Eure  Schwester 
fälschlich  angeklagt,  als  hätte  sie  ihr  Ehebett  befleckt  (Schikaneder).  This  usage  was  more 
common  here  and  in  C.  d  a  little  earlier  in  the  period  than  at  present,  but  it  is  still  common  in 
adjective  clauses  (168.  II.  G.  i  and  169.  2.  G.  h)  and  is  not  infrequent  in  subject  (269.  2.  b)  and 
prepositional  phrase  (272.  D.  b)  clauses,  and  in  clauses  of  manner  (276.  A). 

b.  Tense.  The  idiomatic  use  of  tenses  in  indirect  discourse  demands  especial  care,  and 
hence  this  subject  has  been  described  at  length  in  article  171.  2. 

c.  Omission  of  daß.  When  the  thought  or  feeling  of  someone  is  reported  indirectly  daß  is 
often  dropped,  and  the  subordinate  clause  has  the  order  of  a  principal  proposition,  as  in  the 
first  two  sentences  in  a  above.  The  daß  cannot  be  omitted  after  a  negative,  as  in  the  first  and 
second  sentences  in  A,  nor  after  a  verb  of  feeling,  as  in  the  e.xample  in  A  which  contains  the 
verb  freuen.  For  an  explanation  of  this  usage  see  284.  I.  3.  a.  The  use  of  daß  is  also  regulated 
by  the  principle  described  in  C.  /  below. 

d.  Abridomeut.  Those  clauses  which  are  introduced  by  daß  may  be  replaced  by  the  in- 
finitive construction,  provided  the  subject  of  the  clause  is  identical  with  the  subject  or  object 
of  the  principal  proposition:  Ich  bin  nicht  wert,  daß  ich  dir  die  Schuhriemen  auflöse;  or  Ich 
bin  nicht  wert,  dir  die  Schuhriemen  aufzulösen.  Ich  erinnere  mich  nicht,  daß  ich  ihm  einen 
Besuch  gemacht  habe  or  hätte  (see  a,  above,  last  sentence) ;  or  Ich  erinnere  mich  nicht,  ihm  einen 
Besuch  gemacht  zu  haben. 

B.  Dative  Clause.  This  dative  clause  performs  the  function  of  a  noun  cr 
adjective-substantive  which  is  the  dat.  object  of  a  verb  or  adjective:  Wer 
keinen  Rat  annimmt  (=  dem  Eigensinnigen),  dem  kann  nicht  geholfen  werden. 
They  are  usually  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  adverb,  or  by  daß  and 


272.  C.  b. ACCUSATIVE   CLAUSE 567 

wenn:  Wer  sich  nicht  nach  der  Decke  streckt,  dem  bleiben  die  Füße  unbe- 
deckt. Daß  es  dazu  werde  (i.e.  daß  das  Ergebnis  der  Wissenschaft  Gemein- 
gut werde),  dem  dient  meine  Arbeit  (Wilamowitz-Moellendorff's  Griechische 
Tragödien,  II.  p.,  4).  Es  resultiert  also  ein  Spannungszustand,  hervorgerufen 
durch  gegeneinander  arbeitende  Muskeln,  vergleichbar  dem,  wenn  ich  die 
Bewegung  einer  Hand  durch  das  Entgegenhalten  der  zweiten  hemme  (E. 
Herzog  in  Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  April  1905). 

a.  There  are  few  dat.  clauses  which  do  not  have  In  the  principal  proposition  a  demonstrative 
or  other  pronominal  adjective  in  the  dat.  referring  to  the  contents  of  the  subordinate  clause:  "Was 
mir  xinrecht  scheint,  dem  versage  ich  meine  Beistimmung.  Only  when  the  relative  itself  is  in 
the  dat.,  can  the  demon,  be  dropped:    Der  Arzt  hilft,  wem  er  helfen  kann. 

b.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  indie,  but  sometimes  the  subjunctive,  especially  the  con- 
cessive (168.  I.  2.  A)  subjunctive,  is  used:  Nimmermehr  enthülle  das  Geheimnis,  wem  es  auch 
sei. 

c.  Non-omission  of  daß.  If  the  clause  is  not  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun,  a  conjunc- 
tion, as  daß  and  wenn  in  the  last  two  sentences  in  B,  must  be  used.  The  conjunction  here  can- 
not be  omitted  as  so  often  elsewhere,  as  it  is  needed  to  preserve  the  oneness  of  the  words  in  the 
clause.     Compare  with  C.  /  below  and  284.  I.  3.  a. 

d.  Abridgment.  Such  clauses  may  often  be  clumsily  abridged  by  substituting  an  adjective 
or  participial  substantive  with  its  modifiers  for  the  clause  form.  Thus  the  second  sentence  in  B, 
above,  becomes  Dem  sich  nicht  nach  der  Decke  Streckenden  bleiben  die  Füße  imbedeckt. 

C.  Accusative  Clatise.  The  accusative  clause  performs  the  function  of  a 
noun  in  the  ace,  object  of  some  verb  or  adjective:  Ich  weiß  nicht,  wo  er 
sich  befindet  (=  den  Ort  seines  gegenwärtigen  Aufenthalts).  After 
verbs  which  govern  two  accusatives,  one  of  the  person  and  one  of  the  thing, 
either  the  object  of  the  person  or  the  object  of  the  thing  may  be  replaced  by  a 
clause:  Lehre,  die  dir  folgen  wollen  (=  deine  Jünger),  deine 
Wege.  Lehre  mich,  was  du  von  ihm  gelernt  hast  (  =  die  von 
ihm  empfangene  Wissenschaft).  Accusative  clauses  are  usually  introduced 
by  daß  or  sometimes  weil  instead  of  the  more  common  daß  when  the  idea  of 
cause  is  present,  sometimes  by  wie  ( =  daß)  after  verbs  of  perceiving  and  relating, 
sometimes  by  wenn  if,  ivJien,  often  by  relative  pronouns  and  adverbs,  and  in 
indirect  questions  by  the  interrogative  particles  ob,  wann,  wo,  wie,  warum, 
weshalb,  &c.,  or  the  interrogative  pronouns  wer,  was  and  the  interrogative 
adjectives  welch,  was  für  ein,  ein  wie  (134.  3):  Wir  versicherten  ihm,  daß 
wir  bereit  seien,  ihm  zu  helfen.  Und  führen  zur  Ursache  an,  weil  (instead  of 
the  more  common  daß)  eine  große  Begebenheit  darin  erschöpft  ist  (Schiller's 
Briefe,  1,  435).  Ich  sah,  wie  (=  daß)  er  auf  und  abging.  Das  nenne  ich 
erfreulich,  wenn  man  wohlerzogene  Kinder  sieht.  Was  Hände  bauten,  können 
Hände  stürzen.  Ich  will  doch  sehen,  wie  (here  interrog.  particle  used  to 
introduce  an  indirect  question)  es  ablaufen  wird.  Er  fragte,  weshalb  ich  nicht 
gekommen  sei  (direct:  Weshalb  sind  Sie  nicht  gekommen).  Ich  weiß  nicht, 
mit  wem  er  am  meisten  umgeht. 

a.  Often  the  neut.  es,  eines,  or  a  demonstrative  pronoun  in  the  principal  proposition  serves 
as  an  anticipative  object  pointing  to  the  following  subordinate  clause,  which  as  an  appositive 
explains  it,  and  is  in  fact  the  real  object:  Ich  mag's  und  will's  nicht  glauben,  daß  mich  der  Max 
verlassen  kann  (Schiller).  Ich  weiß  es,  daß  er  nicht  Wort  hält.  Sagt  mir  nur  eins:  ob  er  im 
Bann  ist  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  2,  1).  Eines  nur  entbehr'  ich  mit  Kvmimer:  daß 
ich  nicht  mehr  vom  frühesten  Morgen  |  für  ihn  schaffen  darf  (Fulda's  Der  Talisman,  2,  4). 
Diese  Ansicht  vertreten  wir  und  weiter  die :  daß  es  nicht  nur  das  gute  Recht,  sondern  auch  die 
Pflicht  und  Schuldigkeit  der  Regierung  erheischt,  Staat  und  Gesellschaft  davor  zu  sichern,  daß 
usw.  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Feb.  27,  1907).  When  the  subordinate  clause  precedes,  a  dem- 
onstrative may  stand  in  the  principal  proposition  pointing  back  to  the  subordinate  clause: 
Was  du  heute  tun  kannst,  das  verschiebe  nicht  auf  morgen.  The  demonstrative  das  here  may 
be  omitted,  but  where  the  subordinate  clause  begins  with  wer  the  demonstrative  mtist  be  used 
in  the  principal  proposition:    Wer  das  getan  hat,  den  bestrafen  wir. 

b.  Attraction.  Here  and  elsewhere  in  substantive  clauses  a  relative  is  sometimes  attracted 
into  the  case  of  the  preceding  demonstrative,  which  is  then,  however,  always  understood  and 
never  formally  expressed:  Sie  eilt  durch  den  Hof  zum  Toresgang,  dem  Wanderer  zu  bieten 
Schutz  und  Rast,  imd  [den,]  wen's  (for  wer  es)  auch  sei,  zu  wärmen  und  zu  laben  (Redwitz's 
Amaranth). 

Sometimes,  especially  in  early  N.H.G.,  and  still  in  the  language  of  the  common  people,  the 
opposite  construction  is  found,  namely,  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  attracted  into  the  case  of  a  following 
relative:  Ein  König  |  der  die  Armen  trewlich  (treulich)  richtet  |  des  thron  wird  ewiglich  bestehen 
(Proverbs  xxix.  14). 


568  ABRIDGMENT   OF   ACCUSATIVE   CLAUSE  272.  C.  c. 

c.  If  several  consecutive  subject,  accusative  or  adjective  clauses  have  the  relative  was  in 
common  it  need  only  be  used  once,  when  the  relative  is  in  the  same  case  in  the  different  clauses. 
If  the  relative  is  in  different  cases  in  the  different  clauses  it  should  be  repeated.  If,  however, 
the  relative  should  happen  to  have  the  same  form  for  two  different  cases,  it  is  sometimes  used 
but  once,  a  usage  once  common  but  now  infrequent  in  choice  prose:  Was  geschieht  und  ich 
nicht  hindern  kann  (Lessing).  Und  was  wir  sind  und  haben,  hat  in  ihm  (i.e.  dem  Christentum) 
seine  Wurzel  vmd  Kraft  (Spielhagen's  Was  will  das  werden?,  I,  chap.  IX).  The  repetition  of  was 
in  the  second  clause  is  now  preferred  in  choice  language. 

d.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  indicative,  but  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse  and 
indirect  question  is  frequently  found.  To  give  the  idea  of  mere  subjectivity  or  more  commonly 
the  idea  of  unreality  daß  is  sometimes  replaced  by  the  conjunction  als  ob  with  transposed  word- 
order  or  simple  als  with  question  order,  as  so  often  found  in  clauses  of  manner  (168.  II.  B  and 
169.  2.  B):  gleichsam  um  zu  zeigen,  als  hätte  die  bessere  Regung  schon  von  Anbeginn  be- 
standen (Gutzkow).  This  usage  was  more  common  here  and  in  A.  a  a  little  earlier  in  the  period 
than  at  present,  but  it  is  still  common  in  adjective  clauses  (168.  II.  G.  b,  169.  2.  G.  b)  and  is  not 
infrequent  in  subject  (269.  2.  b)  and  prepositional  phrase  (272.  D.  b)  clauses,  and  in  clauses  of 
manner  (276.  A). 

Also  the  imperative  mood  is  used,  or  here  as  elsewhere  instead  of  the  imperative  proper  the 
perfect  participle  or  the  present  infinitive:  Ich  sah  ihn  an,  und  mein  Blick  mochte  ihm  erwidern: 
Erzähle!  Nicht  immer  alten  Fummel  (dress  of  poor  material  or  an  old  dress)  tragen,  hat  dein 
Sohn  gesagt  (Georg  Hirschfeld's  Nebeneinander,  p.  15). 

e.  Tense.  The  idiomatic  use  of  tenses  in  indirect  discourse  demands  especial  care,  and  hence 
this  subject  has  been  discussed  at  length  in  171.  2. 

/.  Omission  of  daß  and  ob.  When  the  thought  or  feeling  of  someone  is  reported  indirectly 
daß  is  often  dropped,  and  the  subordinate  clause  has  the  order  of  the  principal  proposition:  Fichte 
behauptet,  der  Mensch  köime,  was  er  wolle,  und  wenn  er  sage,  er  könne  nicht,  so  wolle  er 
nicht.  Ich  fürchte,  Ihr  Sohn  wird  nicht  versetzt  (to  a  mother  anxious  about  her  son's  promo- 
tion). Er  ist,  glaube  ich,  davon  überzeugt.  Den  Brackenburg  solltest  du  in  Ehren  halten, 
sag'  ich  dir  (Goethe's  Egmont,  3).  As  in  269.  1.  c  the  daß  should  not  be  omitted  if  it  is  necessary 
to  make  the  thought  clear,  i.e.  to  indicate  the  oneness  of  the  words  in  the  object  clause  and  main- 
tain its  integrity  as  a  distinct  grammatical  element  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  elements  in 
the  sentence:  Die  Erfahrung  bewies,  daß  die  römische  Symmachie  trotz  ihrer  scheinbar  loseren 
Fügung  gegen  Pyrrhos  zusammenhielt  wie  eine  Mauer  aus  Felsenstücken  (Mommsen's  Römische 
Geschichte,  III,  chap.  1).  If  the  daß  were  omitted  in  this  sentence  it  would  bring  die  römische 
Ssrmmachie  next  to  the  verb,  which  might  at  the  first  glance  lead  us  to  seek  for  a  grammatical 
relation  between  these  two  elements  instead  of  connecting  the  noun  with  the  words  that  follow. 

There  are  often  also  other  reasons  for  the  use  of  daß.  The  transposed  order  is  used  after 
negatives:  Ich  glaube  nicht,  daß  du  recht  hast.  Daß  is  regularly  employed  after  a  demonstra- 
tive, as  after  die  in  the  third  sentence  from  the  last  in  a  above.  For  an  explanation  of  this  usage 
see  284.  I.  3.  a. 

The  connective  is  always  omitted  in  direct  quotations:  Das  Volk  rief:  Es  lebe  der  Kaiser. — 
Viel  [ist]  erreicht!  durfte  er  sich  gestehen  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Der  Kreisphysikiis,  p.  19). 

In  indirect  questions  ob  is  sometimes  in  lively  language  omitted  and  the  word-order  of  a  direct 
question  employed :  Manchmal  waren  es  welche,  mit  denen  ich  nie  ein  Wort  gewechselt,  ich  konnte 
nicht  wissen,  waren  sie  klug  oder  dumm  unter  dem  reizenden  Lärvchen,  schlummerte  in  den 
Tiefen  ihrer  Seelen  etwas,  oder  waren  sie  seelenlos  wie  jene  Fabelwesen  der  Sage  (Ompteda's 
Herzeloide,  p.  2).  Of  course  the  full  question  form  is  employed  if  it  is  desired  to  relate  directly: 
Es  wollte  ihr  kaum  gelingen,  „Mann,  Mann!  was  gibt  es,  Andreas?"  hinimterzurufen  (G.  Ebers's 
Die  Frau  Bürgermeisterin,  p.  242). 

g.  Abridgment.  An  acc.  clause  can  be  abridged  only  when  its  subject  is  identical  with  the 
subject  or  sometimes  the  object  (expressed  or  understood)  of  the  principal  proposition.  The 
clause  may  then  be  abridged  to  an  infin.  with  zu  or  a  single  noun:  Ich  hoffe,  ihn  noch  heute  zu 
sehen.  Ich  bitte,  daß  Sie  gehen,  or  Ich  bitte  Sie,  zu  gehen.  Ich  rate  Ihnen,  daß  Sie  vorsichtig 
seien;  or  Ich  rate  Urnen  Vorsicht;  or  Ich  rate  Ihnen,  vorsichtig  zu  sein.  Das  macht  es  ihm 
und  mir  unmöglich,  es  zu  tun.  Originally  the  infinitive  was  only  a  modifier  of  the  verb,  but 
in  course  of  time  a  close  relation  developed  between  it  and  the  subject  or  object  of  the  principal 
verb,  so  that  the  infinitive  and  the  subject  or  object  of  the  principal  proposition  came  to  be  felt 
as  an  abridged  clause,  in  which  the  subject  or  object  of  the  principal  proposition  was  the  logical 
subject  and  the  infinitive  the  logical  predicate.  This  construction  has  become  thoroly  estab- 
lished where  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition,  often  also 
when  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  an  accusative  or  dative  object  of  the  principal  verb.  In 
German  the  infinitive  has  not  spread  beyond  these  limits,  while  in  English  it  is  used  with  an 
accusative  subject  after  verbs  of  wishing,  desiring,  believing,  imagining,  knowing,  expecting, 
reporting,  representing,  where  the  accusative  in  a  strict  sense  cannot  be  construed  as  the  object 
of  the  principal  verb:  /  desire,  expect,  &c.,  him  to  go.  As  illustrated  in  185.  B.  1.  5,  German  also 
formerly  employed  the  infinitive  here,  but  as  it  was  not  deeply  rooted  it  was  entirely  replaced 
by  a  full  clause:  Ich  wünsche,  erwarte,  daß  er  gehe.  Aside  from  the  list  of  verbs  just  given 
English  expression  now  has  the  simple  rule  here  that  the  /o-form  of  the  infinitive  is  used  whon 
its  subject  is  the  subject  or  object  of  the  principal  verb  and  that  elsewhere,  according  to  269.  3, 
for  is  placed  before  the  to-iorm:  I  planned  to  go  77ty self  Ich  plante,  selbst  zu  gehen,  but  /  planned 
for  him  to  go  Ich  plante,  daß  er  gehe.  With  certain  groups  of  verbs,  however,  we  regularly  find 
the  simple  infinitive  instead  of  the  prepositional  form.     See  185.  B.  I.  2.  a,  b,  c,  d,  e.     In  English 


272.  D.  h. PREPOSITIONAL   CLAUSE 569 

we  often  find  the  gerund  instead  of  the  prepositional  infinitive.  The  gerund  has  as  subject  the 
person  implied  in  a  possessive  adjective  or  a  genitive:  I  remember  his  or  John's  saying  it.  On 
mere  formal  grounds,  i.e.  on  account  of  the  lack  of  an  s-genitive  in  a  number  of  the  most  common 
pronouns,  this,  these,  any,  several,  all,  both,  two,  three,  &c.,  and  on  account  of  the  ambiguity  of 
this  form  in  nouns,  the  singular  and  plural  genitive  sounding  alike  to  the  ear,  there  is  a  tendency 
in  colloquial  speech  to  use  the  accusative  as  the  subject  of  the  gerund:  I  remember  one,  several, 
all  of  them,  the  lad  (ace.  sing.),  the  lads  (ace.  pi.)  saying  it.  German  requires  in  all  these  cases 
a  full  clause:  Ich  erinnere  mich,  daß  der  Junge  es  gesagt  hat.  If  the  subject  of  the  gerund  is 
the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition,  it  is  suppressed:  I  planned  going  myself  Ich  plante  selbst 
zu  gehen.  The  gerundial  construction  belongs  to  the  old  attributive  or  appositional  type  of 
clause  described  in  268.  4. 

h.  The  principal  verb  or  the  principal  proposition  is  often  suppressed  so  that  the  subordinate 
clause  becomes  the  bearer  of  the  thought:  Sie  aber  mit  immer  wachsender  Angst:  „Denken 
Sie  an  Ihre  Frau!  an  Ihre  Tochter!"  (P.  Heyse's  Geteiltes  Herz,  p.  29).  Laura  —  daß  das  Kind 
nur  recht,  recht  was  Gutes  bekommt  (W'ildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  3,  7)  Laura,  see  to 
it  that,  or  I  desire  that,  &c.     See  also  169.  I.  A. 

D.  Prepositional  Clause.  This  clause  performs  the  function  of  a  preposi- 
tional object:  Die  Eltern  freuen  sich  darüber,  daß  ihre  Kinder 
Fortschritte  machen  (=  über  die  Fortschritte  ihrer  Kinder).  This 
clause  is  introduced  by  daß  (see  240.  a),  als  ob  (see  b  below),  ob,  and  the  relative 
and  interrogative  pronouns,  or  the  relative  or  interrogative  adverbs  womit,  &c.: 
Es  bleibt  da'bei,  daß  wir  reisen.  Es  fehlt  viel  da'ran,  daß  ich  zufrieden  sein 
könnte.  Es  ist  da'für  gesorgt,  daß  die  Bäume  nicht  in  den  Himmel  wachsen. 
Er  hat  es  da'hin  gebracht,  daß  er  nicht  mehr  für  seinen  Unterhalt  arbeiten 
muß.  Ob  du  der  klügste  seist,  da'ran  ist  wenig  gelegen.  Das  erinnert  mich 
da'ran,  wa'rum  ich  dich  jetzt  habe  rufen  lassen.  Es  fehlte  ihm  da'zu,  daß  er 
ein  Staatsmann  hätte  sein  können,  der  scharfe,  klare  Bück  in  die  Zukunft. 
This  clause  is  sometimes,  especially  earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in  colloquial 
language,  also  introduced  by  other  conjunctions  instead  of  the  regular  daß, 
namely  by  wenn  to  indicate  a  condition,  indem  means,  damit  purpose,  and 
weil  cause :  Das  Vertrauen  eines  Kranken  kann  nur  da'durch  erschlichen  werden, 
wenn  (usually  daß)  man  seine  eigene  Sprache  gebraucht  (Schiller).  Du  hast 
doch  nichts  da'gegen,  wenn  (usually  daß)  ich  heute  abend  zum  Gottesdienst 
gehe?  Daß  man  nur  da'durch  Kenner  wird,  indem  (usually  daß)  man  den  ein- 
seitigen Enthusiasmus  verliert  (Tieck),  Marianel  benützte  diese  Gelegenheit 
schon  deshalb,  damit  (usually  daß,  but  of  course  damit  is  used  if  deshalb  is  sup- 
pressed) sie  jedes  hingeworfene  Wörtlein  aufhaschen  möge  (Holtei).  Das  kommt 
da'her,  weil  sie  ihn  Hebt.  Das  kommt  da'von,  Herr  Förster,  weil  (usually  daß) 
ich  früher  Totengräber  gewesen  bin  (Baumbach's  Das  Hahichtsfräidein,  III). 
After  da'rum,  da'her,  deshalb,  deswegen,  um  deswillen  (129.  2.  a),  however, 
it  has  become  the  rule  to  use  weil  to  indicate  cause,  so  that  darum  daß,  daher 
daß,  deshalb  daß,  deswegen  daß,  um  deswillen  daß  are  characteristic  of  older 
German.  This  is  development  in  the  direction  of  more  accurate  expression. 
Such  clauses  with  weil  are  now  causal  clauses  (278). 

The  conjunction  daß  cannot  usually  be  dropped  after  the  demonstrative 
adverbs  da'bei,  da'her,  &c.     For  an  explanation  of  this  usage  see  284.  I.  3.  a. 

a.  In  the  principal  proposition  there  is  usually  a  demon,  prepositional  adverb,  da'riiber, 
da'für,  da'bei,  da'durch,  Sec,  deshalb,  deswegen,  um'hin  (very  common  before  abridged  clauses), 
da'her,  da'hin,  «Src,  pointing  to  the  following  clause.  The  demonstrative  prepositional  adverb, 
however,  often  drops  out:  Ich  konnte  nicht  in  Zweifel  [darüber]  sein,  wem  ich  es  zu  danken 
hätte  (K.  F.  Meyer).  If  the  subordinate  clause  precedes,  either  a  demon,  adverb  or  pronoun 
can  stand  in  the  principal  clause:  Was  dieser  Zeuge  beim  ersten  Verhör  ganz  Unglaubliches 
angegeben  hatte,  auf  dem  (or  'darauf)  bestand  er  jetzt. 

h.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  indie,  but  various  forms  of  the  optative  and  the  potential 
subjunctive  are  also  used:  Alle  rieten  ihm  dazu,  daß  er  das  Amt  trotz  der  damit  verbundenen 
Schwierigkeiten  annehme.  Er  denkt  darüber  nach,  wie  er  fortkomme.  Other  examples  with 
e.xplanation  in  168.  II.  G.  a.  (2).  Instead  of  daß  the  conjunction  als  ob  or  simple  als  is  often 
used  with  a  present  or  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunctive  to  give  expression  to  the  idea  of  mere 
subjectivity  or  unreality:  Das  möge  nicht  dahin  mißverstanden  werden,  als  sei  eine  bloße 
Hypothese  von  Haeckel  (name)  in  imwissenschaftlicher  Weise  als  richtig  angenommen  wor- 
den (A.  Koelsch  in  Frankfurter  Zeit.,  Feb.  15,  1914).  Der  Minister  verwahrte  sich  dagegen, 
als  ob  er  mit  Schließung  der  Universität  gedroht  hätte  {Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Nov.  23,  1904) 
protested  against  the  charge  that,  &c.     Compare  272.  A.  a,  C.  d. 


570 ADVERBIAL   CLAUSE 272.  D.  c. 

c.  Abridgment.  If  the  clause  is  introduced  by  daß,  it  is  more  often  abridged  to  an  infin. 
with  zu  when  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  and  that  of  the  subordinate  clause  are 
identical,  and  sometimes  when  the  sul:)jects  are  not  identical,  provided  no  ambiguity  may  arise: 
Ich  kann  nicht  umhin,  dir  meine  Freude  darüber  auszudrücken.  Er  hat  die  größte  Lust  dazu, 
uns  auf  unserer  Reise  zu  begleiten.  Where  the  preposition  (zu,  auf,  lS:c.  in  the  dazu,  darauf, 
&c.)  means  direction,  inclination,  as  in  this  sentence,  the  infinitive  with  zu  is  still  the  rule.  But 
where  the  zu  in  the  dazu  means  purpose  or  result  the  new  form  urn  zu  is  now  more  common 
before  the  infinitive  than  the  older  simple  zu,  as  the  um  brings  out  more  clearly  the  idea  of  pur- 
pose or  result,  indeed  brings  out  this  idea  so  clearly  that  in  many  expressions  the  dazu  in  the 
principal  proposition  is  omitted:  Es  gehörte  die  ganze  Unabhängigkeit  und  Energie  ...  der 
Herzogin  da'zu,  um  nicht  an  dem  Unternehmen  zu  scheitern  (Rodenberg).  Um  das  fertig  zu 
machen,  da'zu  gehört  noch  Arbeit.  Es  fehlt  mir  nur  an  mir,  um  recht  beglückt  zu  sein  (Goethe). 
Pompejus  fehlte  keine  Bedingung,  um  nach  der  Krone  zu  greifen,  als  die  erste  von  allen:  der 
eigene  königliche  Mut  (Mommsen's  Römische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  'i).  Es  fehlte  ihm,  um 
Staatsmann  zu  sein,  der  scharfe,  klare  Blick  in  die  Zukunft  (Dürckheim).  Das  Ministerium 
besaß  nicht  die  nötige  Kühnheit,  um  den  König  von  seinem  Eigensinn  abzuwrenden  (id.).  Der 
folgende  Tag  wurde  benützt,  um  die  Stadt  kennen  zu  lernen  (id.).  If  dazu  stands  in  the  prin- 
cipal proposition  as  in  the  example  from  Rodenberg  the  urn  is  not  needed  before  the  infinitive, 
but  even  here  the  trend  of  usage  is  toward  the  employment  of  um:  Die  Bücher  sind  da'zu  da, 
um  gelesen  zu  werden.  Compare  281.  b.  Note.  Altho  um  zu  with  the  infinitive  is  quite  freely 
used  to  express  purpose  or  result  the  infinitive  with  simple  zu  can  only  take  the  place  of  a  prepo- 
sitional clause  denoting  direction  when  the  subject  of  the  clause  is  identical  with  the  subject  of 
the  principal  proposition:  Ich  warte  darauf,  ihn  beim  Verlassen  des  Hauses  abzufangen.  In 
English,  however,  after  verbs  that  take  a  prepositional  object,  such  as  to  count  upon,  &c.,  instead 
of  a  clause  with  a  nominative  subject  we  may  use  the  prepositional  infinitive  with  an  accusative 
subject,  where  German  requires  the  clause  form  with  a  nominative  subject:  I  am  counting  upon 
him  to  do  it  Ich  rechne  darauf,  daß  er  es  tue.  In  many  common  expressions  containing  the 
preposition  for  following  a  verb,  as  to  hope  for,  to  wait  for  the  for  is  not  a  preposition  at  all  but  a 
conjunction  introducing  an  infinitive  for-clause,  as  explained  in  269.  3:  He  is  still  hoping  to  be 
able  to  do  -it  soon  Er  hofft  noch  darauf,  es  bald  tun  zu  können,  but  /  am  still  hoping  for  bim  to  go 
soon  Ich  hoffe  noch  darauf,  daß  er  bald  gehe.  The /or  is  used  in  English  here  as  so  often  else- 
where when  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  not  identical  with  the  subject  of  the  principal  propo- 
sition. After  real  prepositions  English  often  employs  a  gerund  instead  of  an  infinitive.^  In  this 
construction  the  logical  subject  of  the  gerund  is  the  person  implied  in  a  possessive  adjective  or 
a  genitive:  I  am  counting  on  his  or  John's  doing  it  Ich  rechne  darauf,  daß  er  or  Hans  es  tue.  For 
further  remarks  on  the  gerund  see  C.  g. 

Adverbial  Clause. 

273.  L  An  adverbial  clause  performs  the  function  of  an  adverbial  element: 
Biege  den  Baum,  solange  er  noch  jung  ist  (=  früh,  or  in  seiner 
Jugend),  or  in  older  form:  Biege  den  Baum  so  lange,  als  er  noch  jung  ist. 
Such  a  clause  is  the  result  of  a  long  development.  Originally  so  lange  was  in 
the  principal  proposition  the  so  pointing  forward  to  the  following  appositional 
clause  which  explains  so  lange.  The  appositive  clause  is  introduced  here  as 
appositives  often  elsewhere  by  als  (originally  all  so).  Gradually  so  lange 
became  more  closely  related  to  the  following  clause  and  finally  became  a  part 
of  it  and  als  as  a  superfluous  element  disappeared.  In  many  sentences  the 
appositive  clause  is  introduced  by  daß:  Er  schwankte  so,  daß  ich  ihn  nicht 
mehr  halten  konnte.  Other  words  than  so  often  point  forward  to  the  following 
appositional  clause,  such  as  der  (211.  I),  ein  (271.  I),  solch,  &c.:  Ich  setzte 
ein  solches  Mißtrauen  in  ihn,  daß  ich  ihn  beobachten  ließ.  Thus  different 
forms  with  different  shades  of  meaning  have  gradually  developed. 

a.  The  adverbial  clause  is  introduced  by  a  subordinate  conjunction  (full 
list  of  them  in  238.  3).  In  the  principal  proposition  a  demon,  adverb  often  points 
to  the  adverbial  clause:    Wo  viel  Licht  [ist],  da  ist  viel  Schatten. 

h.  The  mood  and  tense  of  the  adverbial  clause  are  subject  to  the  general 
rules  for  mood  and  tense. 

c.  Adverbial  clauses  may  often  be  abridged,  especially  when  the  subject 
of  the  principal  proposition  and  that  of  the  subordinate  clause  are  identical. 
The  abridged  form  is  either  that  of  an  infin.  phrase,  or  an  appositive  noun,  adj. 
or  participle:  Der  Knabe  besucht  die  Schule,  damit  er  sich  nütz- 
liche Kenntnisse  erwerbe;  or  um  sich  nützliche 
Kenntnisse  zu  erwerben.  Obgleich  er  Sieger  war; 
or  Obgleich  Sieger,  mußte  er  doch  das  Schlachtfeld  räumen. 
Weil    er    krank    und    elend    war;    or    Krank    und    elend, 


275. CLAUSE   OF    PLACE,  CLAUSE   OF   TIME 571 

sehnte  er  sich  nach  dem  Tode.  Wenn  sie  zu  weit  getrieben 
wird;  or  Zu  weit  getrieben,  verfehlt  die  Strenge  ihres  weisen 
Zwecks.  Während  ich  das  bei  mir  dachte;  or  Dies  bei 
mir  denkend,   schHef  ich  ein. 

A^ole.  This  adverbial  apposition  is  especially  frequent  in  case  of  a  substantive  or  adjective  preceded  by  the  con- 
junction als.  Such  a  noun  may  be  used  instead  of  a  clause  to  express  the  following  adverbial  relations:  1.  Time: 
Cicero  entdeckte  als  Konsul  die  Verschv/örung  des  Catilina.  2.  Manner:  Er  lebte  als  Christ.  :i.  Degree  (con- 
taining a  restriction  i:  Als  in  so  far  as)  Tier  gehört  der  Mensch  der  Erde  an,  als  Geist  einer  höheren  Welt.  4.  Cause 
or  reason:  Als  treuer  Diener  wollte  uns  Joseph  nicht  verlassen.  Mein  Freund  hat  als  enterbt  jetzt  keine  Mittel 
mehr.  5.  Condition:  Wer  dir  als  Freund  nicht  nützen  kann,  kann  als  Feind  dir  schaden.  6.  Concession:'  Als  An- 
fänger behandelt  er  die  Sache  doch  mit  Meisterschaft.  7.  Purpose  er  end:  Er  zog  seinen  Freimd  als  Mitarbeiter 
heran. 

2.  Adverbial  clauses  are  subdivided  into  classes  corresponding  to  those  of 
adverbial  elements — clauses  of  place,  time,  manner,  degree,  cause,  condition  and 
exception,  concession,  purpose  or  end,  means. 

Clause  of  Place. 

274.  A  clause  of  place  indicates  the  place  where  the  action  of  the  principal 
verb  occurs  (for  conjunctions  see  23&.  3.  A):  Nicht  überall,  wo  Wasser  ist, 
sind  Frösche;  aber  wo  man  Frösche  hört,  ist  Wasser.  Woher  der  befruchtende 
Regen  strömt,  (daher)  stürzt  auch  der  verheerende  Bhtzstrahl.  Wohin  das 
Christentum  drang,  da  erloschen  vor  ihm  alle  Leichenbrände.  Dorthin  wendet 
euch,  von  wannen  alle  Hilfe  kommt  (Uhland).  Wol  dem  i  der  nicht  wandelt 
im  Rat  der  Gotlosen  |  Noch  tritt  auff  den  Weg  der  Sünder  |  Noch  sitzt  da  die 
Spötter  sitzen  (Ps.  i.  1). 

a.  The  demonstratives  da,  dort,  daher,  dorther,  dahin,  dorthin  often  stand  in  the  principal 
proposition,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  above  examples. 

b.  The  mood  in  these  clauses  is  usually  the  indicative,  but  a  past  tense  form  of  the  subjunc- 
tive is  not  infrequent.    See  169.  2.  I. 

c.  Abridgment.  These  clauses  cannot  usually  be  abridged,  except  sometimes  by  substituting 
a  simple  adverb:  Wohin  ich  blicke,  (or  Überall)  redest  du  mit  Wohltat  mir  und  Güte  zu  (Seume). 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  short  pithy  form  is  still  very  common  in  the  old  verbless,  appo- 
sitional  type  of  sentence  described  in  252.  1.  h.  Note:  Viel  Feind',  viel  Ehr'!  =  Wo  viele  Feinde 
sind,  da  ist  viel  Ehre.     Viele  Köpfe,  viele  Sinne! 

Clause  of  Time. 

275.  A  temporal  clause  limits  the  time  of  the  action  of  the  principal  verb, 
which  is  thus  represented  as  taking  place  simultaneously  with,  or  before,  or 
after  that  of  the  temporal  clause  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  B) :  Ich  erschrak, 
als  ich  ihn  sah.  Es  schließt  (historical  present)  sich  hinter  ihm  und  als  er 
sich  umwendet,  um  von  dem  Schheßer  Auskunft  zu  erhalten,  weist  ihn  dieser 
mit  höhnischen  Worten  hinweg  (E.  Martin's  Wolframs  von  Eschenbach  Parzival, 
II,  p.  xxiii).  Kaum  erblickte  er  mich,  als  fsee  a)  er  auf  mich  zueilte.  Ich  lag 
schon  in  tiefem  Schlafe,  als  (see  a)  ich  plötzlich  durch  ein  Geräusch  geweckt 
wurde.  Ich  war  soeben  for  gerade)  im  Begriff  zu  dir  zu  gehen,  als  (see  a) 
du  mir  zuvorkamst.  Noch  war  ich  nicht  daheim,  als  (see  a)  das  Gewitter  aus- 
brach (Paul's  Deutsche  Grammatik,  IV,  p.  325).  Was  wir  gemeinhin  Ehre 
nennen,  das  ist  wohl  nichts  weiter  als  der  Schatten,  den  wir  werfen,  wenn  die 
Sonne  der  öffentlichen  Achtung  uns  bescheint  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  2,  11). 
Wenn  sich  der  Winter  nähert,  verlassen  uns  die  Zugvögel.  Wenn  Sie  fertig 
sind,  möchte  ich  gern  mit  Ihnen  sprechen.  Ach,  da  ich  irrte,  hatt'  ich  viel 
Gespielen,  da  ich  dich  fdie  Wahrheit)  kenne,  bin  ich  fast  allein  (Goethe). 
Das  Eisen  muß  geschmiedet  werden,  weil  fnow  während  or  indem)  es  glüht 
(Schiller's  Die  Piccolomini,  3,  2).  Seit  Tor  seitdem)  er  auf  das  Land  gezogen 
ist,  habe  ich  ihn  nicht  wieder  gesehen,  but  in  Es  ist  viele  Jahre  her,  seit  (seit- 
dem, or  daß)  ich  ihn  gesehen  habe  the  conjunction  introduces  a  subject  clause, 
not  a  clause  of  time.  Solange  die  Nationen  ein  gesondertes  Dasein  führen, 
wird  es  Streitigkeiten  geben,  welche  nur  mit  den  Waffen  geschhchtet  werden 
können  (MoltkeK  Im  ünterhause  erklärte  Grey,  daß  England  so  lange  nicht 
in  amtlichen  Verkehr  mit  Serbien  trete,  solange  die  Offiziere,  welche  an  der 


572 TEMPORAL   CLAUSE   &   ITS   ABRIDGMENT  275. 

Ermordung  des  Königspaares  teilgenommen,  nicht  aus  ihren  offiziellen  Stel- 
lungen entfernt  worden  wären  {Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  April  14,  190(3).  Die 
Führer  wissen  ganz  gut,  daß  sie  so  lange  vergebens  kämpfen,  als  sie  mit  ihrer 
Opposition  allein  stehen  (Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Oct.  29,  1904).  Man  kann 
meist  so  lange  nicht  genügend  über  eine  Tat  urteüen,  als  man  die  Beweggründe 
dazu  nicht  kennt.  Ich  bin  wie  der  Lehrling  beim  Konditor  gewesen,  den  man 
Zuckerzeug  naschen  läßt,  bis  daß  er  sich  den  Magen  daran  verdirbt  (Wilclen- 
bruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  3,  ö).  Sie  gelobten  einander,  sich  nicht  zu 
unterwerfen,  bis  nicht  (see  223.  XI.  B.  a.  (3))  der  unterste  Stein  zu  oberst 
gekommen  wäre  (Ranke's  D.  Gesch.  im  Z.  d.  R.,  IV,  538).  Der  Krug  geht 
zum  Brunnen,  bis  er  bricht.  Bis  du  nach  Rom  zurückkommst,  ist  die  längst 
Großmutter  (Sudermann's  Johannes,  1,  1).  Ich  habe  so  lange  keine  Ruhe, 
bis  ich  mich  von  der  Seite  gereinigt  habe.  In  Rußland  dauert  das  Soldatische 
des  heimkehrenden  Reservisten  in  der  Haltung  kaum  so  lange,  als  bis  die 
alte  mitgebrachte  Soldatenmütze  aufgetragen  ist  (Hanib.  Nachr.,  Oct.  29,  1904). 

Ihr  Anhang wird  nicht  ehe  (now  usually  eher)  zu  bändigen  sein,  bis  wir 

sie  vor  den  Augen  der  Welt  zu  nichte  gemacht  ....  haben  (Goethe's  Götz,  3,  1), 
a  blending  of  .  .  .  wird  nicht  eher  zu  bändigen  sein,  als  bis  wir  usw.  and  .  .  . 
wird  nicht  zu  bändigen  sein,  bis  wir  usw.  Ich  hab'  dein  Wort,  du  wirst  nicht 
eher  handeln,  ]  bevor  du  mich,  mich  selber  überzeugt  (Schiller's  Die  Piccolomini, 
5,  1),  a  blending  of  Du  wirst  nicht  eher  handeln,  als  bis  du  mich  usw.  and  Du 
wirst  nicht  handeln,  bevor  du  mich  usw.  Nicht  eher,  als  bis  (after  nicht  eher 
more  common  than  simple  bis  or  bevor)  er  sie  von  Weindünsten  taumeln  sah, 
gab  er  ihnen  die  Schrift  zur  Unterzeichnung  (Schiller).  Man  muß  nicht  eher 
fliegen  wollen,  als  bis  einem  die  Flügel  gewachsen  sind,  's  wird  keiner  bös, 
der  nicht,  bevor  er's  ward,  erst  gut  gewesen  (Grillparzer).  Man  pflegt  in 
einem  wichtigen  Werke  zu  blättern,  ehe  man  es  ernstlich  zu  lesen  anfängt 
(Lessing).  Sie  ist  so  bescheiden  und  so  dankbar,  sie  hat  gesagt,  sie  könnte 
keinen  Bissen  zu  sich  nehmen,  ehe  sie  nicht  (223.  XI.  B.  a.  (3))  dem  Haus- 
herrn, der  sie  so  gütig  aufgenommen,  gedankt  hätte  (Wildenbruch's  Der  un- 
sterbliche Felix,  3,  6).  Dort  (in  Griechenland)  nur  standen  Musen  und  Grazien 
auf,  wenn  (now  während;  see  238.  3.  B.  a)  das  neblichte  (now  neblige)  Lapp- 
land, kaum  Menschen,  niemals  ein  Genie  gebiert  (Schiller).  Sie  (die  Zither- 
spielerin) war  eine  schlanke  Blondine,  da  (now  während)  jene  (die  Harfen- 
spielerin) dunkelbraunes  Haar  schmückte  (Goethe). 

o.  Principal  Proposition  instead  of  a  Subordinate  Clause.  As  the  subordinate  clause  intro- 
duced by  als  is  in  fact  a  descriptive  relative  clause  (271.  II.  7)  and  hence  has  the  force  of  an 
independent  proposition,  it  is  often  replaced  by  a  principal  proposition  introduced  by  so  or 
und:  Kaum  war  der  König  am  jenseitigen  Ufer  des  Rheins  gelandet,  so  überfiel  ihn  ein  Haufen 
spanischer  Reiter  (Schiller).  Kaum  ist  der  edle  Prinz  von  Samarkand  begraben,  und  schon 
ein  neues  Todesopfer  naht  (id.).  Similarly  instead  of  nicht  lange  —  bis  we  often  find  co-ordina- 
tion in  accord  with  older  usage  described  in  267.  4:  So  dauerte  es  nicht  lange  und  er  befand  sich 
mit  allen  in  Betracht  kommenden  Faktoren  des  Wiener  Kunstlebens  auf  dem  gespanntesten 
Fuße  (Eduard  Engels  in    Velhagen  und  Klasings  Alonatshefte,  April  1905,  p.  154). 

b.  Mood.  The  indicative  and  subjunctive  are  employed  according  to  the  rules  generally 
observed  for  their  use.  See  169.  1.  C.  (3)  and  2.  I.  After  the  conj.  bis  notice  that  the  verb  de- 
pending upon  a  verb  in  a  past  tense  form  is  in  the  subjunctive,  to  indicate  the  continuance  of 
an  action  up  to  a  certain  point  in  the  future  with  doubtful  result:  Sie  wollten  ausharren,  bis 
der  Entsatz  käme  They  desired  to  wait  till  relief  might  come.  The  subjunctive  is  usually  in  a 
past  tense  form,  but  occasionally  the  subjunctive  of  a  present  tense  form  is  found  in  accordance 
with  older  usage.  See  168.  I.  2.  B.  (3)).  If  the  governing  verbis  in  a  present  tense  form  the  depen- 
dent verb  is  in  the  indicative,  altho  the  subjunctive  was  common  here  in  early  N.H.G.:  Sie  wollen 
warten,  bis  der  Entsatz  kommt.  Ich  will  das  Schwert  hinder  (hinter)  sie  schicken  |  bis  das 
(daß)  aus  mit  jnen  (ihnen)  sey  (sei)  — Jeremiah  ix.  16.  The  use  of  the  indic.  after  a  present 
tense  form  here  shows  that  the  tendency  at  present  is  to  look  at  the  action  as  actually  completed, 
while  in  earlier  periods  it  was  regarded  as  only  contemplated  or  desired. 

c.  Abridgment.  These  clauses  can  usually  be  abridged  only  when  their  subject  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  principal  proposition.  The  clause  then  may  become  a  participle,  adjective, 
or  substantive  appositive:  Und  indem  ich  dies  bei  mir  dachte,  or  Und 
dies  bei  mir  denkend,  schlief  ich  ein.  Wenn  er  kaum  einer  Gefahr 
entronnen  ist,  or  Kaum  einer  Gefahr  entronnen,  stürzt  er  sich  in  die 
andere.  Daß  er  in  den  Sitzungen,  wenn  behufs  der  Abstimmung  aus  dem  leichten  Schlummer 
geweckt,  zu  sagen  pflegte  (Bismarck).     Still  und  eingezogen  lebt  er  für  sich,  redet  nur  gefragt 


276.  A.  g. CLAUSE   OF   MANNER 573 

(J.  Minor's  Fragmente  vom  ewigen  Juden,  p.  2).  Als  er  arm  war,  or  Arm,  hatt'  er 
sich  noch  satt  gegessen;  seitdem  er  reich  geworden,  or  Reich,  hungert  er 
bei  halbem  Essen.  Und  so  saß  er  (,  nachdem  er)  eine  Leiche  (geworden,)  eines  Morgens  da 
(Schiller).  In  the  abridged  clause  the  time  relations  can  only  be  gathered  from  the  context 
as  they  are  not  usually  expressed,  but  in  modern  literature  a  conjunction  is  sometimes  employed 
as  in  the  full  clause  form:  gefühlt  bevor  erblickt  (Wieland's/Jr.  2, 40,  7).  Der  Keim  war  welk, 
bevor  entfaltet  (A.  Grün's  Werke,  4,  2S8).  The  perfect  participle  of  transitive  verbs  has  passive 
force  except  in  case  of  reflexives,  which  have  active  force  but  suppress  regularly  the  reflexive 
object:  [sich]  Zur  Wirtin  gewendet  sagte  sie  usw.  (Auerbach's  Dorfgeschichten,  8,  p.  39).  It 
has  active  force  also  in  case  of  intransitives,  but  it  can  only  be  used  of  such  intransitives  as  are 
conjugated  with  sein,  as  in  the  second  example.  In  all  these  examples  we  have  the  old  attrib- 
utive or  appositional  type  of  clause  structure  described  in  268.  4.  The  participle,  adjective, 
or  substantive  appositive  is  the  logical  predicate  of  the  clause  and  the  subject  of  the 
principal  proposition  the  logical  subject.  English  has  gone  much  farther  than  German  in  de- 
veloping this  old  type  of  clause.  In  English  it  is  very  common  in  the  form  of  a  prepositional 
phrase,  in  which  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  is  the  logical  subject,  a  verbal  noun, 
especially  the  gerund,  the  logical  predicate,  and  the  preposition  a  particle  to  indicate  the  ideas 
of  time  and  subordination  to  the  principal  proposition:  After  having  played  an  hour  he  began  to 
work  Nachdem  er  eine  Stunde  gespielt  hatte,  fing  er  an  zu  arbeiten. 

Sometimes  when  the  temporal  clause  has  a  different  subject  from  that  of  the  principal  propo- 
sition it  can  be  abridged,  but  usually  only  by  substituting  a  prep,  phrase  for  the  clause:  Wenn 
die  Not  am  größten  ist,  so  ist  Gottes  Hilfe  am  nächsten,  or  In  der  größten  Not  ist  Gottes  Hilfe 
am  nächsten. 

Sometimes  the  absolute  accusative  construction  has  the  force  of  a  temporal  clause.     See  265. 

Sometimes  in  lively  style  an  absolute  nominative  takes  the  place  of  a  clause  of  time:  Eine 
Stimde,  dann  ist  alles  vorbei!  Nicht  ganz  acht  Monate,  so  war  sie  eine  Leiche.  Acht  Tage 
später  imd  Brüssel  öffnete  dem  Sieger  die  Tore.  Often  in  popular  speech:  Keine  halbe  PfeSe 
Toback,  so  habens  ( =  haben  Sie)  den  See  (Storm,  2,  36)  Before  you  smoke  half  a  pipeful  of 
tobacco  you'll  reach  the  lake. 

A  verbless  temporal  clause  is  often  contained  in  the  old  verbless  appositional  type  of  sentences 
described  in  262.  1.  h.  Note:   Gesagt,  getan  =  Sobald  es  gesagt  war,  wurde  es  getan. 

Clause  of  Manner. 

276.  A  clause  of  manner  describes  the  manner  of  the  action  of  the  principal 
verb.     This  clause  may  define  the  action  in  each  of  the  four  following  ways: 

A.  Comparison  and  Manner  Proper.  The  action  of  the  principal  verb  is  compared  with 
that  in  the  subordinate  clause.  The  clause  is  introduced  by  the  conjunctions  enumerated  in 
238.  3.  C.  a.  In  239  these  conjunctions  are  treated  at  length,  where  also  illustrative  sentences 
are  given  which  show  the  use  of  the  moods.     For  moods  see  also  168.  II.  B.  a,  b  and  169.  2.  B.  a,  b. 

In  such  sentences  as  Er  sieht  aus,  als  [er  aussehen  würde]  wäre  er  krank,  or  als  wenn  or  als 
ob  er  krank  wäre  the  final  clause  is  in  fact  a  conditional  clause  that  modifies  the  verb  in  the 
clause  of  comparison.  In  such  conditional  clauses  ob,  cognate  with  English  •//  and  earlier  in  the 
period  a  common  conditional  conjunction  also  in  German,  has  been  preserved  in  its  old  function. 
But  the  peculiar  use  of  mood  and  tense  in  such  clauses,  as  illustrated  in  168.  II.  B,  indicates  that 
the  clause  is  now  sometimes  felt  as  indirect  discourse  rather  than  as  a  condition. 

When  so  stands  in  the  principal  proposition  pointing  forward  to  a  following  appositional  or 
explanatory  clause  this  clause  is  usually  introduced  by  daß:  Die  Entwickelung  verläuft  nun 
einmal  so,  daß  neben  der  Steigerung  der  Ausdrucksfähigkeit  und  des  geistigen  Gehalts  einer 
Sprache  eine  gewisse  Abschleifung  der  Formschwierigkeit  einhergeht  (W.  Fischer's  Die  deutsche 
Sprache  von  heute,  p.  56).  The  daß  may  be  omitted  and  the  clause  assume  normal  word-order, 
So  kann  man  vom  Tiere  aussagen:  es  verstehe,  aber  nicht:  es  habe  Verstand  (Vischer's  Ästh., 
2,  111).  To  convey  the  idea  of  mere  subjectivity  or  unreality  daß  is  often  replaced  here  by  als 
ob  with  transposed  word-order  or  simple  als  with  question  order,  as  so  often  found  in  clauses  of 
manner  (168.  II.  B  and  169.  2.  B):  So  wollen  wir  das  nicht  so  verstehen,  als  ob  jede  andere 
Aussprache  tadelnswert  wäre  (W.  Fischer's  Die  deutsche  Sprache  von  heute,  p.  123.)  Where  the 
so  of  the  principal  proposition  points  forward  to  a  following  wie-clause  it  is  often  dropped:  Er 
handelt  immer  so,  wie  es  sein  Vorteil  erheischt,  or  Er  handelt,  wie  es  sein  Vorteil  erheischt. 
Er  schilderte  das  Ereignis,  wie  folgt  He  described  the  event  as  (for  older  all  so)  follows,  originally 
He  described  the  event  all  so:  {it,  i.e.  the  description)  folloivs.  In  English  the  as  has  been  trans- 
ferred from  the  principal  to  the  subordinate  proposition.  The  German  development  is  exactly 
the  same,  but  the  older  als  (from  older  all  so)  has  been  replaced  by  wie.  In  both  German  and 
English  the  subordinate  clause  may  precede:  Wie  man's  treibt,  so  geht's  As  you  make  your  bed, 
so  must  you  lie  on  it,  or  As  you  sow,  so  will  you  reap. 

a.  Abridgment.  The  clause  can  often  be  abridged  when  the  verb  is  common  to  both  propo- 
sitions: Sie  liebte  ihn,  wie  eine  Mutter  ihren  Sohn  [liebt].  Often  also  when  the  verb  is  not 
common  to  both  propositions  in  case  of  appositive  participles:  Die  Schar  drang  langsam  vor, 
als  ob  den  Widerstand  der  Gegner  scheuend  (Grillparzer).  Der  kommt  mir  grade  gepfiffen 
(in  apposition  with  mir)  (Lauff's  Frau  Aleit,  p.  251)  =  als  ob  ich  ihm  grade  gepfiffen  hätte. 


574 ATTENDANT   CIRCUMSTANCE,  RESULT  276.  A.  a. 

Er  kam  wie  hereingeschneit  =  wie  wenn  er  hereingeschneit  wäre.  Er  kam  wie  gerufen.  Der 
Rock  sitzt  wie  angegossen.  In  clauses  of  manner  proper  the  present  participle  is  quite  common 
when  its  subject  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition:  Sie  kam  singend,  weinend,  lachend 
in  das  Haus.  In  case  of  all  these  participial  constructions  we  have  to  do  with  the  old  attributive 
or  appositional  type  of  clause  described  in  268.  4.  In  this  old  type,  as  explained  in  252.  1.  b.  Note, 
the  whole  sentence  may  be  verbless.     Wie  gewonnen,  so  zerronnen  Easy  come,  easy  go. 

The  English  contraction  as  if  to  for  as  if  he  luould  is  rendered  by  wie  xna  zu:  Der  Esel  fing  an, 
seine  Ohren  zu  schwenken  und  seine  wehmütige  Stimme  erschallen  zu  lassen,  wie  ;im  den 
Kameraden  an  der  Kette  zu  trösten  (Boßhart's  Die  Barettlitochter,^  p.  15). 

B.  Attendant  Circumstance.  The  action  of  the  principal  verb  is  accompanied  by  some  at- 
tendant circumstance  which  is  contained  in  the  subordinate  clause.  The  clause  is  introduced 
by  the  conjunctions  in  238.  3.  C.  b:  Indem  er  sich  mit  dem  Rücken  an  den  Baimi  lehnte,  ver- 
teidigte er  sich  tapfer  gegen  die  an  Zahl  überlegenen  Feinde.  Das  Tier  zog  sich  zurück,  indem 
es  mich  fortwährend  unverwandt  anblickte.  Er  ging  an  mir  vorüber,  ohne  daß  er  mich  grüßte. 
Außerdem  daß  (or  abgesehen  davon  daß)  sie  eine  reiche  Erbin  ist,  ist  sie  auch  schön  und  lie- 
benswürdig. 

Instead  of  a  principal  proposition  and  a  subordinate  clause  we  often  find  two  principal  propo- 
sitions connected  by  und:  Er  ging  an  mir  vorüber  imd  grüßte  mich  nicht.  For  explanation 
and  force  of  this  construction  see  267.  4   (3rd  par.). 

a.  Abridgment.  The  clause  may  be  abridged  by  substituting  a  participle  or  a  prepositional 
infinitive  for  the  clause  form,  provided  the  subject  of  the  clause  and  that  of  the  principal  propo- 
sition are  identical:  Er  grüßte,  indem  er  sich  tief  verbeugte,  or  sich  tief 
verbeugend.  Er  ging  an  mir  vorüber,  ohne  mich  zu  grüßen.  A  prepositional  phrase  may 
often  take  the  place  of  the  clause:  Ein  größerer  Haufe  marschierte  in  der  Richtung  der  Kioster- 
wiese,  tun,  mit  Vermeidung  eines  Gefechtes  (=  indem  er  ein  Gefecht 
vermied),  die  dort  sich  versammelnden  andern  Ritter  zur  Seite  zu  locken  (Riehl's  Der  Dachs  auf 
Lichtmeß).  Unter  heftigem  Weinen  (or  heftig  weinend)  drückte  er  mir  die  Hand.  Er  sang 
bei  geöffnetem  Fenster  He  sang  with  the  window  open,  not  by  the  open  window.  Er  ging  ohne 
Erlaubnis  aus. 

Instead  of  a  full  clause  we  often  find  the  absolute  accusative  construction.  See  265. 
B.  b.  (1). 

C.  Alternative  Agreement.  The  action  of  the  principal  proposition  is  in  alternative  agree- 
ment with  that  of  the  subordinate  clause  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  C.  c):  Danach  einer  tut, 
danach  es  ihm  geht  (proverb;  for  word-order  see  288.  B.  d).  Das  Herz  überströmt  von  Hand- 
lungen, von  bösen  und  guten,  nachdem  (now  je  nachdem)  der  Urquell  trüb  ist  oder  hell.  (Klop- 
stock,  9,  18).  Nach  fiinen  ist  viel  Nachfrage  und  ich  antworte,  je  nachdem  die  Menschen 
sind  (Goethe).  Wir  werden  gelobt  oder  getadelt,  je  nachdem  wir  fleißig  oder  träge  sind.  Je 
nachdem  du  ausmißt,  wird  dir  wieder  eingemessen. 

D.  Result.  The  action  of  the  principal  verb  is  followed  by  a  result  which  is  contained  in  the 
subordinate  clause  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  C.  d;  for  the  origin  of  the  daß  clause  see  271.  I). 
Exs. :  Handle  auch  im  Verborgenen  so,  daß  es  jedermann  sehen  könnte.  Er  sprach  mit  solchen 
Gebärden,  daß  alles  (everybody)  lachte.  Die  Feinde  haben  derartige  Maßregeln  getroffen, 
daß  jeder  Rückzug  unmöglich  wird.  Das  Verhältnis  war  nicht  derart  or  der  Art,  daß  es  Jo- 
hanna große  Verlegenheit  verursacht  hätte.  Er  hat  einen  (see  271.  I)  Charakter,  daß  man 
sich  von  ihm  nichts  Gutes  versehen  kann.  Es  war  eine  derartige  Beleidigung,  daß  eine  Ver- 
söhnung unmöglich  ist.  Er  ist  nicht  der  Mann  danach,  daß  er  sich  das  Errungene  wehrlos 
aus  den  Händen  winden  ließe.  Er  hat  es  danach  gemacht,  daß  wir  ihn  hassen  müssen.  Wie 
viele  Eltern  gehen  dem  Vergnügen  nach,  anstatt  daß  (instead  of,  i.e.  so  that  they  do  not)  sie  für 
die  Erziehung  üirer  Kinder  sorgen!  Anstatt  daß  es  ihm  eingefallen  wäre  zu  arbeiten,  ver- 
trödelte er  den  ganzen  Tag.  Ich  schlich  ihm  nach,  ohne  daß  er  sich  tunsah.  Er  erfocht  einen 
glänzenden  Sieg,  ohne  daß  er  viel  Menschenleben  geopfert  hätte.  Ich  habe  selten  geschlafen, 
daß  ich  nicht  geträumt  hätte.  Ich  denke  an  den  Verlust  nicht  mehr,  geschweige  daß  ich  den- 
selben gegen  deinen  Bruder  erwähnen  sollte.  Die  Bauern  saßen  da,  ohne  einander  anzusehen, 
geschweige  daß  sie  zusammen  geredet  hätten.  Weit  entfernt,  daß  man  den  Feldherm  unter- 
stützt hätte,  ward  sogar  der  Sold  der  Truppen  verschwendet.  Rauh  liegt  in  der  Runde  das 
Bergland,  kaum  daß  auf  dsn  Klippen  die  Föhre  dürftige  Nahrung  findet.  Jetzt  ging  alles  wieder 
seinen  alten  Weg,  kaum  daß  einer  mehr  des  Abwesenden  gedachte  or  gedacht  hätte  (cautious 
statement). 

We  often  find  a  simple  daß  or  so  daß  in  the  subordinate  clause  without  any  corresponding  so, 
derartig,  &c.,  in  the  principal  proposition,  so  that  the  result  is  represented  as  a  result  pure  and 
simple  without  the  modal  idea  of  manner:  Der  Kanzleirat  ließ  die  Feder  fallen,  daß  auf  dem 
vor  ihm  liegenden  Bogen  ein  großer  Klecks  entstand  (Baumbach's  Der  Schwiegersohn,  VII). 
Wo  waren  meine  Sinne,  daß  ich  diesen  Ton  nicht  sogleich  verstand?  Fräulein  Frieda,  Sie  sehen 
aus  —  daß  sich  ein  alter  Knasterbart,  wie  ich,  in  Sie  verlieben  könnte.  Er  schwankte,  so  daß 
ich  ihn  nicht  mehr  halten  konnte.  Er  schwankte  so,  daß  ich  usw.  gives  the  modal  idea.  The 
simple  daß-clause  is  older  than  the  form  with  so  daß. 

The  clause  of  result  sometimes  assumes  the  form  of  a  relative  clause:  Ein  solcher  Kampf  steht 
uns  bevor,  wobei  es  sich  verlohnt  (=  daß  es  sich  dahei  verlohnt),  im  vollen  Kriegesschmucke 
zu  erscheinen  (Uhland).  Often  in  descriptive  (271.  II.  7)  relative  clauses:  Hans  ist  endlich 
angekommen,  weshalb  (or  weswegen,  or  infolge  dessen,  all  three  =  so  daß)  wir  alle  sehr  glück- 
lich sind,  or  in  the  form  of  a  principal  proposition:  deshalb  (or  deswegen,  or  infolge  dessen) 
sind  wir  alle  sehr  glücklich. 


277.  1.  A.  c. CLAUSE   OF   DEGREE 575 

In  poetry  and  choice  prose  the  clause  of  result  that  follows  a  negative  proposition  is  often 
positive  altho  the  meaning  requires  a  negative  word,  but  in  this  case  it  should  be  noted  that 
daß  is  omitted  and  the  clause  has  the  form  of  a  principal  proposition:  Denn  niemals  kehrt'  er 
heim,  er  bracht'  euch  etwas  (Schiller's  Tell,  4,  3).  In  der  Stadt  entsteht  kein  gemeinnütziges 
Werk,  sie  steht  als  die  reiche  Frau  mit  der  offenen  Hand  dazu,  sie  zeichnet  dafür  den  ersten 
großen  Beitrag  (Heer's  Felix  Notvest,  p.  289).  For  historical  explanation  see  168.  II.  E.  a. 
Note.     In  plain  prose  this  construction  is  replaced  by  ohne  daß. 

The  idea  of  result  is  often  found  in  clear  attributive  form,  especially  in  the  form  of  a  relative 
clause:   Es  gibt  kernen,  der  nicht  seine  Fehler  hätte. 

a.  Mood.  The  mood  of  the  clause  is  indie,  if  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a 
result  that  has  been  actually  attained,  but  the  subjunctive  to  indicate  that  the  statement  is 
merely  conceived.     See  168.  II.  D,  H;    169.  2.  D,  H.  c. 

b.  Abridgment.  Clauses  introduced  by  anstatt  daß  and  ohne  daß  may  be  abridged  to  the 
infin.  construction  if  the  subject  of  the  clause  is  identical  with  that  of  the  principal  proposition: 
Sie  schweigen,  anstatt  daß  sie  sich  beklagen,  or  anstatt  sich  zu  beklagen.  Er  leistete  das 
Menschenmögliche,  ohne  den  geringsten  Erfolg  zu  haben  He  accomplished  as  much  as  is  possible 
for  men  ivithout  meeting  ivith  the  least  success.  See  also  185.  A.  II.  2.  a  and  Note  2  thereunder. 
For  the  development  of  the  infinitive  clause  with  ohne  and  anstatt  see  281.  b.  Note  (2nd  par.). 
As  can  be  seen  by  the  translation  of  the  last  German  sentence  English  employs  the  gerund 
here,  the  old  attributive  or  appositive  type  of  clause  structure  described  in  268.  4.  It  has 
a  wider  field  of  usefulness  here  than  the  German  infinitiv^e,  for  it  is  also  employed  when  its  subject 
is  not  identical  with  that  of  the  principal  verb.  Its  logical  subject  is  then  the  person  implied 
in  a  possessive  adjective  or  a  genitive:  /  left  the  room  xvithout  his  or  John's  seeing  me.  _  For 
further  remarks  upon  the  gerund  see  272.  C.  g.  Clauses  introduced  by  simple  daß  (with  a 
preceding  so  ein,  kein,  solch,  derartig  in  the  principal  proposition)  are  in  recent  literature 
very  often  abridged  to  an  infinitive  with  urn  zu  instead  of  simple  zu,  as  um  brings  out  the  idea 
of  end,  result  more  clearly:  Aristoteles  sagt,  daß  eine  Stadt  so  gebaut  sein  müsse,  um  die 
Menschen  zugleich  sicher  und  glücklich  zu  machen.  Es  wäre  ein  Anblick,  um  Engel  weinen 
zu  machen  (Goethe's  Götz,  4,  1).  Es  ist,  um  sich  die  Haare  auszuraufen  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome, 
chap,  vi)  =  Die  Verhältnisse  sind  derart,  daß  man  sich  die  Haare  ausraufen  möchte.  Es  ist 
kein  Wetter,  um  noch  länger  hier  in  der  Nacht  darüber  zu  beratschlagen  (id..  Der  Dränmling, 
xxviii).  Es  war  recht  ein  Fleckchen  Erde,  um  sich  allein  mit  seinen  Gedanken  darin  zu  befinden, 
und  wiederum  doch  auch,  um  sich  nicht  allein  hier  aufzuhalten,  sondern  sonst  jemandem  einen 
Mitgenuß  daran  zu  vergönnen  (Jensen's  Die  Schatzsucher,  p.  SO).  Doch  warum  meinten  Sie 
vorhin,  das  sei  kein  Thema,  um  es  mit  mir  zu  erörtern?  (id.,  Die  Katze,  p.  99).  Sometimes 
also  with  zu  instead  of  um  zu  in  accordance  with  older  usage:  Er  ist  kein  solcher  Narr,  dies  zu 
glauben.  Usually  so  after  danach:  Der  Physikus  war  nicht  der  Mann  danach,  sich  das  Er- 
rungene wehrlos  aus  den  Händen  winden  zulassen  (Enking's  Warum  schwieg  sie  nicht?).  See 
also  281.  b.  Note. 

Clause  of  Degree. 

277.  Clauses  of  degree  define  the  degree  or  intensity  of  that  which  is  predi- 
cated in  the  principal  proposition.  The  degree  can  be  expressed  in  the  following 
ways :  — 

1.      Comparison.     It  is  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  comparison: 

A.     Signifying  a  degree  equal  to  that  of  the  principal  proposition: 

a.  Expressing  a  simple  comparison  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  D.  1.  A.  a):  Er  ist  ebenso 
gelehrt  als  [er]  bescheiden  [ist].  Sein  Wort  bedeutet  so'viel  wie  ein  Eid  [bedeutet].  When 
the  verb  of  the  clause  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  proposition  it  is  usually,  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding sentence,  understood.  See  also  239.  3.  Concerning  the  subjunctive  mood  here  see  169. 
2.  H.  a. 

b.  Expressing  a  proportionate  agreement  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  D.  1.  A.  b):  Je  mehr 
das  Alter  wächst,  je  (now  more  commonly  desto  or  um  so)  schwerer  wird  das  Sorgen  (Günther). 
Je  mehr  [Geld]  ihr  habt,  je  mehr  bringt  ihr  durch  (Hauptmann's  Utid  Pippa  tanzt,  1).  Je  eher, 
je  (still  more  common  than  desto  or  um  so  in  short,  pithy  sayings)  lieber  the  sooner,  the  better. 
Je  mehr  du  dich  ärgerst,  desto  (or  um  so,  or  less  commonly  um  desto)  mehr  freuen  sich  deine 
Feinde.  Wir  können  aber  auch  im  allgemeinen  behaupten,  um  so  (instead  of  the  more  common 
je)  mehr  Sorgfalt  auf  die  Erlernung  der  künstlichen  Sprache  verwendet  wird,  um  so  näher 
kommt  man  darin  der  Norm,  namentlich  in  allen  denjenigen  Punkten,  die  sich  schriftlich  fixieren 
lassen  (H.  Paul's  Prinzipien  der  Sprachgeschichte,  chap,  xxiii).  Je  nachdem  der  Meister  ist, 
wird  aus  dem  Block  ein  Trog  oder  eine  Bildsäule.  Je  nachdem  die  Arbeit  ist,  nach  dem  wird 
der  Lohn  sein.  Seine  Hoffnung  stieg  in  eben  dem  Maße  (or  Verhältnisse),  wie  seine  Gesund- 
heit wiederkam.  In  old  saws  the  sentence  is  still  often  verbless  as  explained  in  252.  1.  b.  Note: 
Darnach  die  Arbeit  [ist],  darnach  [ist]  der  Lohn. 

c.  Expressing  the  extent  or  a  restriction  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  D.  1.  A.  c):  Manche 
böse  Tat  ist  in'sofern  zu  entschuldigen,  als  sie  nicht  in  böser  Absicht  getan  wird.  Der  Gelehrte 
ist  nur  in'sofern  ein  Gelehrter,  inwie'fern  er  in  der  Gesellschaft  beachtet  wird  (Fichte).  Er 
strengte  sich  so  sehr  an,  als  er  konnte.  Jeder  Mensch  gilt  in  der  Welt  nur  so  viel,  als  er  sich 
gelten  macht.  Er  legte  ihr  so  viel  vor,  als  er  finden  konnte.  Er  ehrt  die  Wissenschaft,  so'fem 
sie  nutzt.     So'weit  ich  über  seine  Handlungsweise  urteilen  kann,  halte  ich  sie  für  gerecht. 


576 CLAUSE   OF   RESULT 277.  L  A.  c. 

Dieser  Schriftsteller  hat  ein,  so'weit  sich  das  nach  dem  Absatz  beurteilen  läßt,  brauchbares 
Bach  verfaßt.  Er  ordnete  die  am  Boden  liegenden  Blätter,  so'gut  es  in  der  Schnelligkeit  gehen 
wollte.  Sie  drückte,  so'fest  sie  konnte,  ihr  Ohr  an  eine  Ritze.  Er  bemüht  sich,  so'sehr  er 
kann.  Ich  tue,  so'viel  ich  kann.  Zunächst  einigte  man  sich  wenigstens  so  weit,  daß  an  der 
vierjährigen  Dauer  der  Grundschule  unbedingt  festgehalten  werden  solle  (168.  II.  G.  a.  (2)). 
The  clause  can  also  be  in  the  form  of  a  substantive  relative  clause  introduced  by  das,  now  written 
daß  as  it  has  been  taken  for  a  conjunction:  So  weit  ging  weder  mein  Auftrag,  daß  (=  soweit 
so  far  as)  ich  wüßte,  noch  mein  Eifer.  VVe  often  use  was  here  to  express  the  extent  or  restriction: 
Da  lief  er,  was  er  konnte.  Sie  suchte,  was  an  ihr  lag,  die  Tücke  des  Schicksals  wieder  gutzu- 
machen. Was  mich  (den  Vorfall,  &c.)  anbelangt  or  betrifft,  so  irrst  du  dich.  Instead  of  a  clause 
containing  the  verbs  (anjbetreffen  or  anbelangen  we  often  find  a  prepositional  phrase,  and 
sometimes  the  absolute  present  participle:  Was  sein  Alter  anbetrifft,  or  in  Betreff  or  betreffs 
seines  Alters,  or  sein  Alter  betreffend.     Concerning  the  subjunctive  mood  here  see  169.  2.  H.  b. 

Note.  In  clauses  introduced  by  an  als  or  wie  that  follows  so'viel  the  subject  may  often  be  the  partitive  genitive 
of  a  pronoun  or  the  subject  of  the  clause  may  be  suppressed  in  accordance  with  older  usage  (see  251.  II.  A.  d):  Bringen 
Sie  so'viele  Bücher,  als  (or  wie)  deren  auf  dem  Tische  liegen,  or  als  auf  dem  Tische  liegen.  See  also  255.  II.  1.  H. 
c  (2nd  par.).  We  also  find  here  the  old  verbless  type  of  sentence  described  in  252.  1.  b.  Note:  Soviel  Köpfe,  soviel 
Sinne. 

B.  Following  a  comparative  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  D.  1.  b):  Es  ist  schicklicher,  daß 
ein  zärtlicher  Charakter  Augenblicke  des  Stolzes  hat,  als  daß  ein  stolzer  von  der  Zärtlichkeit 
sich  fortreißen  läßt  (Lessing).  .  .  .  von  all  der  Pracht  und  Schönheit  der  Welt  nicht  mehr  sehen, 
als  [als]  ob  man  blind  wäre  (Spielhagen,  13,  139),  or  more  accurately  nicht  mehr  sehen,  denn 
(239.  6,  2nd  par.)  als  ob  usw.  Sie  dachte  nicht  anders,  als  er  sage  es  bloß  zum  Spaß.  Was 
kann  ich  aber  von  Savignys  Vorlesungen  anders  sagen,  als  daß  sie  mich  aufs  gewaltigste  er- 
griffen und  auf  mein  ganzes  Leben  und  Studieren  entschiedenen  Einfluß  erlangten  (Jakob 
Grimm).  Denke  ich  natürlich  nicht  anders,  als  Ihnen  ist  etwas  passiert  (Wildenbruch's  Der 
unsterbliche  Felix,  4,  1).  Er  benimmt  sich  nicht  anders,  als  [als]  ob  er  das  einzige  Wesen  in 
der  Welt  wäre,  or  more  accurately  nicht  anders,  denn  (239.  6,  2nd  par.)  als  ob  er  .  .  .  wäre,  or 
more  smoothly,  dropping  nicht  anders:  Er  benimmt  sich,  als  ob  er  .  .  ,  wäre.  Wir  können  von 
jenen  keinen  andern  Grund  angeben,  warum  sie  uns  gefallen,  als  weil  (usually  als  daß)  sie 
einen  ganz  angenehmen  Eindruck  auf  unsere  Organe  machen  (Wieland).  Kein  Naturereignis 
wird  von  der  Jugend  freudiger  begrüßt  als  der  Schnee  [begrüßt  wird].  When  the  clause  has 
the  same  verb  as  the  principal  proposition  the  verb  of  the  clause,  as  in  the  preceding  example, 
can  be  understood.  Especially  the  subject  or  the  object  of  the  clause  is  often  omitted.  See 
251.  II.  A.  d.  When  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  and  that  of  the  subordinate  clause 
are  identical,  the  subordinate  clause  can  be  abridged  to  an  infinitive  clause:  Ich  konnte  nicht 
anders,  als  ihm  zuzustimmen.     See  also  239.  1.  a  and  279.  e. 

a.  Negative  after  a  Comparative.  In  early  N.H.G.  kein  (see  139.  3.  e.  Note  2)  =  irgend  ein 
any  was  used:  Denn  das  wort  Gottes  ist  lebendig  vnd  krefftig  j  vnd  scherffer  |  denn  kein  zwei- 
schneidig Schwert  (Hebrews  iv.  12).  This  usage  remained  after  a  comparative  up  to  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  and  later,  but  it  must  have  soon  become  identified  with  the  negative 
kein,  as  it  became  the  custom  quite  early  in  the  period  under  French  influence  to  use  a  pleonastic 
negative  after  a  comparative.  In  the  classic  period  this  usage  is  still  common,  not  only  in  case 
of  kein,  but  of  the  other  negatives  also:  Es  ging  besser,  als  wir  nicht  dachten  (Goethe).  At 
present  rare:  Im  Reisewagen  hab'  ich  an  meines  Königlichen  Herren  Seite  seine  Art  imd  sein 
Wesen  in  Stunden  sicherer  erkennen  können,  wie  ich  es  hier  in  Jahren  nicht  vermöchte  (Otto 
Erler's  Stniensee,  p.  22).     See  223.    XI.  B.  a.   (2). 

b.  Use  of  daß.  The  daß  cannot  be  omitted  when  the  thought  as  a  whole  is  important:  Das 
Kind  kriecht  viel  mehr,  als  daß  es  aufrecht  geht  The  child  is  rather  creeping  than  walking  upright, 
but  Das  Kind  kriecht  viel  mehr,  als  es  aufrecht  geht  The  child  creeps  more  frequently  than  it  walks 
upright,  where  the  attention  is  called  more  to  the  verbs  than  to  the  thought  as  a  whole. 

2.  Result.  Expressing  a  result  (for  conjunctions  see  238.3.  D.  2;  for  the  origin  of  the  daß- 
clause  see  271.  I):  Die  Luft  ist  so  still,  daß  das  Rauschen  des  fernen  Baches  herüberdringt. 
Dein  Vater  ist  noch  nicht  so  ruhig,  daß  er  die  tägliche  Anwesenheit  eines  Freundes  ertragen 
könnte.  Er  war  so  weich  gestimmt,  daß  er  fast  geweint  hätte  (169.  2.  H.  c).  Ich  blieb  so  lange, 
daß  ich  den  Zug  versäumte.  Er  ärgerte  sich  so  sehr,  daß  er  krank  wurde.  Er  hat  die  (see 
271.  I)  Gewandtheit  im  Reden,  daß  niemand  es  mit  ihm  aufnehmen  kann.  Er  hat  eine  (see 
271.  I)  Stimme,  daß  man  ihn  überall  im  Saal  deutlich  hören  kann.  Ich  setzte  ein  solches  Miß- 
trauen in  ihn,  daß  ich  ihn  beobachten  ließ.  Es  war  nicht  so  dunkel,  daß  er  nicht  alles  sehen 
konnte.  Er  hat  den  Jungen  derartig  (or  derart)  gehauen,  daß  er  nicht  gehen  kann.  In  jedem 
jungen  Jahre  steht  hier  (i.e.  in  Nice)  eine  Persönlichkeit  im  mittelsten  Mittelpunkt,  die  nach 
allen  Regeln  der  Kunst  derart  verrissen  und  verschandmäult  wird,  bis  kein  Faden  mehr  an 
ihrem  ganzen  Leibe  bleibt  (F.  F.  von  Conring  in  Hamburger  Nachrichten,  Jan.  28,  1905).  In 
den  nächsten  zwei  Büchern,  dem  VII.  und  VIII.,  verlieren  wir  Parzival  fast  völlig  aus  den  Augen, 
kaum  daß  er  gelegentlich  im  Hintergrund  auftaucht  (E.  Martin's  Wolframs  von  Eschenbach 
Parzival,  II,  p.  xxiv).  Selbstverständlich  kann  es  mit  dieser  Zahl  nicht  allzu  genau  genommen 
werden,  da  die  Erdbebenforschung  sich  nicht  genügend  auf  alle  Länder  verbreitet  hat,  als  daß 
jedes  Erdbeben  zur  Beobachtung  käme  {Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  May  5,  1905).  Er  ist 
zu  stolz,  als  daß  (less  commonly  um  daß)  er  diese  Beleidigung  verzeihen  könnte.  Die  Nach- 
richten lauteten  zu  schön,  als  daß  (now  rarely  um  daß)  wir  sie  hätten  glauben  können. 
Meine  Sünde  ist  größer,  als  daß  sie  mir  könnte  vergeben  werden.  Notice  that  the  force  of  the 
subordinate  clause  introduced  by  als  daß  is  negative.  If  the  clause  is  to  have  affirmative  force 
the  negative  nicht  must  be  used:  Er  denkt  zu  edel,  als  daß  er  nicht  die  Wahrheit  sagte.     A  nega- 


278. CLAUSE   OF   CAUSE 577 

tive  clause  following  a  negative  proposition  has  affirmative  force.  Sometimes  the  subordinate 
clause  after  a  negative  proposition  has  affirmative  instead  of  the  usual  negative  form,  but  in  this 
case  it  should  be  noted  that  daß  is  omitted  and  the  subordinate  clause  has  the  form  of  a  principal 
proposition:  Nichts  ist  so  fein  gesponnen,  es  kommt  doch  an  die  Sonnen  (prov.).  So  schau 
dir  deine  Springebächlein  an:  |  da  ist  kein  Wässerlein  so  dünn  und  klein,  |  es  will  und  muß 
ins  Menschenland  hinein  (Hauptmann's  Die  versunkene  Glocke,  \).  The  history  of  this  con- 
struction is  the  same  as  that  described  in  276.  D  (next  to  the  last  par.). 

Instead  of  a  clause  of  result  we  sometimes  find  an  independent  proposition:  Er  ist  so  lieb,  man 
kann  ihm  nicht  böse  sein.  So  stiU  wurde  es  dann,  man  hätte  im  Saale  das  Weben  einer  Spinne 
, hören  können.  In  lively  expression  of  feeling  we  often  have  instead  of  a  subordinate  clause  a 
principal  proposition  with  question  order:  Ich  bin  so  müde,  kann  ich  doch  nicht  mit  euch  spazieren! 
In  a  calm  reasoning  mood  we  can  connect  these  two  principal  propositions  by  the  co-ordinating 
illative  conjunction  daher:  Ich  bin  sehr  müde,  daher  kann  ich  nicht  mitgehen.  In  a  narrative- 
mood  we  can  connect  these  two  propositions  by  und:  Ich  war  sehr  müde  imd  konnte  nicht  mit- 
gehen.    For  meaning  and  force  of  these  paratactic  constructions  see  267.  4  (3rd  par.). 

a.  Mood.  The  mood  of  the  clause  is  indie,  if  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a 
result  that  has  been  actually  attained,  but  the  potential  subjunctive  to  indicate  that  the  state- 
ment is  possible,  or  to  make  a  statement  modestly  or  cautiously.     See  169.  2.  D,  H.  c;  168.  1 1.  D. 

b.  Abridgment.  To  express  a  simple  result  where  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause  is 
the  indefinite  man  or  is  identical  with  the  subject  or  often  some  dependent  word  in  the  principal 
proposition  the  subordinate  clause  is  usually  abridged  to  the  infinitive  with  zu,  usually  so  after 
so  4-  an  adjective  or  adverb,  or  elsewhere  now  more  commonly  with  mn  zu  when  it  is  desired 
to  bring  out  prominently  the  idea  of  result:  Sei  so  gut,  mir  deinen  Regenschirm  zu  leihen.  Man 
ging  so  weit,  tms  zu  schimpfen.  Sie  gehen  zu  langsam,  als  daß  Sie  Ihren  Freund  einholen 
könnten,  but  in  the  abridged  form  the  als,  tho  common  in  the  eighteenth  century  is  now  replaced 
by  imi,  or  sometimes  simple  zu  is  used:  Sie  gehen  zu  langsam,  Ihren  Freund  einzuholen,  or  now 
more  commonly  um  (or  in  the  eighteenth  century  als)  Ihren  Freund  einzuholen.  Es  wäre 
keiner  sicher  genug,  daß  man  ihn  als  Boten  schicken  könnte,  or  tun  ihn  als  Boten  zu  schicken. 
Die  Zeit  macht  uns  kühl  genug,  um  alle  irdischen  Freuden  nichtig  zu  finden.  Weil  sie  nicht 
so  viel  Flachs  haben,  lun  ihre  Weibsleute  mit  Spinnen  zu  beschäftigen.  Eben  zur  rechten 
Zeit  traf  er  ein,  um  den  Verzagten  Mut  einzuflößen.  Der  häufige  und  vertraute  Verkehr  mit 
einem  Maime  von  der  unwiderstehlichen  Liebenswürdigkeit  Cäsars  tat  das  Übrige,  um  den 
Bund  der  Interessen  in  einen  Freundschaftsbund  imizugestalten  (Mommsen's  Römische  Ge- 
schichte, V,  chap.  vi).  Die  Bewachimg  des  Gefangenen  wurde  derart  verschärft,  tun  ihm  jeden 
weiteren  Versuch  zimi  Entkommen  als  zwecklos  erscheinen  zu  lassen.  Der  allgemeine  Wohl- 
stand hat  sich  so  gehoben,  um  auch  eine  Aufbesserung  der  Beamtenstellungen  zu  fordern. 
Der  Rat  war  zu  dringend  und  einleuchtend,  imi  nicht  befolgt  zu  werden.  See  also  281.  b.  Note. 
In  English  for  with  the  prepositional  infinitive  can  be  quite  freely  used  where  the  subjects  are 
not  identical,  where  in  German  the  clause  form  must  often  be  employed:  She  was  not  near  enough 
for  him  to  discern  the  expression  of  her  face  Sie  war  nicht  nahe  genug,  daß  er  ihren  Gesichtsaus- 
druck sehen  konnte.  Modern  life  is  too  full  of  difficult  problems  for  writers  to  ignore  them  Das 
moderne  Leben  ist  zu  voll  von  schwierigen  Problemen,  als  daß  Schriftsteller  sie  übersehen 
dürften.  There  were  too  many  for  the  boat  to  hold  them  Es  waren  zu  viele,  als  daß  das  Boot 
sie  hätte  fassen  können.     Compare  269.  3  and  185.  A.  II.  2.  a  and  Note  2  thereunder. 

Clause  of  Cause. 

278.  The  subordinate  clause  contains  the  cause  or  reason,  the  principal 
proposition  the  result  or  conclusion  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  E):  Der  Wal- 
fisch kann  nur  kleine  Tiere  verschlingen,  weil  sein  Schlund  sehr  eng  ist.  Philipp 
IL  zitterte  knechtisch  vor  Gott,  weil  Gott  das  einzige  war,  wovor  er  zu  zittern 
hatte.  Mancher  unterläßt  nur  deshalb  eine  böse  Handlung,  weil  er  die  Folgen 
fürchtet.  Das  Merkwürdigste  ist  die  Fortsetzung  der  „Kritischen  Nachrich- 
ten," nicht  weil  (or  nicht  als  ob,  or  nicht  als  wenn)  sie  besondere  Merkwürdig- 
keiten enthielten,  sondern  weil  sie  so  lustig  zu  lesen  sind.  Der  Herr  wusch 
sich  allemal  die  Hände,  bevor  er  ans  Quartettgeigen  ging,  nicht  weil  (or  nicht 
als  ob,  or  nicht  als  wenn)  sie  schmutzig  gewesen  wären,  sondern  wie  zu  einer 
symbolischen  Reinigung.  Der  Müßiggang  verkürzt  notwendig  unser  Leben, 
indem  er  uns  schwächer  macht.  Ich  wil  nu  gerne  sterben  |  nach  dem  (temporal 
and  causal)  ich  dein  angesicht  gesehen  habe  (Gen.  xlvi.  30).  Nachdem  (tem- 
poral and  causal)  auch  Piccolomini  sich  nicht  wieder  sehen  läßt,  fällt  die  Decke 
von  Wallensteins  Augen  (Schiller's  G.  d.  d.  K.,  l\.  -i).  Nachdem  (=  weil)  das 
Protokoll  der  Generalversammlung  mit  Rücksicht  auf  den  Umstand,  daß  das- 
selbe von  den  Verifikatoren  beglaubigt  werden  muß,  erst  später  veröffentlicht 
werden  muß,  teilen  wir  kurz  die  gefaßten  Beschlüsse  mit  (Austrian  newspaper). 
Da  alle  Zeugen  in  ihren  Aussagen  übereinstimmen,  so  wird  die  Sache  wohl 
sich  so  verhalten.     Du  solltest  so  schwere  Gedanken  nicht  in  dir  aufkommen 


578 CAUSAL   CLAUSE  &   ITS   ABRIDGMENT 278. 

lassen,  da  du  doch  mit  mehr  Genugtuung  als  viele  andere  auf  dein  vergangenes 
Leben  und  auf  die  Gegenwart  blicken  kannst  (R.  Huch's  Vita  somniitm  breve, 
[,  p.  öG).  Können  umbrische  Schädel  erhalten  sein,  da  doch  die  Umbrer  ihre 
Leichen  verbrannten?  (Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeit.,  1904,  p.  250).  Ehrwürdi- 
ger, ich  bitte  dich,  mir  zu  verzeihen  und  mich  nicht  zu  senden,  anerwogen  ich, 
wie  du  weißt,  der  einfältigste  und  unwissendste  bin  von  allen  (Ertl's  Die  Stadt 
der  Heiligen).  In  Anbetracht,  daß  er  noch  so  jung  ist,  entschuldigten  wir  ihn. 
Ich  ärgere  mich,  daß  (see  238.  3.  E.  c)  du  das  getan  hast.  Er  hätte  es  nicht 
sagen  sollen,  zumal  er  wußte,  daß  es  mir  nachteilig  sein  kann.  Nun  er  reich 
ist,  hat  er  Freunde.  Dieses  Übel  ist  desto  (or  um  so,  sometimes  um  desto) 
lästiger,  als  (also  da  or  weil)  es  nur  durch  eine  schmerzliche  Operation  geheilt 
werden  kann.  Da'von  bist  du  krank  geworden,  daß  du  nach  dem  schnellen 
Laufe  kaltes  Wasser  getrunken.  Man  erkennt  einen  seichten  Menschen  leicht 
da'ran,  daß  er  viel  Unnützes  schwätzt.  As  the  genitive  or  a  prepositional  phrase 
may  denote  a  cause,  the  genitive  and  prepositional  phrase  clauses  treated  in 
272.  A  and  D  often  belong  also  here:  (genitive  clause)  Ich  freue  mich,  daß  es 
Ihnen  wohl  geht.  For  examples  of  such  a  prepositional  phrase  clause  see  sen- 
tence above  beginning  with  Da'von,  and  also  the  last  two  sentences  in  272.  D. 
The  subordinate  clause  above  introduced  by  da'ran  daß  may  also  be  regarded 
as  a  clause  of  means  (282). 

When  an  inference  from  some  known  fact  is  placed  before  the  statement  of 
fact  the  latter  appears  in  the  light  of  a  clause  of  cause:  Er  muß  blind  gewesen 
sein,  daß  (or  weil)  er  es  nicht  gesehen  hat.  Often  in  abridged  form:  Er  muß 
blind  sein,  das  nicht  zu  sehen. 

The  idea  of  cause  sometimes  finds  expression  in  an  attributive  element,  either 
in  the  form  of  an  attributive  adjective  or  a  relative  clause:  Der  grausame 
Mann  achtete  nicht  auf  das  Flehen  des  Unglücklichen  (=  der  Mann  achtete 
nicht  auf  das  Flehen  des  Unglückhchen,  weil  er  grausam  war).  Das  Kind, 
das  ja  noch  zu  jung  ist,  hat  einen  Vormund  erhalten  (=  das  Kind  hat  einen 
Vormund  erhalten,  da  es  ja  noch  zu  jung  ist).     See  255.  I.  c,  VH.  a. 

A  subject  clause  following  nicht  now  often  has  the  force  of  a  causal  clause,  as 
illustrated  in  269.  1.  b,  3rd  par. 

A  principal  proposition  instead  of  a  subordinate  clause:  ich  gehe  nicht  mit, 
ich  habe  Zahnschmerzen  (=  weil  ich  Zahnschmerzen  habe).  Zurück!  Du 
rettest  den  Freund  nicht  mehr  ( =  da  du  den  Freund  nicht  mehr  retten  kannst), 
so  rette  das  eigene  Leben.  In  unsrer  Provinz  singen  wir,  was  wir  wollen. 
Das  macht,  daß  Graf  Egmont  unser  Statthalter  ist  ( =  weil  Graf  Egmont  unser 
Statthalter  ist)   (Goethe's  Egmont).     Compare  267.  4. 

o.     Mood.     We  usually  find  here  the  indie.     For  the  subjunctive  here  see  169.  2.  J. 

h.  Abridgment.  A  causal  clause  introduced  by  weil  or  da  can  sometimes  be  abridged  to  a 
participle,  adjective,  noun,  or  prepositional  phrase,  when  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition 
and  that  of  the  subordinate  clause  are  identical:  Er  ist,  weil  durch  Tapferkeit  hervorragend, 
or  weil  tapfer  (=  weil  er  durch  Tapferkeit  hervorragt,  or  weil  er  tapfer  ist),  des  Sieges  gewiß. 
Die  Feinde  baten,  durch  die  Niederlage  gebeugt  ( =  weU  sie  durch  die  Niederlage  gebeugt 
warenj,  um  Frieden.  Ein  geborener  Herrscher  regierte  er  (Cäsar)  die  Gemüter  der  Menschen, 
wie  der  Wind  die  Wolken  zwingt  (Mommsen's  Römische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  ii).  Im  Besitz  von 
Talienwan  und  Dalny  können  die  Japaner  ihre  Verstärkungen  und  den  Belagerungstrain  landen, 
der  für  den  Angriff  auf  Port  Arthur  nötig  wird  {Neue  Zürcher  Zeitung,  June  9,  1904)  Since  the 
Japanese  are  in  possession  of,  &c.  Da  aus  Französelei  entstanden,  ist  ,,Es  hat"  statt  „Es  gibt" 
unbedingt  zu  verwerfen  (Eduard  Engel's  Gutes  Deutsch,  p.  220).  In  all  these  sentences  the 
abridgments  are  examples  of  the  old  attributive  or  appositional  type  of  clause  structure 
described  in  268.  4.  The  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  is  the  logical  subject  of  the 
clause,  the  participle,  adjective,  noun,  or  prepositional  phrase  is  the  logical  predicate.  The 
ideas  of  cause  and  subordination  to  the  principal  proposition  do  not  find  here  a  formal  expression 
in  the  clause  itself  but  are  merely  suggested  by  the  context  and  the  placing  of  the  clause  alongside 
of  the  principal  proposition.  English  has  gone  much  farther  than  German  in  the  development 
of  this  old  type  of  clause.  In  English  the  logical  subject  here  is  often  the  person  implied  in  a 
possessive  adjective  or  a  genitive,  the  logical  predicate  the  governing  noun,  usually  a  gerund: 
Owing  to  for  on  account  of  or  because  of)  his  or  John's  bringing  me  word  so  täte  I  coutdn't  go  Da  er 
or  Hans  mir  so  spät  Bescheid  brachte,  konnte  ich  nicht  mehr  gehen.  For  further  remarks  on 
the  gerund  see  272.  C.  g.  Sometimes  the  accusative  absolute  construction  has  the  force  of  a 
clause  of  cause.     See  265.  B.  b.  (1). 


279. CLAUSE   OF   CONDITION    OR    EXCEPTION 579 

Clause  of  Condition  or  Exception. 

279.     This  clause  states  the  condition  upon  which  the  action  of  the  principal 
proposition  hinges,  or  adds  an  exception,  i.e.  a  fact  or  proviso  that  qualifies  in 
some  particular  respect  the  preceding  staten>ent  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  F.). 
A  marked  feature  in  the  development  since  early  N.H.G.  is  the  gradual  replace- 
ment of  the  conjunctions  ob  if,  indicating  uncertainty,  so  if,  originally  a  de- 
monstrative pointing  to  the  following  clause,  for  the  most  part  also  wo  if  origi- 
nally a  relative,  where,  in  case  that  by  the  conjunction  wenn  if,  originally  tem- 
poral, when,  while  in  English  if,  cognate  with  ob,  is  still  the  most  common 
form  here.     Ob  is,  however,  still  common  in  conditional  clauses  which  follow 
als,  as  illustrated  in  276.  A  (2nd  par.).     In  connection  with  other  particles  it 
is  also  still  widely  used  in  concessive  clauses  which  have  developed  out  of  older 
conditional  clauses:    obgleich,  obschon,  &c.     In  object  clauses  simple  ob  still 
has  the  old  idea  of  uncertainty:  Ich  weiß  nicht,  ob  er  kommen  wird.     Examples 
of  conditional  sentences:    Vnd  ob  jemand  sündiget  |  So  haben  wir  einen  Für- 
sprecher bey  dem  Vater  (I  John  ii.  1).     Das  alles  wil  ich  dir  geben  |  So  du 
niederfeilest  |  vnd  mich  anbetest  (Matth.  iv.  9).     Wo  diese  werden  schweigen  | 
so  werden  die  Steine  schreien  (Luke  xix.  40).     Wir  mußten  uns  resignieren, 
wo  nicht  für  immer,  doch  für  eine  gute  Zeit.     In  diesem  Jahre,  wo  nicht  noch 
vorher.     Will  er  es  tun,  so  ist  es  gut,  wo  nicht,  so  mag  er  es  bleiben  lassen. 
Mein  Onkel  sucht  ein  Haus,  das  vor  der  Stadt,  wo  mögUch,  inmitten  eines 
großen  Gartens  liege.     Wenn  das  Fleisch  eingesalzen  und  geräuchert  ist,  geht 
es  nicht  in  Fäulnis  über.     Wenn  alle  Menschen  gut  wären,  so  bedürfte  es 
keiner  Strafgesetze.     Eine,  wenn  ich  nicht  irre,  französische  Familie  hat  die 
neue  Wohnung  gemietet.     Ich  komme  morgen,  wenn  es  überhaupt  möglich  ist. 
Vnd  wiltu  also  mit  mir  thun  |  so  erwürge  mich  lieber  |  habe  ich  anders  gnade 
fur  deinen  Augen  funden  |  das  ich  nicht  mein  vnglück  so  sehen  müsse  (Num- 
bers xi.  15).     Ja  dieser  Widerwille,  wenn  ich  anders  mein  Gefühl  sorgfältig 
untersucht  habe,  ist  gänzlich  von  der  Natur  des  Ekels  (Lessing).     Wenn  anders 
es  möglich  ist,  so  schreibe  mir.     Er  verspricht  zu  kommen,  vorausgesetzt  daß 
das  Wetter  es  erlaubt.     Ich  werde  es  ihm  geben,  vorausgesetzt,  daß  er  tue,  was 
er  versprochen  hat.     Wofern  er  fleißig  sein  wollte,  würde  er  Bedeutendes  leisten. 
Alles  ist  verloren,  wenn  nicht  ein  schnelles  Mittel  zur  Hand  ist.     Im  Falle  daß, 
or  falls  er  morgen  noch  Fieber  hat,  muß  er  im  Bette  Hegen  bleiben.     Ordnen 
Sie  an  —  falls  jemand  komme  —  daß  er  nicht  vorgelassen  werde    (Suttner's 
Im  Berghanse,  p.  47).     Schreiben  Sie  sofort,  falls  (or  im  Falle  daß,  or  auf  den 
Fall  daß)  dies  geschehe  (or  geschähe).     Und  als  der  alte  Herr  sich  auf  sein 
Sofa  gestreckt  hatte  und  sie  ihn  gut  zugedeckt  und  ihm  die  Birne  der  elektri- 
schen Klingel  auf  das  Tischchen  an  seiner  Seite  hingelegt,  falls  (for  use  in  case 
that)  er  etwas  brauche,  schlich  sie  verstohlen  davon   (Ompteda's   Cäcilie  von 
Sarryn,  chap.  II).     Er  soll  es  hören,  doch  daß  er  nicht  davon  spricht.     Ich 
bilUge  alles,  außer  daß  er  nicht  selbst  kommen  will.     Ich  kann  nicht  hinein- 
kommen, außer  wenn  Sie  das  Tor  öffnen.     Das  hübsche  Berghaus  hat  sicher 
ein  Gastzimmer,  und  darin  will  ich  mich  —  außer  Sie  jagen  mich  gewaltsam 
hinaus  —  volle  drei  Tage  festsetzen  (Suttner's  Im  Berghause,  p.  26).     Ich  tue 
es  nicht,  außer  er  bitte  mich  darum  (Fritsch's  German  Grammar,  p.  486).     Ganz 
bestimmt  werde  ich  kommen,  außer  ich  wäre  tot  (Felix  Schwarzenberg).     Ich 
bin  ganz  zufrieden  mit  ihm,  nur  daß  er  etwas  langsam  arbeitet,  or.  according 
to  236,  nur  arbeitet  er  etwas  langsam,  or  er  arbeitet  nur  etwas  langsam.     Das 
Reiten  wäre  hübsch,  nur  daß  man  leicht  Hals  und  Bein  bricht.     Wir  könnten 
es  schon  tun,  nur  daß  er  dann  verloren  wäre.     Es  ginge  schon,  nur  daß  er 
nicht  will.     Ich  seh'  es  gern,  das  steht  dir  frei,  nur  daß  es  gefällig  sei  (Goethe's 
i^QM^^,  Studierzimmer).   Niemand  hat  gesprochen,  als  er  (or  außer  ihm).    Keiner 
als  er  hätte  das  tun  können.     Kein  anderer  als  er  hat  es  getan.     Wer  anders 
als  er  hätte  es  tun  können?     Er  nahm  nichts  anderes,  als  was  ihm  gehörte. 
Er  liebte  nichts  als  ihn.     Tue  alles  andere  eher  als  das!,  or  Tue  alles  andere, 
nur  nicht  das!     Aus  welchem  andern  Grunde  sandte  ich  einen  Eilboten,  als 


580 CLAUSE   OF   CONDITION   OR   EXCEPTION 279. 

damit  ihr  möglichst  rasch  die  Nachricht  erhieltet?  Ich  konnte  meine  Empfin- 
dung mit  nichts  ausdrücken,  als  dadurch  daß  ich  das  Kind  von  der  Erde  nahm 
und  es  lebhaft  küßte.  Wodurch  denn  sind  wir  groß  geworden,  als  daß  (more 
commonly  als  dadurch  daß)  wir  gingen  mit  dem  Sturm  des  Volks?  (Immermann). 
Sie  sieht  keine  Rettung,  als  sie  muß  das  Kind  entfernen  (Goethe),  or  more  com- 
monly with  daß:  Es  ist  nichts  anderes  möglich,  als  daß  du  nachgibst.  Es 
fehlt  nichts,  als  daß  du  nicht  da  bist,  or  als  daß  du  da  wärst  (subjunctive  of  modest 
wish;  see  169.  1.  A,  3rd  par.).  Du  rettest  nicht  den  Sohn,  als  wenn  du  weichst 
(Grillparzer's  Argonaulen,  4).  Du  hast's  ja  selber  zu  tragen!  Kein  anderer 
wie  du!  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjährige  Reich,  p.  45).  Wem  wohl,  denn  ihr  (i.e.  der 
Frau),  verdankt  er  des  Liedes  Keim?  (Otto  Brahm  in  Die  neue  deutsche  Rund- 
schau, Dec.  190Ü,  p.  1420).  Ich  tue  es  nicht,  ohne  daß  ich  seine  Erlaubnis  habe. 
Er  sprach  nie,  ohne  daß  er  gefragt  worden  wäre.  Es  sei  denn  daß  ich  aus 
Gründen  der  heiligen  Schrift  oder  mit  klaren  und  hellen  Gründen  überwiesen 
werde,  sonst  kann  und  will  ich  nicht  widerrufen  (Luther),  Ich  werde  es  nicht 
tun,  es  sei  denn,  daß  er  mich  darum  bitte  (or  bittet),  or  es  sei  denn,  er  bitte  (or 
bittet)  mich  darum.  Ich  lasse  dich  nicht,  du  segnest  mich  denn  (Gen.  xxxii.  26, 
revised  ed.).  Ich  werde  es  nicht  tun,  er  bitte  mich  denn  darum.  Das  werde 
ich  nie  glauben,  er  müßte  es  mir  denn  selbst  sagen.  Ich  gehe  sicher  morgen, 
ich  müßte  denn  sehr  krank  werden.  Die  jungen  Mädchen  und  Frauen  gehen 
bis  nach  der  Geburt  des  ersten  Kindes  vollkommen  nackt,  höchstens  daß  sie 
bisweilen  eine  dünne  Schnur  um  die  Hüften  tragen  (Hutter's  Wanderungen 
und  Forschungen,  p.  421). 

a.  The  adverb  so  is  in  these  sentences  very  often  found  in  the  principal  proposition,  as  in 
the  first  example  above. 

b.  The  conditional  clause  is  usually  introduced  by  a  conditional  or  qualifying  conjunction, 
but  it  may  assume  other  forms:  (1)  Instead  of  the  transposed  word-order  the  question  order 
is  often  used  if  the  conjunction  wenn  is  omitted.  See  237.  \.  A.  b,  and  also  Note  2  thereunder. 
(2)  The  clause  may  for  especial  emphasis  be  replaced  by  an  imperative,  in  which  case  so  is  usually 
found  in  the  principal  proposition:  Sprich  ja  oder  nein,  so  bin  ich  zufrieden.  The  volitive 
subjunctive  can  also  be  used  like  the  imperative.  See  168.  I.  2.  C.  a,  b.  Dürfen  and  sollen  with 
dependent  infinitive  are  often  used  with  similar  force:  Man  darf  nur  vom  Wolfe  reden,  so  kommt 
er.  Er  soll  nur  kommen,  ich  werde  üim  schon  heimleuchten.  (3)  Instead  of  a  conditional  clause 
and  a  conclusion  we  often  find  two  independent  propositions  connected  by  a  co-ordinating  con- 
junction, und,  oder,  sonst,  or  dann:  Sei  im  Besitze  und  du  wohnst  im  Recht  Possession  is  nine 
points  of  the  law.  Wir  wollen  Frieden  machen,  und  alles  ist  gut  Let  us  make  peace  and  all  will 
be  well.  Du  tust  das,  oder  du  bekommst  Prügel,  or  sonst  bekommst  du  Prügel  =  Wenn  du 
das  nicht  tust,  bekommst  du  Prügel.  Es  muß  anhaltend  regnen,  dann  tritt  oft  Hochwasser  ein 
=  Wenn  es  anhaltend  regnet,  tritt  oft  Hochwasser  ein.  (4)  The  absolute  construction  is  often 
used  here  instead  of  a  subordinate  clause.  For  examples  see  265.  B.  a.  and  b.  (1).  (5)  The 
conditional  idea  is  sometimes  found  in  the  form  of  a  relative  clause:  (1)  In  the  form  of  a  clause 
with  the  conditional  relative  wer  as  subject,  as  illustrated  in  159;  (2)  In  the  form  of  a  subject 
clause:  Wer  jung  heiratet,  or  Jung  geheiratet  lebt  lang;  (3)  In  the  form  of  an  attributive  adjec- 
tive clause:  Ein  Bettler,  der  etwa  kommt,  wird  abgewiesen!  Ein  Junge,  der  das  täte,  würde 
ausgelacht.     See  255.  VII.  a. 

c.  Mood.  When  the  supposition  is  real  the  verb  of  the  conditional  clause  is  in  the  indie: 
Wenn  ich  stumm  blieb,  geschah  es  nur,  weil  ich  über  ein  Rätsel  nachgrübelte  If  I  remained 
silent  (and  I  actually  did  so)  it  was  because  I  was  pondering  over  an  enigma.  If  the  case  is  only 
a  supposed  one,  but  one  that  can  easily  happen,  the  indie,  is  now  used,  or  to  indicate  a  little  more 
uncertainty  the  past  subjunctive  of  sollen  with  the  infin.  of  the  verb:  Ich  gehe  fort,  weim  er 
kommt  /  shall  go  aiuay  if  he  comes,  or  Ich  gehe  fort,  wenn  er  kommen  sollte  /  shall  go  away  if  he 
should  come.  See  168.  II.  E.  The  present  subjunctive  could  be  used  instead  of  the  indicative 
in  earlier  periods,  but  it  now  only  survives  in  the  volitive  constructions  in  b.  (2)  and  in  the  po- 
tential construction  with  denn  (168.  II.  E.  a)  or  es  sei  denn  daß  (168.  II.  E.  a  and  c)  and  außer 
(168.  IL  E.  d). 

The  past  tense  forms  of  the  subjunctive  may  be  used  here  to  denote  unreality.  This  unreal 
potential  subjunctive  is  very  common  in  wenn-clauses  if  the  condition  is  a  mere  conception  of 
the  mind,  or  is  represented  as  in  conflict  with  fact.  The  use  of  the  moods  and  tenses  in  such 
unreal  conditional  sentences  is  explained  at  length  in  169.  2.  A.  (1).  a  and  E.  The  past  tense 
forms  of  the  subjunctive  are  often  used  after  ohne  daß  to  make  a  statement  modestly  or  cau- 
tiously. The  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive  is  sometimes  found  in  clauses  of  exception  to 
represent  the  statement  as  only  conceived,  but  the  indicative  is  in  many  cases  more  common, 
as  the  statement  is  felt  as  true,  or  the  past  subjunctiv^e  may  be  used  instead  of  the  indicative 
for  the  sake  of  modesty:  So  bleibt  nichts  übrig,  als  daß  man  seine  Kräfte  zusammennehme, 
zusammennimmt,  or  zusammennähme.     For  the  mood  after  nur  daß  see  168.  I.  2.  C.  b. 


280. ABRIDGMENT   OF   CONDITIONAL   CLAUSE 581 

d.  Abridgment.  When  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  and  that  of  the  subordinate 
clause  are  identical  the  conditional  clause  introduced  by  wenn  can  be  abridged  to  an  appositional 
participle:  Auch  die  Schwachen  werden  mächtig,  wenn  sie  verbunden  sind,  or  Verbunden 
werden  auch  die  Schwachen  mächtig.  Ob  sie  (i.e.  die  Rede)  mir,  gehört  ( =  wenn  sie  von  mir 
gehört  worden  wäre),  ebenso  imponiert  hätte?  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  170).  Das  wäre 
besser  verschwiegen  (wenn  es  verschwiegen  worden  wäre).  Das  wäre  eben  so  gut  unter- 
blieben (weim  es  unterblieben  wäre).  Das  ist  leicht  gesagt,  aber  schwer  getan,  where  leicht 
and  schwer  were  originally  the  predicates  and  gesagt  and  getan  predicate  appositives,  i.e.  easy 
if  spoken  but  difficult  if  performed,  but  leicht  and  schwer  are  now  often  felt  as  adverbs,  i.e.  That 
is  easily  said  but  performed  with  difficulty,  after  the  analogy  of  Das  ist  bald  gesagt  That  is  soon 
said.  The  present  participle  is  less  commonly  used  as  an  abridged  conditional  clause:  Wissend 
nur  kann  ich  dir  raten.  The  participle  is  often  used  absolutely  (265.  B.  a):  Davon  abgesehen 
ist  das  Buch  zu  empfehlen.  Often  the  conjunction  wenn  alone  or  wenn  or  falls  in  connection 
with  a  predicate  adjective  or  the  negative  nicht  represents  the  subordinate  clause:  Gab's  eine 
Schuld?  Wenn  (■//  so),  dann  war  sie  auf  beide  Seiten  verteilt  (Ponten's  Jungfräulichkeit,  p.  501). 
Die  neueste,  wenn  wahr,  erschütternde  Nachricht.  Eine  Abordnung  der  Soldatenwehr  be- 
tonte .  .  .  ,  man  werde,  falls  nötig,  den  Kommandanten  Wels  (name)  noch  im  Laufe  der  Nacht 
mit  Gewalt  befreien  {Neue  Zürcher  Zeit.,  Dec.  '17,  191S). 

The  subordinate  clause  is  sometimes  contracted  to  the  infinitive  with  zu  when  the  subject 
of  the  clause  is  identical  with  the  subject  or  an  object  of  the  principal  verb:  Du  tätest  besser, 
nach  Frankreich  zu  gehen  (Goethe).  Es  kann  uns  wenig  Heil  erblühn,  um  eine  Tote  zu  strei- 
ten (Uhland).  Eins  muß  er  dazu  mitbringen,  uro.  es  irgendwo  erträglich  zu  finden.  Ich  tue 
es  nicht,  ohne  seine  Erlaubnis  zu  haben.  Sometimes  when  the  subjects  are  not  identical:  Den 
Namen  nur  zu  hören,  steigt  das  Blut  in  den  Kopf  (Wildenbruch's  Kaiser  Heinrich,  2,  3).  Quite 
often  when  the  subject  to  be  supplied  is  the  indefinite  or  general  man:  „Wie  weit  ist  das  nächste 
Dorf?"  „Eine  halbe  Stunde  zu  fahren,  dreiviertel  zu  gehen"  (Karl  Busse's  Die  schöne  Andrea) . 
Der  Komödiendichter  schien,  nach  seinem  schlichten  Anzug  zu  urteilen,  kein  Günstling  des 
Plutos  zu  sein.  In  English  the  infinitive  construction  with  for  is  much  used  where  the  subjects 
are  not  identical,  where  in  German  the  clause  form  is  usually  employed:  I  should  be  glad  for  Mary 
to  come  Ich  freute  mich,  wenn  Marie  käme.     Compare  269.  3. 

In  lively  style  an  absolute  nominative  often  takes  the  place  of  a  conditional  clause:  Noch  ein 
Schritt,  so  ist  er  verloren.     Einige  Schritte  weiter,  und  Sie  hätten  den  Mann  bemerken  müssen. 

Sometimes  we  find  a  prepositional  phrase  instead  of  the  conditional  clause:  Ohne  ihn  (  =  wenn 
er  nicht  gewesen  wäre)  war  ich  verloren.  Sie  sagen,  bei  ungelöster  Schmu-  kommen  die  Erd- 
männchen und  spinnen  am  Rocken  (Freytag's  Rittmeister,  5)  They  say  that  if  the  band  is  not 
taken  off  the  wheel,  &c. 

Sometimes  an  attributive  adjective  modifying  the  subject  takes  the  place  of  the  conditional 
clause:  Ein  wahrer  Freund  hätte  anders  gehandelt  (=  Ein  Freund  hätte  anders  gehandelt, 
wenn  er  wahr  gewesen  wäre).  In  English  we  often  find  the  gerund,  an  example  of  the  old  at- 
tributive or  appositional  type  of  clause  described  in  268.  4.  Its  subject  is  the  person  implied 
in  a  possessive  adjective  or  a  genitive:  Write  me  in  case  of  his  or  John's  coming  Schreibe  mir, 
falls  er  or  Hans  kommt.     For  further  remarks  on  the  gerund  see  272.  C.  g. 

A  verbless  conditional  clause  is  often  contained  in  the  old  verbless  appositional  type  of  sen- 
tence described  in  252.  1.  b.  Note:  Ende  gut,  alles  gut  =  Wenn  das  Ende  gut  ist,  so  ist  alles  gut. 

e.  Elliptical  Forms.  The  subordinate  clause  is  often  suppressed:  Hättest  du  ihn  nehmen 
mögen,  Anna?  [wenn  du  an  meiner  Stelle  gewesen  wärest].  The  principal  proposition  is  fre- 
quently omitted:   Wenn  du  es  nur  getan  hättest!     For  other  examples  see  169.  1.  A,  169.  2.  E. 

Note  4.  Als,  wie  and  denn  are  in  this  category  most  commonly  found  in  elliptical  sentences, 
where  the  construction  in  the  subordinate  clause  follows  closely  that  of  the  principal  proposition: 
Ich  habe  nichts  getan  als  [ich  habe]  eine  Krisis  beschleunigt.  Heute  kann  sie  nichts  [tun] 
als  [sie  kann]  weinen.  Sie  tut  nichts  als  [sie  tut]  weinen.  Ich  habe  nicht  anders  [tun  können] 
als  [ich  habe]  es  glauben  können,  but  where  können  is  felt  as  an  independent  verb  rather  than 
as  an  auxiliary  the  infinitive  takes  zu:  Ich  habe  nicht  anders  gekonnt,  als  es  zu  glauben.  Sim- 
ilarly Ich  konnte  nicht  anders  als  ihm  zustimmen,  but  Ich  konnte  nicht  anders,  als  ihm  zuzu- 
stimmen (feit  as  a  subordinate  clause  dependent  upon  the  independent  verb  konnte).  Und  da 
ich  nun  einmal  nichts  [zu  tun  weiß]  wie  [ich]  zu  lieben  weiß  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern, 
3,  10).  Sometimes  the  infinitive  depends  upon  a  noun  understood,  which  is  suppressed  as  it  has 
just  been  mentioned  in  the  principal  proposition:  Sie  haben  keine  andere  Wahl,  als  [die  Wahl] 
die  Tatsache  anzuerkennen.  The  use  of  als,  wie,  denn  in  all  these  examples  indicates  that  the 
clause  has  developed  out  of  a  comparative  clause  (277.  1.  B)  and  in  a  formal  sense  is  still  a  com- 
parative clause. 

Concessive  Clause. 

280.  The  concessive  clause  contains  a  conceded  statement,  which,  tho  it  is 
naturally  in  contrast  or  opposition  to  that  of  the  principal  proposition,  is  never- 
theless unable  to  destroy  the  validity  of  the  latter  (for  conjunctions  see  238. 
3.  G).  As  can  be  seen  by  the  common  use  of  the  conjunctions  wenn  and  ob 
(once  widely  employed  in  conditional  clauses)  and  often  also  by  the  question 
word-order  in  connection  with  the  past  subjunctive,  as  illustrated  in  237.  I.A. 
b.  Note  2,  the  concessive  clause  has  in  large  measure  developed  out  of  the  con- 


582 CONCESSIVE   CLAUSE 280. 

ditional  clause.  But  the  frequent  use  of  relative  pronouns  and  adverbs,  demon- 
strative forms  such  as  so,  trotzdem,  &c.,  indicate  that  important  materials 
have  been  derived  from  other  sources.  Examples:  Vnd  ob  ich  Alber  (now 
albern)  bin  mit  reden  |  So  bin  ich  doch  nicht  alber  in  dem  (now  der)  erkentnis 
(2.  Cor.  xi.  6).  Irrtum  ist  Irrtum,  ob  ihn  der  größte  Mann,  ob  ihn  der  kleinste 
beging.  Ob  die  Sonne  scheint  oder  (or  oder  ob)  der  Regen  in  Strömen  herab- 
gießt, er  macht  seinen  Spaziergang!  Ob  es  nahe  sei  oder  weit,  gehe  ich. 
Und  wird  dir  Guts  geschehen,  ob  du  auch  wohl  ein  Sünder  bist  (Luther). 
Wiewohl  du  solches  in  deinem  Herzen  verbirgest,  so  weiß  ich  doch,  daß  du  des 
gedenkest  (id.).  Ob  man  gleich  über  den  erfochtenen  Sieg  das  Tedeum  an- 
stimmte, so  gestand  doch  Wallenstein  selbst  seine  Niederlage.  Obgleich  die 
Alpen  höher  sind  als  die  Pyrenäen,  so  lassen  sie  sich  doch  leichter  überschreiten. 
Dieser,  obgleich  er  noch  wenig  gemalt  hat,  weltberühmte  Künstler  hat  große 
Einnahmen.  Obschon  (or  wennschon)  er  reich  ist  (conceded  fact),  or  Ob  (or 
wenn)  er  schon  reich  ist,  ist  er  doch  unglücklich.  Obgleich  (or  wenngleich) 
Karl  es  mir  gesagt  hat  (fact),  glaube  ich  es  nicht,  but  Wenngleich  (or  wenn- 
schon, or  auch  wenn,  or  und  wenn,  or  selbst  wenn,  but  not  obgleich  or  obschon) 
Karl  es  sagte  (mere  assumption),  so  glaubte  ich  es  doch  nicht.  Ich  komme, 
auch  wenn  es  schneit  (assumption),  but  obgleich  (obwohl,  «&c.)  es  schneit 
(fact).  So  (or  wie)  wichtige  Gründe  der  Minister  auch  vorbringen  mochte, 
der  König  achtete  nicht  auf  seine  Worte.  So  sehr  ich  auch  bat,  er  blieb  bei 
seiner  abschlägigen  Antwort.  Es  muß  doch  heraus,  wie  (or  so)  gern  ich  es 
auch  noch  länger  verschwiege.  Für  jede  Seelenwunde,  wie  (or  so)  tief  sie 
brennt,  hat  Zeit,  die  große  Trösterin,  den  wahren  Balsam.  Wie  (or  so)  Ver- 
brecher (pred.  noun  with  the  force  of  an  adj.)  dieser  Mensch  auch  ist,  so  zeigt 
er  doch  Spuren  besserer  Gesinnung.  Welch  tapfer  Haupt  auch  dieser  Helm 
bedeckt  (hat),  er  kann  kein  würdigeres  zieren  (Schiller).  Trotzdem  er  schon 
seit  längerer  Zeit  sehr  unwohl  war,  erfüllte  er  doch  noch  immer  die  Pflichten 
seines  Amtes  mit  der  größten  Pünktlichkeit.  Die  Menschen  Ho'mers,  unbe- 
schadet dessen,  daß  sie  bereits  auf  den  Schultern  ungezählter  Generationen 
stehen,  erscheinen  uns  doch  wie  die  Kinder,  die  Prometheus  eben  geformt  hat 
(Wilamowitz-Moellendorff's  Griechische  Tragödien,  II,  p.  14).  Hier  könnt'  ich 
meine  Seele  von  mir  hauchen,  so  mUd  und  leise  wie  das  Wiegenkind  .  .  . ,  da 
(now  da  doch)  fem  von  dir  ich  rasend  toben  würde  (A.  W.  Schlegel).  Du 
duldest  die  Strafe  eines  Schlemmers,  da  doch  niemand  ehrlicher  gefastet  hat 
als  du  (Riehl).  Oft  lobt  man  einen  Gegenstand,  während  man  von  dessen 
Unwert  überzeugt  ist.  Er  geht  stets  zu  Fuße,  während  er  doch  die  schönsten 
Pferde  im  Stalle  stehen  hat.  Wenn  (now  da  doch  or  obschon)  ich  in  Wien  nie 
ins  Theater  ging,  ging  ich  beinahe  tägüch  in  Paris  (Grillparzer). 

c.     The  adversative  particle  doch  is  frequently  used  for  emphasis  in  the  principal  proposition. 

b.  The  clause  is  usually  introduced  by  a  concessive  conjunction,  but  it  may  assume  other 
forms:  (1)  The  clause  may  be  replaced  by  a  proposition  with  normal  or  question  order  with 
the  verb  in  the  indicative  or  subjunctive.  See  237.  1.  A.  d  and  168.  I.  2.  A.  (2)  The  imperative 
may  take  the  place  of  the  clause:  Sei  noch  so  dumm,  es  gibt  doch  jemand,  der  dich  für  weise 
hält.  (3)  A  proposition  with  question  order  and  a  verb  in  the  indie,  or  subjunc.  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  subordinate  clause,  as  explained  in  237.  1.  A.  b.  Note  2.  (4)  Instead  of  a  conces- 
sive clause  and  a  principal  proposition  we  sometimes  find  two  principal  propositions  connected 
by  a  co-ordinating  conjunction,  und  doch,  aber,  dennoch,  trotz'dem,  often  with  zwar  in  the  first 
proposition  when  aber,  dennoch,  or  trotzdem  follows:  Du  könntest  dich  jeden  Tag  vollstopfen 
und  [könntest]  doch  mager  bleiben  =  Auch  wenn  du  dich  jeden  Tag  vollstopftest,  könntest  du 
doch  mager  bleiben.  Wir  sind  zwar  arm,  or  Zwar  sind  wir  arm,  aber  wir  sind  doch  nicht  un- 
glücklich, or  dennoch  or  trotzdem  sind  wir  nicht  imglücklich.  For  explanation  and  force  of  this 
construction  see  267.  4  (.3rd  par.).  (5)  The  concessive  idea  sometimes  finds  expression  in  an 
attributive  element,  either  in  the  form  of  an  attributive  adjective  or  a  relative  clause:  Diese 
alte  Frau  putzt  sich  noch  gern!  (=  Diese  Frau  putzt  sich  noch  gern,  obgleich  sie  alt  ist).  Der 
Unglückliche,  der  doch  so  bedürftig  ist,  konnte  keine  Unterstützung  erhalten  ( =  Der  Unglück- 
liche konnte  keine  Unterstützung  erhalten,  obgleich  er  so  bedürftig  ist).  See  255.  I.  c.  (6)  The 
absolute  accusative  and  nominative  constructions  sometimes  take  place  of  the  concessive 
clause.     See  265.  B.  a.  b.  (1),  (2).     Compare  c  below. 

c.  Mood.  The  indie,  is  usually  used  if  the  clause  is  introduced  by  a  conjunction.  Some- 
times, however,  the  subjunctive  is  employed.  See  168.  I.  2.  A.  a,  2nd  paragraph.^  If  the  clause 
is  introduced  by  an  interrogative  pronoun  or  interrogative  adverb  the  subjunctive  is  also  still 


281.  b. CLAUSE   OF    PURPOSE 583 

quite  common,  tho  the  indie,  is  often  found,  and  always  when  describing  past  events  the  results 
of  which  are  now  definitely  known:  Wie  dem  auch  sei  (or  sein  mag),  es  wird  sich  alles  zum 
Besten  wenden.  Wie  strafbar  auch  des  Fürsten  Zwecke  waren,  die  Schritte,  die  er  öffentlich 
getan,  verstatteten  noch  eine  milde  Deutung,  If  the  conceded  statement  is  not  represented 
as  an  actual  fact,  but  only  as  possible  or  impossible,  or  contrary  to  fact,  the  unreal  potential 
subjunctive  is  used,  see  169.  1.  B.  If  the  conjunction  is  dropped  the  moods  are  used  as  described 
in  b  above.     See  also  168.  I.  2.  A. 

d.  Abridgment.  If  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause  and  that  of  the  principal  proposi- 
tion are  identical  the  clause  may  be  abridged  to  an  appositional  participle,  adjective,  or  noun, 
or  an  adverb,  but  more  commonly  retains  here  the  conjunction  (obgleich  or  obwohl):  Obwohl 
er  vom  Schicksal  gebeugt  ist,  or  Obwohl  vom  Schicksal  gebeugt,  strebt  der  Gute  empor.  Er 
kommt  wohl  nicht  und  wenn  ja,  so  kann  er  doch  nur  sehr  spät  kommen.  Sometimes  the  con- 
junction is  suppressed:  Pünktlich  sonst  in  seinem  Dienste,  war  er  jetzt  von  der  Regel  abge- 
wichen (Immermann). 

Sometimes  in  colloquial  language  when  the  subjects  are  not  identical  abridgment  occurs: 
Den  2.  März  bestieg  ich  den  Vesuv,  obgleich  bei  trübem  und  umwölktem  Gipfel  (Goethe).  Ob 
wahr,  ob  unwahr  (or  Ob  wahr  oder  unwahr),  man  glaubt's.  Man  schaffe  mir  den  Frevler  tot 
oder  lebendig  (or  ob  tot,  ob  lebendig)  herbei!  Zawisch:  Der  Sieg  ist  unser,  glaubt  mir  das, 
Herr  Kanzler!  Kanzler:  Und  wenn  auch!  was  ist  noch  damit  gewonnen?  (Grillparzer's  Ottokar,  3). 
Schlafen  wird  er  nicht  mehr;  und  wenn  [er  auch  noch  schläft],  so  weck'  ich  ihn  (Hoffmann's 
Wider  den  Kurfürsten,  chap.  viii).  [Na,  du  hast  ja  den  Jungen  gehörig  bearbeitet.  Er  hat 
trotzig  erklärt,  er  wolle  so  schnell  als  möglich  ins  Institut.  Er  tut's  wohl  dir  zuliebe.]  „Und 
wenn,"  warf  Henrik  ein,  „Hauptsache  muß  doch  wohl  für  dich  sein,  daß  du  deinen  Zweck  er- 
reicht hast"    (Maria  Janitschek's  Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  xiii). 

English  often  employs  the  gerund  here  after  in  spite  of,  despite:  In  spite  of  his  or  John's  being 
so  diligent  the  teacher  has  not  praised  him  Trotzdem  er  or  Hans  so  fleißig  gewesen  ist,  hat  ihn 
der  Lehrer  nicht  gelobt.     For  further  remarks  on  the  gerund  see  272.  C.  g. 

Clause  of  Purpose. 

281.  The  clause  of  purpose  or  final  clause,  as  it  is  often  called,  states  the 
purpose  or  direct  end  of  the  action  of  the  principal  proposition  (for  conjunctions 
see  238.  3.  H):  Er  soil  schnell  machen,  daß  er  nicht  zu  spät  kommt.  Darum 
bin  ich  euch  entgegengeeilt,  daß  ich  euch  warnen  könnte.  Daß  die  Hand 
gesichert  bleibe,  faßt  man  Kohlen  an  mit  Zangen.  Da  warf  Konradin  seinen 
Handschuh  vom  Blutgerüste  herab,  damit  er  dem  König  Peter  von  Aragonien 
gebracht  werde. 

The  clause  of  purpose  is  often  used  in  elliptical  sentences  corresponding  to 
the  common  elliptical  infinitive  construction  in  b  (2nd  par.):  Daß  ich  es  nicht 
vergesse,  [will  ich  dir  sagen,]  gestern  war  dein  Bruder  bei  mir.  Daß  ich  es 
kurz  sage,  ich  will  nicht. 

The  idea  of  purpose  often  finds  expression  in  other  grammatical  forms,  such 
as  object,  subject,  attributive  substantive,  relative  clauses,  and  temporal  clauses 
after  bis  and  ehe.     See  168.  I.  2.  B.  (1),  (3),  169.  1.  C.  (1),  (3). 

a.  Mood.  The  subjunctive  was  always  used  here  in  oldest  German  as  it  alone  could  repre- 
sent the  statement  as  a  clause  of  purpose,  i.e.  as  something  only  planned  or  desired.  After  dis- 
tinctive conjunctions  had  come  into  use  here,  such  as  auf  daß  and  the  now  more  common  damit 
(240.  a),  the  subjunctive  was  no  longer  absolutely  necessary  to  indicate  purpose  and  was  gradu- 
ally in  colloquial  speech  after  present  tense  forms  displaced  by  the  indicative.  A  more  accurate 
description  of  usage  and  of  the  forces  at  work  here  is  given  in  168.  I.  2.  B.  b;   169.  1.  C.  (2). 

b.  Abridgment.  The  final  clause  is  in  common  prose  usually  contracted  to  an  infin.  with 
zu  or  um  zu  wherever  no  ambiguity  can  arise:  Er  trank  ein  Glas  Wein,  um  sich  zu  erwärmen 
(much  more  common  than  daß  er  sich  erwärme).     See  also  185.  A.  11.  2.  c. 

The  abridged  form  is  very  common  in  elliptical  sentences  where  some  such  words  as  so  sage  ich 
are  understood:  Die  Wahrheit  zu  gestehen,  [so  sage  ich]  ich  weiß  es  nicht.  Er  ist  ein  seltsamer 
Mensch,  [so  drücke  ich  mich  aus]  um  nicht  zu  sagen  ein  Narr.  Um  es  kurz  zu  sagen,  ich  will 
nicht.  As  the  infinitive  in  such  sentences  does  not  stand  in  relation  to  any  other  word  that  is 
formally  expressed  it  is  often  called  an  absolute  infinitive. 

Note  on  Historical  Development  of  the  Infinitive  Clause  of  Purpose.  In  Luther's  time  urn  zu  was  not  yet  widely 
used,  but  it  is  now  much  more  common  tlian  the  simple  zu.  The  increasing  use  of  urn  zu  instead  of  zu  is  quite  natural. 
Altho  zu  often  expresses  the  idea  of  purpose  when  used  with  nouns,  as  described  in  229.  2  under  zu,  II.  1.  B.  /,  it  is 
so  often  used  with  the  infinitive  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb  that  the  original  idea  of  purpose  is  no  longer  vividly 
felt.  The  prep,  um  brings  out  this  idea  clearly.  Tho  um  zu  originally  was  limited  to  clauses  of  purpose,  it  has  in 
accordance  with  one  of  the  common  meanings  of  um  also  spread  to  clauses  of  result,  as  mentioned  in  272.  D.  i:,  276. 
D.  h,  and  277.  2.  b,  and  even  to  adjective  clauses,  as  mentioned  in  255.  IV.  2.  a.  This  favorite  construction  has  to 
the  alarm  of  the  grammarians  spread  much  beyond  its  old  historic  boundaries  and  is  now  used  with  especial  fre- 
quency to  add  to  a  statement  about  a  person  or  thing  some  item  concerning  their  later  fate,  lot,  or  conduct:  Sie  schie- 
den, um  sich  nie  wiederzusehen  They  parted  never  to  see  one  another  again.  Daim  lachte  wohl  der  kindhche  Froh- 
sinn auf,  um  bald  wieder  desto  schwerer  niedergedrückt  zu  werden.  This  censured  construction  corresponds  closely 
to  the  use  of  the  infinitive  with  to  in  similar  expressions  in  English.  The  infinitive  with  to  in  English  and  um  zu  in 
German  are  here  employed  to  denote  a  result  which  is  the  natural  outcome  of  events  or  plans  independent  of  the 


584 CLAUSE   OF   MEANS 281.  6. 

action  described  in  the  principal  proposition,  while  they  elsewhere  denote  a  result  as  the  effect  of  the  activity  or 
state  indicated  in  the  governing  proposition.  While  the  use  of  lo  and  um  zu  here  is  contrary  to  the  general  principle 
observed  in  clauses  of  result,  it  should  be  regarded  as  a  valuable  modification  and  extension  of  this  principle  which 
should  be  encouraged  rather  than  discouraged,  as  it  is  one  of  the  tersest  and  most  expressive  constructions  known 

to  either  language.  .    „    .  .  r        j  •     *u      i       •     i  i  ..       ,.  r  »u 

The  first  examples  of  a  double  prepositional  infinitive  to  express  purpose  are  found  in  the  classical  literature  of  the 
M  H  G  period-  Die  her^ogin  lost  uf  den  stric,  durch  die  schrift  u?  ?e  lesenne  an  dem  seile  (Wolfram's  Ttturel,  154.  4) 
The  duchess  untied  the  chord  in  order  to  read  to  the  end  the  writing  on  it,  lit.  untied  the  chord  on  account  of  the 
writing  in  order  to  read  on  the  chord  to  the  end.  The  two  prepositional  phrases  durch  die  schrift  and  ze  lesenne  both 
modify  the  verb  lost  uf.  Instead  of  durch  the  preposition  uyn  soon  became  more  common.  Still  later  the  noun  after 
the  preposition  urn  came  to  be  felt  as  the  object  of  the  following  infinitive  and  the  tun  was  construed  as  a  connective 
introducing  a  contracted  clause  of  purpose,  as  first  seen  in  Low  German:  Dat  is  gcscheen  umme  tho  beholdende  de 
vriheid  dusser  stat  {Berichte  und  Aktenstücke  über  die  Ereignisse  in  Lübeck  von  1405-1408,404.  19)  Dies  ist  geschehen, 
um  die  Freiheit  dieser  Stadt  zu  behaupten.  In  this  old  document  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  can  be  clearly  seen  that 
um  is  no  longer  a  preposition  governing  a  following  noun,  for  its  stands  before  the  prepositional  infinitive.  This 
development  may  possiblv  have  taken  place  earlier,  but  it  is  impossible  to  prove  it  as  the  urn  usually  stood  before 
the  substantive  as  in  the  original  construction,  where  moreover  it  normally  still  stands.  The  occasional  position  of 
the  «m'immediately  before  the  prepositional  infinitive  indicates  that  the  change  has  taken  place.  The  construc- 
tion was  at  first  little  used  and  did  not  become  common  before  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  This  long 
period  of  development  is  explained  by  the  simple  fact  that  urn  did  not  originally  belong  to  the  infinitive  clause  as  a 
whole  but  to  only  one  word  in  it,  namely  the  substantive  which  followed  it.  It  often  requires  many  centuries  for 
an  entirely  new  syntactical  structure  to  become  established.  Here  the  prepositional  infinitive  and  the  words  asso- 
ciated with  it  slowly  acquired  the  force  of  a  subordinate  clause  of  purpose  with  the  distinctive  conjunction  urn,  which 
distinguished  it  from  other  kinds  of  subordinate  clauses.  It  also  differs  from  other  subordinate  clauses  in  that  in- 
stead of  a  finite  verb  it  has  as  verbal  predicate  a  prepositional  infinitive  with  a  subject  which  has  to  be  supplied  from 
the  context  of  the  principal  proposition.  Thus  tho  slow  to  become  established  this  construction  has  at  length  by 
virtue  of  its  distinct  form  and  pithy  terseness  become  a  decided  favorite.  In  dialect  other  prepositions  are  used 
as  conjunctions  instead  of  um,  as  for  instance  for  in  Alsatian  corresponding  to  older  English  for.  as  in  Are  ye  come 
out  as  against  a  thief  with  swords  and  staves  for  to  take  me?  (Matth.  xxvi.  55):  siine  Exame  gemacht  fore  Doktor 
zu  wäre  (  =  werden)  (Karl  Bernhard's  Siraßburjer  Wibble,  33).  In  English  for  is  still  quite  common  here  where  the 
subject  of  the  infinitive  is  not  identical  with  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition:  The  lad  pulled  at  his  mother 
for  her  to  take  notice  of  him  Der  Junge  zupfte  an  der  Mutter,  damit  sie  auf  ihn  aufmerksam  werde.  Compare  269. 
3  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  proposition  English  uses  in  order  here  as  a 
conjunction:  I  arose  early  in  order  to  get  the  work  done  before  noon.  Quite  similar  to  the  infinitive  clause  of  purpose 
with  a  distinctive  conjunction,  um  in  German  and  for  and  in  order  in  English,  is  the  German  infinitive  clause  of  man- 
ner with  the  conjunctions  ohne  and  anstatt:  Er  verschwand,  ohne  ein  Wort  zu  sagen.  Man  erzählte  ihm,  anstatt 
ihn  erzäJilen  zu  lassen.  The  infinitive  with  ohne  first  appeared  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  was  used  much  in 
the  same  way  as  um  as  described  above.  The  infinitive  with  anstatt  is  modern  and' has  arisen  under  the  influence 
of  the  infinitive  with  um  and  ohne.     The  English  infinitive  /or-clause  has  a  similar  development.     See  269,  3. 

Clause  of  Means. 

282.  The  clause  of  means  indicates  the  means  by  which  the  effect  mentioned 
in  the  principal  proposition  is  produced:  Da'durch  daß  du  ihm  trotzest,  wirst 
du  gar  nichts  von  ihm  erreichen.  Ich  erkannte  ihn  da'ran,  daß  er  hinkte. 
Ihm  gelang  die  Flucht  aus  dem  Gefängnis,  in'dem  er  die  Wächter  bestach. 
For  the  conjunctions  used  see  238.  3.  I.  In  a  formal  sense  many  of  these  clauses 
are  prepositional  clauses,  so  that  they  may  be  classed  under  272.  D. 

a.  Abridgment.  The  clause  of  means  is  sometimes  contracted  to  an  appositional  participial 
clause:  Mich  am  Stricke  festhaltend,  rettete  ich  mich  ans  Vier  Holding  on  to  the  rope  firmly  I 
came  safe  to  the  shore.  This  is  the  attributive  or  appositional  type  of  clause  structure  de- 
scribed in  268.  4.  English  has  gone  much  farther  than  German  in  developing  this  old  type 
of  clause.  In  English  it  is  often  found  in  prepositional  phrases  in  which  the  person  implied  in 
a  possessive  adjective  or  a  genitive  is  the  logical  subject,  the  governing  gerund  the  logical  predi- 
cate, and  the  preposition  the  sign  of  subordination  to  the  principal  verb:  By  his  or  Johns  holding 
the  ladder  firmly  I  succeeded  in  climbing  on  to  the  roof  Dadurch  daß  er  or  Hans  die  Leiter  festhielt, 
gelang  es  mir,  auf  das  Dach  zu  steigen.  German  is  often  similar  to  English  when  the  subject 
of  the  principal  verb  serves  as  the  subject  of  the  gerund:  By  holding  on  to  the  rope  firmly  I 
came  safe  to  the  shore  Durch  Festhalten  am  Stricke  rettete  ich  mich  ans  Ufer.  For  further 
remarks  on  the  gerund  see  272.  C.  g. 

Word-Order. 

283.  The  German  word -order  presents  peculiar  difficulties  to  the  English- 
speaking  student.  One  of  the  first  things  to  learn  is  that  word-order  in  a  Ger- 
man sentence  is  intimately  connected  with  accent.  In  German  words  are  re- 
moved from  their  usual  position  and  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence 
when  they  become  emphatic,  while  in  English  we  may  accent  words  heavily 
without  changing  their  position.  The  next  important  position  in  a  German 
sentence  is  at  the  end.  The  least  emphatic  words  are  usually  found  near  the 
middle  of  the  sentence,  and  further  on  the  words  receive  more  stress  as  they 
approach  the  end.  Also  considerations  of  euphony  influence  word-order.  Short, 
light  objective  or  adverbial  elements  precede  longer,  heavier  ones.  Opposed  to 
this  freedom  of  placing  words  according  to  their  logical  or  emotional  importance, 
or  the  requirements  of  euphony,  &c.,  are  certain  mere  formal  grammatical  prin- 


g84.  I.  2.  g.         DIFFERENT  TYPES   OF   WORD-ORDER 585 

ciples  which  have  developed  certain  fixed  types.     Hence  the  whole  subject  must 
be  studied  in  detail. 

284.  I.  In  German  there  are  three  word-orders:  the  verb  in  the  second 
place,  the  verb  in  the  first  place,  the  verb  in  the  last  place. 

1.  Verb  in  the  Second  Place.  This  word-order  may  assume  two  different 
forms.  The  subject  may  stand  in  the  first  place  with  the  verb  in  the  second 
place:  Der  Vater  liebt  den  Sohn.  This  form  is  called  normal  order.  If  any 
other  word  for  emphasis,  or  to  establish  a  nearer  relation  with  what  goes  on 
before,  or  because  it  lies  nearer  in  thought,  stand  in  the  first  place,  the  verb 
still  maintains  the  second  place,  followed  usually  by  the  subject  in  the  third 
place :  Auf  Sonnenschein  folgt  Regen.     This  order  is  called  inverted. 

a.  This  division  into  normal  and  inverted  order  is  now  quite  general,  but  not  altogether 
scientific.  In  earlier  periods  there  is  no  difference  whatever  between  these  two  orders.  The 
subject  or  any  word  in  the  predicate  could  for  emphasis,  or  to  establish  a  nearer  relation  with 
what  went  on  before,  or  because  it  lay  nearer  in  thought,  stand  in  the  first  place,  followed  later 
by  the  verb,  which  in  oldest  German  often  stood  in  the  final  position  in  the  sentence  and  only 
as  a  result  of  a  long  development,  as  described  in  3.  a  below,  became  established  in  the  second 
place  immediately  after  the  subject  or  the  stressed  object  or  adverb  introducing  the  sentence. 
By  reason  of  its  importance  the  subject  stood  so  often  in  the  first  place  that  this  position  has 
become  functional,  i.e.  it  now  normally  stands  in  the  first  place  even  tho  it  is  unimportant  and 
unstressed.  The  older  order  of  things,  however,  is  often  still  in  force.  The  subject  still  takes 
its  place  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  when  it  becomes  emphatic,  especially  the  interrogatives, 
wer,  welcher,  &c.,  or  a  noun  which  has  important  modifiers:  Alle  wirkliche  Kunst  beruht  auf 
der  individuellen  Freiheit  und  dem  fröhlichen  Lebensgenuß  (Mommsen's  Römische  Geschichte, 
III,  chap.  xiv).  The  subject  is  also  brought  forward  to  establish  a  nearer  relation  with  what 
goes  on  before,  especially  in  case  of  demonstrative  pronouns.  Even  the  weakly  accented  personal 
pronoun  establishes  the  connection  with  what  precedes:  Willst  du  nicht  deinen  Kaffee  trinken, 
Tantchen?  Er  wird  ganz  kalt  (Sudermann's  Fritzchen,  5).  This  personal  pronoun  is  in  a  con- 
trast still  accented,  and  then  it  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  in  a  double  capacity  —  as  an 
emphatic  word  and  to  establish  a  connection  with  what  precedes:  Herr,  er  hatte  es  leicht!  Er 
ging  von  hinnen,  aber  dir  ließ  er  als  Erbe  das  halb  zerstörte  Reich  (Sudermann's  Teja,  11). 

These  original  ideas  which  once  characterized  the  normal  word-order  are  now  often  little  felt 
or  not  felt  at  all,  as  this  word-order  has  developed  a  different  force.  It  has  become  the  form  of 
expression  suited  to  the  mind  in  its  normal  condition  of  steady  activity  and  easy  movement, 
from  which  it  only  departs  under  the  stress  of  emotion  or  for  logical  reasons,  or  in  conformity  to 
fixed  rules.  Thus  where  there  are  several  subordinate  clauses  connected  by  und,  oder,  &c., 
there  is  often,  especially  in  colloquial  speech,  a  tendency  after  the  conjunction  to  return  to  the 
normal  order:  Stund'  Agamemnons  Sohn  dir  gegenüber,  |  und  du  verlangtest,  was  sich  nicht 
gebührt:  |  so  hat  usw.  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  5,  3).  Wenn  Sie  einen  [Jungen]  erwischen  und 
haun  ihm  'n  paar  'runter,  dann  werden  sie's  wohl  lassen  (Ilse  Leskien's  Schuld,  p.  3).  Wer 
einen  solchen  Schritt  unternimmt  und  den,  Gott  sei  Dank!  immer  noch  fest  gefügten  Bau  der 
Kirche  zertrünmiem  will  und  hat  sich  nicht  besser  alles  vorher  überlegt,  der  kann  sich  nur 
lächerlich  machen.  In  much  the  same  manner  the  inverted  order  is  often  replaced  by  the  normal : 
Als  er  zurückkam,  war  sein  Gesicht  stark  verweint  und  er  schloß  sich  mehrere  Stunden  in  sein 
Zimmer  ein  (Schubin's  Boris  Lenslzy,  x).  The  normal  order  is  also  now  usually  employed  where 
in  earlier  periods  the  question  order  was  used,  i.e.  the  verb  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence 
for  especial  emphasis  in  accordance  with  its  importance  in  individual  cases  or  in  ballads  and 
epics  in  accordance  with  the  general  importance  which  attaches  to  the  verb  in  narrative  and 
descriptive  style.  In  a  somewhat  veiled  form  this  older  usage  is  still  quite  common  in  the  literary 
language.  The  expletive  es  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  as  a  grammatical  subject 
followed  immediately  by  the  verb  so  that  the  verb  is  still  the  first  word  of  real  importance.  For 
full  treatment  of  this  point  see  251.  II.  B.  a.  bh,  b. 

The  first  place  is  not  the  only  emphatic  position  for  the  subject.  It  may  be  made  prominent 
by  being  reserved  for  the  important  position  at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  For  fuller  treatment 
of  this  point  see  251.  II.  B.  a.  cc. 

2.  Verb  in  the  First  Place.  This  is  the  usual  order  of  aquestion  that  requires 
an  affirmative  or  negative  answer,  and  may  be  called  question  order:  1st  der 
Knabe  fleißig? 

a.  In  earlier  periods  the  verb,  just  as  still  an  object  or  an  adverb,  stood  in  the  first  place 
whenever  it  was  emphatic,  or  in  order  to  establish  a  nearer  relation  with  what  went  on  before, 
or  because  it  lay  nearest  in  thought.  This  older  order  of  things  survives  in  wishes,  in  expressions 
of  will  containing  an  imperative  and  often  in  those  containing  a  volitive  subjunctive,  also  in 
questions  that  require  yes  or  no  for  an  answer,  in  all  of  which  cases  the  verb  is  brought  forward 
because  of  its  importance  to  the  thought  and  is  consequently  stressed:  Käme  er  doch!  Reiche 
mir  das  Buch!  Hol'  ihn  der  Teufel!  Rette  sich,  wer  kaim!  Reisen  Sie  dieses  Jahr  wieder 
nach  Karlsbad?  Compare  50.  A.  3.  c  and  168.  I.  1.  B.  a.  In  older  periods  this  position  and 
stress  of  the  verb  were  also  common  in  certain  types  of  the  declarative  sentence  where  the  verb 
is  important  to  the  thought.     In  literary  German  this  order  in  declarative  sentences  is  now 


586      HISTORICAL    DEVELOPMEiNT   OF   WORD-ORDER      284.  I.  2.  a. 

restricted  to  definite  groups  of  cases,  which  are  given  in  287.  B.  In  popular  and  colloquial 
language,  however,  the  earlier  freedom  of  placing  a  verb  at  the  beginning  of  even  a  declarative 
sentence  is  still  quite  common.     See  251.  II.  B.  6,  also  286.  A.  c. 

3.  Verb  in  the  Last  Place.  This  is  the  order  of  a  subordinate  clause,  and  is 
usually  called  transposed  order:  Die  Sterne  erscheinen  uns  deswegen  so  klein, 
weil  sie  so  weit  von  uns  entfernt  sind. 

a.      Historical  Development  of  the  Word-order.     In  the  oldest  as  well  as  modern  German  and 
English  the  verb  could  stand  in  the  second  place  between  subject  and  object,  but  in  older  English 
and  in  oldest  and  modern  German  it  can  also  stand  in  the  second  place  after  an  adverb  or  object. 
In  the  oldest  period  it  also  often  in  both  languages  stood  in  the //Vi/  place  in  emphatic  statement 
and  narrative,  and  survivals  of  this  usage  still  often  occur  in  German  in  emphatic  statements 
and  ballads,  as  indicated  in  287.  B  (7)  and  (8),  but  in  the  normal  declarative  sentence  the  verb 
stood  at  the  end,  almost  regularly  so  in  oldest  English  and  quite  commonly  so  in  oldest  German, 
indicating  a  still  greater  regularity  in  pre-Germanic.     This  was  in  conformity  with  a  general 
principle  of  the  older  normal  word-order  that  modifiers  of  a  word  should  precede  it.     This  old 
word-order  with  the  verb  at  the  end  preceded  by  its  modifiers  corresponds  to  the  order  found  in 
old  group-words  (247.  2.  a),  where  the  governing  word  stands  at  the  end  preceded  by  its  modifiers. 
This  old  word-order  was  based  upon  a  mere  grammatical  principle.     As  the  modifiers  were  not 
originally  inflected  they  could  only  be  felt  as  modifiers  by  having  a  fixed  position.     Thus  they 
always  preceded  the  governing  verb.     This  old  order  was  later  in  the  inflectional  period  often 
disturbed  by  reserving  for  the  end  the  important  modifier  or  modifiers  of  the  verb,  in  order  to 
create  the  feeling  of  suspense  and  thus  increase  the  emphasis.     As  the  verb  was  thus  not  the 
center  of  attention  and  was  often  weakly  stressed  it  gradually  settled  into  the  weakly  stressed 
position  after  the  subject  or  the  strongly  accented  object  or  adverb  which  often  introduces  the 
sentence.     Besides  this  rhythmical  principle  there  was  also  a  psychological  force  active  in  estab- 
lishing the  verb  in  this  position.     The  verb  contains  the  basal  idea  of  the  predication,  so  that 
there  was  often,  especially  in  long  sentences,  a  tendency  to  bring  it  near  the  subject  in  order 
that  subject  and  predicate  together  might  at  the  outset  make  clear  the  general  line  of  thought 
and  thus  relieve  the  tension  somewhat  and  make  it  possible  to  concentrate  the  attention  upon 
the  important  details  which  were  to  be  presented  later.     In  course  of  time  this  position  of  the 
verb  became  fixed,  so  that  the  originally  emphatic  order  became  the  new  jiormal  or  inverted  order 
as  they  exist  to-day.     In  English  the  tendency  to  place  the  subject  before  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  verb  is  very  much  stronger  and  more  universal  than  in  German,  for  it   almost  invariably 
takes  place  in  all  declarative  sentences  in  both  the  principal  proposition  and  the  subordinate 
clause,  but  in  English  it  has  never  been  an  absolute  requirement  that  the  verb  should  follow  the 
subject  immediately  as  in  German,  as  in  Hans  tut  es  oft,  in  English  John  often  does  it._    In  English 
the  tendency  to  place  the  subject  before  the  verb  and  thus  indicate  the  grammatical  relations 
by  means  of  the  word-order  manifested  itself  in  early  times  and  century  after  century  became 
stronger  and  stronger,  so  that  the  distinctive  case  forms  of  nouns  and  adjectives  gradually  as 
useless  inflections  disappeared  in  whole  or  in  part.     In  German  the  case  forms  have  been  largely 
preserved  as  they  are  still  often  needed  to  make  clear  the  grammatical  relations.     Here  also 
the  older  normal  word-order  wdth  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  still  survives  in  poetry. 
See  288.  B.  c.     It  has  also  been  preserved  in  prose  and  poetry  in  the  subordinate  clause.     The 
main  reason'for  the  preservation  of  the  old  order  here  seems  to  be  that  the  subordinate  clause 
had  the  same  word-order  and  stress  as  a  compound  or  old  group-word  (247.  2)  —  stressed  verbal 
element  preceded  by  a  still  stronger  stressed  modifier  —  and  gradually  developed  into  a  some- 
what similar  speech  unit  with  the  same  fixed  word-order  and  stress.     The  free  stressing  of  im- 
portant words  in  the  principal  proposition  by  placing  them  in  important  positions  has  gradu- 
ally associated  with  the  normal  or  inverted  order  the  idea  of  positive  assertion  with  the  emphasis 
upon  certain  words,  while  the  set  word-order  and  stress  of  the  subordinate  clause  arouses  the  idea 
of  a  compact  unit,  a  thought,  an  impression,  or  a  feeling  as  a  whole  without  special  reference  to 
particular  words:    Noch  heute  geht  er  and  Ich  bestehe  darauf,  noch  heute  geht  er,  but  Ich 
bestehe  daratif,  daß  er  noch  heute  geht  /  insist  upon  it  that,  &c.,  where  darauf  points  to  the 
thought  of  the  following  clause  as  a  whole.     After  negatives  and  verbs  expressing  mere  feeling 
the  normal  or  inverted  word-order  with  their  idea  of  positive  assertion  and  definite  emphasis 
upon  certain  words  often  cannot  be  used  at  all:   Ich  glaube,  heute  geht  noch  ein  Zug,  but  Ich 
glaube  kaum,  daß  heut  noch  em  Zug  geht  and  Ich  bin  keineswegs  überzeugt,  daß  du  recht  hast. 
Ich  freue  mich  riesig,  daß  du  gekommen  bist  (not  du  bist  gekommen).     Es  tut  mir  sehr  leid, 
daß  du  dich  gekränkt  fühlst  (not  du  fühlst  dich  gekränkt).     In  Ich  weiß,  du  bist  ein  braver 
Junge  there  is  in  the  subordinate  clause  with  normal  word-order  the  warmth  of  positive  assertion, 
while  in  Ich  weiß,  daß  du  ein  braver  Junge  bist  we  feel  in  the  subordinate  word-order  the  tone 
slightly  cooler,  i.e.  we  feel  the  utterance  as  a  calm  objective  statement  of  a  fact,  a  thought  as  a 
whole.     In  the  transposed  order  the  verb  is  never  weakly  stressed  as  often  in  normal  and^ in- 
verted order,  but  always  distinctly  stressed  as  the  verbal  element  in  old  group-words,  as  Kopf- 
verletzung, altho  often  with  a  little  less  force  than  other  words  yet  with  an  unmistakable  accent 
as  the  subordinate  clause,  like  an  old  group-word,  is  felt  as  a  thought  as  a  whole,  a  fact,  an  essential 
element  of  which  is  the  idea  contained  in  the  verbal  element:    Minister  Gerber  tritt   (weakly 
stressed)  am  1.  Oktober  in  den  Rühestand,  but  Ich  wundere  mich,  daß  Minister  Gerber  in  den 
Rühestand  tritt    (distinctly  stressed).     Wo  wohnt   (weakly  stressed)   der  neue  Burgermeister? 
but  Nein,  wo  der  neue  Bürgermeister  wohnt!  (distinctly  stressed),  as  the  attention  is  not  directed 
to  any  word  in  particular  but  to  the  thought  as  a  whole,  namely  surprise  that  the  mayor  would 


285.  IL  A.  a. NORMAL   WORD-ORDER 587 

reside  in  such  a  house.  As  in  the  last  example  German  often  employs  the  transposed  order  in 
independent  propositions  to  represent  the  utterance,  not  as  an  assertion  with  certain  important 
details,  but  as  a  mere  thought  or  impression  as  a  whole.  Likewise  in  giving  a  definite  command 
to  be  carried  out  at  once  we  say:  Schließe  mir  die  Haustür  with  distinct  emphasis  upon  the 
imperative  to  indicate  immediate  action,  but  to  impress  the  thought  as  a  whole  upon  someone's 
mind  we  say:  Daß  du  mir  heute  abend  die  Häustür  schließt!  In  directing  a  question  to  some- 
one we  say:  Wie  heißt  denn  dein  Brüder?  If,  however,  the  question  is  not  understood  we  do 
not  usually  repeat  the  exact  words  but  reproduce  the  thought  as  a  whole  in  transposed  order: 
Wie  dein  Bruder  heißt? 

IL  These  different  word-orders  are  discussed  somewhat  in  detail  in  the  fol- 
lowing articles,  but  a  number  of  still  smaller  details  can  only  be  learned  from 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  language.  The  word-order,  as  it  is,  has  only 
after  a  long  period  of  development  assumed  its  present  form.  Earlier  usage 
is  still  reflected  occasionally  in  poetry  and  elevated  language  in  general,  as  is 
mentioned  below  and  in  237,  in  the  treatment  of  transposed  word-order. 

Normal  Order. 
I.     General   Statement. 

285.  L  Order  of  Words.  This  order  is,  first  the  subject  with  all  its  modi- 
fiers, then  the  simple  verb  or  in  compound  tenses  the  auxiliary,  followed  by  the 
modifiers  of  the  verb:  Goethe,  der  am  28.  August  1749  auf  die  Welt  kam,  hat 
im  geistigen  Leben  Deutschlands  gewirkt,  wie  eine  gewaltige  Naturerscheinung 
im  physischen  gewirkt  hätte. 

2.     Normal  order  is  found: 

a.  In  independent  declarative  sentences:  Ich  trage  immer  die  Schuhe  vorn 
eckig  I  always  wear  square-toed  shoes.  A  declarative  sentence  often  has  the 
force  of  a  command:   Ich  habe  Hunger  =  Gib  mir  zu  essen. 

b.  In  questions  in  which  the  interrogative  word  or  phrase  is  itself  the  sub- 
ject of  the  sentence:  Wer  kommt  denn  alles?  Who  all  are  coming?  Wessen 
Hut  liegt  auf  dem  Tische?  This  form  of  questions  is  often  used  to  express  a 
wish :   Wer  von  euch  hilft  mir? 

c.  Often  in  other  interrogative  sentences,  which  are  distinguished  from 
declarative  sentences  only  by  the  rising  inflection  or  in  print  by  the  punctuation: 
Und  Sie  haben  das  im  Ernste  geglaubt?  And  you  really  believed  that?  Such 
sentences  usually  express  doubt  or  surprise.  In  connection  with  nicht  wahr 
is  he  not,  has  he  not,  is  she  not,  has  she  not,  must  you  not,  &c.,  which  may  introduce 
the  sentence  or  close  it,  this  order  is  much  used  in  questions  which  confidently 
expect  an  afifirmative  answer:  Es  ist  heute  schönes  Wetter,  nicht  wahr?  It  is 
fine  weather  to-day,  isn't  it?  Nicht  wahr,  sie  kann  schön  singen?  She  can  sing 
beautifully,  can't  she? 

d.  In  wishes  the  normal  order  may  be  used.     See  168.  I.  L  B.  a. 

e.  In  commands  which  are  expressed  by  the  indicative.     See  177.  I.  B.  b.  c. 

f.  The  normal  order  is  also  sometimes  used  in  subordinate  clauses.  See 
237.  1.  A.  a,  d,  f,  and  Note  1  under  b. 

IL     Detailed  Statement. 

A.  Word-order  of  the  Subject.  The  general  rule  for  the  position  of  the  modi- 
fiers of  the  subject  is  that  adjectives  and  participles  precede,  an  adjective  clause, 
an  adverb  (see  B.  a.  Note  (1),  (2),  (3),  (4),  below),  or  prep,  phrase  follow,  an 
appositive  or  genitive  either  precedes  or  follows  the  subject:  Ein  edler  Mann 
wird  durch  ein  gutes  Wort  der  Frauen  weit  geführt.  Ein  Glaube,  welchem  die 
Werke  fehlen,  ist  ein  toter  Glaube.  Der  Durst  nach  Ruhm  verleitet  manche 
auf  falsche  Wege.     Das  Schloß  des  Kaisers  bei  Potsdam  ist  sehr  schön. 

a.  The  position  of  an  appositive  is  described  in  255.  IL  L  G.  a.  III.  L  A,  B, 
and  that  of  a  genitive  is  treated  in  255.  ILL  The  appositive  noun,  which  rep- 
resents an  older  partitive  genitive,  may  precede  the  governing  noun  or  pronoun, 


588 WORD-ORDER   OF   THE    PREDICATE        285.  II.  A.  a. 

and  often  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sentence,  whether  it  modifies  the  subject  or 
an  object.    See  255.  II.  1.  H.  a. 

b.  The  adjective  and  participle  sometimes  stand  after  the  subject.  See  104. 
2.  B.  a  and  b;   111.9;   137.  1.  a. 

c.  All  modifiers  of  an  attributive  adjective  or  participle  must  stand  before 
it:  Der  gegen  seinen  Beschützer  für  die  empfangenen  Wohltaten  in  hohem 
Grade  dankbare  Knabe  übernahm  freudig  den  gefährlichen  Auftrag.  Das  auf 
dem  Tische  liegende  Buch.  When,  however,  such  adjectives  and  participles 
follow  the  governing  noun  the  adjective  or  participle  may  either  stand  after  their 
modifiers,  or  before  them  if  the  modifiers  are  to  be  made  prominent:  dieser 
Mann,  auf  seinen  Rang  so  stolz,  or  so  stolz  auf  seinen  Rang. 

d.  An  adverb  or  prepositional  phrase  that  modifies  the  subject  usually  fol- 
lows it,  but  sometimes  it  precedes.     See  255.  IV.  2  and  VI. 

e.  An  appositional  noun,  adjective,  or  participle,  which  precedes  the  sub- 
ject, not  as  an  attributive  modifier,  but  as  the  equivalent  of  an  adverbial  clause, 
must  like  adverbs  cause  inversion:  Ein  geborener  Herrscher  (=  weil  er  ein 
geborener  Herrscher  war),  regierte  er  die  Gemüter  der  Menschen,  wie  der 
Wind  die  Wellen  zwingt. 

B.  Word-order  of  the  Predicate.  The  personal  part  of  the  verb  follows  the 
logical  subject.  The  general  rule  for  the  word-order  of  the  modifiers  of  the 
verb  is  that  the  important  words  gravitate  towards  the  end  of  the  sentence 
and  the  less  important,  as  personal  or  reflexive  (see  218.  1.  a)  pronouns,  stand 
near  the  verb.     The  following  points  should  be  carefully  mastered: 

a.  The  verb,  or  in  compound  tenses  the  auxiliary,  must  follow  the  logical 
subject  immediately,  and  hence  no  adverbial  expressions  or  clauses  must  be 
allowed  to  stand  between  subject  and  verb  as  in  English:  Ich  besuche  ihn  oft 
I  often  visit  him.  Die  Griechen  wälzten,  damit  ihre  eigene  Schwäche  verdeckt 
bliebe,  alle  Schuld  des  Verlustes  auf  ihn  The  Greeks,  in  order  that  their  own 
weakness  might  remain  concealed,  threw  all  blame  for  the  loss  upon  him. 

Nole.  To  this  important  rule  there  must  be  added,  however,  a  few  exceptions:  (1)  Often  a  few  adverbial  expres- 
sions, as  nur  only,  wenigstens  at  the  least,  jedenfalls  at  any  rate,  für  meine  Person,  or  für  meinen  Teil,  or  meines- 
teils/or  my  part,  and  the  concessive  terms  freilich  to  be  sure,  in  der  Tat  indeed,  wie  ich  zugeben  muß  as  I  must  confess 
S:c.,  modify  not  tlie  verb,  but  only  the  subject,  and  hence  may  follow  it,  and  thus  stand  between  subject  and  verb: 
Ich  wenigstens  habe  nichts  gesehen  /  for  tny  pari  have  seen  nothing.  (2)  A  few  adverbs  as  besonders  especially, 
vorzüglich  particularly,  vor  allem  al>ove  all,  &c.,  especially  emphasize  the  subject,  and  may  follow  it:  Deia  Bruder 
besonders  hat  sich  in  der  letzten  Zeit  gegen  mich  sehr  freundlich  bewiesen.  (3)  Partitive  and  adversative  con- 
junctions or  adverbs,  as  einerseits  on  the  one  liand,  ander  (er  iseits  on  the  otlier  hand,  aber,  indessen,  jedoch  however, 
dagegen,  hingegen  on  the  other  liand,  &c.,  whicli  represent  the  subject  as  sharing  in  an  action  or  as  being  in  contrast 
to  another  subject,  may  follow  the  subject:  Seine  Kränklichkeit  einerseits,  seine  Trägheit  anderseits  waren  ihm 
ein  großes  Hindernis.  Alle  waren  über  den  frechen  Mordanfall  auf  den  Fürsten  außer  sich,  dieser  im  Gegenteil 
(or  hingegen)  verlor  keinen  Augenblick  die  Fassung.  (4)  Sometimes  adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases,  tlio  true  adverbial 
elements  in  form,  are  felt  as  the  equivalent  of  adj.  modifiers,  and  follow  the  subject:  Das  Haus  da  (=  das  da 
steht)  gehört  mir  The  house  there  belongs  to  me.  Die  Treibjagd  am  3.  Januar  (  =  die  am  3.  Januar  stattfand)  brachte 
über  hundert  Menschen  auf  die  Beine.  (5)  A  clause  sometimes  stands  before  the  verb  when  it  refers  to  the  thought 
contained  in  the  predicate  as  a  whole  rather  than  to  the  verb  itself:  Der  Tunnel  (literary  society  in  Berlin  in  the 
years  1827-77),  was  nicht  gleichgültig  war  und  deshalb  hier  mit  erwähnt  werden  mag,  besaß  auch  ein  nicht  unbe- 
trächtliches Vermögen  (Fontane).  (6)  A  phrase,  clause,  or  sentence  is  often  inserted  parenthetically  between  sub- 
ject and  verb:  Die  Stiftungsfeste,  wie  gesagt  (as  already  mentioned),  waren  gut.  Dein  Bruder,  wenn  du  es  durch- 
aus wissen  willst,  hat  das  Geld  genommen;  er,  um  frei  von  der  Leber  zu  sprechen,  ist  der  Dieb.  Der  Knabe  — 
Wilhelm  hieß  er  — antwortete:   Ich  weiß  es  nicht. 

b.  In  sentences  containing  a  compound  tense  and  also  those  containing  a 
separable  prefix  or  a  predicate  adjective,  the  grammatically  important  word  of 
the  predicate,  i.e.  participle,  infinitive,  separable  prefix,  predicate  adjective  or 
noun,  usually  stands  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  as  this  word-order  has  become 
functional.  For  fuller  treatment  of  this  important  word-order  see  215.  II.  1.  A. 
This  word-order  is  observed  even  where  the  participle  is  used  instead  of  a  past 
tense.  See  183.  1.  G.  Besides  the  points  discussed  in  215.  II.  1.  A,  the  following 
additional  details  should  be  noted: 

aa.  Auxiliary  infinitives  stand  after  perf.  participles,  altho  less  heavily  stressed:  Sie  dürften 
sich  geirrt  haben  You  have  probably  made  a  mistake.  Wir  müssen  wohl  beide  zugleich  darauf 
gekommen  sein  We  must  have  both  hit  upon  that  idea  at  the  same  time.  A  deoendent  infinitive, 
however,  precedes  a  participle:    Ich  habe  ihn  kommen  gesehen. 

bb.  The  predicate  noun,  adjective,  or  participle  is  followed  by  a  perf.  participle  or  infinitive 
altho  the  latter  are  less  heavily  stressed:  Er  ist  ein  tüchtiger  Mann  geworden.  Sie  ist  schön 
gewesen.  Sie  wird  ihnen  nähe  bleiben.  Er  wird  ein  tüchtiger  Mann  geworden  sein  He  has 
probably  become  a  good,  solid  man.  Here  belongs  the  predicate  participle  in  the  passive  voice, 
which  must  always  be  followed  by  the  participle  or  infinitive  of  werden:    Der  Schüler  ist  gelobt 


285.  II.  B.c.         WORD-ORDER   OF   THE    PREDICATE 589 

worden.  Er  wird  gelobt  werden.  For  further  details  concerning  the  word-order  and  stress 
here  see  215.  II.  1.  A  (3rd  par.);   178.  2.  B.  c  and  e. 

If,  however,  the  predicate  be  a  clause,  the  participle  or  infinitive  precedes:  Die  nächste  Folge 
hiervon  war  gewesen,  daß  sich  die  Bildung  einer  deutschen  politischen  Hegemonie  in  diesem 
Nordwesten  nicht  hatte  vollziehen  köimen  (Lamprecht's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  7.  2,  p.  649). 

cc.  The  infinitive  or  participle  which  stands  regularly  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  must  be  pre- 
ceded by  its  modifiers:  Ich  kann  Ihnen  keine  bestimmte  Antwort  geben.  Er  hat  einen  Streit 
angefangen.  For  the  explanation  of  the  word-order  in  all  these  cases  see  215.  II.  1.  A  (3'rd  par.). 
If,  however,  the  infinitive  or  participle  is  modified  by  an  infinitive  with  zu  or  by  a  clause  it  must 
usually  precede  these  modifiers:  Ich  muß  Sie  bitten,  mir  einen  Regenschirm  zu  leihen.  Ich 
möchte  gern  wissen,  was  dies  ist.  Das  Kind  hat  angefangen,  Französisch  zu  lernen.  Ich 
hab's  erfahren,  was  Hungern  ist.  Where,  however,  the  infinitive  with  zu  is  so  closely  related 
in  thought  to  the  governing  infinitive  or  participle  that  it  is  felt  as  forming  a  group  with  it,  it 
precedes  the  governing  word:  Ich  werde  zu  arbeiten  haben.  Sie  haben  sich  nicht  davon  zu 
befreien  gewüßt.     Er  hat  es  nicht  zu  tun  vermocht. 

Unemphatic  dative  objects,  especially  unstressed  personal  pronouns  and  the  reflexive  sich, 
may  introduce  the  clause  in  German,  while  in  English  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  must  have  the 
first  place  in  the  clause:  Er  ließ  dem  Armen  durch  einen  Diener  Brot  geben  He  ordered  some 
bread  to  he  given  to  the  poor  fellow.     Laß  dir  das  (or  also  das  dir)  eine  Warnung  sein. 

dd.  A  single  adverb,  a  genitive,  or  dative  modifying  a  predicate  adjective,  or  participle  must 
precede  it,  but  a  phrase  or  longer  expression  may  alsjo  follow  it,  a  clause  usually  so:  Er  ist  dort 
gebürtig  He  is  a  native  of  that  place.  Er  ist  der  deutschen  Sprache  mächtig  He  can  speak  and 
understand  German.  Verstellung  ist  der  offenen  Seele  fremd.  But:  Er  ist  aus  dem  südlichen 
Frankreich  gebürtig,  or  Er  ist  gebürtig  aus  dem  südlichen  Frankreich.  Er  ist  darüber  sehr 
erfreut,  but  Ich  bin  sehr  erfreut,  daß  er  sich  meiner  erinnert.  A  modifying  phrase  usually  fol- 
lows when  some  word  in  the  phrase  is  modified  by  other  words:  Der  Augenblick  war  daher 
möglichst  ungünstig  gewählt  für  den  nochmals  gemachte'n  Versuch,  gütlich  zwischen  den  Par- 
teien zu  vermitteln. 

ee.  A  participle  which  has  the  form  of  an  infinitive  may  stand  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  or 
before  the  dependent  infinitive  and  its  modifiers;    see  178.  2.  B.  c. 

ff.  Sometimes  in  both  normal  and  question  order  other  words  can  follow  an  infinitive  or 
participle  contrary  to  the  general  rule  that  infinitive  and  participle  must  stand  at  the  end.  This 
exceptional  order  was  common  in  older  German,  and  it  is  not  infrequent  in  the  vigorous  prose 
of  our  own  time  whenever  it  seems  best  for  sake  of  emphasis  to  place  some  important  modifier 
of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  altho  in  general  the  word-order  has  become  stereotyped: 
Hast  du  die  Schmerzen  gelindert  je  des  Beladenen?  (Goethe).  Sie  haben  Ihr  Lebensglück 
geopfert  um  meinetwillen  (Sudermann's  Heimat,  4,  5).  Often  a  word  is  withheld  to  the  end  to 
create  the  feeling  of  suspense:  Ich  werde  euch  etwas  Neues  erzählen  — von  Fritz.  Sometimes 
in  colloquial  language  unimportant  words  follow  the  infinitive  or  participle:  Ich  behaupte,  auf 
wen  dein  Vater  einwirkt,  der  kann  gar  nie  gänzlich  verflachen  im  Leben  (Hauptmann's  Michael 
Kramer,  1,  p.  26). 

On  the  other  hand,  this  irregular  feature  is  a  regular  characteristic  feature  of  the  German 
spoken  by  Jews  who  have  not  eradicated  all  traces  of  Hebrew  or  other  foreign  influence  from 
their  language:  Die  Papiere  sind  gewesen  in  unsrer  Stadt,  einer  hat  sie  gekriegt  von  einem 
alten  sterbenden  Bettler,  und  ist  geworden  ein  mächtiger  Maim  (Veitel  Itzig  in  Freytag's  Soll 
und  Haben,  chap.  i).  This  order  is  also  found  in  the  German  of  Poles,  Frenchmen,  Englishmen, 
and  other  foreigners:  Ich  aber  sage,  Herr  Pfarrer,  diese  Sünde  kann  nicht  verziehen  werden 
in  Ewigkeit,  denn  er  hat  sich  nicht  nur  selbst  erniedrigt  zum  Tier,  er  hat  auch  andre  hineinge- 
zogen in  seinen  Fall  und  hat  sie  betrogen  um  ihr  zeitliches  und  ewiges  Heil  (the  Polish  chaplain 
in  Halbe's  Jugend,  p.  96).  Compare  also  the  German  of  Riccaut  in  Lessing's  Minna  von  Barn- 
helm, 4,  2.     See  likewise  215.  II.  1.  A.  a.  Note. 

gg.  The  preceding  remarks  refer  to  the  usual  position  of  participle,  infinitive,  separable  prefix, 
predicate  adjective,  or  noun.  A  certain  logical  emphasis  always  lies  in  all  these  grammatical 
functions,  even  tho  there  may  be  no  especial  stress  upon  the  individual  words,  and  hence  the 
regularity  with  which  we  find  these  words  in  their  position  at  the  close  of  the  sentence.  How- 
ever, if  any  especial  emphasis  be  placed  upon  the  individual  words  in  these  functions,  they  are 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence:  Schön  ist  das  Wetter  heute  nicht.  Gegeben  habe  ich  ihm 
das  Buch  nicht,  sondern  nur  geliehen.  Schreiben  hätte  er  doch  wenigstens  gekonnt.  The 
separable  prefix  only  rarely  thus  introduces  the  sentence,  and  that  usually  in  poetry,  preferring 
as  a  rule  to  stand  at  the  end  of  the  sentence:  Zurücke  bleibt  der  Knappen  Troß  (Schiller).  See 
215.  II.  1.  A.  e  for  the  manner  of  writing  the  prefix  here. 

hh.  If  an  infinitive  or  participle  belongs  to  several  propositions  it  is  usually  in  normal,  in- 
verted, and  question  order  found  in  its  proper  position  in  the  last  of  the  propositions,  and  under- 
stood with  the  others:  Er  (Cäsar)  hat  diese  beiden  großen  Aufgaben  nicht  bloß  nebeneinander, 
sondern  eine  durch  die  andere  gelöst  (Mommsen's  Römische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  ii).  Participle 
or  infinitive,  however,  is  often  found  in  the  first  proposition  and  understood  with  the  others: 
Hätt'  ich  hingehen  sollen  und  um  anzeigen?  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  69). 

c.  Order  of  Objects.  The  general  rule  is,  here  as  elsewhere  in  the  predicate, 
that  the  known  and  hence  less  important  and  unaccented  word  comes  first,  and 
the  newly  introduced  word,  to  which  the  attention  is  to  be  especially  called,  and 
which  consequently  bears  the  accent,  follows.     A  longer,  heavier  word  often 


590 ORDER   OF   OBJECTS   AND    ADVERBS         285.  II.  B.  c. 

for  the  sake  of  euphony  follows  a  shorter  word.  The  following  applications  of 
these  points  are  to  be  especially  noted,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these 
positions,  tho  the  common  ones,  are  not  absolute,  and  hence  will  change  at 
once  when  the  relative  importance  and  accent  of  the  objects  change. 

aa.  If  there  are  two  ace.  objects,  one  of  the  person  and  one  of  the  thing,  the  object  of  the 
thing  will  follow  if  it  is  a  noun,  but  will  precede  if  it  is  a  pronoun,  as  it  already  will  have  been 
referred  to,  and  hence  is  the  less  important  word:  Der  Lehrer  lehrte  den  Schüler  (or  ihn,  if  the 
person  has  been  mentioned)  den  richtigen  Ausdruck.  But:  Ich  weiß  den  richtigen  Ausdruck 
nicht.  Lehre  ihn  mich.  Of  course  the  pronominal  object  of  the  thing  may  follow  when  it  be- 
comes the  more  important  or  a  longer,  heavier  word:  Der  Schüler  lernt  den  richtigen  Ausdruck. 
Der  Lehrer  lehrt  ihn  denselben  (instead  of  ihn  ihn). 

There  can  also  be  two  objects  of  another  kind,  the  first  one  the  object  of  the  principal  verb, 
the  following  one  the  object  of  the  dependent  infinitive:  Die  Sage  läßt  Zeus  den  Kronos  ent- 
thronen. The  word-order  here  has  gradually  become  fixed,  as  without  a  set  order  the  thought 
would  often  be  obscured.  In  accordance  with  the  older  freedom  of  position  here,  however, 
we  still  often  find  the  object  of  the  infinitive  before  the  object  of  the  principal  verb,  especially 
in  case  of  pronominal  objects:  Man  durfte  es  ihn  natürlich  nicht  merken  lassen  (Beyerlein's 
Je7ia  oder  Sedan? ,  I). 

l<!ole.  The  contracted  form  of  es  often  by  way  of  exception  follows  a  pronominal  ace.  of  the  person  when  no  es- 
pecial emphasis  of  the  person  is  involved:  Ich  weiß  das  Richtige  nicht.  Lehre  es  mich  or  Lehre  mich's.  The  con- 
tractions ilin's  and  uns's,  however,  are  not  used,  andlience  here  the  regular  forms  es  ihn  and  es  uns  must  be  employed. 

hh.  When  there  are  two  objects,  a  dat.  and  an  ace,  the  dat.  precedes  if  the  ace.  is  a  noun 
or  any  pronoun  other  than  a  personal  or  reflexive  pronoun:  Ich  schrieb  meinem  Freund  (or  ihm) 
einen  Brief  (or  dies).     Seine  Mittel  erlaubten  ihm  dies. 

'Soie.  Of  course  the  dat.  follows  when  it  becomes  more  prominent  than  the  ace,  especially  when  it  is  modified 
by  a  clause:  Franz  reichte  seinem  Bruder  den  Brief,  but  Franz  reichte  den  Brief  seinem  Brüder.  Ich  empfehle 
diesen  Knaben  meinem  Freunde,  der  sich  gewiß  seiner  annehmen  wird. 

cc.  Of  two  objects,  a  dat.  and  an  ace,  the  ace.  precedes  if  it  is  a  personal  or  reflexive  pronoun: 
Heute  früh  brachte  die  Post  einen  Brief  aus  China  für  Ta  (name).  Ich  gab  ihn  ihm  (Heyking's 
Briefe,  dieihn  nicht  erreichten).  Ich  sagte  es  ihm.  Er  nahm  um  sich  zum  Muster.  Ein  Scherz, 
wie  er  ihn  sich  oft  erlaubt.     Er  entzog  sich  mir. 

Note.  The  following  exceptions  are  common:  (1)  The  contracted  form  of  es  often  follows  the  dat.,  especially 
the  datives  mir,  dir,  sich:  Gib  es  mir,  or  Gib  mir's.  f2)  The  ethical  dative  (258.  .3.  C),  which  is  usually  weakly  ac- 
cented, can  stand  before  the  ace.  of  a  pronoun:  Schilt  ihn  mir,  or  mir  ihn  nicht,  den  heben  Jungen!  (3)  Of  course 
the  dat.  follows  the  ace.  if  it  is  the  more  important  and  emphatic  of  the  two:  Ich  bedarf  eines  Rates  von  Ihnen.  Wollen 
Sie  mir  ihn  geben?  Here  both  the  dat.  and  the  ace.  object  have  already  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  person 
addressed,  but  the  thing  represented  by  the  ace.  is  the  point  towards  which  the  attention  is  more  particularly  directed. 
Notice  in  the  following  sentences  the  shifting  of  position  according  to  fine  shades  of  meaning:  Ach  bleib  nur,  Lotte! 
Ich  bringe  dir  ihn  (i.e.  den  Kaffee)  schon  (Beyerlein's  Dämon  Othello,  1,  5).  Die  (i.e.  die  Blumen)  will  ich  mir  aber 
alle  aufheben,  und  wenn  sie  verwelkt  sind,  presse  ich  sie  mir  (ib..  1,  5).  Ach  was,  dumm!  — Kind!  Das  wäre 
schlimm!  Bin  ich  doch  selbst  dein  Lehrer  gewesen  und  hab'  dich  mir  herangezogen,  so  wie  ich  dich  haben  wollte 
(ib.,  1,  7). 

dd.  If  there  are  an  accusative  and  a  prepositional  or  genitive  object,  the  ace.  precedes:  Er 
schrieb  einen  Brief  an  seinen  Freund.     Der  König  zieh  den  Herzog  des  Verrates. 

ee.  The  preceding  rules  for  the  position  of  objects  must  of  course  be  set  aside  if  one  of  the 
objects  is  an  interrogative  or  relative  pronoun,  for  these  must  always  stand  at  the  beginning  of 
the  sentence;   Was  schreiben  Sie  Ihrem  Freimd? 

d.  Order  of  Adverbs.  Here  as  elsewhere  in  the  predicate  the  rule  holds  that 
the  unimportant  words  stand  nearest  the  personal  part  of  the  verb,  and  the 
important  ones  gravitate  towards  the  end  of  the  sentence.  Adverbs  usually 
observe  the  following  order:  Time,  Place,  Manner,  Cause,  Purpose:  Er  kehrt 
heute  von  Paris  mit  seinem  Freunde  wegen  Familienverhältnisse  und  zur 
Regelung  seiner  Geschäfte  zurück.  An  adverb  of  degree  stands  at  or  near 
the  end  of  the  sentence,  usually  following  objects  and  other  adverbs:  Er  fördert 
diese  Woche  die  Arbeit  sehr.  Ich  weiche  heute  hier  unter  diesen  Verhältnissen 
von  meinem  Vorhaben  keinen  Schritt  zurück.  The  following  details  should 
be  carefully  noted : 

aa.  For  the  sake  of  euphony  a  short  word  often  precedes  a  heavier  one  or  a  phrase,  altho 
according  to  the  usual  rule  it  would  follow  it:   Ich  reiste  gem  nach  Paris. 

bb.  Of  several  adverbs  the  more  general  precede  the  more  specific:  Wir  reisen  morgen  früh 
um  sechs  Uhr  50  Minuten  ab.  Der  Polizist  fand  den  Betrunkenen  auf  der  Fahrstraße  im  Drecke 
liegen.  Of  course  the  word  of  more  general  meaning  follows  if  it  is  to  be  made  emphatic:  Ich 
beauftragte  ihn,  meinem  Kutscher  zu  sagen,  er  möge  sich  um  acht  Uhr  morgens  zur  Weiterfahrt 
bereit  halten. 

cc.  As  the  idea  of  place  is  important  with  verbs  of  rest,  arrival,  and  departure  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  to  make  here  the  position  of  an  adverb  of  time  before  an  adverb  of  place  functional 
ev^en  where  the  idea  of  time  is  more  important:  Er  war  vierzehn  Tage  hier.  Er  ist  vor  vierzehn 
Tagen  hier  angekommen.  Ich  ging  aufs  Feld  und  blieb  den  lieben  langen  Tag  da.  Even  here 
time  follows  place  if  its  importance  is  quite  marked:  Diese  steinerne  Bank  mit  den  Greifen- 
köpfen war  hier  vorhin  nicht  gestanden  (Thomas  Mann's  Königliche  Hoheit,  p.  84).     With 


286. INVERTED   WORD-ORDER 591 

other  verbs  this  order  is  the  rule  if  the  element  of  time  is  more  important  than  that  of  place: 
Ich  ging  aufs  Feld  und  grub  da  den  lieben  langen  Tag. 

dd.  Position  of  Negatives.  Originally  nicht  was  an  adverbial  accusative  of  degree  (see  145. 
g.  Note  2)  and  like  an  adverb  of  degree  it  still  often  stands  at  or  near  the  end  of  the  sentence 
following  objects  and  other  adverbs:  Du  hast  den  Segen  der  Arbeit  nicht.  Willst  du  den  Segen 
der  Arbeit  nicht  haben?  As  nicht  is  only  lightly  stressed  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  it  to-day 
to  seek  the  place  before  a  stressed  word:  Hans  will  nicht  Soldat  werden,  but  Hans  will  Soldat 
nicht  werden,  ^er  ist  es  schon.  Ich  kann  über  deinen  Unsinn  nicht  lachen,  but  Ich  kann  nicht 
über  deinen  Unsinn  lachen.  There  is  sometimes  fluctuation  between  older  usage  with  nicht 
at  the  end  and  the  newer  tendency  to  place  it  before  a  stressed  word:  Mason  sträubt  sich  gegen 
means  als  Einzahl,  aber  der  gute  Sprachgebrauch  unterstützt  ihn  darin  nicht  (Gustav  Krüger's 
Schwierigkeiten  des  Englischen,  p.  132),  or  according  to  the  new  rhythmical  principle  unterstützt 
ihn  nicht  darin. 

Quite  similar  is  the  use  of  nie  and  niemals. 

ee.     A  single  adverb  modifying  another  must  stand  before  it:   Er  ist  sehr  alt. 

e.  Order  when  there  are  both  Adverbs  and  Objects.  Of  the  modifiers  of  the 
verb,  adverbial  elements  are  of  less  importance  as  a  rule  than  noun  objects  and 
hence  precede  them,  but  pronominal  objects  precede  adverbial  elements:  Der 
Fürst  verlieh  aus  Dankbarkeit  dem  Feldherrn  diese  Würde.  Sie  sprechen 
vollkommen  gut  Deutsch.  Er  überträgt  mit  schneller  Besonnenheit  seinem 
Adjutanten  die  Verfolgung  der  Feinde.  Er  sagte  es  mir  gestern  mit  großer 
Freude.  An  adverbial  modifier  usually  precedes  a  prepositional  object:  Er 
spricht  oft  von  ihm,  von  seinem  Sohne. 

aa.  Adverbs  of  place  usually  follow  an  accusative  or  dative  object,  but  precede  a  preposi- 
tional object:  Wir  konnten  das  Buch  nirgends  im  Hause  finden,  but  Die  warten  hier  in  der 
Nähe  auf  euren  Wink. 

bb.  Of  course  emphasis  can  reverse  the  usual  order  of  objects  and  adverbs.  Especially  in 
short  sentences  adverbs  of  time  and  manner  often  stand  after  objects:  Ich  sah  diesen  Herrn 
gestern.  Er  spricht  von  ihm  oft.  Ich  trinke  den  Kaffee  sehr  gem.  Even  a  personal  pronoun 
follows  an  adverb  if  it  is  more  prominent  and  is  followed  by  an  accented  word:  Er  befand  sich 
im  Himmel,  sagte  die  Mutter,  xmd  erwartete  dort  sie  alle. 

C.  Order  of  Adjective  Modifiers.  The  adjective  modifiers  of  any  noun 
whether  in  the  subject  or  predicate  have  exactly  the  same  word-order  as  the 
modifiers  of  the  subject  (see  A) :  Kein  Dichter  oder  Denker  hat  nach  Luthers 
Zeiten  einen  in  soviel  Richtungen  gleichzeitig  wirkenden,  vier  aufeinanderfol- 
gende Generationen  volldurchdringenden  Einfluß  gehabt  als  Goethe  (Hermann 
Grimm's  Goethe,  Einleitung). 

a.  For  the  cases  where  the  adjective  follows  its  governing  noun  see  104.  2.  B.  a  and  b;  111.  9; 
137.  \.a. 

b.  The  pronominals  dies-,  jen-,  all-  precede  possessives,  as  in  English.  Formerly  also 
beid-  had  precedence  here.     See  139.  1.  d.  Note  2.  (5). 

Inverted  Order. 

286.  In  this  word-order  the  predicate,  an  object,  an  adverbial  word,  phrase, 
or  clause,  or  the  expletive  es,  occupies  the  first  place,  the  verb  stands  in  the  second 
place,  and  the  subject  then  follows  immediately  or  at  an  interval  of  several 
words.  If  the  subject  is  a  personal  pronoun  or  the  indefinite  man  it  must 
follow  the  verb  immediately:  Dann  beruhigte  er  sich.  Oft  muß  man  sich 
selber  helfen.  This  rule  has  become  perfectly  rigid  for  personal  pronouns, 
so  that  they  must  follow  the  verb  immediately  when  used  as  subject  even  tho 
they  are  heavily  stressed :  Heute  mußt  du  ihn  besuchen.  Aside  from  personal 
pronouns  heavier  and  more  prominent  pronominal  subjects  follow  weaker  pro- 
nominal objects:  Daim  kann  mir  das  alles  nichts  nützen.  Dann  neigten  sich 
beide  vor  dem  Könige.  Manchmal  erkannten  mich  einige.  Substantival  sub- 
jects usually  follow  pronominal  objects  because  they  are  heavier  and  more  im- 
portant: Hinter  uns  schloß  sich  ein  undurchdringlicher  Wall  der  empörten 
Menge.  In  German  it  would  be  impossible  to  place  the  light  object  sich,  after 
the  heavy  and  important  subject  ein  undurchdringlicher  Wall.  When,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  predicate  is  hea\^^  and  important  the  reflexive  as  a  part  of  the 
predicate  sometimes  follows  the  subject:  Als  Gottlieb  Bänsch  sich  zum  Ein- 
steigen in  Bewegung  setzte,  hing  Männchen  sich  mit  beiden  Händen  an  seine 


592 USE   OF    INVERTED   WORD-ORDER 286. 

Hand  (Wildenbruch's  Der  Letzte,  p.  57).  The  position  of  the  reflexive  here 
after  the  subject  is  becoming  more  common  in  recent  literature,  but  the  old 
position  before  the  subject  is  still  the  more  common  one.  When  both  subject 
and  object  are  nouns  the  usual  order  is  subject  —  object:  Endlich  besiegte  der 
Ritter  den  Türken.  Altho  this  rule  is  quite  firm  in  modern  usage  it  is  not  yet 
perfectly  rigid,  for  the  subject  may  still  follow  the  substantival  object  when  it 
becomes  prominent,  as  in  the  following  example  from  Mommsen's  Römische 
Geschichte,  III,  p.  240:  Damals  wohnten  die  Kelten  in  offenen  Flecken,  jetzt 
umgaben  ihre  Ortschaften  wohlgefügte  Mauern.  This  order  difi"ers  from  the 
normal  order  in  that  some  word  from  the  predicate,  or  the  expletive  es,  takes 
the  first  place  and  the  subject  takes  the  position  after  the  verb,  or  in  compound 
tenses  after  the  auxiliary.  In  other  respects  the  position  of  the  words  is  in 
general  retained  as  in  normal  order. 

Compare  older  English:  Now  has  he  land  and  beefs  (Shakespeare's  Henry  IV, 
Second  Part,  3,  2).  This  older  usage  sometimes  still  survives  after  accented 
words  that  are  closely  connected  with  the  verb  in  thought,  as  a  predicate  noun 
or  adjective,  a  negative  or  restrictive  word  or  phrase,  strongly  stressed  so  or 
such,  and  sometimes  accented  adverbs  of  time  or  place:  Most  grateful  were  they 
for  my  offer.  Noivhere  does  he  say  anything  on  this  point.  He  quickened  his  pace 
and  so  did  I.  Only  once  did  he  deviate  from  this  principle.  In  general,  however, 
there  has  not  been  for  many  centuries  a  live  feeling  for  this  old  construction  as 
it  was  destroyed  long  ago  by  the  newer  principle  of  always  putting  the  subject 
before  the  verb,  as  explained  in  284.  I.  3.  a. 

The  leading  points  as  to  the  use  of  this  order  and  the  particulars  concerning 
the  word-order  are  as  follows: 

A.      Use  of  Inverted  Order.     This  order  is  used: 

a.  Just  as  in  English,  as  the  usual  form  for  a  question  introduced  by  an 
interrogative  word  which  is  not  the  subject  of  the  verb:  Was  gibt  es  Neues? 
Warum  kommt  er?  Wie  geht's?  The  same  form  is  also  often  used  in  exclama- 
tions: Wie  schön  ist  das  Wetter!  Was  hat  er  schon  durchgemacht!  This 
exclamatory  form  is  an  old  type  of  sentence  out  of  which  questions  with  the 
same  word-order  have  probably  developed,  differentiating  themselves  from 
exclamations  as  in  English  by  a  different  tone.  In  these  exclamations  we  some- 
times find  the  transposed  word-order  instead  of  the  inverted,  as  they  have  been 
influenced  by  the  exclamatory  type  described  in  288.  B.  h:  Wie  schön  das  Wet- 
ter ist!  Was  er  schon  durchgemacht  hat!  Instead  of  the  inverted  or  the 
transposed  word-order  here  we  still  have  the  old  verbless  type  of  sentence  (250. 
a):  Wie  schön! 

The  interrogative  word  stands  in  the  first  place  in  accordance  with  the  old 
Germanic  principle  that  the  emphatic  word  stands  first  in  the  sentence.  The 
interrogative  word  is  even  brought  forward  from  the  subordinate  clause  to  the 
beginning  of  the  principal  proposition  just  as  in  English:  Wo  wollen  Sie,  daß  ich 
anfangen  soll?  (Lessing),  now  more  commonly  Wo  soll  ich  anfangen?,  as  Germans 
are  beginning  to  avoid  the  old  construction,  which  is  still  common  in  English. 

h.  The  inverted  order  is  used  whenever  for  some  rhetorical  reason  a  word  or 
an  expression  is  brought  forward  from  the  predicate  and  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  sentence,  and  hence  its  use  is  a  matter  of  style.  Words  are  thus  in  general 
brought  forward  for  the  following  reasons.  (1)  A  word  or  words  containing  a 
reference  to  a  preceding  sentence  or  connected  with  it  in  thought  are  naturally 
brought  forward,  so  that  that  which  is  stated  in  the  one  sentence  and  is  now 
known  may  become  the  sure  foundation  for  the  next,  upon  which  the  thought 
can  be  further  built  up  and  enlarged:  Er  war  zwar  ein  großer  Redner,  Schrift- 
steller und  Feldherr,  aber  jedes  davon  ist  er  nur  geworden,  weil  er  ein  vollen- 
deter Staatsmann  war.  Here  jedes  davon,  referring  as  it  does  to  the  foregoing 
words  Redner,  Schriftsteller,  Feldherr,  serves  nicely  as  a  foundation  upon  which 
to  build  a  new  thought.  In  older  German  such  words  were  often  brought 
forward  from  the  subordinate  clause  to  the  beginning  of  the  principal  proposition : 
Auf  alle  diese  Fragen  wird  Ihnen  Ihr  Herz  sagen,  daß  Sie  mir  die  Antwort 


286.  A.  c. USE   OF   INVERTED   WORD-ORDER 593 

schuldig  sind  (H.  v.  Kleist's  Werke,  5,  310,  ö),  now  more  commonly  Daß  Sie 
mir  auf  alle  diese  Fragen  Antwort  schuldig  sind,  wird  Ihnen  Ihr  Herz  sagen. 
(2)  Words  take  the  first  place  which  lie  nearest  in  thought,  especially  such  as 
give  us  a  general  idea  of  the  situation,  so  that  the  mind  may  be  prepared  for 
that  which  follows:  Tief  unten  zu  unseren  Füßen  lag  wie  im  bangen  Traume 
die  Stadt  Freiburg  mit  ihren  zerstreuten,  matt  schimmernden  Lichtern.  In 
older  German  such  words  were  often  brought  forward  from  the  subordinate 
clause  to  the  beginning  of  the  principal  proposition:  Auch  auf  dem  Theater 
glaube  ich,  daß  sie  Glück  machen  werde  (Goethe's  Briefe,  20,  195,  5),  now  Auch 
auf  dem  Theater,  glaube  ich,  wird  sie  Glück  machen.  (3)  Any  word  or  words 
may  for  especial  emphasis  be  brought  forward  from  the  predicate  and  be  placed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  proposition:  Er  hat  sehr  vieles  unternommen,  gelungen 
ist  ihm  nichts.  Eingewirkt  auf  ihn  kann  es  (das  lebensvolle  Landschaftsbild) 
freilich  in  diesen  frühesten  Jahren  noch  nicht  haben  (Otto  Harnack's  Schiller, 
p.  6).  Bis  der  Löwe  kommen  wird,  und  —  kommen  wird  er  (Ludwig's  Makka- 
bäer,  1).  Man  mag  Cornelius  heute  verehren  oder  gleichgültig  an  ihm  vorüber- 
gehen: leben  tut  (251.  II.  B.  a.  bb,  2nd  paragraph)  er  und  überleben  wird  er 
viele  noch  (Hermann  Grimm  in  Deutsche  Rundschaii,  May  1896,  p.  255).  For 
other  examples  of  this  emphatic  position  for  the  perfect  participle  and  the  in- 
finitive see  251.  II.  B.  a.  bb,  3rd  par.  On  the  other  hand,  the  infinitive  sometimes 
stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  proposition  not  for  emphasis  but  in  order  that  the 
auxiliary  may  come  into  the  unusual  and  hence  emphatic  position  at  or  near 
the  end  of  the  sentence:  Wer  sollte  helfen?  Ihr  Vater?  Ach,  Unsinn!  Aber 
geholfen  werden  müßte!  Müßte!  (Hans  Hoffmann's  /tea;/  der  Schreckliche, 
chap.  VII).  A  verb  in  a  simple  tense  cannot,  like  a  participle  or  an  infinitive, 
be  put  in  the  first  place  for  emphasis.  See  B.  b  below.  The  dative  and  ac- 
cusative can  be  brought  forw^ard  from  the  predicate:  Nicht  mü*  gab  er  das  Buch, 
er  gab  es  meinem  Bruder.  Den  Väter  liebt  der  Sohn  and  Die  Franzosen 
schlug  Wellington,  but  not  Sogar  Konstantinopel  (acc.)  hat  Hamburg  (nom.) 
überflügelt,  as  the  case  forms  are  not  clear  and  consequently  Konstantinopel 
would  be  construed  as  nominative  in  accordance  with  the  normal  form  of  state- 
ment. The  inverted  order,  however,  can  be  freely  used  even  where  the  case 
forms  are  not  clear,  provided  the  thought  would  not  thereby  be  endangered: 
Die  ältere  Ansicht  vertrat  mit  großer  Bestimmtheit  Kräuter  (name),  auch 
Braune  (name)  (Wilmanns's  Deutsche  Grammatik,  I,  p.  81).  Still  other  elements 
are  brought  forward:  Dort  unter  dem  Bäum  sitzt  er.  Schon  ist  sie  nicht, 
gut  ist  sie.  Gar  kein  Kerl!  Ein  Lump  ist  er.  This  order  is  usually  required 
in  German  when  the  subject  is  es  and  the  predicate  a  personal  pronoun.  See 
251.  I.  3.  Also  in  questions  some  word  can  for  emphasis  be  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  sentence,  followed  by  inverted  order:  Und  das  dulden  Sie? 
The  question  is  not  here  detected  by  the  order,  but  by  the  rising  inflection  of 
the  voice.  The  tendency  to  place  an  accented  word  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sentence  is  much  stronger  in  popular  speech  than  in  the  literary  language.  Thus 
often  in  dialect  an  object  or  an  adverbial  element  that  belongs  to  the  subordinate 
clause  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence:  Einen  freien  Platz  ist  nicht 
ausgemacht,  daß  du  bekommst  (Renward  Brandstetter's  Das  sclnveizerische 
Lehngilt  im  Romontschen,  p.  81).  Aus  Breslau  war  ich  froh,  daß  ich  naus  war 
(L.  Hanke's  Die  Wortstellung  im  Schlesischen,  p.  23).  Of  these  different  uses 
(1)  and  (3)  distinguish  themselves  by  a  stronger  accent.  The  former,  however, 
is  often  without  stress,  since  the  word  used  is  a  mere  formal  introduction  to  the 
principal  proposition,  as  illustrated  in  268.  2.  a.  (4)  Instead  of  a  word  or  phrase,, 
as  in  the  preceding  cases,  a  full  or  contracted  clause  may  for  the  same  reasons 
precede  the  verb,  or  the  main  sentence  may  be  found  within  the  body  of  the 
subordinate  clause.  In  both  of  these  cases  inversion  in  the  principal  proposition 
is  the  rule :  Was  möglich  war,  hat  er  geleistet.  Um  den  Arzt  zu  holen,  fuhr  er 
schnell  nach  der  Stadt.     ,,Lauf  nur,"  sagte  ich,  ,,lauf !" 

c.     This  order  is  also  used  to  emphasize  the  subject  or  a  verb  in  a  simple 
tense,  in  which  cases  the  sentence  is  usually  introduced  by  es,  followed  imme- 


594 PARTICULARS   OF    INVERTED   ORDER  286.  A.  c. 

diately  by  the  verb  and  still  later  by  the  subject.  See  251.  II.  B.  a.  bb,  cc.  In 
this  construction,  however,  the  word-order  is  only  formally  inverted.  It  is  in 
reality  that  of  a  question,  as  the  verb  in  fact  stands  in  the  first  place.  The  es 
which  precedes  the  verb  has  no  accent  and  no  logical  force  and  hence  does  not 
count,  serving  here  merely  as  a  formal  introduction  to  the  sentence.  This  in- 
troductory es,  however,  is  quite  serviceable,  as  it  formally  distinguishes  this 
emphatic  form  of  the  declarative  sentence  from  the  interrogative  form.  In 
popular  language  this  es  is  often  dropped.     See  251.  II.  B.  b. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  an  object,  an  adverbial  element,  or  a  predicate  word 
introduces  the  proposition  and  the  subject  stands  last  for  emphasis,  the  es  is 
not  employed  as  the  introductory  word  clearly  marks  the  declarative  form  of 
statement:  Das  nämlich  tun  und  müssen  tun  die  schwächeren  Menschen,  die 
nicht  an  sich  halten  können  (Ricarda  Huch's  Ausbreitung  und  Verfall  der 
Romantik,  p.  150).  Gegen  Abend  begegnete  mir  noch, etwas  Wunderliches. 
For  other  interesting  examples  see  251.  I.  2.  B.  Note  and  II.  B.  a.  aa.  Note. 
This  form  of  statement  is  often  used  when  both  the  introductory  element  and 
the  subject  near  the  end  or  in  the  final  position  are  to  be  made  prominent:  Für 
Lieblosigkeit  kann  sie  das  Geld  nicht  entschädigen  (Hauptmann's  Einsame 
Menschen,  p.  67).  Selbst  die  Hände  gedrückt  hatten  ihm  einige  Menschen, 
die  er  kaum  kannte  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Haindlkinder,  p.  302). 

B.     Particulars  of  the  Inverted  Word-order: 

a.  If  an  object,  or  an  adverbial  word,  phrase,  or  clause  introduces  the  sentence,  the  subject 
usually  follows  the  verb  immediately,  or  is  separated  from  it  by  unimportant  words,  but  also, 
as  in  the  following  sentences,  the  subject  may  stand  near  the  end  of  the  sentence,  especially  when 
it  contains  the  new  and  hence  important  element  in  the  sentence,  and  is  therefore  to  be  emphasized: 
Bei  den  Griechen  und  Römern  trat  sehr  früh  an  die  Stelle  des  Gaues  als  die  Grundlage  der 
politischen  Einheit  der  Mauerring.  Emphasis  often  requires  the  subject  to  be  placed  last  when 
it  consists  of  a  list  of  things  or  a  series  of  clauses:  Entmündigt  kann  werden:  1.  wer  in  Folge  von 
Geisteskrankheit   oder   Geistesschwäche   seine  Angelegenheiten  nicht  zu  besorgen  vermag; 

2.  wer  durch  Verschwendung  sich  oder  seine  Familie  der  Gefahr  des  Notstandes  aussetzt; 

3.  wer  in  Folge  von  Trunksucht  usw.  {Bürgerliches  Gesetzbuch,  §  5).  See  also  A.  c  (2nd  par.) 
above. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  unaccented  pronominal  subject  must  follow  the  verb  immediately: 
Heute  hat  sie  es  dem  Vater  überreicht. 

b.  If  it  is  desired  to  emphasize  the  subject  or  a  verb  in  a  simple  tense  we  most  commonly  employ 
the  inverted  order,  introducing  the  sentence  with  es.  This  important  construction  is  explained  in 
251.  II.  B.  a.  bb.  cc.  From  another  standpoint  this  word-order  may  be  regarded  as  the  normal 
order,  as  the  grammatical  subject  es  stands  in  the  first  place.  From  still  another  point  of  view 
it  is  the  question  order,  as  explained  in  A.  c  above,  and  also  in  284.  I.  1.  c,  2nd  par.,  toward  end. 

c.  The  emphatic  object  or  adverbial  element  is  usually  placed  in  the  important  position  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  When,  however,  an  unemphatic  sentence  adverb  introduces  the 
sentence  the  emphatic  object  or  adverb  follows  as  closely  as  possible  and  thus  stands  in  the 
first  place  after  the  verb,  for  the  verb  must  stand  in  the  second  place:  Vielleicht  stellt  auch  mir 
sich  noch  einiges  anders  (Konrad  Zwierzina  in  Zeitschrift  für  das  deutsche  Altertum,  45,  p.  393). 

d.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  German  that  after  a  subordinate  clause,  especially  one  of  cause  (reason, 
condition,  concession),  the  following  principal  proposition  is  often  introduced  by  so,  which 
sums  up  in  one  word  the  substance  of  the  preceding  clause  and  by  its  adverbial  form  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  inversion  must  follow:  Wenn  der  Mensch  keinen  Genuß  mehr  in  der  Arbeit 
findet  und  bloß  arbeitet,  um  so  schnell  wie  möglich  zum  Genuß  zu  gelangen,  so  ist  es  nur  ein 
Zufall,  wenn  er  kein  Verbrecher  wird.  This  use  of  so  is,  as  in  the  preceding  example,  more 
common  after  long  subordinate  clauses,  but  must  also  be  used  sometimes  in  shorter  sentences 
where  the  principal  proposition  and  the  subordinate  clause  have  the  same  word-order,  as  it  is 
here  necessary  to  distinguish  the  principal  proposition  from  the  subordinate  clause:  Kann  ich, 
so  komme  ich.  Here  the  relation  of  the  propositions  would  not  be  clear  without  the  use  of  so, 
as  both  propositions  have  the  same  order.  In  poetr^',  however,  the  so  is  often  even  here  dis- 
pensed with:   Ehrt  den  König  seine  Würde,  |  ehret  uns  der  Hände  Fleiß  (Schiller). 

e.  If  any  adverb  or  adverbial  element,  or  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective,  belongs  to  two  co- 
ordinate sentences  connected  by  und  or  oder,  it  usually  causes  inversion  only  in  the  first  propo- 
sition, the  second  standing  in  normal  order:  Dann  ziehen  sich  Bruder  und  Schwester  zurück, 
und  Sonje  eilt  die  Treppe  hinauf.  Schön  ist  sie  nicht,  und  sie  wird  es  nie  werden.  In  case  the 
subjects  of  the  different  propositions  refer  to  the  same  person,  the  subject  is  quite  commonly 
suppressed  in  the  second  proposition.  For  examples  see  251.  II.  A.  e.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  force  of  the  word  introducing  the  first  proposition  is  felt,  and  inversion  in  the  next  proposition 
results:  Schön  war  sie  (die  Stadt  Kiel)  niemals,  ist  sie  auch  nicht  geworden  und  wird  sie  nie 
werden  (Jensen).  Trotz  dieser  gewagtesten  aller  Lagen  wurde  die  Stellung  genommen,  wurde 
gesiegt,  wurde  der  Feind  eingeschlossen  (Generaloberst  Graf  Schlieffen  at  the  unveiling  of  the 
Moltke  statue  in  Berlin,  Oct.  25,  1905). 


287.  A. QUESTION   WORD-ORDER 595 

In  case  an  object  is  common  to  several  propositions  it  is  usually  expressed  in  the  first,  and  re- 
peated in  the  form  of  a  pronoun  in  the  second,  which  has  normal  word-order:  Das  weiß  ich  und 
die  ganze  Stadt  weiß  es.  Sometimes,  however,  the  object  is  expressed  but  once,  namely,  in  the 
first  proposition,  in  which  case  the  second  must  have  inverted  order,  as  the  force  of  the  object 
introducing  the  first  proposition  is  felt:  Verpflichtungen  hat  jeder  Gastgeber  gegen  seine  Gäste, 
und  daß  ich  die  meinigen  kenne,  weiß  ich  und  weiß  die  Welt  (Raabe's  Der  Dräumling,  xxvi). 
See  also  251.  II.  A.  e  (toward  end). 

/.  If  a  sentence  is  introduced  by  certain  co-ordinating  conjunctions,  the  order  remains  normal, 
while  on  the  other  hand  it  becomes  inverted  if  introduced  by  others.  This  matter  is  discussed  in 
articles  233-237. 

g.  The  following  words  or  classes  of  words  may  introduce  a  sentence  without  causing  inversion: 
(1)  Exclamations  do  not  usually  influence  the  word-order,  as  they  are  felt  as  standing  outside 
of  the  structure  of  the  sentence:  Na,  das  wird  was  Schönes  geben!  Plague  on  it,  that  will  make 
a  pretty  mess!  (2)  The  affirmative  adverb  ja  and  negative  nein:  Nein!  ich  geh'  nicht  in  die 
Stadt.  (3)  The  adverbs  nun  in  the  one  meaning  well,  gewiß  certainly,  and  a  number  of  concessive 
adverbs,  adverbial  conjunctions  (for  which  see  235.  A.  c,  and  236),  adverbial  clauses,  and  also 
independent  sentences  with  the  force  of  adverbs,  do  not  always  cause  inversion,  as  they  are  felt 
as  independent  remarks  bearing  upon  the  sentence  rather  than  as  modifiers  of  the  predicate; 
allerdings  it  must  be  admitted,  freilich  to  be  sure,  immerhin  at  any  rate,  at  all  events,  zwar  it  is 
true,  in  der  Tat  indeed,  wie  ich  zugeben  muß  as  I  must  confess,  ich  gestehe  es  I  acknowledge  it, 
&c.  Exs.:  Nim,  ich  werde  zum  Vater  kommen  (Benedix's  Doktor  Treuwald,  1,  4).  Gewiß, 
man  muß  auch  schweigen  können  (Fontane's  Effi,  ix).  Allerdings,  ich  habe  es  nicht  selbst 
gesehen,  aber  ich  glaube  es.  In  M.H.G.,  for  the  same  reason,  the  word-order  in  the  principal 
proposition  was  not  usually  influenced  by  a  preceding  clause  as  in  the  present  period,  where  a 
preceding  clause  is  felt  as  modifying  the  principal  verb  as  any  other  adverbial  element  and  hence 
influences  the  word-order  in  the  following  proposition.  As  a  survival  of  older  usage  the  normal 
order  is  still  usually  found  after  a  concessive  clause  or  a  pair  of  concessive  clauses,  except  after  a 
single  concessive  clause  introduced  by  a  conjunction,  obgleich,  &c.,  stating  an  actual  fact:  Sei 
es  nun  recht  oder  nicht,  or  Mag  es  recht  oder  nicht  recht  sein,  ich  werde  es  nicht  tun.  Wie 
betrübt  ich  auch  war,  ich  mußte  lächeln.  Ob  wir  gewinnen,  ob  wir  verlieren,  die  Zukunft  wird 
es  zeigen.  But  Obgleich  er  von  meiner  Unschuld  überzeugt  war,  machte  er  mir  doch  Vorwürfe. 
After  concessive  clauses  which  have  developed  out  of  conditional  clauses,  however,  we  sometimes 
find  normal  order  as  after  a  concessive  clause,  sometimes  inverted  order  as  after  a  conditional 
clause:  Wenn  du  auch  noch  so  sehr  klagtest,  er  würde  or  würde  er  sich  doch  nicht  rühren  lassen 
(Paul's  Deutsche  Syntax,  II.  p.  316).  After  a  clause  of  purpose  the  order  is  often  normal  as  the 
utterance  is  in  fact  an  object  clause  after  a  verb  of  saying  understood:  I/aß  ich  es  kurz  sage,  or 
Um  es  kurz  zu  sagen,  [sage  ich  dir],  ich  will  nicht.  All  the  above  mentioned  adverbs  and  ad- 
verbial expressions,  with  the  exception  of  the  short  concessive  sentences  and  the  concessive  and 
purpose  clauses,  may  also  cause  inversion,  as  they  are  also  often  felt  as  modifiers  of  the  predicate: 
Allerdings  habe  ich  es  nicht  selbst  gesehen,  aber  ich  glaube  es.  After  the  adverbs  which  are 
followed  by  normal  order,  the  voice  pauses  somewhat,  while  after  those  which  are  followed  by 
inverted  order  there  is  no  such  distinct  pause,  as  the  adverb  is  felt  as  belonging  closely  to  the 
following  verb.  (4)  A  number  of  adverbs  as  nur  only,  vielleicht  perhaps,  besonders,  especially, 
dagegen,  hingegen  on  the  contrary,  selbst  even,  schon  even,  &c.,  modify,  not  the  predicate, 
but  only  the  subject,  or  some  part  of  it,  and  hence  can  stand  before  (and  also  after)  the  subject 
without  causing  inversion:  Vielleicht  der  zuverlässigste  Messer  der  steigenden  Kultur  ist  das 
Gefühl  der  Zusammengehörigkeit  der  Nation  (Mommsen's  Römische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  vii). 
Sometimes  inversion  takes  place  after  such  words,  but  then  with  a  different  meaning,  as  inversion 
is  a  sign  that  the  adverb  modifies  the  verb  and  not  the  subject:  Wenigstens  mein  Bruder  be- 
hauptet es  My  brother  AT  least  (I  do  not  know  whether  anybody  else  does)  asserts  it,  but  Wenig- 
stens behauptet  es  mein  Bruder  My  brother  asserts  it  at  least  (I  do  not  know  whether  his  state- 
ment is  true).  (5)  After  a  conditional  clause  the  following  principal  proposition  sometimes  as 
in  older  usage  remains  in  normal  order:  Gerhard  merkte  nicht,  wie  arg  er  seine  Frau  vernach- 
lässigte; hätte  er's  gemerkt,  er  würde  es  nicht  gemacht  haben  (Riehl's  Der  stumme  Ratsherr,  I). 
Kämest  du  (originally  Kämest  du!,  an  unreal  subjunction  of  wish),  ich  würde  mich  freuen  (Som- 
mer's  Vergleichende  Syntax,  p.  105).  The  subordinate  clause  here  was  originally  often  an  inde- 
pendent sentence,  either  an  independent  wish,  as  in  the  last  example,  or  an  independent  question, 
as  nicely  illustrated  by  the  example  from  Luther  given  in  237.  1.  A.  b.  Note  2,  hence  it  often  still 
does  not  influence  the  order  of  the  principal  proposition. 

Question  Order. 

287.  A.  In  this  order  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  stands  in  the  first  place, 
the  subject  usually  stands  in  the  second  place,  always  if  it  is  a  personal  pronoun, 
and  the  other  parts  are  arranged  in  general  as  in  normal  order:  Muß  ich  mich 
rechts  oder  links  wenden?  The  pronoun  must  be  repeated  with  each  verb: 
Gehst  du  oder  kommst  du?  Are  you  going  or  coming?  The  position  of  the 
personal  pronoun  used  as  subject  after  the  verb  has  become  functional  and  is 
not  at  all  regulated  by  emphasis.  The  personal  pronoun  must  stand  immediately 
after  the  verb  even  if  it  is  strongly  accented  and  should  come  to  stand  before  an 


596 USE   OF   QUESTION   WORD-ORDER 287.  A. 

unaccented  personal  pronoun,  altho  usually  the  accented  personal  pronoun 
follows  the  unaccented  one:  Muß  ich  ihm  helfen?  If  the  subject  is  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun  other  than  a  personal  pronoun  it  can  for  emphasis  be  placed  toward  the 
end  of  the  sentence:  Kennt  den  Mann  der  Väter  oder  die  Mütter?  Gibt's  der 
Vater  dem  Knaben?,  but  Gibt's  dem  Knaben  der  Väter  oder  die  Mütter?  Kann 
mich  das  ein  Mädchen  fragen?  Can  a  girl  ask  me  such  a  question  as  that? 
Wundert  dich  das?  As  in  these  sentences,  the  subject  is  quite  commonly  sep- 
arated from  the  verb  by  unaccented  pronouns,  providing  it  is  itself  not  an 
unaccented  personal  pronoun.  However,  if  the  pronominal  objects  are  to  be 
made  emphatic,  they  should  follow  the  subject:  Gehen  die  Streitigkeiten 
anderer  dich  an?  Notice  that  in  German  nicht  cannot  follow  immediately  the 
personal  part  of  the  verb  as  often  not  in  English:  Kommt  er  heute  nicht?  Isn't 
he  coming  to-day?  In  general  its  position  is  much  the  same  as  in  normal  order. 
See  285.  II.  B.  d.  dd.  If  an  infinitive  is  to  be  made  emphatic  it  cannot,  of  course, 
in  normal  or  question  order  stand  in  the  first  place.  If  it  depends  upon  a  par- 
ticiple it  can  be  emphasized  by  being  placed  after  the  participle:  Habt  ihr  von 
eurem  Tale  her  je  einen  Felsen  gesehen  sich  neigen?  (Sudermann's  Johannes, 
2,  1). 

Noie.  In  many  cases  in  colloquial  speech  the  word-order  is  only  seemingly  the  question  order  as  an  object  or 
adverb  must  be  supplied  in  thouRht  immediately  before  the  verb:  suppressed  object:  ,,Und  ich  wette,  Sie  haben 
wieder  einen  Eierkuchen  gebacken."  [Das]  „Hab'  ich  auch"  [getan]  (Fontane).  Suppressed  adverb:  Kurt 
(unter  erneuten  Küssen):  Nun?  Eva:  Ich  rufe!  Kurt:  Umso  besser!  [Dann]  Wissen's  alle  (delle  Grazie's 
Sphinx). 

B.  This  order  is  found:  (1)  In  all  independent  interrogative  sentences  which 
are  not  introduced  by  an  interrogative  pronoun,  adjective,  or  adverb:  Wollen 
Sie  wohl  dies  für  mich  tun?  Here  there  is  a  marked  rising  of  the  voice  toward 
the  end  of  the  sentence  as  in  English,  but  in  the  following  uses  the  voice  falls 
toward  the  end  of  the  sentence,  except,  however,  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  (2) 
and  (4).  In  the  conditional  and  concessive  clauses  there  mentioned  the  voice 
rises  slightly  toward  the  end  of  the  clause.  See  237.  1.  A.  b.  Note  2.  The 
question  form  is  often  used  to  express  a  wish:  Hilft  mir  einer  von  euch?  Often 
also  with  the  force  of  a  declarative  sentence  to  state  something  confidently: 
Hab'  ich  nicht  recht  gehabt?  Bin  ich  etwa  dein  Sklave?  For  the  use  of  the 
question  form  in  various  shades  of  imperative  meaning  see  177.  I.  B.  b.  c.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  ordinary  questions  we  often  instead  of  the  question  order 
employ  the  transposed  word-order,  in  which  case  the  sentence  is  introduced 
by  ob :  Ob  er  wohl  wiederkommen  wird?  When  for  some  reason  or  another  a 
question  is  repeated  the  transposed  word-order  is  the  rule.  See  284.  I.  3.  a 
(toward  end).  (2)  In  conditional  clauses  not  introduced  by  a  conjunction. 
For  examples  see  237.  1.  A.  b.  (3)  In  clauses  introduced  by  als  as  if.  See  237. 
1.  A.  c.  (4)  In  concessive  clauses  not  introduced  by  a  conjunction:  1st  es  gleich 
Nacht,  so  leuchtet  unser  Recht.  See  280.  b.  (1)  and  (3).  (5)  In  independent 
sentences  containing  the  volitive  subjunctive  and  the  sanguine  and  the  unreal 
subjunctive  of  wish.  See  168.  I.  I.  A,  B.  a,  and  169.  1.  A.  (6)  In  imperative 
sentences:  Lassen  Sie  diese  Schüssel  herumgehen.  (7)  The  question  order  is 
often  used  to  make  a  statement  in  a  stronger,  more  lively  manner,  especially 
when  accompanied  by  the  adverb  doch,  aber  or  ja  (for  historical  explanation 
see  251.  II.  B.  b):  Hab'  ich  den  Markt  und  die  Straßen  doch  nie  so  einsam 
gesehen!  |  Ist  doch  die  Stadt  wie  gekehrt!  (Goethe's  H.  und  D.,  I.  1-2).  Ist  das 
schon!  How  beautiful  that  is!  Weiß  ich  doch,  woran  ich  bin!  I  know  what  I 
am  about!  Ist  das  ein  Wetter!  Wird  der  Äugen  machen!  Wird's  der  Ulrich 
gut  kriegen!  Setzen  Sie  sich  hier  ins  Warme.  Müssen  Sie  frieren  in  dem 
kalten  Deutschland!  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  2,  8).  Diese  hatte  abermals 
eine  neue  Toilette  an.  Weiß  der  liebe  Himmel,  wo  die  alle  herkommen! 
(Ompteda's  Herseloide,  p.  58).  Hab'  ich  ihn  gestern  verhauen !  (K.  Brugmann's 
Der  Ursprung  des  Scheinsnbjekts  es,  p.  45)  I  teil  you  I  gave  him  a  good  thrashing 
yesterday!  Bist  du  aber  schmutzig!  (id.).  How  dirty  you  are!  War  der 
Mensch  zornig!  I  tell  you  the  fellow  was  mad!  Wußten  wir  es  ja  alle!  Why, 
we  all  knew  that!     Hat  das  aber  Mühe  gekostet!  I  teil  you  that  cost  a  good 


288.  A. TRANSPOSED   WORD-ORDER 597 

deal  of  trouble.  Compare  older  English:  Fab.:  Is't  so  saucy?  Sir  And.:  Ay, 
is't,  I  warrant  him:  do  but  read  (Shakespeare's  Twelfth  Night,  3,  4).  For  other 
German  examples  see  251,  II.  B.  b.  Such  sentences  often  contain  the  idea  of 
cause,  adding  an  explanation  or  the  self-evident  reason  for  the  preceding  state- 
ment :  Er  kann  es  nicht  bestreiten,  hatten  es  doch  alle  gesehen.  In  a  more  formal 
style  free  from  lively  feeling  the  causal  idea  is  here  usually  expressed  by  a  prin- 
cipal clause  with  normal  word-order  introduced  by  the  conjunction  denn. 
Similarly  instead  of  a  principal  proposition  introduced  by  the  illative  conjunc- 
tion da'rum  or  da'her  for  that  reason,  therefore  we  often  find  in  lively  language 
the  question  order :  Ich  bin  so  müde,  kann  ich  doch  nicht  mit  euch  spazieren  gehen ! 
(8)  In  poetry  and  colloquial  speech  the  question  order  is  frequently  found  in 
lively  narrative  style:  Sah  ein  Knab'  ein  Röslein  steh'n,  |  Röslein  auf  der  Hei- 
den, I  war  so  jung  und  morgenschön,  |  lief  er  schnell,  es  nah  zu  seh'n,  |  sah's 
mit  vielen  Freuden  (Goethe).  See  also  251.  II.  B.  b.  (9)  After  the  conjunction 
und  to  emphasize  the  verb  or  the  subject.  See  251.  II.  B.  b.  The  question  order 
after  und  is  sometimes  apparently  used  where  in  fact  the  order  is  the  inverted, 
as  an  adverb  or  an  object  which  has  been  previously  employed  is  understood. 
See  286.  B.  e. 

Transposed  Order. 

288.  A.  In  this  order  the  clause  is  introduced  by  a  subordinating  conjunction , 
or  a  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb,  and  ends  with  the  personal 
part  of  the  verb,  the  remaining  elements  having  about  the  same  arrangement  as 
in  normal  and  inverted  order:  Seine  Freunde  fürchteten,  daß  es  ihm  zu  schwer 
werden  würde.  As  in  the  preceding  sentence,  the  subject  usually  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  clause,  always  if  it  is  a  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun,  commonly 
so  also  in  case  of  man  or  a  personal  pronoun.  As  the  subordinate  clause  is 
usually  presented  dispassionately  as  a  compact  unit  it  does  not  in  a  marked  degree 
show  in  the  word-order  the  influence  of  logical  consideration  or  strong  emotion, 
but  it  nevertheless  often  contains  touches  of  logic  and  feeling  as  shown  by  the 
tendency  for  important  words  to  follow  unimportant  ones  and  for  emphatic 
words  to  stand  near  the  beginning  or  the  end  of  the  clause.  Where  the  subject 
is  a  noun  or  pronoun  other  than  those  just  mentioned  it  is  quite  commonly 
preceded  by  an  unaccented  pronominal  or  reflexive  object:  Er  sah  mich  ver- 
wundert an,  vielleicht,  weil  ihm  der  fremde  Akzent  aufgefallen  war.  Ich  liebte 
ihn  auch,  wie  ihn  alle  lieben.  The  unaccented  pronoun  has  been  firm  here  in 
the  initial  position  since  the  oldest  historic  period.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  verb  is  more  prominent  than  the  subject  there  is  a  tendency  to  remove  the 
reflexive  to  a  position  after  the  subject  and  nearer  the  verb  to  which  it  belongs: 
Daß  das  Pflänzchen  sich  äuswächst,  während  wir  leben,  das  dürfen  wir  nicht 
hoffen  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  p.  88).  Of  course,  the  reflexive  stands 
near  the  end  of  the  clause  immediately  before  the  verb  when  it  is  itself  emphatic: 
Sie  wußte  instinktiv,  daß  solch  ein  Herr  Sohn  und  Österreicher  oft  Ueber  sich 
selbst  gehört  als  einem  Berufe  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Haindlkinder,  p.  23). 
The  subject  may  also  be  preceded  by  adverbial  elements:  Wie  heutzutage  in 
unserer  und  durch  unsere  Weltüteratur  die  Gegensätze  der  zivihsierten  Na- 
tionen aufgehoben  sind,  so  hat  die  griechische  Dichtkunst  das  dürftige  und 
egoistische  Stammgefühl  zum  hellenischen  Volksbewußtsein  und  dieses  zum 
Humanismus  umgewandelt  (Mommsen's  Römische  Geschichte,  I,  chap.  xv). 
Sometimes  a  subject  noun  for  especial  emphasis  stands  after  an  object  noun: 
In  Deutschland,  wo  den  Frieden  die  Armee  beschützt,  wird  der  Plan  der  Ab- 
rüstung schwerUch  allzuviel  Anklang  finden  (Georg  Edward  in  1906).  Altho 
adverbial  elements  or  an  object  may  thus  introduce  the  subordinate  clause,  as 
they  lie  nearer  in  thought  or  give  a  general  idea  of  the  situation  preparing  the 
mind  for  what  follows,  or  in  order  that  the  subject  may  for  a  tinie  be  suspended 
and  thus  become  conspicuous,  they  only  occasionally  take  this  position  that 
they  themselves  may  be  rendered  emphatic,  as  in  the  following  sentence:  Der 
Wert  seiner  PubUkation  beruht  allein  auf  den  drei  Schriftstücken,  von  denen 


598 USE   OF   TRANSPOSED   WORD-ORDER 288.  A. 

das  mittlere  wir  nur  durch  ihn  kennen  (Reinhold  Steig  in  Euphorion,  vol.  XII, 
p,  247).  The  predicate  noun,  adjective,  infinitive,  or  perfect  participle,  however, 
cannot,  as  in  the  inverted  order,  for  special  emphasis  be  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  clause,  nor  can  they  take  the  emphatic  position  at  the  end.  The  infinitive 
and  participle  stand  next  to  the  end  before  the  personal  part  of  the  verb,  the 
predicate  adjective  or  noun  stand  before  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  in  case 
of  a  simple  tense,  and  before  the  different  parts  of  the  verb  in  case  of  a  compound 
tense.  In  case  of  an  infinitive,  however,  dependent  upon  a  modal  auxiliary 
which  has  been  attracted  into  the  form  of  an  infinitive,  the  real  infinitive  can  for 
emphasis,  as  in  the  principal  proposition,  stand  near  the  beginning  of  the  clause: 
Nicht  weil  sie  ihn  schützen  hätten  können,  o  nein!  (R.  H.  Bartsch's  Die  Haindl- 
kinder, p.  209).  Man  sagt,  daß  Österreich  „zerfiel."  Nein:  es  war  gar 
nichts  mehr  da,  das  erst  noch  „zerfallen"  hätte  können  (Hermann  Bahr  in 
Preußische  Jahrbücher,  1921,  p.  1).  On  the  other  hand,  the  modifiers  of  the  verb 
have  toward  the  end  of  the  clause  the  same  freedom  of  position  as  in  the  prin- 
cipal proposition:  Er  wartete,  bis  er  zu  Hause  den  Sohn  traf,  or  bis  er  den 
Sohn  zu  Hause  traf,  according  to  the  accent. 

a.  Note  especially  that  a  clause  or  infinitive  phrase  which  is  dependent 
upon  another  dependent  clause  is  more  likely  to  follow  the  pronominal  subject 
of  the  governing  dependent  clause  than  to  precede  it  as  in  English :  Er  behauptete, 
daß  er,  anstatt  die  Versammlung  aufzulösen,  einen  Antrag  machen  wolle  He 
stated  that  instead  of  dissolving  the  assembly  he  would  make  a  proposal.  Wenn 
er,  nachdem  man  seine  Aussage  bezweifelte,  wieder  fragen  sollte  usw.  If, 
upon  their  doubting  his  statement,  he  asked  again,  &c. 

B.  This  order  is  used: 

a.  In  subordinate  clauses.  There  are,  however,  exceptions,  which  are 
stated  in  237.  I.  A,  B,  C,  D;   269.  4;   271.  II.  8. 

h.  In  lively  questions  and  exclamations  which  are  introduced  by  a  subordi- 
nate conjunction:  [Ich  wundere  mich]  Daß  er  immer  noch  nicht  kommt! 
[ich  wünschte]  Daß  er  doch  bald  käme!  Wenn  er  nur  bald  käme!  [wäre  es 
gut,  or  würde  ich  mich  freuen].  Wenn  ich  es  nur  gewußt  hätte!  [wäre  ich  ge- 
kommen]. „Kennen  Sie  diesen  Menschen?"  [Sie  fragen  mich]  „Ob  ich  ihn 
kenne!"  (spoken  in  tone  of  surprise),  [ich  möchte  es  gern  wissen]  Ob's  jedem 
Mädchen  so  ist,  das  eine  Braut  werden  soll,  wie  mir?  After  the  analogy  of 
such  examples  sentences  introduced  by  an  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb 
sometimes  have  the  transposed  word-order  instead  of  the  inverted:  Was  der 
Junge  doch  fährt!  (Goethe's  H.  und  D.).  Wo  er  wohl  jetzt  ist?  Compare 
286.  A.  a. 

c.  In  poetry  frequently  also  in  principal  propositions,  for  sake  of  rime  or 
meter,  as  a  survival  of  the  older  normal  order  (see  284.  I.  3.  a):  Der  alte 
Schmied  den  Bart  sich  streicht:  (  „Das  Schwert  ist  nicht  zu  schwer  noch  leicht" 
(Uhland's  Das  Schwert).     Also  in  old  saws:   Willenskraft  Wege  schafft. 

d.  In  early  N.H.G.,  when  je  and  danach  introduce  both  the  principal  propo- 
sition and  the  subordinate  clause,  the  principal  proposition  sometimes  has 
transposed  order  for  the  sake  of  a  parallelism  between  the  two  propositions, 
and  this  older  usage  survives  in  poetry  and  proverbs:  Je  mehr  er  aber  verbot, 
je  mehr  sie  es  ausbreiteten  (Mark  vii.  36).  Danach  einer  tut,  danach  es  ihm 
geht  (prov.).  Je — ^  je  is  now  largely  replaced  by  je  (with  transposed  order) 
—  desto  or  um  so  (with  inverted  order) :  Je  mehr  der  Vorrat  schmolz,  desto 
(or  um  so)  schrecklicher  wuchs  der  Hunger.  Transposed  order  in  both  propo- 
sitions for  the  sake  of  the  parallelism  is  now  quite  rare:  Desto  zahlreicher  so 
eine  Grablegung  gehandhabt  wird,  je  umfängücher  die  Offertorien  fheßen 
(Hauptmann's  Die  Weber,  3,  p.  50). 

C.  For  the  position  of  an  auxiliary  which  is  common  to  two  or  more  sub- 
ordinate clauses  see  237.  1.  E. 


INDEX    OF    GERMAN  WORDS,   SUFFIXES,   SOUNDS,  &C. 

The  figures  in  this  index  refer  to  pages,  those  employed  in  the  body  of  the  Grammar,  however, 
refer  to  articles.  The  abbreviations  here  used  are:  pron.  for  pronunciation;  orthog.  for  ortho- 
graphy; decl.  for  declension;  compar.  for  comparison;  grad.  for  gradation,  i.e.  the  principal 
parts  of  a  strong  or  irregular  verb;  syn.  for  syntax,  i.e.  influence  upon  the  syntactical  structure 
of  the  sentence,  government  of  case,  &c.  Other  contractions  are  given  in  alphabetical  order  in  the 
two  indexes  below. 


ä,  pron.,  22. 
ä,  pron.,  21. 
-a,  suffix,  415  {Note),  416  (18. 

ä,  pron.,  21. 

a,  pron.,  20;  as  mutation  of  aa, 
14  (2.  A.  b). 

aa,  pron.,  21;  mutation  of,  14 
(2.  A.  b). 

Aal,  decl.,  74. 
Aar,  decl.,  74. 
Aas,  decl.,  85. 

ab,  pron.,  15,  22;  sep.  prefix, 
326,  343  (G.  a);  meaning 
compared  with  that  of  aus 
and  ent-,  343  (G.  b,  c);  with 
perfective  force,  343  (G.  d); 
syn.,  497;  substantival  pre- 
fix, 431;  prep.,  365. 

abdanken,  syn.,  495  {a). 

Abend,  decl.,  76. 

aber,  conj.,  387;  compared 
with  allein  and  sondern,  388; 
—  nein,  400;  substantival 
prefix,  431. 

abgehen,  syn.,  509. 

abgerechnet,  prep.,  359;  abso- 
lute participle,  552  (a). 

abgesehen  davon,  co-ord.  conj ., 
389;  —  daß,  sub.  conj.,  395 
(C.  Ö),  397  (F);  absolute 
part.,  552  (a). 

abgestorben,  syn.,  521. 

abgewöhnen,  syn.,  526,  528. 

abhängen,  syn.,  518. 

abhängig,  syn.,  521. 

abhärmen,  syn.,  542. 

abhärten,  syn.,  542. 

abhören,  syn.,  535. 

abkommen,  syn.,  509. 

Ablaß,  decl.,  75. 

ablegen,  syn.,  542. 

ablohnen,  ablöhnen,  505  (23). 

abnehmen,  syn.,  518,  542. 

abonieren,  syn.,  518. 

abreisen,  syn.,  518. 

abrichten,  syn.,  542. 

absagen,  syn.,  498  (c). 

Abscheu,  gender,  126. 

abschläglich,  prep.,  359. 

abschreiben,  syn.,  498  (o). 

abschwören,  syn.,  498  (B). 

absehen,  syn.,  542. 

abseit,  abseiten,  abseitig,  ab- 
seits, prep.,  359. 

abstechen,  syn.,  518. 

abstehen,  syn.,  510. 


Abt,  decl.,  82. 

abtrünnig,  syn.,  500  (a). 

abtun,  syn.,  528. 

abwarten,  syn.,  510. 

abwärts,  prep.,  359. 

abzielen,  syn.,  518. 

abzüglich,  prep.,  359. 

ach,  pron.,  22,  29. 

-a(ch),  sufiix,  416. 

achten,  syn.,  510,  518,  540. 

achtgeben,  syn.,  518. 

achthaben,  syn.,  510. 

achtlos,  syn.,  515,  521. 

achtsam,  syn.,  521. 

Acker,  decl.,  84,  94. 

Addition,  pron.,  19. 

Adelheid,  decl.,  106. 

Aderlaß,  decl.,  75. 

adhärieren,  syn.,  498  (&). 

adieu,  pron.,  20. 

Adler,  pron.,  21. 

Admiral,  decl.,  79,  84. 

adressieren,  syn.,  542. 

ae,  pron.,  22. 

Aeronaut,  pron.,  7. 

after-,  prefix,  432. 

afterreden,  syn.,  518. 

-age,  416. 

aggregieren,  syn.,  498  {h). 

Agnes,  pron.,  34. 

Ägypten,  pron.,  19. 

ah,  pron.,  21. 

Ahn,  decl.,  87. 

ahn (d) en,  syn.,  496  {d). 

ähneln,  syn.,  496,  {d). 

ahnen,  syn.,  496  {d). 

ähnlich,  syn.,  500  (o). 

ahnungslos,  syn.,  515. 

ahoi,  pron.,  24. 

Ahom,  pron.,  26;  decl.,  76. 

ai,  pron.,  23. 

ain,  pron.  in  French  words,  7, 

24. 
Akazie,  pron.,  18. 
akklamieren,  syn.,  498  {b). 
Akt,  decl.,  74,  94. 
alaunen,  257. 
Alfanz,  decl.,  76. 
Alibi,  pron.,  16. 
-alien,  416. 
Alk,  decl.,  74. 

Alkohol,  pron.,  26;  decl.,  76. 
all,  decl.,  173. 
alldieweil,  conj.,  396  (E). 
allein,    conj.,    387;    compared 

with  aber  and  sondern,  388. 
allenthalben,  345  (c). 

599 


allerdings,  453  (a). 
allerhand,  169,  209. 
allerlei,  169. 
allotria,  pron.,  19. 
Alp,  decl.,  74. 

als,  explanatory  conj.,  389; 
sub.  conj.,  392  (c),  394  (B), 

395  (c),  396  (D.  1.  A.  o,  c, 

B.  E),  397-8;  with  predicate 
nom.  or  ace,  464  {b  (1)), 
467  (c),  538,  539  {b);  differ- 
ence of  meaning  here  be- 
tween als  and  wie,  398  (4); 
difi"erence  between  als  and 
für,  539  (c),  540  {Note  1); 
als  omitted  after  so,  398 
(1.  r) ;  with  following  relative 
pronoun  or  adverb,  206  (3); 
used  as  a  relative,  202   (B, 

C.  a),  203  (D.  (1)),  204  (8); 
=  immerfort,  eben,  gerade, 
174  {Note  7);  =  also,  so 
347  (III);— daß,  sub.  conj., 

396  (D.  1.  B,  2);  —  wenn, 
395-6  (C.  a,  D.  1.  B),  227 
{b),  236  {b);  —  ob,  394  (1 
</),  395  (C.  a),  227  {b),  236 
ib). 

also,  explanatory  conj.,  389; 
co-ordinat.  conj.  with  a  dou- 
ble construction,  391;  =  so, 
347  (III);  —  doch,  400. 

alt,  comp.,  142. 

Altar,  decl.,  84  (4) ;  gender,  124. 

Alwin,  pron.,  18. 

am,  pron.  in  French  words,  8, 
24. 

Amarant,  decl.,  88  (c). 

Amboß,  decl.,  76. 

Amsterdam,  pron.,  22. 

Amt,  decl.,  S5. 

an,  pron.,  15,  22;  sep.  prefix, 
326,  342  (E.  a,  b)\  meaning 
compared  with  that  of  heran, 
342  (E.  a);  syn.  497  (B); 
prep.,  379. 

an,  pron.  in  French  words,  8, 
24. 

Analyse,  pron.,  18. 

Ananas,  decl.,  76. 

Anbetracht;  in  —  daß,  396  (E). 

anbetreffs,  in  Anbetreff,  359. 

ander,  169  (c). 

anders,  189  {b.  Note  1),  192 
(D). 

andrängen,  syn.,  542. 

-aner,  407  {Note  1). 


600 


INDEX   OF   GERMAX   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


anerkennen,   sep.   and   insep., 

327  (c);syn.,  539  (b). 
anerwogen,  conj.,  396  (E). 
anfahren,  h.  or  s.,  288. 
anfangen,  s.,  292-3  (E.  u). 
anfangs,  prep.,  359. 
anfliegen,  syn.,  526  (b). 
anführen,  syn.,  539  (b). 
angeekelt,  syn.,  521. 
angehen,  h    or  s.,  2SS;   svn., 

503. 
Angel,  gender,  124. 
Angeln,  decl.,  88. 
angenehm,  syn.,  500  (<;). 
angesichts,  prep.,  359. 
angesteckt,  syn.,  521. 
angewiesen,  syn.,  521. 
Anglia,  pron.,  19. 
angrenzen,  syn.,  518. 
Angst,  decl.,  83. 
angst,  syn.,  336   {b),  499   (Ci. 
ängstlich,  syn.,  521. 
anhalten,  syn.,  518. 
anheften,  syn.,  542. 
anheimfallen,  syn.,  499  ((). 
anklagen,  syn.,  526,  542. 
anklammern,  syn.,  542. 
anklopfen,  syn.,  518. 
anknüpfen,  syn.,  518. 
ankommen,  s.,  288;  syn.,  503. 
Anlaß,  decl.,  76. 
anläßlich,  prep.,  359. 
anlaufen,  h.  or  s.,  288. 
anüegen,  syn.,  .503. 
anmaßen,  syn.,  528. 
Anmut,  gender,  125. 
anmuten,  syn.,  526. 
Annalen,  decl.,  88. 
aimehmen,  syn.,  528. 
anschuldigen,  526. 
ansichtig,  syn.,  515. 
anspielen,  syn.,  518. 
anstatt,  prep.,  359;  conj.,  355 

(2.  a.  b),  387;  —  daß,  395 

(C.  d). 
anstehen,  syn.,  496  (f). 
anstellen,  syn.,  542. 
anstoßend,  syn.,  521. 
anstößig,  syn.   521. 
ant-,  432. 
-ant,  416. 
anti-,  434  (11). 
Antichrist,  decl.,  94. 
Antlitz,  decl.,  78. 
Antrag,  decl.,  83. 
antreffen,  with  infin.  witli  zu, 

272. 
Antwort,  gender,  126  (c). 
antworten,   syn.,    495    (Note), 

497  (e). 
antwortlich,  prep.,  3.'9. 
anvertrauen,   sep.  and   inscp., 

327.  (c). 
Anwalt,  decl.,  83. 
anwandeln,  h.  or  s.,  288;  syn., 

503. 
anweisen,  syn.,  536  (d). 
anwendbar,  syn.,  521. 
anwenden,  syn.,  542. 
Apercu,  pron.,  19. 
Apfel,  decl.,  84. 
apponieren,  syn.,  498  (b). 


April,  pron.,  14,  19. 

Ar,  decl.,  77. 

arg,  compar.,  142;  =  sehr,  347. 

ärgerlich,  syn.,  521. 

ärgern,  syn.,  528,  542. 

Ärgernis,  gender,  94. 

argwöhnisch,  syn.,  521. 

Arm,  decl.,  74. 

arm,  compar.,  142;  syn.,  521. 

Armbrust,  decl.,  83. 

Arpeggio,  pron.,  33. 

Arsenik,  gender,  124. 

arten,  h.  or  s.,  290. 

-artig,  417. 

Artillerie,  pron.,  18. 

Arzt,  pron.,  21;  decl.,  S2. 

As,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  77. 

Äschylus,  pron.,  21. 

Aspekt,  decl.,  92. 

assentieren,  498  {b). 

assistieren,  498  (ö). 

Ast,  decl.,  82. 

Asyl,  pron.,  19. 

aszetisch,  orthog.,  30. 

-at,  pron.  16;  foreign  suffix,  416. 

Atheist,  pron.,  8. 

Athene,  pron.,  16. 

Atlas,  decl.,  76,  92. 

ätsch,  inter j.,  400. 

attachieren,  syn.,  498  (b). 

attribuieren,  syn.,  498  {b). 

au,  pron.,  23. 

äu,  pron.,  23-24. 

auch,  meaning,  389;  —  wenn, 

conj.,    397    (G);    wenn    — , 

conj.,  397  (G). 
auf,  sep.  prefix,  326,  342   (E. 

c);syn.,  497  (B);  prep.,  3S0; 

—  daß,  conj.,  397  (H). 
aufbieten,  syn.,  497  (e). 
auffahren,  syn.,  518. 
aufgeblasen,  syn.,  521. 
aufgebracht,  syn.,  521. 
aufgelegt,  syn.,  521. 
aufgeregt,  syn.,  521. 
aufhören,  syn.,  510,  518. 
aufkommen,  syn.,  510. 
aufmerken,  syn.,  518. 
aufmerksam,  syn.,  521. 
Aufruhr,  decl.,  76. 
aufschrecken,  345  (11). 
auftauchen,  syn.,  518. 
auf  und  ab,  prep.,  374. 
aufwärts,  prep.,  359. 
aufwenden,  syn.,  542. 
auf  werfen,  syn.,  540  (d). 
aufziehen,  syn.,  542. 
Auge,  decl.,  90. 
Augenmerk,  dec!.,  78. 
Augur,  decl.,  92. 
aus,  sep.  prefix,  326;  meaning, 

compared   with   that   of   ab 

and  ent-,  343   {G.  c);    with 

perfective  force,  343  (G.  d); 

syn.,  497  (B);  prep.,  3()6. 
ausbieten,  syn.,  503. 
ausdehnen,  syn.,  542. 
Ausflucht,  decl.,  83. 
ausgangs,  prep.,  359. 
ausgeben,  syn.,  542. 
ausgedörrt,  syn.,  521. 
ausgenommen,  conj.,  3S7. 


ausgezeichnet,  syn.,  521. 
ausgießen,  syn.,  542. 
ausgleiten,  grad.,  303. 
ausrufen,  syn.,  540  (d). 
ausschelten,  syn.,  542. 
ausschließlich,  prep.,  359. 
aussehen,  syn.,  518. 
aussprechen,  syn.,  542. 
außer,    prep.,   382;   conj.,   355 

(2.  a,  h),  387;  —  daß,  conj., 

397  (F);  —wenn,  397  (F). 
außerdem,  conj.,  389;  —  daß, 

conj.,  395  (C.  b.) 
außerhalb,  prep.,  359. 
austauschen,  s>'n.,  542. 
austeilen,  syn.,  542. 
auswachsen,  syn.,  465  ((3)V 
ausweislich,  prep.,  360. 
Autochthon,  decl.,  79. 
Autograph,  decl.,  92. 
Automat,  decl.,  88. 
avisieren,  svn.,  498  (&). 
Axt,  decl.,  83. 
ay,  pron.,  23. 
b,  pron.,  26,  27. 
Baal,  pron.,  21. 
Bach,  decl-,  82. 
bachen,  grad.,  312. 
backen,  grad.,  312. 
Bad,  decl.,  85. 
Bakkalaureus,  pron.,  24. 
bald  —bald,  conj.,  390. 
Balduin,  pron.,  IS. 
Balg,  decl.,  82,  94. 
balgen,  syn.,  542. 
Balkon,  pron.,  24. 
Ball,  decl.,  82,  94. 
Ballon,  pron.,  24. 
Balsam,  pron.,  22;  dec!.,  76. 
Bamberg,  pron.,  22. 
Bambus,  decl.,  91. 
Ban,  decl.,  74. 
Band,  decl.,  82.  94. 
Bandit,  decl.,  78  (a). 
bange,     compar.,     142;     syn., 

336  (b),  499  (C),  521. 
bangen,  syn.,  336  (b). 
Bank,  decl.,  83. 
bankerott,  syn.,  521. 
Bankert,  decl.,  76. 
Bankier,  pron.,  20. 
bannen,  grad.,  314. 
bar,  syn.,  515. 
-bar,  pron.,  16;  meaning,  417; 

syn.,  501  (a). 
Bär,  decl.,  87. 
Barbar,  decl.,  79. 
Barchent,  decl.,  76. 
barmherzig,  syn.,  521. 
Barsch,  pron.,  21;  decl.,  74. 
barsch,  pron.,  22. 
Bart,  pron.,  21;  decl.,  82 
Barte,  pi.,  pron.,  21. 
Bas,  decl.,  74. 
Basis,  decl.,  87. 
Baß,  decl.,  82. 
Bassin,  pron.,  24;  decl.,  93. 
Bast,  decl.,  74. 
Bastard,  decl.,  76. 
Bataillon,  pron.,  24,  35;  decl.. 

93. 
Bau,  decl.,  74. 


INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C.       601 


Bauch,  decl.,  82. 

bauen,  grad.,  314;    syn.,  518. 

Bauer,  decl.,  87;    gender,  95, 

124. 
Baum,  decl.,  82. 
bauz,  inter j.,  400. 
Bayer,  decl.,  87. 
Bazar  (now  Basar),  pron.,  32. 
be-,  pron.,  16  (c);  insep.  prefix, 

327;  meaning,  434-5. 
beachten,  syn.,  510. 
beargwöhnen,  syn.,  526. 
beben,  syn.,  .501,  518. 
bedacht,  syn.,  521. 
bedanken,  syn.,  529. 
bedenken,  syn.,  529. 
bedeuten,  syn.,  .503. 
bedienen,  syn.,  529. 
bedmgen,  grad.,  308. 
bedrängt,  521. 
bedünkeln,  syn.,  504. 
bedünken,  syn.,  .504. 
bedürfen,  syn.,  510. 
bedürftig,  syn.,  515. 
Beelzebub,  pron.,  23. 
Beet,  decl.,  77,  95. 
befähigen,  syn.,  542. 
Befehl,  decl.,  75. 
befehlen,  grad.,  310;  syn.,  503. 
befehligen,  syn.,  503. 
befestigen,  syn.,  542. 
befestigt,  syn.,  521. 
befleißen,  grad.,  303;  syn.,  529. 
beflissen,  syn.,  515. 
befolgen,  syn.,  495  (Note). 
befragen,  syn.,  535  (b),  542. 
befreien,  syn.,  526,  529. 
befriedigend,  syn.,  521. 
befriedigt,  syn.,  521. 
Befugnis,  gender,  124. 
befürchten,  decl.,  529. 
begeben,  syn.,  529. 
begegnen,  h.  or  s.,  292;   syn., 

496  (d),  542. 
Begehr,  decl.,  75. 
begehren,  syn.,  510. 
begierig,  syn.,  515,  521. 
beginnen,  grad.,  309;  syn.,  518. 
beglückwünschen,  syn.,  542. 
begreifen,  rellex.,  331  (A). 
begrüßen,  syn.,  539  (b),  542. 
behagen,  syn.,  494  (a). 
beharren,h.ors.,  2S9;syn.,51S. 
behelfen,  syn.,  529. 
beholfen,  syn.,  515. 
Behörde,  pron.,  20. 
Behuf,  decl.,  75. 
behufs,  prep.,  .360. 
bei,  sep.  prefix,  326;  syn.,  497 

_(B);  prep.,  366. 
beiderseits,  prep.,  360. 
beides,  conj.,  387. 
Beil,  decl.,  77. 
Bein,  decl.,  77. 
beisammen,  343  (H). 
Beispiel;  zum  — ,  389  (C). 
beißen,  grad.,  303. 
Beitrag,  decl.,  83. 
beizen,  factitive  of  beißen,  3!)3. 
bekannt,  syn.,  522. 
bekehrt,  336  (b). 
beklagen,  syn.,  526,  529,  542. 


bekleiben,  grad.,  304. 
bekleiden,  syn.,  542. 
beklommen,  305. 
bekommen,  use  in  passive  con- 
struction,   297;    with    infin. 

with  zu,  272;  h.  or  s.,  292; 

syn.,  495  (b). 
bekömmlich,  syn.,  500  (a). 
bekümmern,  syn.,  .531,  543. 
bekümmert,  syn.,  522. 
Belag,  decl.,  83. 
Belang,  decl.,  75. 
belästigen,  syn.,  543. 
belaufen,  syn.,  543. 
belehren,  syn.,  520. 
beleidigt,  syn.,  522. 
belieben,   syn.,   336    {b),   494, 

497  (g),  .504. 
beliebt,  syn.,  522. 
bellen,  grad.,  314;  syn.,  518. 
belustigen,  syn.,  54.3. 
belustigt,  syn.,  522. 
bemächtigen,  syn.,  529. 
bemeistem,  syn.,  529. 
bemerken,  with  simple  infin., 

277;  syn.,  541. 
bemerkenswert,  syn.,  522. 
bemühen,  syn.,  543. 
benachbart,  syn.,  500  (a). 
benebst,  prep.,  .367. 
benehmen,  syn.,  526. 
beneiden,  syn.,  543. 
benennen,  syn.,  543. 
benötigen,  syn.,  510. 
benötigt,  syn.,  515. 
beobachten,  pron.,  27  (b),  43. 
beordern,  syn.,  543. 
beraten,  syn.,  543. 
berauben,  syn.,  527. 
beraubt,  syn.,  515. 
berauscht,  syn.,  522. 
berechnet,  syn.,  522. 
berechtigen,  syn.,  527. 
berechtigt,  syn.,  .515. 
bereden,  syn.,  537. 
Bereich,  gender,  124. 
bereit,  syn.,  515,  522. 
bergen,  grad.,  310. 
Bericht,  decl.,  75. 
berichten,  syn.,  538. 
berichtet,  syn.,  515. 
bersten,  grad.,  309;  conjugated 

with  sein,  290. 
berufen,  syn.,  543. 
beruhen,  h.  or  s.,  289. 
berühmen,  syn.,  529. 
berühmt,  syn.,  522. 
besage,  prep.,  360. 
beschäftigt,  syn.,  522. 
beschämt,  syn.,  522. 
Bescheid,  decl.,  75. 
bescheiden,  syn.,  497  (g),  527, 

529. 
bescheiden,  adj.  part.,  grad., 

314. 
bescheren,  grad.,  307,  495  (b). 
beschirmen,  syn.,  543. 
beschränken,  syn.,  543. 
beschuldigen,  syn.,  527. 
beschützen,  syn.,  543. 
beschwatzen,  syn.,  543. 
Beschwerde,  pron.,  20. 


beschweren,  syn.,  529. 
beschwingen,  grad.,  308. 
beschwören,  syn.,  535  (a). 
besingen,  syn.,  539  (b). 
besinnen,  syn.,  529. 
besonders,  conj.,  .390. 
besorgen,  syn.,  529. 
besorgt,  syn.,  522. 
besprechen,  syn.,  543. 
bessern,  syn.,  529. 
Bestand,  decl.,  83. 
bestanden,  syn.,  522. 
Besteck,  syn.,  78. 
bestehen,  h.  and  s.,  289;  syn., 

518. 
bestimmt,  syn.,  522. 
bestreben,  syn.,  529. 
bestürzt,  syn.,  522. 
Besuch,  decl.,  75. 
betäubt,  syn.,  522. 
beteiligt,  syn.,  522. 
beten,  syn.,  497  (c). 
betören,  syn.,  543. 
betört,  syn.,  522. 
betrachten,  syn.,  539  (b). 
Betrag,  decl.,  83. 
betreffs,  in  Betreff,  359. 
betroffen,  syn.,  522. 
betrüben,  syn.,  543. 
betrügen,  syn.,  527. 
Bett,  decl.,  77,  90,  95. 
betten,  syn.,  497  (g),  504. 
beugen,  syn.,    496  (d),  543. 
beunruhigt,  syn.,  522. 
bevor,   sep.   prefix,  326;  syn., 

497  (B);  conj.,  394  (B). 
bewahren,  syn.,  543. 
bewegen,  grad.,  307. 
Beweis,  decl.,  75. 
bewerben,  decl.,  543. 
bewundern,  syn.,  543. 
bewußt,  syn.,  515. 
bezahlen,  syn.,  504. 
bezaubert,  syn.,  522. 
bezeichnen,  syn.,  543. 
bezichtigen,  syn.,  527. 
beziehen,  syn.,  543. 
beziehentlich,  387  (A). 
beziehungsweise,  .387  (A), 
bezüglich,  prep.,  360. 
Biber,  pron.,  IS. 
Bibliographie,  pron.,  42. 
biegen,  grad.,  306. 
Bier,  decl.,  77. 
Biest,  decl.,  85. 
bieten,  grad.,  306. 
Bild,  decl.,  85. 
bilden,  syn.,  543. 
Billet,  pron.,  21,  35. 
bin,  pron.,  15. 
binden,  grad.,  308;  syn. 
binnen,  prep.,  360,  .367. 
bis,     pron.,  15;      prep., 

conj.,     394     (B),     395 

—  daß,  394  (B). 
Bischof,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  ! 
Bischöfe,  pi.,  pron.,  20. 
Biskuit,  pron.,  35  (7). 
bist,  pron.,  15  (&). 
bisweilen,  346  (2.  b). 
bitten,  grad.,   312;   syn., 

527,  535,  543. 


543. 
374; 


319; 


602       INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


Blaff,  decl.,  74. 

blank,  compar.,  142. 

blasen,  grad.,  313;  with  infin., 

276. 
blaß,  compar.,  142;  syn.,  522. 
Blatt,  decl.,  85. 
Blei,  dec!.,  77. 
bleiben,   grad.,    304;   s.,   289; 

with     modal     verbal,     260; 

with     simple     infin.,      275; 

syn.,  496  (c). 
bleichen,  grad.,  303;  h.  or  s., 

290. 
Bleß,  decl.,  87. 
blicken,  syn.,  519. 
blind,  syn.,  522. 
blinken,  syn.,  497  (e). 
blinzeln,  syn.,  490  {e).  497  (e). 
Block,  decl.,  82. 
bloß,  adj.,  syn.,  515. 
bloß,  adv.,  348;  conj.,  391. 
Blücher,  pron.,  19. 
blutig,  syn.,  522. 
Bock,  decl.,  82. 
Böcklin,  pron.,  18,  46. 
Boden,  decl.,  84. 
Bogen,  decl.,  84. 
Boi,  pron.,  24. 
Boitzenburg,  pron.,  24. 
Bold,  decl.,  74. 
-bold,  415. 
Boot,  decl.,  77,  84. 
Böotien,  pron.,  20. 
Bord,  decl,  77. 
Börde,  pron.,  20. 
Bom,  decl.,  74. 
Börse,  pron.,  20. 
Borst,  decl.,  74. 
Böschung,  pron.,  20. 
böse,  syn.,  500  (a),  522. 
Bösewicht,  decl.,  86. 
Boudoir,  pron.,  21,  22. 
Bouillon,  pron.,  35. 
Bouquet,  pron.,  36. 
Bouteille,  pron.,  33. 
Bowie,  pron.,  22. 
Brache,  pron.,  21. 
Brand,  decl.,  82. 
braten,  grad.,  313. 
Bratsche,  pron.,  21. 
Bräu,  decl.,  77. 
Brauch,  decl.,  82. 
brauchen,  syn.,  510,  543. 
brauen,  grad.,  314. 
Braut,  decl.,  83. 
Bräutigam,  decl.,  76. 
brechen,  pron.,  17;  grad.,  310; 

past    indie,    brach,    pron., 

21;  past  subj.  bräche,  pron., 

21;   s.,  290;  Bahn  — ,  syn., 

499  (C). 
Bredow,  pron.,  22. 
Breisgau,  gender,  124. 
brennen,  grad.,  315;  syn.,  519. 
Breslau,  pron.,  20. 
Brett,  decl.,  85. 
Brezel,  pron.,  20. 
bringen,    grad.,    316;    use    in 

passive    construction,    297; 

syn.,  509,  543. 
brinnen,  grad.,  314. 
Brombeere,  pron.,  22. 


Bronze,  pron.,  30. 
Brot,  decl.,  77,  84. 
Bruch,    pron.,    23;     decl.,    82; 

gender,  124. 
Bruder,  decl.,  84. 
Brunst,  decl.,  83. 
Brust,  decl.,  83. 
Brutus,  decl.,  91. 
Buch,  pron.,  23;  decl.,  85;  pi., 

Bücher,  pron.,  19. 
Buche,  pron.,  23. 
Buchs,  decl.,  74. 
Buchstabe,  decl.,  81,  87. 
Buckel,  gender  and   meaning, 

95. 
bücken,  syn.,  543. 
Budget,  pron.,  20. 
Bug,  decl.,  82. 
bugsieren,  pron.,  23. 
Bulgar,  decl.,  88. 
Bums,  decl.,  74. 
Bund,  decl.,  77,  82;  gender,  95. 
Bündel,  gender,  124. 
Bur,  decl.,  90. 
Bureau,  pron.,  19. 
bürgen,  syn.,  497  (e),  546. 
Bursch,  decl.,  87. 
Busch,  decl.,  82. 
Büschel,  gender,  124. 
Bussard,  decl.,  76. 
Butt,  decl.,  90. 

c,  pron.,  8. 
S,  pron.,  8. 

Campagna,  pron.,  34  (c). 
Canaille,  pron.,  35. 
Cäsar,  pron.,  35;  decl.,  92. 
Cello,  pron.,  31. 

ch,  pron.,  8,  29  (3.  a,  b). 

Chamäleon,  decl.,  92. 

Champagner,  pron.,  35. 

Champagnern,  257  (3). 

Chance,  pron.,  24. 

Charakter,  pron.,  29;  decl.,  79 
ic). 

chartern,  pron.,  29. 

Chef,  pron.,  21. 

Chemie,  pron.,  29. 

-chen,  substantival  suffix,  409; 
verbal  suffix,  428. 

Cholera,  pron.,  16,  29. 

Chor,  pron.,  29;  decl.,  83;  gen- 
der, 95. 

Choral,  decl.,  84. 

Chrie,  pron.,  29. 

Christ,  pron.,  29;  dec!.,  87,  95. 

Cicero,  decl.,  106  {b). 

Cicerone,  pron.,  31. 

-cken,  verbal  suffix,  428. 

Clan,  decl.,  74. 

Claque,  pron.,  22. 

Clique,  pron.,  19. 

Coeur,  pron.,  20. 

Cortez,  pron.,  30. 

Czeche,  pron.  and  orthog.,  31. 

d,  pron.,  8,  26,  27. 

da,  adverb,  342;  =  rel.  pro- 
noun, 202;  conj.  with  a 
double  construction,  399; 
sub.  conj.  of  place,  394  (3. 
A);  sub.  conj.  of  time,  394 
(B),  395  (c);  with  adversa- 
tive  force,   394    (B.   a);   of 


cause,  396  (E) ;  of  condition, 
397  (F);  of  concession,  397 
(G);  da  -+-  prep,  (damit, 
&.C.)  =  rel.  pronoun,  201; 
da  denn  used  relatively,  394 
(2.  c.  Note  2). 

Dach,  decl.,  85. 

Dachs,  decl.,  74. 

dafem,  conj.,  397  (F). 

daher,  conj.,  390;    sep.  prefix, 

340  (a). 
dahingegen,  conj.,  390. 
Damhirsch,  pron.,  22. 
damit,  conj.,  397  (H),  400  (a). 
Damm,  decl.,  82. 
dämmern,  syn.,  336  (b). 
Dämon,  decl.,  92. 

Dampf,  decl.,  82. 

danach,  sub.  conj.,  395-6   (C. 

c,  D.  1.  A.  b). 
Dank,  decl.,  74;  zu  —  machen, 

syn.,  499  (C) ;  prep.,  360, 367. 
dankbar,  syn.,  522. 
danken,  syn.,    495     (a),    510, 

546  (V). 
dann,  conj.,  390  (A.  c.  C). 
dar,  sep.  prefix,  326;  meaning, 

341  (D). 

daran  daß,  conj.,  396  (E),  397 
(I),  578  (1st  par.). 

darben,  syn.,  510. 

Darm,  decl.,  82. 

darstellen,  syn.,  539  (b). 

darum,  conj.,  390;  —  daß,  396 
(E),397  (H). 

das,  def.  art.,  pron.,  15,  22; 
decl.,  58. 

daselbst,  342  (7.  A). 

daß:  pron.,  15;  origin,  400 
(c);  sub.  conj.  in  substan- 
tive clauses,  394  (1.  d);  in 
adjective  clauses,  394  (2. 
d) ;  in  clauses  of  manner,  395 
(C.  d);  of  degree,  396  (D. 
2) ;  of  cause,  396  (E) ;  of  pur- 
pose, 397  (H);  of  means, 
397  (I),  use  or  omission  of, 
560  (1.  c),  568  (/);  —nicht, 
395  (C.  d). 

Datum,  gender,  124. 

dauern,  syn.,  533. 

Daus,  decl.,  85. 

davon,  sep.  prefix.,  326. 

dd,  pron.,  8,  26-27. 

Deck,  decl.,  77. 

Defizit,  decl.,  78,  92. 

deinesgleichen,  208. 

deinethalb(en),  180. 

deinetwillen,  180. 

Deismus,  pron.,  8. 

deklamieren,  syn.,  519. 

deklarieren,  syn.,  539  (b). 

dem,  pron.,  15. 

Demant,  decl.,  88. 

demnach,  conj.,  390. 

Demut,  gender,  125. 

den,  pron.,  15. 

Dendrit,  decl.,  88. 

denken,  grad.,  316;  syn.,  510, 
539  (b);  sich  denken,  with 
simple  infin.,  277;  es  denkt 
mir  or  mich,  533,  534  (d). 


INDEX  OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


603 


Denkmal,  decl.,  77,  95. 

derm,  adv.,  351,  353,  354;  co- 
ordinate conj.,  387,  388; 
sub.  conj.,  396  (D.  1.  B), 
399  (6);  denn  daß,  396  (D. 
1.  B);  es  sei  denn  daß,  397 
(F). 

dennoch,  conj.,  390  (B). 

denunzieren,  syn.,  539  (b). 

depeschieren,  syn.,  497  (e). 

der,  art.,  pron.,  15  {b),  decl., 
58;  demon,  pronoun,  154-8; 
rel.  pronoun,  pron.,  15; 
decl.,  194;  use,  195;  replaced 
by  welch-,  195;  replaced  by 
other  words,  198-204. 

derart,  dergestalt,  347,  349; 
derart  bis,  conj.,  396  (D.  2). 

dere  =  deren,  156. 

dergleichen,  208-9. 

derhalben,  390. 

derjenige,  decl.,  158;  use  as  a 
determinative,  158. 

derlei,  209. 

dermaßen,  348. 

dero  =  deren,  156, 

derohalben,  390. 

derowegen,  390. 

derselbe,  decl.,  162;  meaning 
and  use,  162-3. 

derwegen,  390  (C). 

derweil,  sub.  conj.,  394  (B). 

Derwisch,  decl.,  76. 

des  =  das,  156. 

desertieren,  s.,  292. 

desgleichen,  208-9;  conj.,  389. 

deshalb,  155,  390. 

deshalben,  155. 

dessenungeachtet,  conj.,  390. 

Dessert,  pron.,  21. 

deswegen,  155. 

deswillen:  um — ,155. 

Detail,  pron.,  35. 

deutsch,  etymol.,  421  (2.  a). 

Dezemvir,  decl.,  92. 

Diakon,  decl,  79. 

Diamant,  decl.,  88. 

dicht,  syn.,  522. 

dick,  syn.,  522. 

Diebstahl,  decl.,  83. 

dienen,  syn.,  495  (a). 

dienlich,  syn.,  522. 

Dienst:  zu  — en  stehen,  syn., 
499  (C). 

dies-,  decl.,  153;  meaning  153. 

diesermaßen,  348. 

diesseits,  prep.,  360. 

dieweil,  sub.  conj.,  394  (B), 
396  (E). 

Ding,  decl.,  77,  95. 

dingen,  grad.,  308. 
Diphthong,  decl.,  88. 

dir  =  ihr,  180  (Note). 
Distichon,  decl.,  91. 
doch,  350,  351,  353,  354,  389; 
conj.,    with    a   double    con- 
struction, 391;   —  daß,  397 
(F). 
Docht,  decl.,  74. 
Dock,  decl.,  77. 
Dogma,  pron.,  29. 
Doktorand,  decl.,  88. 


Dolch,  decl.,  74. 

Dolmetsch,  decl.,  87. 

Dom,  decl.,  74. 

dominieren,  syn.,  495  (a). 

Domino,  decl.,  92. 

Don,  pron.,  22. 

Don  Quichotte,  pron.,  31. 

Dorf,  decl.,  85. 

Dom,  decl.,  95. 

Dorsch,  decl.,  74. 

dort,  dorten,  341. 

dorther,  341. 

dorthin,  341. 

dös  =  des  =  das,  156  (C). 

Draht,  decl.,  82. 

drahten,  syn.,  497  (e). 

Drau,  decl.,  74. 

Drama,  decl.,  91. 

Drang,  decl.,  82. 

Drangsal,  gender,  124. 

drehen,  syn.,  543. 

dreinreden,  syn.,  499  (C). 

dreschen,  grad.,  305,  310. 

Dresden,  pron.,  20. 

dringen,  grad.,  308;  h.  or  s,, 

291  (b). 
Dritteil,  Drittel,  gender,  126. 
drohen,  syn.,  495  (a,  Note). 
Drost,  decl.,  74,  87. 
Druck,  decl.,  95. 
Drusch,  decl.,  82. 
dt,  pron.,  11,  28. 
Duell,  pron.,  11. 
Duft,  decl.,  82. 
duften,  syn.,  519. 
Duisburg,  pron.,  19. 
dumm,  com.,  142. 
dunkeln,  syn.,  504. 
dünken,  grad.,  316;  syn.,  269, 

504. 
Duns,  decl.,  74. 
Dunst,  decl.,  82. 
durch,   prefix,   sep.   or   msep., 

327;  prep.,  374. 
durchfahren,  s.  or  h.,  288. 
durchgehen,  s.  or  h.,  288. 
Durchlaß,  decl.,  76. 
durchlaucht,  316  (a). 
durchlaufen,  h.  or  s.,  288. 
durchwandern,  h.  or  s.,  288. 
dürfen,  conjugation,  317;  uses 

of,  318-19;  with  simple  infin., 

276;  syn.,  510. 
düster,  pron.,  15,  19. 
Dutzend,  decl.,  78. 
duzen,  pron.,  15;  syn.,  543. 
e,  pron.,  8,  21. 
e,  pron.,  8,  20. 
e,  unaccented,  pron.,  23. 
c,  in  French  words,  8,  20. 
-e,  adverbial  suftix,  340  (  Note). 
-e,  substantival  suffix,  403-4. 
ebenfalls,  conj.,  389. 
ebenso,  387;  ebenso  wie,  387. 
Eck,  decl.,  77. 
Edwin,  pron.,  18. 
ee,  pron.,  20. 
Effekt,  decl.,  95. 
eh,  pron.,  20. 
ehe,  conj.,  394  (B). 
ehebrechen,  329  (Note  1). 
Ehehalt,  decl.,  87. 


ehrgeizig,  syn.,  522. 
ei,  pron.,  23. 
Ei,  decl.,  85. 
-ei,  404,  405. 

Eidam,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  76. 
-eien,  verbal  suffix,  428. 
Eifersucht,  decl.,  83. 
eifersüchtig,  syn.,  522. 
eigen,  syn.,  500  (a),  522. 
eignen,  syn.,  496  (c). 
Eiland,  decl.,  78. 
eilen,  syn.,  331  (B.  a),  336  (b). 
ein,  decl.,  59;  for  use  see  Ar- 
ticle; as  an  indefinite,  170; 
einer  =  man,  189;  numeral, 
148;  —  paar,  171;  —  wenig, 
173. 
ein,  sep.  prefix,  326;  meaning 
and  use  in  compounds,  344 
(4);  syn.,  497  (B);  replaced 
by  in  in  dialect,  344  (4.  a). 
eindrängen,  syn.,  543. 
Eindruck  machen,  syn. ,  499  (C) . 
einerseits    —    ander(er)seits, 

conj.,  390. 
einfallen,  syn.,  497  (B). 
einführen,  syn.,  539  (&),  543. 
eingangs,  prep.,  360. 
eingebildet,  syn.,  522. 
eingedenk,  syn.,  515. 
eingehen,  h.  and  s.,  288;  syn., 

519. 
eingenommen,  syn.,  522. 
eingeständig,  syn.,  515. 
einher,  340  (a). 
einig,  decl.  and  meaning,  174; 

syn.,  515. 
einigen,  syn.,  543. 
einigermaßen,  349. 
einkehren,  378  (1). 
Einlaß,  decl.,  76. 
einlassen,  syn.,  543. 
ein'mal,  350  (b). 
einmengen,  syn.,  543. 
einrichten,  syn.,  543. 
eins,  syn.,  515. 
einschiffen,  syn.,  543. 
einschließlich,  prep.,  359. 
einschwören,  syn.,  543. 
einsetzen,  syn.,  540  (d). 
eintauschen,  syn.,  543. 
Einwand,  decl.,  83. 
einwilligen,  syn.,  519. 
eitel,  syn.,  522. 

ekehi,  syn.,  337  (a),  533,  534. 
-el,    substantival    suffix,    405, 

410  (/). 
Elen,  pron.,  21. 
Elend,  pron.,  21;  decl.,  78  {d), 

85  ib). 
Elf,  decl.,  87. 
Elisabeth,  pron.,  21. 
-ein,  verbal  suffix,  427. 
em,  pron.  in  French  words,  24. 
emp-,  pron.,  16  (c);  meaning, 

435;  insep.  prefix,  327. 
empfänglich,  syn.,  515,  522. 
empfehlen,   grad.,    310;    syn., 

539  (ö). 
empfinden,  with  simple  infin., 
277;  syn.,  541    (B.  a),  541 
(C),  543. 


604       INDEX   OF   GERMAN    WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


empfindlich,  syn.,  522. 

empor,  pron.,  15;  sep.  prefix, 
:i26. 

en,  pron.  in  French  words,  24. 

-en,  substantival  suffix,  405; 
-en,  -n,  -em,  adjectival  suf- 
fix, 417;  -en,  verbal  suffix, 
426-7;  -en  in  weak  feminines 
89. 

Ende,  decl.,  90. 

end(ig)en,  syn.,  331  (B.  a), 
519. 

enk,  enker  =  euch,  euer,  INI 

enker  =  euer,  164  (136.  a). 

Enquete,  pron.,  21. 

-ens,  gen.  ending,  100;  in  com- 
pounds, 448  (bb);  in  ordinal 
adverbs,  151  {b);  in  superla- 
tive of  adverbs,  143  (3.  a). 

-enser,  407  {Note  1). 

ent-,  pron.,  16  (c);  insep.  pre- 
fix, 327;  meaning,  435; 
meaning  compared  with  that 
of  ab  and  aus,  343  (c) ;  syn- 
tax, 497  (B). 

entäußern,  syn.,  529. 

entbehren,  grad.,  314;  svn., 
510. 

entbinden,  syn.,  527. 

entblöden,  meaning,  436  {a, 
b}\  svn.,  529. 

entblöIJen,  syn.,  527,  529. 

entbrannt,  syn.,  522. 

entbrechen,  syn.,  529. 

enterben,  syn.,  527. 

entfliehen,  syn.,  519. 

entgegen,  sep.  prefix,  326;  syn., 
497  (B);  prep.,  367. 

entgegnen,  syn.,  497  (e). 

entgehen,  syn.,  510. 

entgelten,  syn.,  510. 

entgürten,  syn.,  529. 

enthalten,  syn.,  529. 

entheben,  syn.,  527. 

entkleiden,  syn.,  527,  529. 

entladen,  syn.,  527,  529. 

entlang,  prep.,  362,  375. 

entlängst,  prep.,  362. 

entlassen,  syn.,  527,  529,  543. 

entlasten,  syn.,  527,  529. 

entledigen,  syn.,  527,  529. 

entleeren,  syn.,  527,  529. 

entlohnen,  436  (2.  b),  505. 

entmenimen,  syn.,  529. 

entnehmen,  syn.,  543. 

entraten,  syn.,  510,  515. 

Entree,  pron.,  24. 

entringen,  syn.,  529. 

entrüstet,  syn.,  522. 

entsagen,  syn.,  498  (B),  510, 
529. 

entscheiden,  syn.,  543. 

entschlagen,  syn.,  529. 

entschließen,  syn.,  527,  529, 
543. 

entschlossen,  syn.,  522. 

entschuldigen,  syn.,  530,  543. 

entschütten,  syn.,  530. 

entsetzen,  syn.,  527,  530. 

entsinnen,  syn.,  530. 

entspringen,  syn.,  519. 


entstehen,  syn.,  495  (6),  519. 
entübrigen,  syn.,  527. 
entweder  —  oder,  391. 
entwehren,  syn.,  527. 
entwickeln,  syn.,  465  ((3)). 
entwohnen,  syn.,  510. 
entwöhnen,  syn.,  527,  530. 
entwohnt,  syn.,  515. 
entziehen,  syn.,  530. 
entzückt,  syn.,  522. 
entzwei,  sep.  prefix.,  326. 
-enzen,  verbal  suffix,  428. 
Epos,  decl.,  92. 
epper,  190  (/.  Note  2). 
eppes,  190. 
er,  pron.,  15  {b). 
er-,  pron.,  16  (c),  insep.  prefix, 

327;  meaning,  436. 
-er,  substantival  suffix,  406-7; 

adjectival     suffix,     421     (b, 

Note  2),  134  (7.  a). 
erbarmen,  syn.,  530,  533,  531. 
Erbe,  gender,  95. 
erblassen,  syn.,  497  (/). 
erbleichen,  grad.,  303. 
erblicken,   with   simple   infin., 

277,  .541  (C). 
erbschleichen,  329. 
Erbteil,  gender,  126. 
Erde,  pron.,  20. 
erdreisten,  syn.,  530. 
erfahren,  part.,  syn.,  515,  522. 
erfinden,  syn.,  539  (&). 
Erfolg,  decl.,  75. 
erfrechen,  syn.,  530. 
erfreuen,  syn.,  527,  530. 
erfüllt,  syn.,  515. 
ergötzen,  syn.,  527,  530. 
ergreifen,  syn.,  543. 
ergriffen,  syn.,  522. 
erhaben,  syn.,  522. 
erhalten,  with  infin.  with  zu, 

272;  use  in  passive  construc- 
tion, 297  (2). 
erheben,  syn.,  530,  543. 
erheitert,  syn.,  522. 
erhellen,  syn.,  519. 
erholen,  syn.,  5-30,  546. 
eriimem,  syn.,  527,  530. 
Erinnerung:  sichln  — bringen, 

syn.,  499  (C). 
erkennen,  syn.,  519,  543. 
Erkenntnis,  gender,  95. 
erklären,  syn.,  540  (c). 
erkranken,  syn.,  519. 
erkühnen,  syn.,  530. 
erkundigen,  syn.,  530,  543. 
-erl,  410  if). 
Erlaß,  decl.,  75. 
erlassen,  syn.,  527. 
erlaucht,  316  (a). 
erledigen,  syn.,  527,  5.30. 
-erlei,  151,  418. 
erleichtem,  syn.,  527,  530. 
erliegen,  syn.,  496  (d). 
erlöschen,  grad.,  306. 
ermahnen,  syn.,  527. 
ermangeln,  syn.,  510. 
ermüden,  syn.,  510. 
ermüdet,  syn.,  522. 
-ern,   verbal   suffix,    427;   adj. 

suffix,  417. 


ernähren,  syn.,  530. 
ernennen,  syn.,  540  (d). 
erpicht,  syn.,  522. 
erraten,  syn.,  543. 
erröten,  syn.,  510,  519. 
ersättigen,  syn.,  530. 
ersättigt,  syn.,  515. 
erschallen,    grad.,    305;    syn., 

519. 
erscheinen,    syn.,    269    ((3jj, 

496  (d). 
erschöpft,  syn.,  522. 
erschrecken,  grad.,  310;  syn., 

510. 
ersehen,  syn.,  530. 
ersichtlich,  syn.,  522. 
ersparen,  syn.,  512. 
Ersparnis,  gender,  124. 
erst,  pron.,  20;  meaning,  348; 

conj.,  390. 
erstaunen,  syn.,  511. 
erstaunt,  syn.,  522. 
erstehen,  syn.,  495  (&). 
erstens,  conj.,  390  (c). 
erstickt,  syn.,  522. 
erstlich,  conj.,  390  (c). 
ertappen,  syn.,  543. 
ertönen,  syn.,  497  (/). 
Ertrag,  decl.,  83. 
erübrigen,  332  (B.  a). 
erwachen,  syn.,  519. 
erwachsen,  syn.,    495  (b),  519. 

erwägen,  syn.,  530. 

erwähnen,  syn.,  511,  544. 
Erwähnung  tun,  syn.,  511,  515. 

erwarten,  syn.,  511. 

erwecken,  syn.,  544. 

erwegen,  syn.,  530. 

erwehren,  syn.,  530. 

erwidern,  syn.,  497  (e). 

Erz,  decl.,  77. 

erz-,  432. 

erzürnen,  syn.,  544. 

es,  with  impersonal  verbs, 
332-8;  as  grammatical  sub- 
ject, 457  (2.  A) ;  as  anticipa- 
tive  subject,  457  (B);  situa- 
tion es,  333,  334,  458. 

es  =  ihr,  181  (g). 

es  sei  denn  daß,  conj.,  397  (F). 

essen,  grad.,  312;  syn.,  495 
(a),  509. 

Esten,  Estland,  pron.,  20. 

estnisch,  pron.,  20. 

et-,  prefix,  432. 

-et,  suffix,  419  (8.  c);  case  end- 
ing, 130  {Note  4). 

etter,  190. 

ettes    190. 

etwa,'  .351,  353;  —  nicht,  353; 
nicht  —  ,  353. 

etwas,  indef.  adj.,  172;  indcf. 
])ronoun,  190;  so  etwas  von 
=  solch,  160  (1.  a). 

etwelch,  174  {aa). 

Etymologie,  pron.,  16,  42. 

eu,  pron.,  23. 

-eum,  suffix,  416  {d). 

Euter,  gender,  124. 

ex-,  prefix,  434  (11). 

exklusive,  prep.,  360. 
I  ey,  pron.,  23. 


INDEX   OF   CxERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C.      60S 


f,  prnn.,  2!). 
Fach,  decl.,  85. 
-fach,  151,  418. 
Faden,  decl.,  84,  95. 
fahen,  grad.,  314. 
fähig,  syn.,  515. 
fahnden,  syn.,  510. 
fahren,  grad.,  312;    s.    or    h., 
291    (a);  with  simple  iiitin., 
275;  syn.,  514  (a). 
Faksimile,  pron.,  16. 
Fall,  decl.,  82. 
fallen,  grad.,  313;  s.,  292;  syn., 

519,  .540  (B). 
falls,  sub.  conj.,  397  (F). 
falsch,  syn.,  522. 
-fältig,  151,  418. 
Falz,  decl.,  74. 
Fang,  decl.,  82. 
fangen,  grad.,  314. 
Fant,  decl.,  74. 
Farn,  decl.,  74. 
Farr,  decl.,  87. 
Fasan,  decl.,  92. 
Faß,  dec!.,  85. 
Faun,  decl,  74,  87. 
Faust,  decl.,  83,  114  (4). 
Fauteuil,  pron.,  21,  35. 
fechten,  grad.,  305. 
fehlen,  syn.,  336  {b),  495  {b), 

511. 
feilschen,  syn.,  519. 
Feld,  decl.,  85. 
Fell,  decl.,  77. 
Fenn,  decl.,  77. 

fem,  sep.  prefix,  syn.,  497  (B). 
ferner,  conj.,  390. 
Fest,  decl.,  77. 
festhalten,  syn.,  519. 
Fetisch,  decl.,  76. 
Fett,  decl.,  77. 
feucht,  syn.,  522. 
feuern,  syn.,  519. 
Feuilleton,  pron.,  21,  35. 
Fex,  decl.,  87. 
Fiaker,  pron.,  13,  22. 
finden,  grad.,  308;  with  modal 
verbal,  260;  with  simple  In- 
fi n.,  or  pres.  part.,  277;  syn., 
544. 

Fink,  decl.,  87. 

Firlefanz,  decl.,  76. 

Firma,  decl.,  87. 

fischen,  syn.,  519. 

Fjäll,  Fjeld,  decl.,  77. 

Fjord,  decl.,  74. 

Flach,  decl.,  77. 

Flachs,  decl.,  74. 

Flaps,  decl.,  74. 

flattieren,  syn.,  495  (a). 

Flaus,  decl.,  74. 

Flausch,  decl.,  74. 

flechten,  grad.,  305. 

Fleck,  Flecken,  95. 

flehen,  syn.,  497  (e),  519. 

fleihen,  grad.,  304. 

Flet,  decl.,  77. 

fliegen,  grad.,  306. 

fliehen,  grad.,  306;   syn.,  519. 

fließen,  grad.,  305. 

Floh,  decl.,  82. 

Flor,  decl.,  74,  82. 


Floß,  decl.,  83. 
Flöz,  decl.,  77. 
Fluch,  pron.,  23;  decl.,  82;  pl., 

Flüche,  pron.,  19. 
fluchen,   syn.,   with   dat.,    495 

(a),  with  acc,  539  (a),  with 
prep.,  511;  with  gen.,  511. 
-flucht,  decl.,  83. 
Flug,  decl.,  82. 
flugs,  pron.,  13,  23. 
Flur,  decl.,  74;  gender,  95. 
Fluß,  decl.,  82. 
Fokus,  decl.,  91. 
folgen,    s.   and   h.,    292;   syn., 

496  (c,  d),  519. 
folgern,  syn.,  544. 
folglich,  conj.,  390. 
-forde,  pron.,  20. 
fordern,  syn.,  544. 
forschen,  syn.,  519. 
Forst,  decl.,  90. 
Fort,  pron.,  22. 
fort,  meaning,  342  (F). 
fortfahren,  h.  &  s.,  291. 
Fossil,  decl.,  92. 
Frack,  decl.,  82. 
fragen,  grad.,   312;  syn.,  519, 

527,  535,  536,  544. 
Frank,  decl.,  88. 
Fratz,  decl.,  87. 
frech,  syn.,  522. 
frei,  syn.,  515. 
freigebig,  syn.,  522. 
freisprechen,  syn.,  527. 
fressen,  grad.,  312;  syn.,  519. 
Frett,  decl.,  77. 
freuen,  syn.,  531,  533,  534. 
freundlich,  syn.,  522. 
Frevel,  pron.,  30. 
Friede,  decl.,  81. 
frieren,  grad.,  306;  syn.,  335 

(a). 
froh,  syn.,  515. 
frohlocken,  syn.,  511. 
fromm,  compar.,  142. 
frommen,  syn.,  495  (6). 
fronen,  syn.,  495  (a). 
frönen,  syn.,  495  (o). 
Frosch,  decl.,  82. 
Frost,  decl.,  82. 
frösteln,  s^m.,  336  (a). 
Frucht,  decl.,  83. 
fruchtbar,  syn.,  522. 
fruchten,  syn.,  495  {b). 
FuchSj  decl.,  82. 
Fuchsie,  pron.,  18. 
fühlen,  with  simple  infin.,  277; 

with  dependent  infin.,  which 

has  passive  force,  281. 
führen,  with  simple  infin.,  277; 

use  in  passive  construction, 

297;  syn.,  537  (g). 
Fund,  decl.,  74. 
Funke,  decl.,  81. 
funkeln,  syn.,  519. 
für,  prep.,  375. 
fürchten,   syn.,    336    (b),   511, 

.531,  544. 
furchtlos,  syn.,  522. 
Fürsprech,  decl.,  87. 
Fürst,  decl.,  87. 
Fuß,  decl.,  74,  82,  95. 


fußen,  syn.,  519. 

g,  pron.,  9,  26,  27. 

Gang,  decl.,  82. 

Gans,  decl.,  83;  gender,  95. 

gären,  grad.,  307. 

Garn,  decl.,  77. 

Garten,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  84. 

Gas,  decl.,  77. 

Gast,  decl.,  82. 

Gastmahl,  decl.,  77. 

Gau,  decl.,  74. 

Gauch,  decl.,  82. 

Gaul,  decl.,  82. 

ge-,  pron.,  16  (c);  verbal  pre- 
fix; accent  47  (b) ;  insep. 
prefix,  327;  meaning,  437; 
substantival  prefix,  432;  gen- 
der, 124  (d). 

Gebärde,  pron.,  21. 

gebaren,  331  (B.  a). 

gebären,  grad.,  310. 

geben,  grad.,  312;  with  modal 
verbal,  260,  272;  es  gibt, 
335;  syn.,  524  (I),  527. 

Gebhard,  pron.,  20. 

gebieten,  syn.,  503. 

geblendet,  syn.,  522. 

geboren,  syn.,  522. 

Gebot,  decl.,  78. 

Gebrauch,  decl.,  83. 

gebrauchen,  syn.,  511,  531. 

gebrechen,  syn.,  495  (b),  533, 
534. 

gebühren,  syn.,  496  (c). 

Geburt,  pron.,  23. 

gebürtig,  pron.,  23. 

Geek,  decl.,  87. 

Gedanke,  decl.,  81. 

gedeihen,  grad.,  304;  s.,  290; 
syn.,  495  (b). 

gedenk,  see  eingedenk. 

gedenken,  syn.,  511,  533,  534. 

geduldig,  syn.,  522. 

geeicht,  syn.,  522. 

geeignet,  syn.,  522. 

Gefalle,  decl.,  81. 

gefallen,  syn.,  495  (a). 

gefaßt,  syn.,  522. 

gefühllos,  syn.,  522. 

gefüllt,  syn.,  515. 

gegen,  prep.,  376. 

gegenüber,  prep.,  367;  sep. 
prefix,  syn.,  497  (B). 

gegenwarts,  prep.,  360. 

Gehalt,  decl.,  86,  95. 

gehen,  grad.,  314;  with  modal 
verbal,  260;  with  simple 
infin.,  275;  syn.,  '3.36  {b}. 
466  (a),  514  (a);  gehen  als 
to  pass  for,  464  {b.  (1)). 

Gehöft,  pron.,  20. 

gehorchen,  syn.,  490  (c). 

gehören,  use  in  passive  con- 
struction, 297;  syn.,  496  (c), 
519. 

gehörig,  syn.,  500  (a). 

gehorsamen,  syn.,  496  (c). 

Geist,  decl.,  86. 

geizig,  syn.,  515,  522. 

gekrönt,  syn.,  522. 

Geld,  decl.,  85. 

gelegentlich,  prep.,  360. 


606        INDEX   OF  GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


geliehen,  syn.,  336  (b),  495  (a), 
gelingen,  grad.,  308;  s.,  2J0; 

syn.,  336  (b),  495  (b). 
gellen,  grad.,  314. 
gelt,  430. 
gelten,  grad.,  309;    syn.,     272 

(Note  2),  495  (b),  504. 
gelüsten,  syn.,  504,  533,  534. 
gemach,  pron.,  21. 
Gemach,  pron.,  21;  dec!.,  86. 
gemächlich,  pron.,  21. 
Gemahl,  decl.,  76. 
gemahnen,  syn.,  527,  533,  534. 
Gemälde,  pron.,  21. 
gemäß,  pron.,  21;  prep.,  360, 

368. 
Gemüt,  decl.,  86. 
gen,  prep.,  376. 
genau,  syn.,  522. 
General,  decl.,  84. 
genesen,  grad.,   312;  s.,  290; 

syn.,  511. 
genießen,  grad.,  305;  syn.,  511. 
Gentleman,  pron.,  33. 
genug,  174;  genung,  41. 
genügen,   syn.,   495    (6),   533, 

534. 
genugtun,  syn.,  499  (C). 
Genuß,  decl.,  83. 
geraten,  s.,  290;  syn.,  495  (6). 
gerecht,  syn.,  523. 
gereichen:    zum    Ruhme    — , 

syn.,  499  (C). 
gereizt,  syn.,  523. 
gereuen,  syn.,  533,  534. 
gereuig,  syn.,  515. 
Gerhard,  pron.,  20. 
gerinnen,  s.,  290. 
Gernegroß,  decl.,  76,  93. 
Gertrud,  pron.,  20;  Gertrude, 

46. 
Geruch,  decl.,  83. 
gerührt,  syn.,  523. 
gesamt,  174. 
Gesang,  decl.,  83. 
gesättigt,  syn.,  515,  523. 
geschehen,  grad.,  312;  s.,  290; 

syn.,  495  (b). 
geschickt,  syn.,  523. 
Geschlecht,  decl.,  86. 
Geschmack,  decl.,  83. 
Geschrei,  Geschreie,  95. 
geschweige,    con].,    389     (C); 

—  denn  daß,  395  (C.  d). 
geschweigen,  syn.,  511. 
Geschwulst,  decl.,  83. 
Gesell,  decl.,  87. 
gesellen,  syn.,  496  (d). 
Gesicht,  decl.,  86,  95. 
Gespan,  decl.,  76. 
Gespenst,  decl.,  86. 
Gespons,  decl.,  76. 
Gespräch,  pron.,  21. 
geständig,  syn.,  515. 
Gestank,  decl.,  83. 
gestehen,  syn.,  511. 
gesund,    compar.,    142;    syn., 

523. 
gesunden,  syn.,  511. 
getrauen,  syn.,  504. 
getrösten,  syn.,  531. 
Gevatter,  decl.,  90. 


gewahr  werden,  syn.,  511,  515. 
gewahren,  syn.,  511. 
gewähren,  syn.,  527. 
Gewahrsam,  decl.,  76. 
gewaltig,  syn.,  515. 
Gewand,  decl.,  86,  95. 
gewarten,  syn.,  511,  514. 
gewärtig,  syn.,  515. 
gewärtigen,  syn.,  511,  531. 
Gewinn,  decl.,  76. 
gewinnen,    grad.,    309;    syn., 

519. 
gewiß,  syn.,  516. 
gewöhnen,    gewöhnen,     syn., 

511,  544. 
gewöhnlich,  syn.,  523. 
gewohnt,  gewöhnt,  syn.,  516. 
geziemen,  syn.,  496  (c). 
gg,  pron.,  28-29. 
gh,  pron.,  29. 
Gicht,  decl.,  85.  _ 
gierig,  see  begierig, 
gießen,  grad.,  305;  syn.,  509. 
Gift,  decl.,  77,  95. 
Gigerl,  decl.,  79. 
Glas,  decl.,  85. 
glatt,  compar.,  142. 
Glatz,  pron.,  21. 
Glaube,  decl.,  81. _ 
glauben,    with    simple    infin., 

277;  syn.,  279   (5),  496   (c), 

504,  539  (a). 
gleich,  syn.,  497  (B),  500  (a), 

523. 
gleichen,  grad.,  303;  syn.,  496 

id). 
gleichfalls,  389,  455  (a). 
gleichwie,  conj.,  395  (a). 
gleichwohl,  conj.,  390  (B). 
Gleis,  decl.,  77. 
gleißen,  grad.,  314. 
gleiten,  grad.,  303;  s.,  292. 
Glied,  decl.,  85. 
glimmen,  grad.,  305. 
Globus,  decl.,  91. 
Glück,  decl.,  77. 
glücken,  s.,  290;  h.,  290;  syn., 

495  (b). 
glühen,  syn.,  519. 
gn,  pron.,  9,  29,  34. 
gnaden,  syn.,  495  (a), 
gnädig,  syn.,  523. 
Gnom,  decl.,  87. 
Gold,  decl.,  77. 
Golf,  decl.,  74. 
Gör,  decl.,  90. 
Gott,  decl.,  86. 
Grab,  decl.,  85. 
Graben,  decl.,  84. 
graben,  grad.,  312;  syn.,  519. 
Grad,  decl.,  74. 
Graf,  decl.,  87. 
gram,  syn.,  500  (a). 
grämen,  syn.,  544. 
Gramm,  decl.,  77. 
Grammatik,  pron.,  13,  22. 
Gran,  decl.,  77. 
Grand,  decl.,  74. 
Gras,  decl.,  85. 
Grat,  decl.,  74;  gender,  124. 
grätschen,  pron.,  21. 
gratulieren,  syn.,  495  (a),  546. 


grau,  syn.,  523. 

graueln,  syn.,  336. 

grauen,  syn.,  336. 

grausam,  syn.,  523. 

Greif,  decl.,  87. 

greifbar,  syn.,  523. 

greifen,  grad.,  303;  syn.,  519. 

greinen,  grad.,  314. 

grenzen,  syn.,  519. 

grenzend,  syn.,  523. 

grob,  compar.,  142. 

Grobian,  decl.,  76. 

Grog,  pron.,  22,  28. 

grollen,  syn.,  495  (a). 

Gros,  decl.,  77. 

groß,  compar.,  142. 

Großmogul,  decl.,  92. 

großmütig,  syn.,  523. 

grübeln,  syn.,  519. 

Gruft,  decl.,  83. 

Grund,  decl.,  82. 

gründen,  syn.,  544. 

Grunz,  decl.,  74. 

gruselig  machen,  syn.,  499  (C). 

gruseln,  svn.,  336. 

Gruß,  decl.,  82. 

grüßen,  syn.,  539  (a). 

gu,  pron.,  29. 

Guck,  decl.,  74. 

gucken,  syn.,  519. 

Guckindiewelt,  decl.,  76. 

Gudrun,  pron.,  23. 

Gurt,  decl.,  74. 

Guß,  decl.,  82. 

gut,  syn.,  523. 

Gut,  decl.,  85;  zu  gute  halten, 
syn.,  499  (C). 

gütig,  syn.,  523. 

gutsagen,  syn.,  499  (C). 

Guttapercha,  pron.,  31. 

guttun,  syn.,  499  (C). 

h,  pron.,  26. 

Haar,  decl.,  77. 

haben:  conjugation  of  simple 
tenses,  254,  315;  use  as 
auxil.  of  tense,  287-93;  hat 
sich  was,  332  (E);  with 
modal  verbal.  260,  272; 
with  simple  infin.,  277;  syn., 
509  (1);  527,  544,  omission 
of,  283  (b). 

habgierig,  syn.,  523. 

habhaft,  syn.,  516. 

Hack,  decl.,  74. 

Hader,  decl.,  90. 

Hafen,  decl.,  84. 

Haff,  decl.,  77. 

Haft,  decl.,  74;  gender,  95. 

-haft,  418. 

haften,  syn.,  496  (c). 

Hag,  decl.,  74. 

Hagestolz,  decl.,  76. 

Hahn,  decl.,  82. 

halb,  decl.,  173,  137  (8). 

halb,  halben,  halber,  preps., 
360. 

halbwegs,  halbweg(e),  361. 

Hall,  decl.,  74. 

Halm,  decl.,  74. 

Hals,  decl.,  82. 

Halt,  decl.,  74. 

halten,  syn.,  519,  544. 


INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C.       607 


Hamburg,  pron.,  22. 

Hammel,  decl.,  84. 

Hammer,  decl.,  84. 

ban  =  haben,  315. 

Hand,  decl.,  83. 

Handel,  dec!.,  84. 

handeln,  syn.,  519. 

handhaben,  grad.,  315. 

Hang,  dec!.,  82. 

hangen,  hängen,  grad.,  314; 
h.  or  s.,  289;  syn.,  519,  514. 

-hans,  decl.,  83. 

Hanswurst,  accent,  49  (7); 
decl.,  76. 

härmen,  syn.,  531. 

Harnisch,  decl.,  76. 

barren,  syn.,  511. 

Harst,  decl.,  74. 

hart,  pron.,  22;  compar.,  142; 
syn.,  523. 

Harz,  pron.,  21;  decl.,  77. 

haschen,  syn.,  519. 

hassen,  syn.,  544. 

hätscheln,  pron.,  21. 

Hau,  decl.,  74. 

Hauch,  decl.,  74. 

hauen,  grad.,  313. 

Haufe,  decl.,  81. 

Haupt,  decl.,  85. 

Haus,  decl.,  85. 

Haut,  decl.,  83. 

heben,  grad.,  307,  312. 

Hedwig,  pron.,  20,  26. 

Heer,  decl.,  77. 

Heft,  decl.,  77. 

Heide,  95. 

Heil,  decl.,  77. 

Heiland,  decl.,  76. 

heim,  326,  345. 

heimkommen,  syn.,  499  (C). 

heimleuchten,  syn.,  499  (C). 

heimzahlen,  syn.,  499  (C). 

heiß  machen,  syn.,  499  (C). 

heißen,  grad.,  313;  with  sim- 
ple infin.  as  pred.  comple- 
ment, 275;  with  simple 
infin.  or  infin.  with  zu  as 
object,  276-7;  with  depen- 
dent infin.  which  has  passive 
force,  281;  syn.,  536  {d), 
539  (a);  das  heißt,  389  (C). 

-heit,  403. 

Held,  decl,  87. 

helfen,  grad.,  310;  with  simple 
infin.  or  infin.  with  zu, 
276-7;  syn.,  495  (&),  505. 

Hemd,  decl.,  90. 

her,  sep.  prefix,  326;  meaning, 
340;  herunter,  &c.,  340. 

herablächeln,  syn.,  519. 

heran,  herauf,  340,  342. 

heraushelfen,  syn.,  493  (c). 

herausziehen,  syn.,  544. 

Herd,  pron.,  20. 

Herde,  pron.,  20. 

Herder,  pron.,  20. 

hereinbrechen,  syn.,  519. 

hereindrängen,  syn.,  332  (D). 

herfallen,  syn.,  519. 

Herkules,  decl.,  91. 

Hermann,  pron.,  21. 

Herold,  decl.,  76. 


Heros,  decl.,  92. 

Herr,  decl.,  87;  —  sein,  syn., 

516. 
herrschen,  syn.,  511. 
herseits,  prep.,  361. 
hervorbrechen,  syn.,  519. 
hervorgehen,  syn.,  519. 
hervorragend,  syn.,  523. 
hervorschießen,  syn.,  519. 
herwärts,  prep.,  361. 
Herz,  decl.,  91. 
Herzog,  decl.,  83. 
heulen,  syn.,  519. 
bier,  hieran,  &c.,  340. 
Hieroglyphen,  pron.,  18. 
bin,   341;   compared   with   los 

and  zu,  341;  sep.  prefix,  326. 
hinarbeiten,  syn.,  520. 
hinausgehen,  syn.,  520. 
hindern,  syn.,  544. 
hindeuten,  syn.,  520. 
hindurch,  prep.,  376. 
hineinzittem,  345  (11). 
hinken,  grad.,  314. 
hinseits,  prep.,  361. 
hinsichtlich,  hinsichts,  361. 
hinter,   prefix,   sep.   or   insep., 

327;  prep.,  383. 
hinterhalb,  prep.,  359. 
hinterrücks,  prep.,  361. 
hinterwärts,  prep.,  361. 
hinwärts,  prep.,  361. 
hinweisen,  syn.,  520,  544. 
Hippogryph,  decl.,  88. 
Him,  decl.,  77. 
Hirsch,  decl.,  88  (3.  b). 
Hh-se,  decl.,  87. 
Hirt,  decl.,  87. 

hoch,  pron.,  22;  compar.,  142. 
Hoch,  decl.,  93. 
höchst,  pron.,  20. 
Hochzeit,  pron.,  22. 
hocken,  h.  or  s.,  289. 
Hof,  decl.,  82;  den  —  machen, 

syn.,  499  (C). 
hoffen,  syn.,  511. 
hofieren,  syn.,  495  (a). 
höflich,  syn.,  523. 
HohenzoUer,  decl.,  87. 
höhnen,  syn.,  512. 
hohnlächeln,  hohnlachen,  syn., 

512. 
hohnsprechen,  syn.,  499  (C). 
hold,  syn.,  500  (a). 
Holm,  decl.,  74. 
Holz,  decl.,  85. 
Hops,  decl.,  74. 
horchen,  syn.,  496  (c),  505. 
hören,  with  simple  infin.,  277; 

with  dependent  infin.  which 

has  passive  force,  281;  syn., 

496    (c),  512,  520,  535    (c), 

544. 
Horn,  decl.,  85,  95. 
Horst,  decl.,  74. 
Hospital,  decl.,  86. 
Hotel,  pron.,  13,  21. 
Hoyerswerda,  pron.,  24. 
Hub,  decl.,  82. 

hüben  und  drüben,  prep.,  360. 
Hubert,  pron.,  21. 
Huhn,  decl.,  85. 


hui,  pron.,  24. 

huldigen,  syn.,  495  (a). 

Hulk,  decl.,  74. 

Hund,  decl.,  74. 

Hundert,  decl.,  78. 

Hundsfott,  decl.,  86. 

hungern,  syn.,  336,  520. 

Hupf,  decl.,  74. 

hüpfen,  syn.,  520. 

Husar,  decl.,  79. 

Huß,  pron.,  23. 

hüsteln,  pron.,  19. 

husten,  pron.,  23,  42. 

Hut,  decl.,  82;  gender,  95. 

hüten,  syn.,  512,  544. 

Hydra,  pron.,  13. 

Hygiene,  pron.,  18. 

hyper-,  434  (11). 

Hypochondrie,  pron.,  29. 

i,  pron.,  19. 

i,  pron.,  18. 

i,  unstressed,  18-19. 

-i,  410  (/);  415  {Note). 

-iade,  416. 

-ianer,  407  (e). 

Ich,  decl.,  93  (2). 

-ich,  suffix,  415  (17.  a.  Note). 

-icht,  suffix,  415;  419. 

ie,  pron.,  18. 

-ie,  suffix,  404,  405. 

ieh,  pron.,  18. 

-ien,  suffix,  405. 

ier,     pron.,     18;     substantival 

suffix,  407. 
-ieren,  verbal  suffix,  428. 
-ig,  suffix,  419;  pron.,  19. 
ihner  =  ihr,  164  (136.  a). 
ihrethalb(en),  180. 
ihretwillen,  180. 
-ikalisch,  suffix,  422. 
-ikus,  suffix,  416. 
il,  ill,  pron.  in  French  words,  35. 
im,  in,  pron.  in  French  words, 

24. 
imponieren,  syn.,  498  (6). 
Import,  Importe,  decl.,  95. 
imputieren,  syn.,  498  (&). 
imstande,  syn.,  516. 
in,  pron.,   15;  adv.,  344;  used 

instead   of    ein-    in    dialect, 

344  (4.  ö);  prep.,  383. 
inbegriffen    for    einbegriffen, 

344  (4.  a),  554  ((2)). 
-in,  suffix,  407. 
indem,  sub.  conj.,  394-5    (B. 

c).  395  (C.  b),  396  (E),  397 

(I). 
indes  or  indessen,  adv.,  conj. 

with  a  double  construction, 

391;  sub.  conj.,  394,  399. 
Individuum,  decl.,  91. 
-iner,  407  (  Note  1). 
infolge,  prep.,  362. 
-ing,  407,  410  (/),  -ingen,  408 

(a). 
Ingenieur,  pron.,  20. 
inhaltlich,  Inhalts,  362. 
inklusive,  prep.,  362. 
inmaßen,  conj.,  396  (E). 
inmitten,  prep.,  362. 
inne  or  innen,  344   (6);  syn., 

497  (B),  516. 


608 


INDEX   OF   GERMAN    WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


innerhalb,  prep.,  359. 

innert,  prep.,  362,  384. 

Insekt,  decl.,  92. 

-insky,  suffix,  416  (g). 

(in) sofern,  sub.  conj.,  396  (1. 

A.  c). 
(in)soweit,  sub.  conj.,  396  (1. 

A.  c). 
Instinkt,  pron.,  30. 
interessant,  syn.,  523. 
Interesse,  decl.,  92. 
interessieren,  syn.,  544. 
interessiert,  syn.,  523. 
inwärts,  prep.,  362. 
inwiefern,  sub.  conj.,  393  (D. 

1.  A.  c). 
inwieweit,  sub.  conj.,  396  (D. 

1.  A.  c). 
inzwischen  (daß),  394  (B.  a). 
-isch  or  -sch,  suffix,  420. 
-isieren,  verbal  suffix,  42S. 
-ismus,  416. 
-ist,  suffix,  417  (•/)■ 
-ität,  suffix,  417  (j). 
j,  pron.,  31. 
ja,   meaning   and   stress,    350; 

ja  doch,  351;    ja  wohl,  351; 

co-ord.  conj.,  387,  389. 
jagen,  grad.,  312. 
Jahr,  decl.,  77. 
jammern,  syn.,    533,  534. 
-Jan,  pron.,  16;  decl.,  76;  suf- 
fix, 415  (16.  b). 
Jansen,  408  (a). 
jauchzen,  syn.,  495  (a). 
je,  sub.  conj.,  396  (D.  1.  A.  b); 

word-order,      598      (d);     je 

nachdem,  396  (D.  l.  A.  b). 
jed-,  decl.  and  use,  170. 
jedermann,  decl.,  189. 
jedoch,  conj.,  391. 
Jehovah,  pron.,  26. 
jemand,  decl.,  189;  syn.,   189. 
Jen-,  decl.  and  use,  153. 
jenseits,  prep.,  360,  332. 
Joch,  decl.,  77. 
Jockei,  pron.,  20,  33. 
Jubiläum,  pron.,  24. 
juchzen,  pron.,  23. 
jucken,  syn.,  336  (a),  502  (a). 
Judas,  decl.,  91. 
Jude,  95. 

jung,  compar.,  142. 
Jury,  pron.,  18,  33. 
Jus,  pron.,  23. 

Juwel,  decl.,  92;  gender,   121. 
Jux,  decl.,  74. 
k,  pron.,  26,  27,  28. 
Kadiz,  pron.    30. 
Kaffer,  decl.   87. 
Kaftan,  decl.,  92. 
Kahn,  decl.,  82. 
Kai,  decl.,  93. 
Kain,  pron.,  23. 
Kaiserswerth,  pron.,  20. 
Kakerlak,  dec!.,  90. 
Kaktus,  decl.,  91. 
Kalb,  decl.,  85. 
Kalk,  decl.,  74. 
kalt,  compar.,   142;  syn.,   336 

ib). 
Kamm,  decl.,  82. 


Kamp,  decl.,  82. 

Kampf,  decl.,  82. 

Kanal,  decl.,  84. 

Kap,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  77. 

Kapernaum,  pron.,  23. 

Kapitel,  pron.,  13,  19. 

Kapitell,  decl.,  86. 

Kaplan,  decl.,  84. 

Kar,  decl.,  77. 

Kardinal,  decl.,  84. 

karg,  compar.,  142. 

Karst,  decl.,  74. 

Kasus,  decl.,  94. 

Katheder,  gender,  124. 

kauern,  h.  or  s.,  289. 

Kauf,  decl.,  82. 

kaufen,  grad.,  314;  syn.,  520. 

kaum  (daß),  394  (B),  395  (B. 

d);   —  so  lange  —  als  bis, 

.394  (B);  —daß,  .396  (D.  2). 
Kauz,  decl.,  82. 
Kebsweib,  pron.,  14,  20. 
keifen,  grad.,  303. 
keimen,  h.  or  s.,  290. 
kein,  decl.  and  use,  175. 
-keit,  403. 
kennen,  grad.,  315;  syn.,  539 

(b). 
kentern,  s.,  292. 
ketten,  syn.,  544. 
Khan,  decl.,  74. 
Kiebitz,  decl.,  76. 
kiesen,  grad.,  303. 
Kind,  decl.,  85. 
Kinn,  decl.,  77. 
Kino,  decl.,  92. 
kitzeln,  impers.,  336  (o). 
klagen,  svn.,  497  (e),  520. 
Klang,  decl.,  82. 
Klapp,  Klaps,  decl.,  74,  82. 
klar,  syn.,  516. 
Klatsch,  pron.,  22;  decl.,   74. 
kleben,  h.  or  s.,  289;  syn.,  520. 
Kleid,  decl.,  85. 
kleiden,    syn.,    331    (B),    505, 

.539  (b). 
klein,  svn.,  523. 
Kleinod,  decl.,  90. 
klettern,  svn.,  520. 
Klima,  decl.,  91. 
Klimax,  decl.,  76. 
klimmen,  grad.,  .305. 
klingeln,  syn.,  497  (c),  50). 
klingen,  grad.,  308. 
Klonz,  decl.,  74. 
Kloon,  decl.,  74. 
Klopf,  decl.,  74. 
Klops,  decl.,  74. 
Kloß,  decl.,  82. 
Kloster,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  84. 
Klotz,  decl.,  82. 
Kluft,  decl.,  83. 
klug,  compar.,  142. 
Knack (s),  decl.,  74. 
Knall,  decl.,  74. 
knallen,  syn.,  490  (e). 
knapp,  compar.,  142. 
Knast,  decl.,  74. 
Knauf,  decl.,  82. 
Knaus,  decl.,  82. 
kneifen,  grad.,  303. 
Knie,  decl.,  77. 


knieen,  h.  or  s.,  289. 

knirschen,  syn.,  490  (e). 

knixen,  syn.,  520. 

Knopf,  decl.,  82. 

Knorz,  decl.,  74. 

Knuff,  decl.,  82. 

Knups,  decl.,  74. 

knurren,  syn.,  520. 

Knust,  decl.,  82. 

Kobalt,  decl.,  76. 

Kobold,  decl.,  76. 

Koch,  decl.,  82. 

kochen,  syn.,  520. 

ködern,  syn.,  503. 

Kodex,  decl.,  76. 

Kog,  decl.,  82. 

Kognak,  pron.,  28. 

Kohl,  decl.,  74,  116. 

Koks,  pron.,  22. 

Kolk,  decl.,  74. 

Komet,  decl.,  88. 

kommen,  grad.,  311;  s.,  292; 
with  infin.  with  zu,  272; 
with  simple  infin.,  275; 
with  perf.  part.,  266  (c); 
syn.,  466  (a),  496  (d),  505 
(21),  514  (a),  520;  zugute 
— ,  syn.,  499  (C),  zu  Hilfe 
— ,  499  (C);  zustatten  — , 
499  (C);  zu  stehen  — ,  499 
(C),  506.  _ 

können,  conjugation,  317;  uses, 
319-20;  with  simple  infin., 
276. 

Konsonant,  decl.,  88  (4.  c). 

Konsul,  decl.,  92. 

kontribuieren,  syn.,  498  (b).- 

konvenieren,  svn.,  495  (a). 

Konzil,  decl.,  91. 

koordinieren,  syn.,  498  (b). 

Kopf,  decl.,  82. 

Korb,  decl.,  82. 

Kork,  decl.,  74. 

Korn,  decl.,  85,  95. 

körnen,  svn.,  506. 

Korporal,'decl.,  84  (4). 

Korsar,  decl.,  79. 

Kosak,  decl.,  88. 

kosen,  syn.,  .505. 

kosten,  syn.,  .505,  512. 

Kostüm,  decl.,  92. 

Kotzebue,  pron.,  23. 

Krach,  decl.,  74. 

Kraft,  decl.,  83. 

kraft,  prep.,  362. 

Kragen,  decl.,  84. 

Kral,  decl.,  74. 

Krampf,  decl.,  82. 

Kran,  decl.,  74. 

krank,  compar.,  142. 

Kranz,  decl.,  82. 

Kratz,  decl.,  74. 

Kraut,  decl.,  85,  116. 

Krebs,  pron.,  14,  20. 

kreischen,  grad.,  314. 

krepieren,  s.,  290. 

Kreuz,  decl.,  77. 

kriechen,  grad.,  305;  s.,  292; 
syn.,  520. 

kriegen,  pron.,  J|3,  19;  grad., 
314,  .316;  usdTin' passive  con- 
struction, 207. 


liNDEX   OF   GERMAN    WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C.      6()<) 


Krokodil,  decl.,  78. 

Krokus,  decl.,  91. 

Kropf,  decl.,  82. 

Krug,  decl.,  82. 

krumm,  compar.,  142. 

Kuchen,  pron.,  23. 

Küche,  pron.,  19. 

Kuckuck,  decl.,  76. 

Kuh,  decl.,  83. 

Kulm,  decl.,  74. 

Kult,  decl.,  74. 

kümmern,  syn.,  495   {b),  531, 

533,  534,  544. 
Kumpan,  decl.,  87. 
Kumpf,  Kump,  decl.,  74. 
Kumt,  decl.,  77. 
kundig,  syn.,  516. 
kündigen,  syn.,  497  (e). 
-kunft,    decl.,    83;   suffix,    416 

(18.  b). 
Kunst,  decl.,  83. 
küren,  grad.,  307. 
Kurs,  decl.,  74. 
kurz,  compar.,  142. 
Kuß,  decl.,  82. 
küssen,  syn.,  544. 
Kustos,  decl.,  92. 
Kux,  decl.,  74. 
1,  pron.,  34. 
-la,  410  (/). 

lächeln,  syn.,  495   (a),  512. 
lachen,  syn.,  495  (a),  512,  497 

(/)■ 

Lachs,  decl.,  74. 

Lack,  decl.,  74. 

Laden,  decl.,  84,  96. 

laden,  grad.,  312. 

Lady,  decl.,  92. 

Laeken,  pron.,  22. 

Lager,  decl.,  84. 

lahm,  syn.,  523. 

Lahn,  decl.,  74.^ 

Lamm,  decl.,  85. 

Land,  decl.,  77,  96,  116. 

landen,  s.,  287  (3). 

lang,  compar.,  142. 

langmütig,  syn.,  523. 

längs,  längst,  prep.,  362. 

längsseits,  prep.,  362. 

laß,  syn.,  516. 

lassen,  grad.,  313;  with  in  fin., 
with  zu,  272  (6) ;  with  simple 
infin.,  276;  with  dependent 
infin.  which  has  passive 
force,  281;  nom.  or  ace.  in 
connection  with  a  dependent 
infin.,  463  (2.  A.  a.  Note); 
merken,  fühlen,  or  wissen 
lassen,  541  (r);  in  the  sense 
to  become,  syn.,  496  (f);  with 
an  ace.  of  the  direct  object 
and  a  pred.  infin.,  541  (C); 
zur  Ader  — ,  syn.,  499   (C). 

Latz,  decl.,  74. 

Laub,  decl.,  77. 

lauern,  syn.,  512. 

Lauf,  decl.,  82. 

laufen,  grad.,  313;  s.,  292; 
with  simple  infin.,  275; 
syn.,  520. 

Laus,  decl.,  83. 

lauschen,  syn.,  496  (c),  512. 


Laut,  dec!.,  74;  laut,  prep.,  362. 

läuten,  syn.,  497  (e),  506. 

Lautschwund,  decl.,  83. 

-le,  410  if). 

leben,  syn.,  495  (a),  512,  520. 

Lebewohl,  decl.,  78  (6). 

Leek,  decl.,  77;  gender,  124. 

ledig,  syn.,  516. 

leer,  syn.,  516. 

legen,  with  simple  infin.,  275. 

lehnen,  syn.,  520. 

lehren,  grad.,  316  (a),  with 
simple  infin.  or  infin.  witli 
zu,  276;  syn.,  536  (/). 

Leib,  dec!.,  86. 

Leichnam,  decl.,  76. 

leid,  syn.,  499  (C),  500  (a). 

leiden,  grad.,  303;  syn.,  520. 

leihen,  grad.,  304. 

leimen,  svn.,  544. 

-lein,  409-11. 

leiten,  syn.,  537  (g). 

lenken,  syn.,  537  (g). 

Lenz,  decl.,  88. 

Leopard,  decl.,  88. 

-ler,  suffix,  406  (iVote). 

lernen,  with  simple  infin.  or 
infin.  with  zu,  276. 

lesen,  grad.,  312. 

Lethe,  pron.,  16. 

letzt,  superl.,  146  (a). 

letzter-,  compar.,  146  (o),  147 
(c). 

Leu,  dec!.,  87. 

leuchten,  syn.,  495  (a). 

leugnen,  syn.,  512. 

leutselig,  syn.,  523. 

Levkoie,  Levkoje,  pron.,  24, 
30. 

-11,  410  (/). 

-lieh,  adj.  suffix,  422;  syn., 
501  (a) ;  adv.  suffix,  429;  sub- 
stantival suffix,  415  (17.  a. 
Note). 

Licht,  decl.,  85,  96. 

Lid,  pron.,  18;  decl.,  85. 

lieben,  syn.,  497  (g). 

liebevoll,  syn.,  52.3. 

liebkosen,  syn.,  505. 

Lied,  decl.,  85. 

liegen,  grad.,  312;  h.  or  s.,  28:); 
with  simple  infin.,  275;  svn., 
336,  496  (c). 

liegen  =  lügen,  307. 

Lilie,  pron.,  IS. 

-ling,  suffix,  407. 

-lings,  adv.  suffix,  429  (c). 

lingual,  pron.,  33. 

Linguist,  pron.,  23. 

links,  pred.  adj.,  135;  prep., 
362. 

Lob,  decl.,  77. 

loben,  syn.,  544. 

lobpreisen,  grad.,  304;  conju- 
gation, 329. 

lobsingen,  329,  499  (C). 

Loch,  decl.,  85. 

locken,  syn.,  506. 

Log,  pron.,  22,  28;  decl.,  77. 

Lohn,  decl.,  82. 

lohnen,  syn.,  505,  512,  531. 

Lolch,  decl.,  74. 


Lorbeer,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  90. 

Lorch,  Lork,  decl.,  74. 

Los,  decl.,  77. 

los,  adj.,  syn.,  516. 

los,  sep.  prefix,  326,  341   (A). 

losgehen,  syn.,  520. 

loshacken,  syn.,  520. 

lossprechen,  syn.,  528. 

Lot,  decl.,  77. 

Lötzen,  pron.,  20. 

Luchs,  decl.,  74. 

Ludwig,  pron.,  23. 

Luft,  decl.,  83. 

lügen,  grad.,  307;  syn.,  497  (e). 

Luise,  pron.,  1 1. 

Luitpold,  pron.,  1  i. 

Lump,  decl.,  74,  87,  96. 

Lurch,  decl.,  74. 

Lurks,  dec!.,  71. 

Lust,  decl.,  83. 

lüsten,  syn.,  533  (c),  534. 

lüstern,  syn.,  523. 

Luther,  pron.,  14,  22. 

lutherisch,  pron.,  22,  46  (d). 

lynchen,  pron.,  19. 

m,  pron.,  33. 

Maar,  decl.,  77. 

Maat,  decl.,  74. 

machen,  with  infin.  with  zu, 
272,  277;  with  simple  infin., 
277;  syn.,  175  (/.  Aote),  499 
(C),  539  (a),  540  [d),  540 
(B),  544. 

Macht,  decl.,  83;  macht,  prep., 
362. 

mächtig,  syn.,  516. 

Magd,  pron.,  21;  decl.,  83. 

Magen,  decl.,  84  (a). 

mager,  compar.,  142. 

Magnet,  decl.,  88. 

Magyar,  pron.,  36;  decl.,  88. 

Mahl,  decl.,  77. 

mahlen,  grad.,  313. 

mahnen,  syn.,  528. 

Mahr,  decl.,  74. 

Mai,  decl.,  88,  96. 

Maid,  decl.,  76. 

Major,  decl.,  91  (a...  Note). 

Mai,  decl.,  77. 

Malz,  decl.,  77. 

Mama,  decl.,  92. 

man,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  189. 

Mangel,  decl.,  84. 

mangeln,  syn.,  495  (b),  512. 

mangels,  prep.,  362. 

Mann,  decl.,  86,  96. 

Mantel,  decl.,  84. 

mar,  190  {d.  Note  2). 

Marchese,  pron.,  29. 

Marie,  pron.,  18. 

Markt,  decl.,  82. 

Marquis,  pron.,  36. 

Mars,  decl.,  90. 

Marsch,  decl.,  82. 

Marschall,  decl.,  83. 

marschieren,  h.  or  s.,  291  (a). 

März,  decl.,  88. 

Maskulinum,  decl.,  91. 
Maß,  decl.,  77. 

maßen,  conj.,  396  (E). 
mäßigen,  syn.,  531. 
Mast,  decl.,  90. 


610       INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


Mathilde,  pron.,  26. 

Matthäus,  pron.,  24. 

Matz,  decl.,  74,  82. 

Maul,  decl.,  85. 

Maus,  decl.,  83. 

Mechanik,  pron.,  29. 

Mecklenburg,  pron.,  20. 

Meer,  decl.,  77. 

Medaille,  pron.,  35. 

Mehl,  decl.,  77. 

mehr,  175;  mehrer-,  145,  171; 

mehr  =  noch,  346. 
meiden,  grad.,  304. 
meinesgleichen,  208. 
meinethalben,  180. 
meinetwegen,  ISO. 
meinetwillen,  180. 
Meister,  syn.,  516. 
Melancholie,  pron.,  29. 
melken,  grad.,  305. 
Menelaus,  pron.,  23. 
mengen,  syn.,  544. 
Mensch,  decl.,  85,  87,  96. 
mer  =  man,  190  (d.  Note  2). 
merken,    with    simple    infin., 

277;  grad.,  315  (Note);  syn., 

520. 
Merkmal,  dec!.,  77. 
messen,  grad.,  312. 
Messieurs,  pron.,  20. 
Mignon,  pron.,  33. 
mild,  syn.,  523. 
Mineral,  decl.,  92. 
mir,  pron.,  18;  =  wir,  180  {c. 

Note). 
mischen,  syn.,  544. 
Mischmasch,  decl.,  76. 
Misdroy,  pron.,  24. 
Miß,  dec!.,  92. 
miß,  insep.  verbal  suffix,  327; 

meaning,    441;    substantival 

and  adjectival  suffi.x,   432. 
mißbehagen,  syn.,  494  (a). 
mißbrauchen,  syn.,  512,  531. 
missen,  syn.,  512. 
mißfallen,  syn.,  495  (a). 
mißgestimmt,  syn.,  523. 
mißglücken,  s.,  290;  syn.,  495 

(b). 
mißlingen,  s.,   290;   syn.,   495 

(b). 
mißraten,  s.,  290;  syn.,  495  {b). 
mißtrauen,  syn.,  496  (c). 
mißtrauisch,  syn.,  523. 
mit,  pron.,  15;  sep.  prefix,  326; 

syn.,  497  (B);  prep.,  368. 
mithin,  conj.,  390, 
mitleidig,  syn.,  523. 
Mitra,  pron.,  15. 
mitsammen,  343  (H). 
mitsamt,  prep.,  368. 
mitspielen,  syn.,  497  (B). 
mittels,  mittelst,   preps.,  362; 

synonymous  with  von,  durch, 

mit,  362. 
Mittwoch,    dec!.,    76;    gender, 

126. 
mitwirken,  syn.,  520. 
Möbel,  decl.,  90. 
mögen,  conjugation,  317;  uses, 

320;  with  simple  infin.,  276. 
Mohn,  decl.,  74. 


Mohr,  decl.,  74,  87. 

Molch,  decl.,  74. 

Moment,  gender,  96. 

Mond,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  74,  96. 

Monolith,  decl.,  88. 

Moor,  decl.,  77. 

Moos,  decl.,  77,  96. 

Mops,  decl.,  82. 

Morast,  decl.,  84. 

Mord,  decl.,  74;  pi.,  116. 

mörderisch,  syn.,  523. 

Mosaik,  pron.,  23. 

Most,  decl.,  75. 

Muck(s),  decl.,  75. 

müde,  syn.,  516,  523. 

Muff,  decl.,  75;  meaning,  95; 

gender,  125. 
Mund,  decl.,  75. 
munden,  syn.,  495  (a). 
Murks,  decl.,  75. 
Mus,  decl.,  77. 
Muselmann,  decl.,  87. 
Museum,  decl.,  91. 
Musikus,  decl.,  94. 
Muskel,  decl.,  90. 
müssen, conjugation,  317;  uses, 

320;  with  simple  infin.,  276. 
müßig,  syn.,  516. 
Mutter,  decl.,  85,  96. 
Muttermal,  decl.,  77. 
Mutterteil,  gender,  126. 
Mutz,  decl.,  75. 
Myrte,  pron.,  19. 
Mystik,  pron.,  20. 
n,  pron.,  33. 
Nabel,  decl.,  84. 
nach,  pron.,  15,  21;  sep.  prefix, 

326,  369  (/);  syn.,  497  (B); 

prep.,  369. 
nachäffen,  syn.,  505. 
nachahmen,  syn.,  505. 
Nachbar,  decl.,  90. 
nachdem,  conj.,  394  (B);  396 

(D.  1.  A.  b,  E). 
nachdenken,  syn.,  520. 
Nachfahr,  decl.,  87. 
Nachlaß,  decl.,  76. 
nachlassen,  syn.,  520. 
nachmachen,  syn.,  505. 
nachsichtig,  syn.,  523. 
nachsinnen,  syn.,  520. 
nächst,  pron.,  21;  prep.,  369. 
nachsuchen,  syn.,  520. 
Nacht,  decl.,  83. 
nachteilig,  syn.,  523. 
Nachweis,  decl.,  76. 
Nagel,  decl.,  84. 
Nagelmal,  decl.,  77. 
nageln,  syn.,  544. 
nagen,  syn.,  519. 
nahe,  compar.,  142;  syn.,  500 

(a);  sep.  prefix,  497  (B). 
nahen,  sich  nähern,  syn.,  331 

(B.  a),  496  (d). 
-nähme,  suffix,  416  (18.  c). 
nähren,  syn.,  531. 
Naht,  decl.,  83. 
Name,  decl.,  81. 
namens,  prep.,  363. 
namentlich,  conj.,  389,  390. 
nämlich,  pron.,  21;     adj.,  163 

conj.,  387,  388,  389. 


Nanny,  decl.,  106  (6). 

Napf,  decl.,  82. 

Narr,  decl.,  87. 

naschen,  syn.,  509  (1). 

naß,  compar.,  142;  syn.,  523. 

-nd,  suffix,  415. 

neben,  prep.,  384. 

nebst,  pron.,  20;  prep.,  370. 

necken,  syn.,  544. 

nehmen,    grad.,    310;    use    in 

passive    construction,     297; 

syn.,  509  (1),  544. 
neiden,  syn.,  543. 
neidisch,  syn.,  523. 
neigen,  syYi.,  544. 
nennen,  grad.,  315;  with  simple 

infin.,  276;    syn.,    539     [a), 

544. 
-ner,  suffix,  406  (Note). 
Nerv,  dec].,  90. 
Nest,  decl.,  85. 
Netz,  decl.,  77. 
neugierig,  syn.,  523. 
ng,  pron.,  33. 
nich  =  nicht,  351. 
nicht,  origin,  190  (g.  Note   2); 

meaning,  351,  352   (b),  353 

(D.  b),  354  (Ä);  position,  591 

(dd);     —    doch,    351     (B): 

doch  — ,  351   (B);   —  etwa, 

353  (D.  c);  doch—  etwa,  354 

(h) ;  warum  —  gar,  351  (B) ; 

double  and  pleonastic  nicht, 

351  (a). 
nichts,  decl.  and  syn.,  190. 
nichtsdestoweniger,  conj.,  390 

(B). 
Nichtsnutz,  decl.,  93. 
nicken,  syn.,  490  (e). 
nid,  prep.,  370. 
nieder,   sep.   prefix,   326,    341 

(B.a). 
niederkommen,  syn.,  512. 
niederwärts,  prep.,  363. 
niemand,  decl.  and  syn.,  189. 
nießen,  syn.,  511. 
Niet,  decl.,  77. 
nimmer,  346  (2). 
Nimmersatt,  decl.,  93. 
-nis,  suffix,  411;  gender,  124. 
nit  =  nicht,  351. 
nix,  190  (g). 

noch,  345;  noch  —  noch,  389. 
Nock,  decl.,  77. 
Nord,  decl.,  75. 
nördlich,  prep.,  363; 
nordwärts,  prep.,  363. 
Not,  decl.,  83;  not  tun,  syn., 

499  (C);  not  sein,  syn.,  4P9 

(C),  516;  not  haben,  syn., 

516. 
nötig,  von  nöten,  syn.,  516. 
nun,  adv.  conj.,  390;  meaning, 

345;  sub.  conj.,  396  (E). 
Nunzius,  decl.,  91. 
nur,    meaning,   347,   348,    353 

(C),   354    (/),   conj.   with   a 

double     construction,     391; 

nur  mehr  =  nur  noch,  346; 

—  daß,  conj.,  391   (a),  397 

(F). 
Nuß,  decl.,  83. 


INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C.       611 


nutzen,  nützen,  syn.,  495. 

Ö,  pron.,  22. 

Ö,  pron.,  22. 

o,  pron.,  21. 

o,  pron.,  20. 

oa,  pron.,  21,  22. 

ob,  pron.,  15;  sep.  prefix,  326; 

syn.,    497_  (B);   prep.,    370; 

sub.    conj.     in    substantive 

clauses,  394   (1.  d);  in  adj. 

clauses,  394  (2.  d) ;  =  wenn, 

396  (F) ;  =  obgleich,  397 
(G) ;  und  ob  =  obgleich,  397 
(G);  ob  —  ob,  (ib.);  ob  — 
auch,  (ib.);  ob  =  als  ob,  395 
(C.  a). 

ober,  prep.,  384. 
oberhalb,  prep.,  359,  363. 
Oberst,  decl.,  87. 
oberwärts,  prep.,  363. 
obgleich,  conj.,  397  (G). 
obliegen,  sep.  and  insep.,  327 

{Note). 
obschon,  conj.,  397  (G). 
Obst,  pron.,  22. 
obwohl,  conj.,  397  (G). 
Ochs,  decl.,  87. 
oder,  387. 
06,  pron.,  10. 
oey,  pron.,  20. 
Oeynhausen,  pron.,  20. 
Ofen,  decl.,  84. 
offen,  syn.,  523. 
Offizier,  pron.,  18;  decl.,  79. 
oft,  compar.,  145;  sooft,  conj., 

394  (B). 
oh,  pron.,  10. 
öh,  pron.,  20. 

Ohehn,  pron.,  26;  decl.,  76. 
Ohm,  decl.,  75. 
ohne,  prep.,  376;  conj.,  355 

(2),  387;  — daß, 395  (€.&,(/), 

397  (F). 
ohnerachtet,  prep.,  364. 
ohngeachtet,  prep.,  364. 
Ohr,  decl.,  91. 

Öhr,  decl.,  77. 

oi,  pron.,  10. 

Oktant,  decl.,  88. 

Oktroi,  pron.,  22. 

oktroyieren,  pron.,  22. 

Öl,  decl.,  77. 

Olm,  decl.,  75. 

om,  pron.  in  French  words,  24. 

Omnibus,  decl.,  91. 

on,  pron.  in  French  words,  24. 

00,  pron.,  10. 

öppis,  190. 

opponieren,  syn.,  498  (&). 

Orchester,  pron.,  29. 

Ort,  decl.,  75,  96. 

ÖS  =  ihr,  181  ig). 

-öS,  426. 

Ost,  decl.,  75,  96. 

Osten,  pron.,  22. 

Osten,  prep.,  363. 

Ostern,  pron.,  15,  22;  number 

..  and  gender,  113  (1),  117  (a). 

Österreich,  pron.,  20. 

östlich,  prep.,  363. 

ostwärts,  prep.,  363. 

ou,  pron.,  10,  23. 


ow,  pron.,  10,  22. 

oy,  pron.,  10. 

p,  pron.,  10,  26. 

Paar,  decl.,  77;  ein  paar,  171. 

paaren,  syn.,  526  {b,  last  par). 

Pacht,  decl.,  75,  82. 

Pack,   decl.,    75;   gender   and 

meaning,  96. 
packen,  syn.,  544. 
Paff,  decl.,  75. 
Pakt,  decl.,  75. 
Palais,  pron.,  21. 
Palast,  decl.,  84. 
Paletot,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  92. 
Pallasch,  decl.,  76. 
Pantoffel,  decl.,  90  {a.Note). 
Papagei,  decl.,  89. 
Papier,  pron.,  22. 
Papst,  pron.,  15,  21,  decl.,  82. 
parallel,  syn.,  500  (a). 
parieren,  syn.,  496  (c,  d). 
Park,  decl.,  75. 
Part,  decl.,  75. 
Partizipiimi,  decl.,  91. 
Pasch,  decl.,  75,  82. 
Paß,  decl.,  82. 
passen,  syn.,  496  (c). 
passieren,  h.  or  s.,  288;  s.,  290; 

syn.,  495  (6). 
Pastor,  decl.,  79;  pl.  Pastors, 

106  (1). 
Patient,  pron.,  35. 
Patrouille,  pron.,  35. 
Pausback,  decl.,  76. 
Pech,  decl.,  77. 
Pedell,  decl.,  88. 
Pennal,  decl.,  86. 
per,  prep.,  377. 
Petschaft,  decl.,  78. 
pf,  pron.,  35. 
Pfad,  decl.,  75. 
Pf  äff,  decl.,  87. 
Pfahl,  decl.,  82. 
Pfand,  decl.,  85. 
Pfau,  decl.,  87. 
pfeifen,  grad.,  303;  syn.,  497 

ie),  506. 
-pfen,  verbal  suffix,  428. 
Pfenning,  40  {e). 
Pferd,  pron.,  20;  decl.,  77. 
Pfingsten,  number  and  gender, 

113  (1),  117  (a). 
Pfirsich,  decl.  and  gender,  96. 
pflegen,  grad.,  307;  syn.,  512. 
Pflichtteil,  gender,  126. 
Pflock,  decl.,  82. 
Pflug,  decl.,  82. 
Pfropf,  decl.,  75. 
Pfuhl,  decl.,  75. 
pfui,  pron.,  24;  use,  401;  syn., 

554. 
Pfund,  decl.,  77. 
ph,  pron.,  30. 
Phalanx,  decl.,  87  (o). 
Pharao,  decl.,  92. 
Piece,  pron.,  18. 
Piedestal,  pron.,  18. 
Pinguin,  pron.,  23. 
Plan,  decl.,  82. 
Planet,  decl.,  88. 
Platz,  decl.,  82. 
platzen,  s.,  290. 


Plus,  pron.,  23. 

Poch,  decl.,  75. 

pochen,  syn.,  495  (a). 

Pol,  decl.,  75. 

Pommer,  decl.,  87. 

Popanz,  decl.,  76  (c). 

Port,  decl.,  75. 

Posten,  pron.,  22. 

Postilion,  pron.,  35. 

pph,  pron.,  .30. 

Pracht,  decl.,  83. 

Präfekt,  decl.,  88. 

prahlen,  syn.,  520. 

Prahm,  decl.,  75. 

Prall,  decl.,  75. 

Präsent,  decl.,  86. 

präsidieren,  syn.,  499  (&),  520. 

predigen,  syn.,  497  (e). 

preisen,  grad.,  304;  syn.,  539 

{b). 
preisgeben,  syn.,  499  (C). 
pressieren,  syn.,  336  ih). 
Prezel,  pron.,  20. 
Primas,  decl.,  92. 
Prinz,  decl.,  87. 
Prinzip,  decl.,  Ql  {d). 
Produkt,  decl.,  96. 
Profoß,  decl.,  79. 
promenieren,  s.,  292. 
proponieren,  499  {b). 
Propst,  pron.,  15,  22;  decl.,  82. 
Protz,  decl.,  87. 
prüfen,  syn.,  535  (c). 
prügeln,  syn.,  544. 
Psahn,  decl.,  90  (a). 
pseudo-,  prefix,  434  (11). 
pst,  interj.,  401. 
Puff,  decl.,  82. 
Puls,  decl.,  75. 
Pult,  decl.,  77. 
Punkt,  decl.,  75. 
punkto,  prep.,  363. 
Punsch,  decl.,  75. 
pusten,  pron.,  23. 
Putsch,  decl.,  75. 
Putz,  decl.,  75. 
qu,  pron.,  35. 
Qualm,  decl.,  75. 
Quart,  decl.,  77. 
Quarz,  pron.,  14,  21;  decl.,  75. 
quasi-,  prefix,  434  (11). 
Quast,  decl.,  75. 
Quedlinburg,  pron.,  20. 
queUen,  grad.,  305;  s.,  290. 
Queue,  pron.,  20. 
Quitt,  syn.,  516. 
Quotient,  decl.,  88. 
r,  pron.,  32,  34. 
rächen,  grad.,  306;  syn.,  544. 
Rad,  decl.,  85. 
radebrechen,  329. 
Rand,  decl.,  86. 
Ranft,  decl.,  82. 
Rang,  decl.,  82. 
rappeln,  syn.,  336  {h). 
rasen,  s.  or  h.,  291  (a). 
rasend,  syn.,  523. 
Rat,  decl.,  82,  116. 
raten,   grad.,    313;   syn.,   506, 

520,  546  (V). 
ratschlagen,  329. 
Rätsel,  pron.,  21. 


612       INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  cS:(\ 


Ratz,  decl.,  75. 

rauben,  syn.,  525. 

rauchen,  syn.,  520. 

Raum,  decl.,  82. 

Rausch,  decl.,  82. 

Reagens,  decl.,  92. 

Recht,  decl.,  77;  recht  machen, 

syn.,  499  (C). 
rechts,  uninfl.  adj.,  13Ö;  prep., 

363. 
Reck,  dec!.,  77. 
Rede  stehen,  svn.,  499  (C). 
reden,  syn.,  50(),  499  (C). 
Reep,  decl.,  77. 
Reff,  decl.,  77. 
Regiment,  decl.,  SO. 
Reh,  decl.,  77. 

reiben,  grad.,  304;  syn.,  544. 
Reich,  decl.,  77. 
reich,  syn.,  523. 
reichen,  syn.,  520. 
reif,  syn.,  523. 
reimen,  syn.,  520. 
reinigen,  syn.,  531. 
Reis,  decl.,  85. 
reisen,  s.,  292;  syn.,  520. 
reißen,  grad.,  303;  s.,  290. 
reiten,  grad.,  303;  s.  or  h.,  288 

(Note),  291;  with  infin.,  275. 
Relief,  pron.,  13,  19. 
remedieren,  syn.,  495  (b). 
Renaissance,  pron.,  21. 
Rendezvous,  pron.,  23. 
reimen,  grad.,  310,  315. 
Rentier,  pron.,  18. 
Reptil,  decl.,  92  (e). 
respektive,  387. 
Ressort,  pron.,  22. 
Ressource,  pron.,  23. 
Rest,  decl.,  96. 
Restaurant,  decl.,  92. 
reuen,  syn.,  533,  534. 
Reveille,  pron.,  35. 
Revue,  pron.,  19. 
Rhinozeros,  decl.,  92. 
-rich,  suffix,  415. 
richten,  syn.,  545. 
riechen,  grad.,  305;  syn.,  520. 
Ried,  decl.,  77. 
Riff,  decl.,  77. 
Rind,  decl.,  85. 
ringen,  grad.,  308. 
rings,  prep.,  363. 
ringsum,  prep.,  363. 
rinnen,  grad.,  309;  s.,  292. 
rittlings,  prep.,  363. 
Rival,  decl.,  79. 
Robert,  pron.,  21. 
Rock,  decl.,  82. 
Rohr,  decl.,  77,  84. 
Roß,  decl.,  78. 
Rost,  decl.,  75. 
rosten,  s.,  290. 
rot,  compar.,  142;  syn.,  523. 
ruchbar,  pron.,  23. 
Ruck,  decl.,  75. 
Rückgrat,  decl.,  78. 
rücksichtlich,  prep.,  363. 
rückwärts,  prep.,  363. 
Ruf,  decl.,  75. 
rufen,    grad.,    313;    syn.,    .506, 

539  {a). 


ruhig,  syn.,  523. 

rühmen,  syn.,  531,  539  {b). 

rühren,  syn.,  520. 

Rum,  pron.,  23. 

Rumpf,  decl.,  82. 

rümpfen,  syn.,  497  (/),  545. 

Rutsch,  decl.,  75. 

s,  pron.,  29,  31. 

-s,  gen.  ending,  72-3;  as  plural 

sign,  93,  105;  in  compounds, 

448    (B),   449    (ff);  as  adv. 

suffix,   429    (1.   ä),   430    fa), 

453  (A.  a). 
Saal,  decl.,  82. 
Sack,  decl.,  82. 
Saft,  decl.,  82. 
sagen,  syn.,  506,  539  (a),  540 

(B). 
-sal,  pron.,  16;  meaning,  412. 
Salm,  decl.,  75,  88. 
Salomo,  pron.,  16. 
Salpinx,  decl.,  76. 
Salz,  decl.,  78. 
salzen,  grad.,  313. 
-sam,  pron.,  16;  meaning,  425; 

syn.,  501  (a). 
Same,  decl.,  81. 
Samt,  decl.,  75. 
samt,  prep.,  370. 
sämtlich,  decl.,  174. 
Sand,  decl.,  96. 
Sang,  decl.,  82. 
Sarazen(e),  decl.,  88. 
Sarg,  decl,  82. 
Satellit,  decl.,  88. 
satt,  syn.,  516. 
Sattel,  decl.,  84. 
sättigen,  531. 
Satyr,  pron.,  20;  decl.,  92. 
Satz,  decl,  82. 
Sau,  decl,  83,  96. 
sauber,  compar.,  142. 
Sauce,  pron.,  22. 
sauer  werden,  syn.,  499  (C). 
Saufaus,  decl.,  93. 
saufen,  grad.,  306. 
saugen,  grad.,  307. 
Saum,  decl.,  82. 
Savoyen,  pron.,  24. 
sch,  pron.,  29. 
-sch,  see  isch. 
Schacht,  decl.,  75,  82. 
Schaden,  decl.,  84. 
schaden,  syn.,  495  (b). 
schädlich,  syn.,  500  (a). 
Schaf,  decl.,  78. 
schaffen,  grad.,  313. 
Schaft,  decl.,  82. 
-schaft,  412. 
Schalk,  decl.,  75. 
Schall,  decl.,  75. 
schallen,  grad.,  305. 
schämen,  531. 
scharf,  compar.,  142. 
Schatz,  decl.,  82. 
schätzen,  syn.,  545. 
Schaum,  decl.,  82. 
schäumen,  syn.,  520. 
-sehe,  suffix,  407  {Note  2). 
Scheck,  decl.,  87. 
scheiden,  grad.,  304;  s.,  292. 
scheinen,     grad.,     304,     with 


modal     verbal,     260;     with 
infin.    with    zu    with   active 
force,  269  ((3)). 
Scheit,  decl.,  96. 
scheitern,  s.,  290. 
schellen,  grad.,  305;  syn.,  497 

(e),  506. 
Schelm,  decl.,  87. 
schelten,  grad.,  309;  syn.,  520, 

528,  539  (a),  54.5. 
-sehen,  verbal  suffix,  428. 
Schenk,  decl.,  87. 
schenken,  with  infin.  witli  zu, 

272;  syn.,  509  (1). 
scheren,  grad.,  307. 
scherzen,  syn.,  512,  520. 
Scherzo,  pron.,  30. 
scheuen,  syn.,  531. 
schicken,  with  infin.  with  zu, 
272;  with  simple  infin.,  275; 
syn.,  520,  545. 
schieben,  grad.,  306. 
schielen,  syn.,  520. 
schier,  meaning,  348. 
schießen,  grad.,  305;  syn.,  520. 
Schiff,  decl.,  78. 
Schild,  decl.,  85,  96. 
schildern,  syn.,  539  (b). 
Schilf,  decl.,  78. 
schimpfen,  grad.,  309   (1.  a); 

syn.,  520,  539  (a). 
schimpflich,  syn.,  523. 
schinden,  grad.,  308. 
Schlaf,  decl.,  82. 
schlafen,  grad.,  313. 
Schlag,  decl.,  82. 
schlagen,  grad.,  313;  h.  or  s., 
290;  with  infin.  with  zu,  272; 
reflex.,  332  (6);  syn.,  490  (e), 
545. 
Schlagetot,  decl.,  93. 
Schlaks,  decl.,  75. 
Schlamp,  decl.,  75. 
Schlaps,  decl.,  75. 
Schlauch,  decl.,  82. 
schleichen,  grad.,  303;  s.,  292; 
with  simple  infin.,  275;  syn., 
514. 
schleifen,  grad.,  303. 
schleißen  (intrans.),  grad.,  303; 

s.,  290. 
Schleswig,  pron.,  20. 
schliefen,  grad.,  305. 
schließen,  grad.,  305;  syn.,  545. 
schlingen,  grad.,  308. 
Schloß,  decl.,  85. 
Schlot,  decl.,  75. 
Schlucht,  decl.,  83. 
Schluck,  decl,  75. 
Schluft,  decl.,  83. 
Schlund,  decl.,  82. 
Schlupf,  decl.,  82. 
Schlurf,    decl.,  82. 
Schluß,  decl.,  82. 
Schmach,  pron.,  21. 
schmähen,  syn.,  520. 
schmal,  compar.,  142. 
schmatzen,  syn.,  490  (e). 
Schmaus,  decl.,  82. 
schmecken,  syn.,  495  {a). 
schmeicheln,  syn.,  495  (o),  495 
{Note),  531. 


INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C.       613 


schmeißen,  grad.,  303. 
schmelzen,  grad.,  305;  s.,  200. 
Schmerz,  decl.,  90. 
schmerzlich,  syn.,  523. 
schmiegen,  syn.,  545. 
schmollen,  syn.,  495  (a). 
Schmuck,  dec!.,  75. 
schmunzeln,  syn.,  497  (/). 
Schnabel,  decl.,  84. 
Schnaps,  decl.,  82. 
schnauben,  grad.,  307. 
schneiden,  grad.,  303. 
schneien,  grad.,  314. 
Schnur,  decl.,  83. 
Schock,  decl.,  78. 
Schof,  decl.,  75. 
schon,  meanings  346,  351  ii,j). 
schonen,  syn.,  497  (g),  512. 
Schopf,  decl.,  82. 
Schöps,  decl.,  87. 
Schorf,  decl.,  75. 
Schoß,  decl.,  75. 
Schoß,  decl.,  82. 
Schott,  decl.,  78. 
Schrank,  decl.,  82. 
Schrapnell,  decl.,  93. 
schrauben,  grad.,  307. 
schrecken,  grad.,  310. 
schreiben,    grad.,    304;    syn., 

497  (e),    520,    545;    reflex., 

332  (b). 
schreien,  grad.,  304;  syn.,  497 

(e),  506,  520. 
schreiten,  grad.,  303;  s.,  292; 

syn.,  514  (a). 
schrinden,  grad.,  308. 
Schrot,  decl.,  78. 
schroten,  grad.,  313. 
Schrund,  decl.,  82. 
Schub,  decl.,  82. 
Schublaejack,  decl.,  93. 
schüchtern,  syn.,  523. 
Schuft,  decl.,  75. 
Schuh,  decl.,  75. 
Schuhu,  decl.,  76. 
schuld  geben,  haben,  syn.,  527. 
schuldig,  syn.,  516. 
schuldlos,  syn.,  523. 
Schultheiß,  decl.,  88. 
Schupf,  decl.,  75. 
Schupp,  decl.,  75. 
Schürf,  decl.,  82. 
Schurz,  decl.,  75,  96. 
Schuß,  decl.,  82. 
schütteln,   syn.,   336    (a),   490 

W). 
schützen,  syn.,  545. 
schwach,  compar.,    142;   svn., 

523. 
Schwager,  decl.,  84. 
Schwalch,  decl.,  75. 
Schwamm,  decl.,  82. 
Schwan,  decl.,  82. 
schwanen,  syn.,  496  (d). 
Schwang,  decl.,  82. 
Schwank,  decl.,  82. 
schwanken,  syn.,  514   (a). 
Schwanz,  decl.,  82. 
schwären,  grad.,  307;  s.  or  h., 

290. 
Schwärm,  decl.,  82. 
schwärmen,  syn.,  520. 


schwarz,  pron.,  22;  compar., 
142;  syn.,  523. 

schweben,  h.  or  s.,  289. 

Schwedt,  pron.,  20. 

schweigen,  grad.,  304;  syn., 
497  (g),  512. 

Schwein,  decl.,  78. 

schwellen,  grad.,  305;  s.,  290. 

Schwert,  pron.,  14,  20;  decl., 
85. 

Schwetz,  pron.,  20. 

schwimmen,  grad.,  309;  s.  or 
h.,  291  (a). 

schwindeln,  syn.,  336  (b). 

schwinden,  grad.,  308;  s.,  292. 

schwingen,  grad.,  308. 

Schwof,  decl.,  75. 

schwören,  grad.,  308,  313; 
syn.,  495  (a),  520. 

Schwulst,  decl.,  83,  96. 

Schwung,  decl.,  82. 

Schwur,  decl.,  82. 

Schwyz,  pron.,  18. 

Scipio,  decl.,  106  (b). 

See,  decl.,  90;  gender,  96. 

segeln,  s.,  292;  with  infin.,  275; 
syn.,  520. 

segnen,  syn.,  497  (g). 

sehen,  grad.,  312;  with  modal 
verbal,  260;  with  simple 
infin.,  277;  with  dependent 
infin.  which  has  passive 
force,  281;  syn.,  539  (b). 

sehnen,  syn.,  545. 

Seil,  decl.,  78. 

sein,  grad.,  312;  use  as  auxil- 
iary of  tense,  287-293;  aux. 
of  voice,  296  (B),  297-8  (4); 
s.,  289;  with  the  modal 
verbal,  259;  with  the  simple 
infin.,  275  {b),  270  (4);  with 
the  prep,  infin.,  270  (4); 
syn.,  495  (b),  496  (c);  omis- 
sion of,  283  (Ö),  463  {b. 
Note),  558  (4). 

seinesgleichen,  208. 

seinethalben,  180. 

seinetwegen,  180. 

seinetwillen,  180. 

seit,  prep.,  370;  conj.,  394  (B), 
396  (E). 

seitab,  prep.,  363. 

seitdem,  conj.,  394  (B). 

seitens,  prep.,  363. 

seitlich,  prep.,  363. 

seitwärts,  prep.,  363. 

sekundieren,  syn.,  495  (b). 

-sei,  suffix,  412. 

selbander,  152  (c.  (2)). 

selber,  188. 

selbst,  188;  adv.,  188;  conj., 
389;  —  wenn,  397  (G). 

selbzweit,  152  (c.  (2)). 

selig,  syn.,  516. 

-selig,  suffix,  426,  412  (2). 

-sen,  verbal  suffix,  428. 

senden,  grad.,  315;  syn.,  509 

sengen,  fact.,  309  (c). 
Seraph,  decl.,  94. 
setzen,  with  simple  infin.,  275. 
sich  =  uns,  186  (1.  b). 


sicher,  syn.,  516. 

sichern,  syn.,  528. 

Sieb,  decl.,  78. 

sieden,  grad.,  305. 

Siel,  decl.,  78. 

Signal,  pron.,  16,  29. 

singen,  grad.,  308. 

sinken,  grad.,  308;  s.,  292; 
syn.,  497  (/). 

Sinn,  decl.,  90. 

sinnen,  grad.,  309. 

sint,  conj.,  396  (E). 

sintemal,  conj.,  396  (E). 

sir  =  sich,  186  (Note). 

sitzen,  grad.,  312;  h.  or  s.,  289; 
syn.,  496  (f);  with  prep, 
infin.,  270  ((4));  with  pres. 
part.,  270  ((4)). 

Skalp,  decl.,  75. 

Ski,  decl.,  86. 

so,  sub.  conj.,  396-7  (F,  G); 
co-ord.  conj.,  390;  rel.  pro- 
noun 203  (5);  after  condit. 
or  concess.  clause,  558  (2 
a);  so  doch  =  obgleich,  397 
(G). 

sobald,  sub.  conj.,  394  (B),  398 
(1.  c). 

Sod,  decl.,  75. 

sofern,  sub.  conj.,  396  (1.  A. 
c). 

Sog,  decl.,  75. 

sogar,  word-order  after,  391. 

Sohn,  decl.,  82. 

solange,  sub.  conj.,  394  (B), 
398  (1.  c). 

solch,  decl.,  159;  use  as  a  de- 
terminative, 160;  use  in- 
stead of  a  personal  pronoun, 
the  numeral  ein,  the  indef. 
welch,  the  determinative 
der,  160,  181-2. 

solchergestalt,  349. 

solchermaßen,  349. 

sollen,  conjugation,  317;  uses, 
321;  with  simple  infin.,  276. 

somit,  conj.,  390. 

sonach,  390. 

sonder,  prep.,  377. 

sondern,  387;  compared  with 
aber  and  allein,  388. 

söner  =  ihr,  164  (136.  a). 

sonstwer,  190  (e). 

sorgen,  syn.,  497  (g),  512. 

soweit,  sub.  conj.,  396  (1.  A. 
c). 

sowie,  conj.,  387,  394  (B),  395 
(C.  a). 

sowohl  —  als  (wie),  387,  388. 

sp,  pron.,  11,  30,  31. 

Spalt,  decl.,  75,  96. 

spalten,  grad.,  313, 

Span,  decl.,  82. 

Spann,  decl.,  75. 

Spant,  decl.,  91. 

sparen,  syn.,  512. 

sparsam,  syn.,  523. 

Spaß,  decl.,  82. 

Spat,  decl.,  75. 

Spatz,  decl.,  88. 

speien,  grad.,  304. 

speisen,  grad.,  315. 


614       INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


spenden,  syn.,  509  (1). 

Sphinx,  decl.,  76. 

Spiel,  decl.,  78. 

spielen,  syn.,  492  (A),  512. 

Spill,  decl.,  78. 

Spind,  decl.,  78. 

spinnen,  grad.,  309. 

Spital,  decl.,  86. 

Spitz,  decl.,  88. 

spleißen,  grad.,  303;  s.,  290. 

Sporn,  decl.,  90. 

spotten,  syn.,  513,  539  (a). 

sprechen,  grad.,  310;  past  in- 
die, sprach,  pron.,  21;  past 
subj.  spräche,  pron.,  21; 
syn.,  506,  520. 

sprengen,  292  (D);  309  (c). 

sprießen,  grad.,  305;  s.,  290. 

Spriet,  decl.,  78. 

springen,  grad.,  308;  with  sim- 
ple infin.,  275;  s.,  290;  leek, 
or  ein  (en)  Leek  — ,  290. 

Springinsfeld,  decl.,  76. 

Sproß,  decl.,  75. 

sprossen,  h.  or  s.,  290. 

Spruch,  decl.,  82. 

Sprung,  decl.,  82. 

Spuk,  decl.,  75. 

Spund,  decl.,  82. 

spüren,  with  simple  infin.,  277. 

ss,  ß,  17  (D.  a)  30  (2). 

st,  pron.,  30,  31. 

Staat,  decl.,  90. 

Stab,  decl.,  82. 

Stachel,  decl.,  90. 

Stadt,  decl.,  83;  pi.  Städte, 
pron.,  21. 

Stag,  decl.,  78. 

Stahl,  decl.,  75. 

Stahl  (en),  82. 

sta(h)n,  grad.,  313. 

Staks,  decl.,  75. 

Stall,  decl.,  82. 

Stamm,  decl.,  82. 

Stand,  decl.,  82. 

standhalten,  syn.,  499  (C). 

Star,  decl.,  75. 

stark,  compar.,  142. 

starren,  syn.,  520. 

Start,  decl.,  75. 

starten,  s.  or  h.,  287  (3). 

Statut,  decl.,  92. 

statt,  prep.,  359;  conj.,  355  (2. 
o,  b),  387;  —  daß,  395  (C. 
d). 

staunen,  syn.,  513. 

stechen,  grad.,  310;  past  indie, 
stach,  pron.,  21. 

stecken,  grad.,  310;  h.  or  s., 

289;  syn.,  545. 
stehen,   grad.,   313;  h.  or  s., 
289;  with  modal  verbal,  260 
with     simple     infin.,      275 
with  prep,  infin.,  270  ((4)) 
with  pres.  part.,  270   ((4)) 
syn.,  466  (o),  496  (c),  506, 
545;   zu    Diensten  — ,   499 
(C);Rede— ,  499  (C). 
stehlen,  grad.,  311. 
steif,  syn.,  523. 
steigen,  grad.,  304;  s.,  292. 
Steinmetz,  decl.,  88. 


Stelldichein,  decl.,  93. 

Stephan,  pron.,  21. 

sterben,   grad.,   310;   s.,    290; 

syn.,  509  (1st  par.),  520. 
stets,  pron.,  20. 
steuern,  syn.,  496  (d),  506. 
sticheln,  syn.,  520. 
stieben,  grad.,  306, 
Stiefel,  decl.,  90. 
Stift,  decl.,  85. 
stimmen,  syn.,  495  (6). 
stinken,  grad.,  308. 
Stock,  decl.,  75,  82,  96. 
Stoff,  decl.,  75. 
stolz,  syn.,  523. 
Stopf,  decl.,  75. 
Storch,  decl.,  82. 
Stoß,  decl.,  82. 

stoßen,  grad.,  313;  syn.,  545. 
strafen,  syn.,  528. 
Strahl,  decl.,  90. 
strahlen,  syn.,  520. 
Strand,  decl.,  75. 
stranden,  s.,  292. 
Strang,  decl.,  82. 
Strauch,  decl.,  82,  86. 
straucheln,  s.,  292. 
Strauß,  decl.,  75. 
streben,  syn.,  520. 
streichen,  grad.,  303. 
streiten,  grad.,  303. 
streng,  syn.,  523. 
streuen,  syn.,  495  (b). 
Strolch,  decl.,  75. 

Strom,  decl.,  82. 

Strumpf,  decl.,  82. 

Strunk,  decl.,  82. 

Stück,  decl.,  78. 

Student,  decl.,  88. 

studieren,  syn.,  381    (c),  492 
(A). 

Stuhl,  decl.,  82. 

Stumpf,  decl.,  82. 

stunden,  syn.,  495  (b). 

Stupf,  decl.,  75. 

Stups,  decl.,  75. 

Sturm,  decl.,  82. 

Sturm,  compar.,  142  (4). 

Sturz,  decl.,  82. 

stürzen,  s.,  292. 

stutzen,  syn.,  520. 

stützen,  syn.,  545. 

subskribieren,  syn.,  520. 

substituieren,  syn.,  499  {b). 

suchen,  pron.,  23;  syn.,   520, 
545. 

Sucht j  decl.,  83. 

Sud,  decl.,  75. 

südlich,  prep.,  363. 

südwärts,  prep.,  363. 

suggerieren,  syn.,  499  {b). 

sukzedieren,  syn.,  499  (b). 

Sumpf,  decl.,  82. 

Sund,  decl.,  75. 

super-,  prefix,  434  (11). 

Surtout,  pron.,  20. 

Sympathie,  pron.,  20. 

Synkope,  pron.,  34. 

t,  pron.,  26,  27. 

Tabak,  decl.,  76. 

tadeln,  syn.,  545. 

Taft,  decl.,  75. 


Tag,  decl.,  75. 

Takt,  decl.,  75. 

Tal,  decl.,  85. 

Talg,  decl.,  75. 

Talisman,  decl.,  76. 

Talk,  decl.,  75. 

Tang,  decl.,  75. 

Tank,  decl.,  75. 

Tanz,  decl.,  82. 

Taps,  decl,  75. 

Taß,  decl.,  75. 

tasten,  syn.,  332  (D). 

Tatar,  decl.,  88. 

täte  er  =  wenn  er  nicht  wäre, 
225  (Note). 

Tau,  decl.,  78. 

taub,  syn.,  523. 

taufen,  syn.,  539  (a). 

taugen,  syn.,  495  (b),  521. 

Taugenichts,  decl.,  93. 

tauglich,  syn.,  523. 

Tausend,  decl.,  78. 

taxieren,  syn.,  545. 

Team,  decl.,  92. 

Teil,  decl.,  78;  gender  and 
meaning,  96,  126;  zuteil 
werden,  syn.,  499  (C). 

teilhaben,  syn.,  521. 

teilhaft,  teilhaftig,  syn.,  516. 

teilnehmen,  syn.,  521. 

teils  —  teils,  conj.,  390. 

-tel,  suffix,  413. 

Telegraph,  decl.,  88. 

telegraphieren,  syn.,  497  (e). 

telephonieren,  syn.,  497  (e). 

Tenor,  decl.,  79,  84. 

Terrain,  pron.,  21. 

Tesching,  decl.,  78. 

Teufel  =  nicht,  353  (B.  d). 

th,  pron.,  28. 

Theseus,  pron.,  23. 

Thron,  decl.,  75. 

ti,  pron.,  35  (3.  (10)). 

Tief,  decl.,  78. 

Tier,  decl.,  78. 

tk  =  ihr,  180  (e.  Note). 

Titan,  decl.,  79. 

titulieren,  syn.,  539  (a). 

Toast,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  75. 

Tochter,  decl.,  84. 

Tod,  decl.,  75,  116. 

Toilette,  pron.,  22. 

toll,  syn.,  523. 

Tolpatsch,  decl.,  76. 

Ton,  decl.,  82. 

Topf,  decl.,  82. 

Topp,  decl.,  90. 

Tor,  decl.,  78,  88. 

torkeln,  syn.,  514  (a). 

tot,  syn.,  523. 

Tour,  pron.,  23. 

trachten,  syn.,  521. 

tragen,  grad.,  313;  with  simple 
infin.,  277;  syn.,  545;  Rech- 
nung — ,  syn.,  499  (C). 

Trakt,  decl.,  75. 

Tran,  decl.,  75. 

Trank,  decl.,  82. 

Transit,  decl.,  76. 

Trapezoid,  pron.,  10. 

Traß,  decl.,  75. 

Trauch,  decl.,  75. 


INDEX   OF   GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C.       615 


trauen,  syn.,  496  (c),  504,  521. 

trauern,  syn.,  521. 

Traum,  decl.,  82. 

träumen,  syn.,  336  (b),  496  (d), 

521,  539  (a). 
traurig,  syn.,  523. 
treffen,  grad.,  311;  with  infin. 

with   zu,    272;   with   simple 

infin.,  277  {d}. 
treiben,  grad.,  304. 
trennen,  syn.,  545. 
treten,  grad.,  312;  h,  or  s.,  292; 

syn.,  521. 
treu,  syn.,  500  (a). 
treulos,  syn.,  523. 
Tribun,  decl.,  92. 
triefen,  grad.,  305;  syn.,  521. 
triegen  =  trügen,  307. 
trinken,  grad.,  308;  syn.,  509 

(1),  521. 
Triumvir,  decl.,  92. 
trocknen,  h.  or  s.,  290  (c). 
Trog,  decl.,  82. 
Troisdorf,  pron.,  22. 
Troll,  decl.,  75. 
Tropf,  decl.,  82,  96. 
Trosch,  decl.,  75. 
Troß,  decl.,  75. 
trösten,  syn.,  528,  531. 
trotz,  prep.,  363. 
trotzdem,  conj.,  390,  397  (G), 

399. 
trotzen,  syn.,  495  (a). 
Truchseß,  decl.,  88. 
trügen,  grad.,  307. 
Trimmi,  decl.,  85. 
Trumpf,  decl.,  82. 
Trupp,  decl.,  75,  97. 
Tuch,  pron.,  23;  decl,  78,  97. 
Tuff,  decl.,  75. 
Tuilerie,  pron.,  19. 
-tum,    pron.,     16;    dec!.,    85; 

meaning,  413. 
tun,   grad.,   316;   with  simple 

infin.,  278;  with  infin.  with 

zu,  279;!  syn.,  495   (a),  499 

(C),  513,  545. 
Tunichtgut,  decl,  93. 
Tupf,  decl.,  75. 
Turban,  decl.,  92. 
Turm,  decl.,  82. 
Tusch,  decl.,  75. 
tz,  pron.,  35. 
Ü,  pron.,  22. 
Ü,  pron.,  23. 
u,  pron.,  19. 
Ü,  pron.,  19. 
u  =  Ü,  19,  20. 
Übel,  syn.,  336  (b),  500  (b). 
über,  prep.,   384;  prefix,  sep. 

and   insep.,    327;   syn.,    497 

(B);  —  sein,  500  (a). 
überdies,  conj.,  389. 
überdrüssig,  syn.,  516. 
überführen,  syn.,  528. 
überhaupt,  meaning,  348. 
überheben,  syn.,  528,  532. 
Überhin,  prep.,  364. 
überhoben,  syn.,  516. 
überhören,  syn.,  535  (c),  536. 
überkommen,   h.   or   s.,    288; 

syn.,  506. 


überlassen,  with  infin.  with 
zu,  272. 

überlegen,  syn.,  523. 

überrascht,  syn.,  523. 

überreden,  syn.,  537. 

überschütten,  syn.,  545. 

überströmen,  syn.,  521. 

übertragbar,  syn.,  524. 

überwältigt,  syn.,  524. 

überweisen,  syn.,  528. 

überzeugen,  syn.,  528,  532. 

übrig,  decl.,  175. 

übrigens,  conj.,  390. 

Üchtritz,  pron.,  19. 

u.  dgl.  =  und  dergleichen. 

Uhu,  pron.,  26;  decl.,  76. 

ui,  pron.,  11,  24  (4). 

Ulan,  decl.,  79. 

Ulk,  decl.,  75. 

Uhich,  pron.,  23. 

um,  pron.,  15,  23;  prep.,  377; 
prefix,  sep.  or  insep.,  327; 
syn.,  sometimes  with  dat., 
497  (B). 

um,  pron.  in  French  words,  24. 

tun  —  willen,  364;  um  deswil- 
len, weil,  155  (a). 

umgeben,  syn.,  524. 

umhin,  319  (2.  b),  569  (a), 
570  (c). 

umkommen,  syn.,  521. 

umwölkt,  syn.,  524. 

un-,  prefix,  433. 

un,  pron.,  in  French  words,  24. 

unachtend,  syn.,  517. 

unangesehen,  prep.,  364. 

Unart,  decl.,  76  (b). 

unbekümmert,  syn.,  517,  524. 

unbemerkbar,  syn.,  524. 

unbeschadet,  prep.,  364. 

und,  conj.,  387;  question  order 
after,  388;  —  zwar,  389; 
—  wenn,  397  (G) . 

undurchdringlich,  syn.,  524. 

unempfänglich,  syn.,  524. 

unempfindlich,  syn.,  524. 

unentwegt,  308  (c). 

unerachtet,  prep.,  364;  conj., 
397  (G). 

unfern,  prep.,  364. 

unfreundlich,  syn.,  524. 

-ung,  414;  -ungen,  408  (a). 

Ungar,  decl.,  88. 

ungeachtet,  prep.,  364;  conj., 
397  (G). 

ungeduldig,  syn.,  524. 

ungehalten,  syn.,  524. 

ungerechnet,  prep.,  364. 

ungewiß,  syn.,  524. 

ungläubig,  syn.,  517. 

Unhold,  decl.,  76. 

unschuldig,  syn.,  516. 

unsereins,  unsereiner,  209. 

unseresgleichen,  208. 

unsichtbar,  syn.,  524. 

unter,  prefix,  sep.  or  insep., 
327;  syn.,  497  (B);  prep., 
385. 

unterdes  or  unterdessen,  co- 
ordinating or  subordinating 
conj.,  390,  394,  399. 

unterfangen,  syn.,  532. 


unterhalb,  prep.,  359. 

unterhalten,  syn.,  545. 

unterliegen,  h.  or  s.,  289. 

unterrichten,  syn.,  537. 

Unterschlupf,  decl.,  76. 

unterstehen,  syn.,  532,  538. 

Untertan,  decl.,  88. 

unterwärts,  prep.,  364. 

unterwege(n),  344. 

unterwegs,  344. 

unterweisen,  syn.,  537  (/). 

unterwinden,  syn.,  525  (6),  532. 

unterziehen,  syn.,  532. 

unweit,  prep.,  364. 

unwissend,  syn.,  517. 

uo,  pron.,  11. 

Ur,  decl.,  75. 

IU--,  prefix,  433. 

-ur,  sufiix,  417  {k). 

Urlaub,  decl.,  76. 

Urteil,  decl.,  78. 

urteilen,  syn.,  521. 

usw.  =  vmd  so  weiter. 

-ut,  pron.,  16. 

V,  pron.,  11,  30,  32. 

Vater,  decl.,  84. 

ver-,  pron.,  16  (c);  insep.  pre- 
fix, 327;  meaning,  438-41. 

verantworten,  syn.,  532. 

verargwohnen,  syn.,  526. 

verbergen,  syn.,  545. 

verbleichen,  grad.,  303;  syn., 
513. 

Verbot,  decl.,  78. 

verbreiten,  syn.,  545. 

Verb  (um),  decl.,  92. 

verdächtig,  syn.,  517. 

verdächtigen,  syn.,  528. 

verdenken,  syn.,  528. 

verderben,  grad.,  310. 

verderblich,  syn.,  524. 

verdienen,  syn.,  513. 

Verdienst,  gender,  97. 

verdingen,  syn.,  539  (b). 

verdrießen,  grad.,  305;  syn., 
533,  534. 

Verein,  decl.,  76. 

verfahren,  h.  or  s.,  291. 

verfallen,  syn.,  496  (d). 

verfehlen,  syn.,  511. 

verfluchen,  syn.,  495  (a). 

vergeben,  syn.,  495  (b),  507. 

vergehen,  syn.,  545. 

vergessen,  grad.,  312;  with 
infin.  with  zu,  or  sometimes 
with  a  simple  infin.,  276; 
syn.,  513. 

vergessen,  adj.  part.,  syn.,  517. 

vergewissern,  syn.,  528,  532. 

Vergißmeinnicht,  decl.,  78,  93. 

Vergleich,  decl.,  76. 

vergleichbar,  syn.,  524. 

vergleichen,  syn.,  526  (&). 

Verhack,  decl.,  76. 

verhaften,  545. 

verhängen,  syn.,  545. 

verharren,  h.  or  s.,  289. 

Verhau,  decl.,  76. 

verheiraten,  syn.,  545. 

verhelfen,  syn.,  493  (c),  546 
(V). 

verhindern,  syn.,  497  (g). 


616       INDEX   OF  'GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C. 


verhören,  syn.,  535  (c),  53(i. 

verjagen,  syn.,  528. 

verkaufen,  syn.,  545. 

verklagen,  s^m.,  528,  545. 

verkleiden,  syn.,  545. 

verkuppeln,  syn.,  545. 

verladen,  syn.,  545. 

verlangen,  syn.,  513,  533,  534, 
545. 

verlassen,  syn.,  545. 

verlässigen,  syn.,  545. 

verleiden,  grad.,  303. 

verletzt,  syn.,  524. 

verleugnen,  syn.,  513,  532. 

verlieben,  syn.,  545. 

verliebt,  syn.,  524. 

verlieren,  grad.,  30G;  syn.,  545. 

Verlies,  decl.,  78. 

verloben,  syn.,  545. 

verlobt,  syn.,  524. 

verlohnen,  syn.,  531. 

Verlust,  decl.,  76. 

verlustig,  syn.,  517. 

verlustigt,  syn.,  517. 

vermählen,  syn.,  545. 

vermessen,  syn.,  532. 

vermieten,  syn.,  539  (b). 

vermissen,  syn.,  513. 

vermittels,  vermittelst,  prep., 
364;  synonymous  with  von, 
durch,  mit,  362. 

vermöge,  prep.,  364;  synony- 
mous with  kraft  and  ver- 
mittels, 362. 

vermögen,  syn.,  532,  545. 

vermuten,  syn.,  532. 

vermutend,  syn.,  517. 

vernehmen,  with  simple  infin., 
277. 

verraten,  545. 

verrucht,  pron.,  23. 

versagen,  syn.,  495  (b),  532. 

verschieben,  syn.,  545. 

verschieden,  syn.,  524. 

verschonen,  syn.,  497  (g),  512. 

versehen,  syn.,  532. 

verseigen,  grad.,  314. 

versichern,  syn.,  507,  528,  532. 

versichert,  syn.,  517. 

verständig,  syn.,  517. 

Versteck,  decl.,  78. 

verstecken,  syn.,  545. 

verstehen,  syn.,  532,  538,  545. 

Versuch,  decl.,  76. 

vertagen,  syn.,  545. 

vertauschen,  syn.,  545. 

verteilen,  syn.,  545. 

Vertrag,  decl.,  83. 

vertrauen,  syn.,  496  (c). 

vertrösten,  syn.,  532. 

verwägen,  grad.,  307;  syn.,  532. 

verwandt,  syn.,  524. 

verwarnen,  syn.,  528. 

verwegen,  grad.,  307;  syn..  532. 

verweigern,  syn.,  524,  532. 

verweilen,  syn.,  521. 

Verweis,  decl.,  76. 

verweisen,  syn.,  528,  54('). 

verwenden,  syn.,  546. 

verwegen,  307  (2). 

verworren,  grad.,  310. 

verwundern,  syn.,  532. 


verzagen,  syn.,  513. 

verzeihen,  syn.,  495,  507,  532. 

Verzicht,  decl.,  76. 

verzichten,  syn.,  521. 

Vesper,  gender,  97. 

Veteran,  decl.,  79. 

Vetter,  decl.,  90. 

Vieh,  decl.,  85. 

viel,  decl.,  175. 

Vielflach,  decl.,  78. 

Vielfraß,  dec!.,  76. 

Viertel,  pron.,  19. 

vierzehn,  pron.,  19. 

Villa,  dec!.,  92. 

Violoncell,  pron.,  31. 

vize-,  prefix,  4.34  (11). 

Vlies,  decl.,  78. 

Vogel,  decl,  84. 

Vogelscheu,  gender,  126. 

Vogt,  pron.,  22;  decl.,  82. 

Volk,  decl.,  85. 

voll,  prefix,  Sep.  or  insep.,  327; 

adj.,  voll  or  voller,  137  (8); 

syn.,  517. 
Vollblut,  decl.,  78. 
vollends,  word-order  after,  391. 
von,    pron.,     15;     prep.,    370; 

von  .  .  .  selten,  prep.,  364; 

von  .  .  .  wegen,  prep.,  364. 
vor,  pron.,  15;  sep.  prefix,  326; 

syn.,  497  (B);  prep.,  386. 
vorauf,  syn.,  497  (B). 
voraus,  syn.,  497  (B). 
vorbehaltlich,  prep.,  365. 
vorbei,  syn.,  497  (B),  507. 
vorbereiten,  syn.,  546. 
-vörde,  pron.,  20. 
Vorfahr,  decl.,  88. 
vorgängig,  prep.,  372. 
vorher,  syn.,  497  (B). 
vorkommen,  syn.,  561   (b). 
Vormund,  decl.,  86. 
vorsprechen,  syn.,  521. 
Vorteil,  pron.,  22. 
vorteilhaft,  syn.,  524. 
vorüber  or  vorbei  in  connection 

with  verb  of  motion,  s.,  2SS; 

syn.,  507. 
Vorwand,  decl.,  83. 
vorwärts,  prep.,  365. 
w,  pron.,  31. 
wachen,  syn.,  384  (über,  1  (a). 

Note),  513,  495  (b). 
wachsam,  syn.,  524. 
wachsen,  grad.,  313;  s.,  290. 
Wagen,  decl.,  84. 
wägen,  grad.,  306. 
wählen,  syn.,  540  (d). 
wähnen,  with  simple  infin.  or 

pres.  part.,  277;  syn.,  539  (a). 
wahren,  syn.,  513. 
während,  prep.,  365;  sub.  conj., 

394  (B.  a),  397  (G). 
wahrnehmen,  syn.,  513. 
Wal,  decl.,  75. 
Wald,  decl.,  86. 
Walfisch,  pron.,  22. 
Walküre,  pron.,  22. 
Wall,  decl.,  82. 
Wallach,  decl.,  76. 
Walm,  dec!.,  75. 
Walnuß,  pron.,  22. 


Walroß,  pron.,  22. 

walten,  syn.,  513. 

Wams,  decl.,  85. 

Wand,  decl.,  83. 

wandeln,  s.,  292;  with  simple 
infin.,   27.5. 

wandern,  s.,  292. 

wann,  conj.,  adv.,  399  (9),  394 
(B.  b). 

Wanst,  decl.,  82. 

Want,  decl-,  91. 

Warl,  decl.,  75. 

warm,  comp.,  142;  syn.,  3.36, 
499  (Cj. 

warnen,  syn.,  528,  546. 

Warp,  decl.,  7.5. 

Wart,  decl.,  75. 

warten,  pron.,  22;  syn.,  513. 

-warts,  adv.  suffix,  429. 

warum  =  worum,  342. 

was,  interrog.  pronoun,  pron., 
15,  22,  decl.,  191;  rel.,  use, 
205;    =  als,  399. 

waschen,  grad.,  313. 

Wasser,  decl.,  84. 

Watt,  decl.,  91. 

Wau,  decl.,  75. 

Wauwau,  decl.,  76. 

weben,  grad.,  307. 

wedeln,  syn.,  490  (e). 

weder,  sub.  conj.,  396  (B), 
399  (7);  weder  —  noch  (or 
oder,  or  weder),  correl. 
conj.,  389. 

weg,  pron.,  13,  15;  sep.  prefix, 
326;  meaning  compared  with 
that  of  fort,  342. 

-weg,  429  (e). 

wegen,  prep.,  360,  365. 

wegwerfen,  syn.,  546. 

weh(e),  syn.,  555. 

Wehl,  decl.,  78. 

Wehr,  decl.,  78,  97. 

wehren,  syn.,  496  (d),  532. 

wehtun,  syn.,  499  (C). 

Weib,  decl.,  85. 

weichen,  grad.,  303;  s.,  292; 
syn.,  496  (d). 

weigern,  syn.,  532. 

Weih,  decl.,  88. 

Weihnachten,  number  and 
gender,  113. 

weil,  sub.  conj.  of  time,  3)4 
(B);  of  cause,  396  (E),  569. 

weinen,  syn.,  521. 

-weise,  429  (e). 

weisen,  grad.,  304;  syn.,  521, 
528,  546. 

weismachen,  syn.,  499  (C). 

weiter,  sep.  prefix,  326. 

welch:  indefinite  numeral,  176 
interrog.  &  rel.  adj.,  163-4 
inter,  pronoun,  decl.,  193 
used  in  expressions  of  iden- 
tity, 193  (a);  rel.  pronoun, 
decl.,  197;  use,  198;  replaced 
by  der,  195-8;  replaced  by 
other  words,  198-204;  indef. 
and  general  determinative, 
1.59  (3). 

Welf,  decl.,  85,  88. 

welken,  s.,  290. 


INDEX   OF  GERMAN   WORDS,  SUFFIXES,  SOUNDS,  &C.       617 


wenden,  grad.,  315;  syn.,  5-tl). 

wenig,  decl.,  176;  ein  — ,  173. 

wenn,  sub.  conj.  of  time,  394 
(B),  395  (/),  c);  of  manner 
in  the  combination  als  wenn, 
395  (C.  a);  in  conditional 
clauses,  396  (F),  581;  in 
concessive  clauses,  397  (G); 
as  an  adv.  =  wann,  394  (B. 
b);  —  anders,  397  (F);  — 
gleich,  397  (G);  —  schon, 
397  (G) ;  —  auch,  397  (G) ; 
auch  — ,  397  (G);  as  a  rel., 
202   (C.  b.).  _ 

wer,  pron.,  15;  indef.  pronoun, 
190  (p);  inter,  pronoun,  191- 
3;  rel.  pronoun,  205. 

werben,  grad.,  310. 

werden,  pron.,  14,  20;  conju- 
gation, 254  (c),  295;  grad., 
310;  s.,  290;  with  simple 
infin.,  275;  syn.,  496  (c),  465 
((3)),  521. 

werfen,  grad.,  310;  syn., 490  (e). 

Werft,  decl.,  78. 

Werk,  decl.,  78. 

Wert,  pron.,  20. 

wert,  syn.,  517. 

wesentlich,  syn.,  524. 

westlich,  prep.,  365: 

westwärts,  prep.,  365. 

wetteifern,  329. 

wetten,  syn.,  521. 

Wettlaufen,  329. 

Wettrennen,  329. 

wider,  pron.,  18;  insep.  prefix, 
327;  sep.  or  insep.  prefix, 
327;  meaning,  441;  syn.,  497 
(B);  prep.,  378. 

widerfahren,  widerstehen, &c., 
syn.,  498  (a). 

widerhallen,  syn.,  521. 

widern,  syn.,  336,  495  (o). 

widrigenfalls,  conj.,  399. 

wie,  co-ordinat.  conj.,  387,  388; 
explanatory  conj.,  389;  sub. 
conj.,  394  (1.  d,  2.  d,  3.  B), 
395  (c),  395-6  (C.  a,  D.  1. 
B,  E),  397-9;  sub.  conj.  used 
instead  of  als,  397-9  (1.  a. 
Note  1,  b.  Note,  d,  2.  c,  3, 
4.  a);  used  with  appositives, 
486  (f);  used  as  a  relative, 
202-3"  (B,  C. /,  D.  (1),  E); 
wie  wenn,  395  (C.  c). 

Wiedehopf,  decl.,  76. 

wieder,  sep.  or  insep.  prefix, 
327. 

wiegen,  grad.,  306;  with  simple 
infin.,  277. 

wiewohl,  conj.,  397  (G). 

Wiking,  decl.,  86. 

Wille (n),- decl.,  81. 

willen,  prep.,  365. 

willfahren,  syn.,  495  (a). 

Willy,  pron.,  18. 

winden,  grad.,  308. 

winken,  syn.,  497  (e),  506,  490 
(c). 

wissen,  conjugation,  317;  with 
infin.  with  zu,  272;  with 
simple  infin.  or  pres.   part., 


277-8;  with  simple  infin.  in 
indirect  questions,  279  (4); 
syn.,  280  (Note),  521,  541 
(C),  528,  546. 

wissend,  syn.,  517. 

wo,  adv.,  342;  rel.  pronoun, 
202,  204;  wo  +  prep,  (wo- 
mit, &c.)  =  rel.  pronoun, 
201;  wo  separated  from  the 
prep.,  201 ;  wo  +  prep.  =  in- 
terrog.  pronoun,  192;  wo  as 
sub.  conj.,  394  (B),  395 
(B.  c),  396  (F). 

wofern,  conj.,  397   (F). 

wohl,  compar.,  145  (f);  modal 
adv.,  351,  353;  syn.,  336. 

wohltätig,  syn.,  524. 

wohlwollen,  syn.,  499  (C). 

Wolf,  dec!.,  82. 

wollen,  conjugation,  317;  uses, 
322-3;  with  simple  infin., 
276. 

Wort,  decl.,  97;  das  —  reden, 
syn.,  499  (C). 

Worth,  pron.,  20. 

worthalten,  syn.,  499  (C). 

Wrack,  decl.,  78. 

wringen,  grad.,  308. 

Wucher,  pron.,  23. 

Wuchs,  pron.,  23;  decl.,  82. 

wuchs,  pron.,  23. 

Wulst,  decl.,  82,  83. 

Wund(en)mal,  decl.,  77. 

wundern,  syn.,  533,  534. 

Wunsch,  decl.,  82. 

wünschen,  grad.,  309. 

würdig,  syn.,  517. 

würdigen,  syn.,  528. 

Wurf,  decl.,  82. 

Wurm,  decl.,  86;  gender  and 
meaning,  97. 

wurmen,  syn.,  336  (a). 

Wurst,  decl.,  83. 

wurzeln,  s.  or  h.,  290. 

wusch,  pron.,  14. 

Wust,  pron.,  23. 

wüst,  pron.,  19. 

X,  pron.,  35. 

Xaver,  pron.,  30,  35. 

y,  pron.,  11. 

Ypsilon,  pron.,  20. 

Ysop,  pron.,  18. 

Yssel,  pron.,  23. 

z,  pron.,  30,  35. 

-zack,  decl.,  76. 

Zahn,  decl.,  82. 

zanken,  syn.,  521. 

Zapp,  decl.,  75. 

Zar,  decl.,  88. 

zart,  pron.,  21;  compar.,  142. 

zärtlich,  pron.,  21. 

Zaum,  decl.,  82. 

Zaun,  decl.,  82. 

Zeh,  decl.,  88._ 

zeigen,  with  simple  infin.,  277; 
syn.,  539  (b),  521. 

zeihen,  grad.,  304;  syn.,  528, 
537. 

zeit,  prep.,  365. 

Zelt,  decl.,  78. 

-zen,  verbal  sutifix,  428. 

Zenturio,  decl.,  92. 


zer-,  pron.,  16  (c);  insep.,  suf- 
fix, 327;  meaning,  441. 

Zeug,  decl.,  78,  97. 

Zeugs,  97. 

Zeus,  pron.,  23. 

Ziehen,  grad.,  307;  s.,  292; 
syn.,  514  (a),  521,  546. 

Ziel,  decl.,  78. 

zielen,  syn.,  521. 

ziemen,  syn.,  496  (c). 

Zierat,  decl.,  90. 

-zig,  426. 

Zink,  decl.,  78;  gender,   122. 

Zinn,  decl.,  78. 

Zins,  decl.,  90. 

Zinsen,  syn.,  495  (b). 

Zither,  pron.,  13,  19. 

zittern,  syn.,  497  (/),  521. 

Zoll,  decl.,  75,  82. 

Zopf,  decl.,  82. 

zornig,  syn.,  524. 

zu,  sep.  prefix,  326,  341  (A); 
syn.,  497  (B);  prep.,  372; 
zu  Seiten,  365. 

Zucht,  decl.,  83. 

Zuck,  decl.,  75. 

zucken,  syn.,  490  (e). 

zudem,  conj.,  389. 

Zuflucht,  decl.,  83. 

zufolge,  prep.,  365,  374. 

zufrieden,  syn.,  517. 

Zug,  decl.,  82. 

zugunsten,  prep.,  365. 

Zuidersee,  pron.,  24. 

zuleide  tun,  syn.,  499  (C). 

Zulp,  decl.,  75. 

zum,  pron.,  15,  23. 

zumal,  conj.,  396  (E). 

zunächst,  prep.,  374. 

Zunft,  decl.,  83. 

zur,  pron.,  15,  23. 

zürnen,  syn.,  495  (a),  514,  521. 

zurück,  sep.  prefix,  326. 

zurückkommen,  syn.,  521. 

zurückschrecken,  .syn.,  521. 

zusammen,  sep.  prefix,  326; 
synonymous  with  beisam- 
men, 343. 

zusammengesetzt,  syn.,  524. 

zusamt,  prep.,  374. 

zusätzlich,  prep. ,.365. 

zuschläglich,  prep.,  365. 

zu  selten,  prep.,  365. 

zuträglich,  syn.,  500  (a). 

zutreten,  syn.,  521. 

zuungunsten,  prep.,  365. 

zuvor,  sep.  prefix,  326;  syn., 
497  (B). 

zuwegen,  prep.,  365. 

zuwider,  prep.,  374;  adj.,  500 
(a). 

zuzüglich,  prep.,  365. 

zwar,  391,  582  (b.  (4)). 

zwecks,  prep.,  360,  365. 

zween,  147;  der  zweete,  150. 

zweifeln,  syn.,  336,  521. 

zweitens,  conj.,  390. 

Zwieback,  decl.,  76,  83. 

zwingen,  grad.,  308. 

zwischen,  prep.,  386. 

zwo,  147;  der  zwote,  150. 

Zylinder,  pron.,  18. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


Ablative,  now  replaced  by  the  dative,  494. 

Ablaut,  see  Gradation. 

.Abridgment  of  clauses:    see  Clauses. 

Accent:  marks  indicating  accent,  44;  word  ac- 
cent, 44-5;  normal,  44;  emphatic,  44; 
rhythmical,  45;  foreign,  45;  prehistoric, 
44  (Note);  sentence  accent,  45,  52;  gram- 
matical or  group  stress,  52;  normal  or  de- 
scriptive group-stress  with  its  variant  forms, 
verbal  adjective  stress  and  end-stress,  54; 
logical,  distinguishing,  or  classifying  group- 
stress,  54;  emphatic  group-stress,  54;  logical 
and  emphatic  stress  employed  in  both  word- 
stress  and  group-stress,  55;  accent  in  simple 
stem  words,  46;  accent  in  derivative  words, 
46-8;  accent  of  compounds,  48-51  and 
442-6;  geographical  compounds,  49  (g), 
445,  453  (C);  secondary  accent,  51-52; 
physiological  principle  in  secondary  accent, 
51;  unaccented  syllables,  52;  sentence  ac- 
cent influenced  by  rhythm,  55. 

Accusative,  original  meaning,  489. 
now  used: 

I.  in  the  adverbial  relation  to  denote: 
place,  345  (d). 

time,  345-7. 
degree,  348-9. 

II.  as  an  object: 
with  transitives: 

representing  the  thing  as: 

affected  by  the  action,  490  (1). 
the  result  of  the  action,  490  (1). 
transitive  or  intransitive,  490  (b). 
prep,  phrase  instead  of  ace,  490  (e). 
with  intransitives: 

cognate  ace,  491  (2.  A). 
ace.  of  result,  492  (B). 
ace.  after  compounds,  492  (C). 
in  impersonal  constructions,  335   (A.  a). 
either  dat.  or  ace.  according  to  meaning  or 

from  unsettled  usage,  503-7. 
with  adjectives,  adverbs,  participles,  514- 

17. 
double  object: 

dative  of  person,  and  ace.  of  thing  524-6. 
ace.  of  person  and  gen.  of  thing,  526-35. 
double  ace: 

ace.  of  person  and  ace.  of  thing,  535-8. 
ace.  of  the  direct  object  and  an  ob- 
jective predicate,  538-42. 
ace.   of   the   person   or   thing   and   a 
prepositional  phrase,  542-6. 

III.  in  the  predicate: 
in  dialect,  467  (Co). 

by  attraction,  463  (a.  Note). 

IV.  after  prepositions: 
ace.  only,  374-8. 
ace.  and  dat.,  378-86. 

V.  independent  ace: 
ace  absolute,  552. 

ace  in  exclamations,  555  (4). 
Address,   pronouns  of,    177-8;    possessives   in 

address,  167;   nom.  in  address,  552. 
Adjectives,  inflection  of,  126-138;   strong,  129; 

weak,    130;    origin  of  weak  inflection,    138 


(Note);  mixed,  130;  uninflected,  _  127-9, 
134-6;  inflection  of  adjectives  with  the 
suffixes  -el,  -en,  -er,  131-2;  peculiarities  and 
irregularities  in  inflection,  132-8;  ascending 
comparison,  138-142;  irregularities,  145, 
141-2;  the  relative  comparative,  139; 
the  absolute  comparative,  139;  the  rela- 
tive superlative,  139;  the  adverbial 
superlative,  139;  the  absolute  superlative, 
140;  adjectives  mutating  in  the  superlative, 
142;  periphrastic  comparison,  144;  de- 
scending comparison,  145;  inflection  of 
adjective-substantives,  130,  136;  word- 
order  of  adjective  modifiers,  591;  repetition 
of  adjective,  475. 

Adverbial  modifiers,  551. 

Adverbs:  definition,  338;  formation,  429-30; 
function  and  form  of  adjectives  and  adverbs 
compared,  338-40;  nature  of  adverbs  and 
prepositions  compared,  355  (1.  a,  c);  classi- 
fication and  meaning  of  adverbs,  340-54; 
comparison,  142,  354;  periphrastic  compari- 
son, 144;  irregularities  in  comparison,  145; 
descending  comparison,  145;  adverbs  used 
as  relative  pronouns,  201-4. 

Adversative  conjunctions,  388  (b),  390  (B), 
394  (B.  a),  397  (G)._ 

Agreement  of  verb  with  subject,  468-72;  of 
predicate  noun  with  subject  in  gender  and 
case,  473-4;  of  adjectives  and  participles, 
474-5;  of  relatives,  564;  of  appositives, 
485-7. 

Alphabet,  5. 

Apostrophe,  57. 

Apposition:  agreement  of  appositives,  485-7; 
position,  485  (A),  487  (B);  appositional 
construction  with  proper  names,  481  (G.  a); 
a  noun  in  apposition  with  a  sentence,  486 
(a);  a  sentence  in  apposition  with  a  word, 
487  (B);  apposition  instead  of  the  gen.  of 
earlier  periods,  487  (2);  apposition  with 
adverbial  force,  558  (4),  570  (c). 

Appositional  type  of  sentence,  455  (a),  463 
(b.  Note),  558  (4). 

Article:  def.,  decl.,  58;  indef.,  decl.,  59;  use 
of  articles,  60-70;  use  of  the  articles  with 
collective  nouns,  63;  with  names  of  materials, 
63;  with  abstract  nouns,  64;  with  names  of 
persons,  64-6;  omission  of,  67-70;  repeti- 
tion of,  475;   contractions  of,  58-9. 

Aspect,  the  different  aspects  of  action  and  the 
forms  and  modes  of  expressing  them,  210. 

Asyndetic,  204  (Note). 

Attraction:  in  case,  463  (2.  A.  a.  Note),  567 
(C.  b);   trajection,  564  (e). 

Attributive  clause,  see  Clause;  attributive 
type  of  sentence,  463  (b.  Note),  558  (4). 

Auxiliaries  of  mood,  inflection,  317;  use, 
318-23;  omission  of  dependent  verb,  323; 
auxiliaries  of  tense,  254  (a,  b,  c);  use  of, 
287-293;   omission  of,  283  (b). 

Back  vowels,  17. 

Capital  letters,  5;    use  of,  56-7. 

Cardinals,  147-50. 

Case,  see  Nominative,  &c. 


618 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


619 


Cause,  see  Clauses. 
Clauses: 

Classification,  with  remarks  on  mood,  abridg- 
ment, word-order,  &c.,  557-S. 
subject  clause,  559-62. 
predicate  clause,  562. 
adjective  clauses: 

attributive  substantive  clause,  562-3. 
attributive  adjective  clause,  563-6. 
objective  clauses: 
gen.  clause,  566. 
dat.  clause,  566-7. 
ace.  clause,  567-9. 
prepositional  clause,  569-70. 
adverbial  clauses: 
place,  571. 
time,  571-3. 
manner,  573-5. 
degree,  575-7. 
cause,  577-8. 
condition,  579-81. 
concession,  581—3. 
purpose,  5S3-4. 
means,  584. 
contracted  clauses,  273  (2). 
position  of  clauses  in  the  sentence,  558. 
Comparison,    see   under   Adjectives,    Adverbs, 

and  Participles. 
Compounds  and  Group-words:  definition  of  a 
compound,  441;  definition  of  a  group-word, 
442;  parts  of  a  compound  or  group-word, 
446;  different  kinds  of  compounds  and 
group- words,  442-6;  form  of  compounds  and 
group- words,  446-54;  accent  of  compounds 
and  group- words,  442-6,  48-51;  compound 
verbs:  conjugation  of,  315,  323-9;  separa- 
ble compounds,  323-6;  inseparable,  323, 
327;  separable  or  inseparable,  324,  327-9; 
nouns  made  from  compound  verbs,  329; 
verbs  indirectly  compounded,  329;  com- 
pound nouns:  inflection  of,  72  (c);  gender, 
125-6. 
Concessive,  see  Clauses. 
Concord,  see  Agreement. 

Conditional  sentences:  mood,  220  (C),  223 
(E),  233  (E),  580  (c);  different  forrns  of  the 
conditional  clause,  580  (b);  abridgment, 
581  (d). 
Congruence,  see  Agreement. 
Conjugation:  forms  of,  247;  simple  forms  of 
the  regular  weak  conjugation,  249;  simple 
forms  of  the  regular  strong  conjugation, 
252;  paradigm  of  compound  tenses,  293-5; 
gradation  classes  of  strong  verbs,  300-15: 
conjugation  of  strong  verbs  in  compounds, 
315;  irregular  conjugation,  315-18;  con- 
jugation of  the  passive,  295-9;  use  of  the 
connecting  vowel  in  conjugation,  255-6. 
Conjunctions:  definition  and  classification, 
387;  pure  co-ordinating,  387;  adverbial 
co-ordinating,  389;  co-ordinating  conjunc- 
tions with  a  double  construction,  390;  sub- 
ordinating, 391;  order  of  words,  391;  posi- 
tion, 393  (2);  classification  of  subordinating 
conjunctions,  393-7;  conjunctions,  als,  wie, 
denn,  weder,  397-9;  conjunctions  used  as 
co-ordinating  or  subordinating,  399;  origin 
of  conjunctions,  387,  400. 
Connecting   vowel   in  verbs,  use  or  omission, 

255-6. 
Consonants,  classification,  12;    pronunciation, 
25-36;   brief  history  of,  36-41. 


Copula,    omission    of,    463    (Note),    558    (4); 

origin  of,  463  (Note). 
Correlative  pronouns,  207-8. 
Dative,   original   meaning,   493    (1);    acquired 

meanings,  494. 

uses: 

I.  in  the  adverbial  relation  to  denote: 
place,  345  (c,  d). 

time,  345  (II.  1),  346  (2.  b). 
reference,  347  (c). 

II.  as  object: 

with  certain  verbs,  494—7. 

After  a  preposition  or  adverb  contained  in 

a  compound,  497  (B),  499  (C). 
dative  of  possession,  496  (c). 

III.  sentence  dative: 
dative  of  reference,  500. 
dative  of  agentj_50L__ 
dative  of  cause,  501. 
dative  of  interest,  501. 
ethical  dative,  502. 

IV.  dative    with    fühlen,    kennen,   wissen, 
wollen,  &c.,  502  (4). 

V.  dative  after  lassen,  541,  (c). 

VI.  dative  for  accusative,  503  (5). 

VII.  either  dative  or  accusative,  503-7. 

VIII.  with     adjectives,    participles,    nouns, 
499-500. 

IX.  with  prepositions: 
dative  only,  365-74. 

dative  and  accusative,  378-86. 

X.  double  object,  dat.  of  person  and  ace.  of 

thing,  524. 

XI.  dative  in  exclamations,  554  ((3)). 
Declensions:    see  Nouns,  Adjectives,  &c.,  also 

Strong,  Weak,  Mi.xed. 

Definite  article,  see  Article. 

Demonstratives,  list,  153;  inflection  and  use, 
153-63. 

Dentals,  12. 

Derivation:  by  means  of  sufifix:  substantival 
suffixes,  403-17;  adjectival  suffixes,  417-26; 
verbal  suffixes,  426-9;  derivative  or  com- 
pound adverbs,  429-30;  derivation  of  prepo- 
sitions, 430-1 ;  derivation  by  means  of 
prefix:  formation  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and 
pronouns  by  prefix,  431-4;  verbal  prefixes, 
434-41. 

Desiderative  aspect  of  verbs,  211. 

Determinatives,  158  (2),  159  (3),  160  (2), 
161  (3),  204  (Note). 

Differentiation:  of  substantive  forms,  94;  of 
verbal  forms,  302  (F). 

Diminutive  suffix  in  noun,  409-11,  in  verbs, 
427  (2.  b). 

Double  consonants,  meaning  of,  13  (b.  Note). 

Dual,  181  (g). 

Durative  aspect  of  verbs,  210,  248  (Note). 

Effective  aspect  of  verbs,  210,  288,  436,  440. 

End-stress,  324-5. 

Factitive  verb,  301  (d). 

Falling  intonation,  56  (53.  2). 

Front  vowels,  17. 

Future  perfect;  formation,  285;  use,  215; 
origin,  215  (6.  a.  Note). 

Future  tense,  formation  of  future  indie,  and 
subj.,  284;  of  future  infin.,  284;  use  of  future 
tense,  214;  origin,  284  (C.  a.  Note  1). 

Gender  of  nouns,  120-6;  explanation  of  gram- 
matical gender,  120;  gender  according  to 
meaning,  121;  according  to  form,  123; 
fluctuation,   124;    gender  of  foreign  nouns. 


620 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


125;    gender  of  compounds,   125-6;    synesis 
of,  546-9. 
Genitive,    original    meaning,    507;    origin    of 
name,  477  (A.  a). 

I.  used  attributively: 

A.  gen.  of  origin,  477. 

B.  possessive  gen.,  477. 

C.  subjective  gen.,  478. 

D.  objective  gen.,  478-8Ü. 

E.  gen.  of  material  or  composition,  480. 

F.  descriptive  gen. : 

gen.  of  quality  or  characteristic,  48Ü. 
gen.  of  measure,  480. 

G.  appositive  gen.,  480. 
H.   partitive  gen.,  481. 

used  also  as  subject  or  object,  483;   gen. 
of  gradation,  481. 
I .     gen.  having  the  construction  of  the  gen. 

found  with  verbs,  484. 
J.     position  of  the  gen.,  476. 

II.  in  the  predicate,  465  (c). 

III.  in  the  adverbial  relation  to  denote: 
place  or  position,  344  (10.  a). 

time,  345-7. 
manner,  347,  350  (XI). 
degree,  348. 
condition,  350  (VI). 
concession,  350  (VII). 

IV.  as  an  object: 
of  a  verb,  507-14. 

of  an  adjective,  adverb,  participle  or  noun, 
514-17. 

a  genitive  in  connection  with  an  accusa- 
tive, 526-35. 

V.  after  prepositions,  357-65. 

VI.  gen.,  in  exclamations,  554  (C.  b). 
Gerund:    English  gerund  with  the  correspond- 
ing German  constructions,  262. 

Glottals,  12. 

Glottal  stop,  34. 

Gradation,  explanation  of,  25,  300;  gradation 
classes  of  verbs,  300-15;  genitive  of  grada- 
tion, 481. 

Grimm,  39;  Grimm's  law  of  the  shifting  of  the 
consonants,  36-9. 

(iroup-accent,  see  .\ccent. 

Group-words,  see  Compounds. 

High  German,  its  place  in  the  Indo-European 
family,  1;  the  different  periods  of ,  1-4;  H.G. 
shifting  of  the  consonants,  36-41. 

Hypotaxis,  see  Parataxis,  p.  556  (4). 

Imperative,  formation,  249,  253  (c,  d);  want- 
ing forms  replaced  by  the  subjunctive,  249; 
substitutes  for  the  imperative,  250-2. 

Impersonal  verbs:  groups  of,  332-8;  es  gibt, 
335;  impersonal  verbs  with  the  ace,  335; 
with  the  dat.,  336-7;  with  the  ace.  and  gen., 
533  (c);  impersonal  verbs  without  a  subject, 
332;   origin  of  the  impersonal  es,  332. 

Indefinite  article,  decl.,  59;  contractions  of,  59; 
use  of,  60,  61;  omission  of,  67-68. 

indefinite:  pronouns,  inflection  and  use,  189- 
90;  numerals,  169-77. 

Independent  elements,  551-5. 

Indicative,  215-16. 

Indirect  discourse,  237-47;  indirect  form: 
mood,  237-9;  tense,  239-47;  mood  and 
tense  in  indirect  questions,  243;  imperative 
sentences  in  indirect  form,  244-5;  inde- 
pendent form  of  indirect  discourse,  245-7. 


Infinitive,  earlier  infection  and  explanation  of 
the  form  with  zu,  268;    position  in  sentence, 
324-5,  588  {b.  aa,  bb,  cc),  258  (c). 
infinitive  with  zu: 

I.  1.    a.    as  subject,  269. 

b.    in  the  predicate,  269-270. 

2.  in  the  following  dependent  relations: 

a.  as  a  complement  of  a  noun,  pro- 
noun or  adjective  performing  the 
function  of: 

(1).  the  gen.  of  a  substantive  de- 
pendent  upon  an  adjective,   270 

(2).  an  appositive  gen.  or  a  noun  in 
apposition  with  a  pronoun,  sui)- 
stantive  or  substantive  clause, 
270  ((2)). 

(3).  a  relative  clause,  270  ((3)). 

b.  a  dative,  object  of  the  prep,  zu, 
271  {b). 

c.  an  ace,  object  of  the  verb,  271  (c). 

3.  as  explanatory  of  a  preceding  anticipa- 
tive  subject  or  object,  271  (3). 

4.  in  contracted  substantive  and  adver- 
bial clauses,  272  (4). 

5.  used  absolutely,  272  (5),  274  (c). 

6.  after  (an)treffen,  bekommen,  erhal- 
ten, fehlen,  finden,  geben,  reichen, 
schenken,  schicken,  schlagen,  sehen, 
überlassen,  where  the  infin.  with  zu  has 
the  force  of  a  modal  verbal,  272  (6). 

7.  in  the  rare  construction  of  the  ace. 
with  the  infin.,  279  (5). 

II.  1.  position  and  repetition  of  zu,  273. 
2.  subject  of  the  infin.,  273  (2). 

infinitive  without  zu: 

I.  1.    a.   as  subject,  275  (a). 

b.  as  predicate,  275.  {b). 

c.  in  apposition  with  the  pronouns 
ein(e)s,  das  eine,  das,  a  substan- 
tive,  or  a  substantive  clause,  275. 

d.  as  an  imperative,  276. 

2.  with  auxiliaries  or  auxiliary-like  verbs: 

a.  dürfen,  können,  mögen,  müssen, 
sollen,  wollen,  brauchen,  276    (a). 

b.  lassen,  276  (b). 

c.  blasen,  heischen,  heißen,  helfen, 
lehren,  lernen,  nennen,  vergessen, 
276  (c). 

d.  with  verbs  of  perceiving,  finding, 
meeting  and  knowing,  also  with 
führen,  haben,  machen,  tragen, 
wiegen,  zeigen,  277  {d). 

e.  tun,  278  {e). 

3.  used  to  repeat  an  idea,  279  (3). 

4.  in  questions  direct  or  indirect,  279  (4). 

II.  form  and  use  of  the  infin.  with  past  force, 
280;    perf.  infin.  =  pres.  infin.,  280;    perf. 
infin.  used  as  an  imperative,  251  {d.  Note). 
two  infinitives  connected  by  als,  280. 
infin.  with  passive  force,  280-1. 
infinitive-substantive,  281. 

Inflection,  see  Declension,  Conjugation,  In- 
tonation, &c. 

Ingressive  aspect  of  verbs,  210,  288,  43t),  440. 

Inseparable  compounds,  323,  327;  inseparable 
prefixes,  327. 

Instrumental,  now  replaced  by  the  dative,  494. 

Intensive  aspect  of  verbs,  211. 

Interjections,  nature  of,  400;    list,  400-1. 


INDEX    OF   SUBJECTS 


621 


Intonation,  55-6. 

Intransitive  verb,  definition,  209;  verbs  trans, 
or  intrans.,  209. 

Irregular  verbs,  see  Ciradation. 

Iterative  aspect  of  verbs,  211. 

Liquids,  12,  34. 

Locative,  now  replaced  by  the  dative,  -194:. 

Low  German,  1,  2,  4. 

M.G.,  i.e.  Middle  German,  the  German  of  the 
Midland;  important  by  reason  of  its  in- 
fluence upon  the  literary  language,  2,  3,  24, 
72,  301,  315. 

M.H.G.,  i.e.  Middle  High  German;  M.H.G. 
literature  and  language,  1;  language  com- 
pared with  N.H.G.,  1,  2,  3,  302-311. 

Mixed  declension  of  nouns,  89-94;  origin  of, 
90  {Note);  mixed  declension  of  adjectives, 
130. 

Mixed  vowel  e  (unaccented),  13,  23. 

Mood,  215. 

Mutation  of  back  vowels,  24,  302;  a-muta- 
tion,  25,  302;    mutation  of  e,  25,  302. 

Nasals,  12,  33. 

Negation,  351;  double,  351;  pleonastic,  352; 
after  a  comparative.  576  (a). 

N.G.,  i.e.  North  German,  the  German  of  the 
North. 

N.H.G.,  i.e.  New  High  German,  1. 

Nominative,  original   meaning,   121    (97,   next 
to  last  par.);    origin  of  name,  112  (10). 
use: 

I.  as  a  subject,  456. 

II.  as  an  appositive,  485-6. 

III.  as  a  predicate: 

after    verbs    of    incomplete    predication, 

463-4  (2.  A.a,b). 
with  reference  to  a  preceding  ace.  object, 

463  (2.  A.  a.  (Note)). 
instead  of  a  predicate  ace,  539  (a.  Note). 

IV.  as  a  vocative,  552  (A). 

V.  in  exclamations,  554  {b.  (1)). 

VI.  used  absolutely,  554  ((2)),  581  {d). 

Nouns,  inflection:  common  nouns,  70-97; 
proper  nouns,  97-102;  plural  of  names  of 
persons  and  places,  105-7;  peculiarities  in 
the  inflection  of  nouns,  107-12. 

Number  in  nouns,  112-20;  sing,  to  express  a 
collective  idea,  113;  meaning  usually  pre- 
cluding the  formation  of  a  pi.,  114-15;  sing, 
in  form,  but  with  collective  force,  hence  with 
pi.  meaning,  114;  nouns  which  borrow  a 
pi.  form  from  some  kindred  derivative, 
115-16;  sing,  lacking,  117;  pi.  lacking,  117; 
pi.  of  -maiin,  119;  pi.  in  English,  sing,  in 
German,  118;  synesis  of  number,  549-51; 
number  in  verbs,  468-72. 

Numerals,  147-52;  cardinals,  147-50;  ordi- 
nals, 150-1;  compound  numerals,  151; 
indefinite  numerals,   169-77. 

Object,  see  Accusative,  Dative,  Genitive,  In- 
finitive, and  Clauses  for  Object  Clause, 
Genitive  Clause,  &c.,  metonymic  object, 
493,  (c). 

O.E.,  i.e.  Old  English. 

O.H.G.,  i.e.  Old  High  German;  O.H.G.  lan- 
guage and  literature,  1. 

Old  Saxon,  1. 

Ordinals,  150-1. 

Orthography,  4. 

Palatals,  12. 

Parataxis,  556. 


Participle: 

pres.  part,  used  as  an  adj.,  261;  used  in  the 
predicate,  262  (b);  pres.  part,  in  adj.  use 
often  replaced  in  German  by  other  con- 
structions, 262  (c);  its  use  as  a  noun, 
adverb,  preposition,  262-3;  used  as  an 
appositive,  with  the  force  of  an  adverbial 
clause,  263  (E.  Note),  often  absolutely, 
552;  with  active  or  passive  force,  263; 
subject  of  a  pres.  part.,  263  (b);  paucity 
of  participles,  264  (3);  use  of  the  pres. 
part,  to  express  present,  past,  and  future 
time,  264;  comparison,  144  (4),  143  (4); 
perfect  part.:  without  ge-,  257-9;  with 
the  form  of  an  infin.,  257-9;  used  as  an 
adj.,  264  (A);  used  substantively,  264 
(B);  used  as  an  adverb,  prep.,  or  impera- 
tive, 264;  used  as  an  appositive  with  the 
force  of  a  subord.  clause,  264  (F);  used 
absolutely,  265  (F),  552  (a,  b);  gram- 
matical force,  265  (2),  with  active  force, 
265  (B),  266-7  (C);  temporal  relations 
expressed  by,  267;  two  dift'erent  forms  of 
the  perf.  part,  employed  with  passive 
force,  the  statal  and  the  actional  form, 
268  {d,  e):  comparison,  144  (4),  143  (4); 
position  of  perf.  part,  in  the  sentence, 
324-6,  588  {b.  aa,  bb,  cc),  258  (c). 
Particles,  338-401. 

Passive:    formation,  295;    synopsis,    298;    con- 
jugated with  werden,  295;    conjugated  with 
sein,  296  (B),  297  (4);    peculiar  passive  con- 
struction with  bekommen,  erhalten,  kriegen, 
297   (2);    passive  construction  with  führen, 
bringen,  nehmen,  297  (2) ;   passive  construc- 
tion  with   gehören,    297    (3);    actional   and 
statal  passive,  297    (4);    substitutes  for  the 
passive,  299;    impersonal  passive,  300   (II); 
active    in    form    but    passive    in    meaning, 
280-1  (1,  2). 
Past-present  verbs,  316-18. 
Past  tense,  formation,  248-9,  252,  254;  use,  212. 
Past    perfect    tense,    formation,    283;     dialect 

form,  283  (a),  241  (e):    use,  214. 
Perfect  participle,  see  Participle. 
Perfective  type  of  verb,  210,  287-8. 
Personal     pronouns,     177-86;      use,     177-81; 

replaced  by  other  forms,  181-6. 
Pitch,  55. 

Point  action  aspect  of  verb,  210,  287,  436  (b). 
Possessiv^e  adjectives,  164-9;  list,  164;  deck, 
1()5;  non-inflection  in  the  predicate,  165-6; 
used  as  substantives,  166;  use  of  possessives, 
167-9;  use  of  capitals  with,  167;  replaced 
by  demonstratives,  168. 
Predicate:  the  form  and  case  of,  462-8. 
predicate  noun: 

in  the  nom.,  463  (2.  A.  a). 
in  the  nom.  introduced  by  als,  464  {b.  (1)). 
in  the  ace.  after  für,  464  {b.  (2));    in  the 
ace.  attracted  by  an  ace,  463  (2.  A.  a. 
Note). 
in  the  dat.  after  zu,  465  ((3)). 
in  the  gen.,  465  (c). 
as  objective  predicate: 

in  the  simple  ace,  539  (a). 

the  ace.  introduced  by  als,  539  (b),  by 

für,  539  (c). 
in  the  dat.  after  zu,  540  (d). 
predicate  adjective: 

in  the  nom.  relation,  466. 
in  the  ace.  relation,  540  (B). 


622 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


predicate  pronouns,  467   (C). 

predicate  infinitive,  467  (D);  as  objective 
predicate,  541  (C). 

predicate  adverb,  467  (E). 

predicate  clause,  468  (F),  562. 

agreement  of  predicate  verb  with  subject, 
468-72. 

omission  of  predicate,  462  (a.  Note  1),  of  the 
copula,  the  formal  predicate,  403  (b. 
Note). 

predicate  in  attributive  form,  463  {b.   Note). 
Prefixes,    separable,     326;      inseparable,     327; 

separable   or   inseparable,    327;     prefixes   to 

form     nouns,     adjectives,     and     pronouns, 

431-4;    verbal  prefixes,  434-41. 
Pre-Germanic,  1. 
Prepositional    phrase    as    adverbial    modifier, 

551;   as  modifier  of  a  noun,  487. 
Prepositions:  nature,  355;  approach  the  nature 

of  adverbs,  355;    fluctuation  of  conception, 

355  (c);  approach  the  nature  of  conjunctions, 

355;    government  of  prepositions,  356;    list, 

357;  origin,  meaning,  and  use  of  preps,  with 

gen.,    357-65;     meaning   and    use   of   preps. 

with  dat.,  365-74;    preps,  with  ace,  374-8; 

preps,    with    either    dat.    or    ace,    378-86; 

formation  of  prepositions,  430-1. 
Present  tense,  formation,  249,  252,  254;    use, 

211-12. 
Present    perfect   tense,    formation,    282;     use, 

212-13. 
Primitives,  402. 
Progression,   German  ways  of  expressing  the 

progressive  idea,  the  idea  of  duration,  248 

(Note),  210. 
Pronominals,  147,  153. 

Pronouns,  177-209;  see  Personal,  Relative,  &c. 
Pronunciation,  best,  7;  sounds  and  their  classi- 
fication, 7-12. 
Proper     names,     inflection,     97-102;      plural, 

105-7;  formation,  408  (a). 
Prospective  action,  322  (6.  d). 
Purpose,  clause  of,  583. 
Quantity:    general  rules  for  vowels,   13;    rules 

for  quantity  in  detail,   14-17;    quantity  of 

consonants,  25. 
Reciprocal  pronouns,  188. 
Reflexive    pronouns,    186-8;     reflexive    verbs: 

conjugation,    329;     case    of    the    predicate 

complement  of  reflexive  verbs,  330;    uses  of 

the  reflexive  verb,  329-32. 
Relative: 

adjectives,  163. 

pronouns,  193-206;  list,  193;  replaced  by 
adverbs,  201-4;  not  omitted,  204;  origin 
of  the  relative  pronoun,  204  (Note); 
indefinite  relatives  war  and  was,  204-6; 
conditional  relative,  206;  correlatives, 
207-8. 

adverbs,  201-4;   parts  separated,  201. 

clause,  563-6;    synesis  of  gender,  564    (a); 
synesis  of  number,   564    (6);    mood,  565; 
abridgment,  565;    descriptive  clause,  565 
(7). 
Result,  clause  of,  574  (D),  576  (2);    subjunc- 
tive of,  222-3,  232-3. 
Rising  intonation,  56. 
Rounding,  13. 
Sentence,  definition  of,  455;   the  parts  and  the 

kinds  of  the  simple  sentence,  455;    classes  of 

sentences,    555;     the    compound    sentence, 

555-7;   the  complex  sentence,  557. 


Separable  compounds,  323-6;  separable  pre- 
fixes, 326;  separable  or  inseparable  com- 
pounds and  prefixes,  324,  327-9. 

S.E.,  i.e.  Southern  English,  the  pronunciation 
in  the  southern  part  of  England;  S.E.  also 
dialect  of  the  Southeast  of  the  German- 
speaking  territory. 

S.G.,  i.e.  Southern  German,  the  German  of  the 
South. 

Spirants,  12. 

Stereotyped  pronominal  forms,  208-9. 

Stops,  12,  26. 

Strong  declension:  of  nouns,  72-86;  general 
rules,  72-4;  unmutated  e-plural  type,  74-9; 
unmutated  e-less  plural  type,  79-81;  mu- 
tated e-plural  type,  81-4;  mutated  e-less 
plural  type,  84;  er-plural  type,  85-6;  strong 
declension  of  adjectives,  129;  strong  verb: 
conjugation  of  the  simple  forms,  252-3. 

Subject:  the  case  and  form  of  the  logical  sub- 
ject, 456-7;  omission  and  expression  of  the 
logical  subject,  455  (a),  458;  grammatical 
subject,  457;  anticipative  subject,  457; 
situation  es  as  subject,  458  (3),  334  (3,  last 
par.);  impersonal  es  as  subject,  458,  332; 
omission  and  expression  of  the  grammatical 
and  the  anticipative  subject,  460-2;  omis- 
sion of  impersonal  es,  332,  333,  336  (B.  a), 
338  (a);  origin  of  grammatical  and  imper- 
sonal es,  457  (Note),  332-3;  metonymic 
subject,  456  (B.  a). 

Subjunctive:  formation,  249,  252,  255  (d), 
315-17,  282-6,  293-5;  formation  of  the 
past  subjunctive  in  the  dialects  of  Bavaria, 
Austria,  and  Switzerland,  256  (/);  basal 
meaning  of  the  subjunctive,  216. 
subjunctive  of  present  tense  forms: 

I.  optative  subjunctive,  2i7-21: 

1.  in  principal  propositions: 

A.  volitive,  217. 

B.  sanguine  subjunctive  of  wish,  217. 

C.  subjunctive  of  logical  reasoning,  218. 

2.  in  subordinate  clauses: 

A.  concessive,  218. 

B.  sanguine    subjunctive    of    purpose, 
218-20. 

C.  optative  in  conditions,  220. 

D.  in  relative  clauses,  220. 

E.  in  substantive  clauses,  220-21. 

F.  in  adverbial  clauses,  221. 

II.  potential  subjunctive,  221-7. 

A.  in  indirect  discourse,  221,  237-47. 

B.  in  clauses  of  manner,  222. 

C.  in  attributive  relative  clauses  of  re- 
sult, 222. 

D.  in  adverbial  clauses  of  result,  223. 

E.  in  probable  conditions,  223-5. 

F.  in  relative  and  interrogative  clauses, 
225. 

G.  in  substantive  daß-clauses,  226-7. 
subjunctive  of  past  tense  forms: 

1.  unreal  optative: 

A.  unreal  subj.  of  wish,  228;    subj.  of 
modest  wish,  228. 

B.  unreal  concessive  subjunctive,  229. 

C.  unreal  subjunctive  of  purpose,  229. 

2.  unreal  potential: 

A.    (1).  in  direct  statements  and  ques- 
tions,   230;    subj.    of   modest  or 
cautious  statement,  230. 
(2).  in  indirect  discourse,  231,  237- 
47. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


623 


B.  in  clauses  of  manner,  232. 

C.  in  attributive  relative  clauses  of  re- 
sult, 232. 

D.  in  adverbial  clauses  of  result,  233. 

E.  in  unreal  conditions,  233-4. 

F.  in  relative  and  interrogative  clauses, 
234. 

G.  in  substantive  daß-clauses,  235. 
H.   in  clauses  of  degree,  236. 

I.     in  clauses  of  time  and  place,  236. 
J.     in  clauses  of  cause,  237. 

Suffixes  of  nouns,  403-17;  of  adjectives, 
417-26;  of  verbs,  426-9;  of  adverbs,  429- 
30. 

Superlative,  see  Adjective. 

S.W.,  i.e.  dialect  of  the  Southwest  of  the  Ger- 
man-speaking territory. 

Syllables:  open  and  closed,  13  (4.  c,  b);  syl- 
labic division,  41;  syllabic  division  in  the 
Southwest,  42  (1);  syllables  in  connected 
discourse,  43;  separation  of  syllables  at  the 
end  of  a  line,  43. 

Synesis  of  gender,  546-9;   of  number,  549-51. 

Syntax,  455-598. 

Terminate  aspect  of  verbs,  211,  248  (Note), 
287  (3). 

Tenses:  formation  of  simple  tenses,  249,  252, 
irregularities,  254  (a,  b,  c),  315-18;  forma- 
tion of  compound  tenses,  282-7,  295-9;  use 
of  haben  and  sein  in  compound  tenses, 
287-293;  use  of  the  tenses  of  the  indie, 
211-15;  of  the  subjunctive,  216-17;  of  the 
present  tense  forms  of  the  subj.,  217-27; 
of  the  past  tense  forms  of  the  subj.,  227-37, 
of  tenses  in  indirect  discourse,  239-47. 

Titles,  decl.,  102-5. 

Trajection,  564  (e). 

Transitive  verb,  definition,  209;  verbs  trans, 
or  intrans.,  209. 


Umlaut,  see  Mutation. 

Unrounding,  25  (A,  last  par.). 

Uvular  r,  32  (6). 

Velars,  12. 

Verb,    see    Conjugation,  Tense,    Subjunctive, 

Gradation,  Passive,  &c. 
V^erbals,  259;   predicate  modal  verbal,  259  (A); 

attributive  modal  verbal,  260  (B). 
Verner's  Law,  39  (2.  a). 
Volitive  subjunctive,   217    (A),  218    (B),  220 

{C.a,b,D.a). 
Vowels:    classification,   17;    chart,   18;    quan- 
tity,   13-17;     pronunciation,    17-24;     muta- 
tion, 24—5;    gradation,  25. 
Weak  declension  of  nouns,  86-9;   weak  declen- 
sion of  adjectives,  130;   weak  conjugation  of 
verbs,  249,  254  (a).  315-18. 
Word-formation,   general   principles,   402;    see 

also  Derivation  and  Compounds. 
Word-order,  general  principles,  584;    historical 
explanations,  5SÖ  (a). 
varieties     of     word-order,     585-6. 
normal  order,  587-91. 

word-order  of  the  subject,  587. 
position  of  the  gen.,  476,  587. 
word-order  of  the  predicate: 
position  of  the  verb,  588. 
position  of  the  predicate,   participle, 
infin.,    sep.     prefix,    adjective,    or 
noun,  588-9. 
order  of  objects.  589-90. 
order  of    adverbs,   590;    position    of 
negatives,  591. 
word-order  of  adjective  modifiers,  591. 
position  of  subordinate  clauses,  558. 
inverted  word-order,  591-5;   use  of,  592-4; 

particulars  of  this  word-order,  594-5. 
question  order,  595-7;    use  of,  596-7. 
transposed  order,  597-8;    use  of,  598. 


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